Warman Slurry Pumping Manual - Jun1999 PDF

SLURRY PUMPING MANUAL Introduction Page 1
THIS ON-LINE VERSION OF THE SLURRY PUMPING MANUAL IS A

DIRECT COPY OF THE 1981 PAPER VERSION AND HAS NOT BEEN
UPDATED SAVE FOR ERRATA SHEETS 1, 2 AND 3.
COPYRIGHT: THE REPRODUCTION OR LOAN OF THIS MANUAL, IN WHOLE

OR IN PART, IS NOT PERMITTED WITHOUT THE SPECIFIC PRIOR WRITTEN
PERMISSION OF THE PUBLISHER.
The distribution of this manual is restricted solely to authorised Warman Pump Sales
offices for use by personnel directly engaged in the application engineering of Warman
Pumps.
The contents of this manual represent a valuable accumulation of empirical and other
data applicable in the design of slurry-pumping systems and in the engineered selection
of Warman Pumps for various slurry-pumping duties.
The Company’s earlier publication, “A Guide to Centrifugal Pump Engineering”

(Bulletin WP/E 1964), is the basis of this manual although the contents now reflect a
conversion to Metric, expanded scope and additional empirical and other data based on
the Company’s extensive testwork and world-wide field experience.
It is believed that sufficient information is now contained in this publication to enable

authorised personnel to confidently engineer most Warman Pump applications without
referral to Head Office. Sales Engineers are encouraged to review the performance of
Warman Pumps after commissioning and to compare the actual systems and actual pump
performances against the estimated systems and the estimated requirements including
pump speed and power consumption.
The Company welcomes comments regarding any topic which may require clarification
or any suggestions regarding further topics which could be added to this manual. In
addition it welcomes any feedback of field testwork covering (a): specific slurry
characteristics such as limiting deposit velocities, friction head losses, efficiency ratios
and head ratios; as well as (b): pump service histories such as wearing parts lives.
The assemblage of this manual permits convenient replacement or addition of pages. A

register of manual-holders is maintained at Head Office and automatic issue of
replacement or additional pages will follow.
PUBLISHED 1981 BY: WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LIMITED

Head Office,
Sydney, Australia.
ACCURACIES OF PUBLISHED CURVES AND ESTIMATIONS
Published Performance Curves:
Each published Warman pump performance curve represents the typical clear water
performance only, as tested in the Warman Pump Testing Laboratory, for the pump size,
type and fitup nominated, in new condition and correctly adjusted. The accuracies of
these data are subject to the Company’s normal commercial tolerances.
Copyright © WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LTD

SLURRY PUMPING MANUAL Introduction Page 2
It should be noted that it is not necessary or economically practical to performance test

every single Warman pump produced throughout the World, or every replacement set of
liners and every impeller produced. Minor variations in performance due to
manufacturing tolerances may occur but, to date, no such variations have been reported to
result in significant effects on Warman pump performances in the field.
Estimations
The estimation of the effects of solids concentration on pump performance as well as the
estimation of slurry friction head losses, total dynamic heads, pump speed requirements,
power consumptions and other factors by the empirical and arbitrary methods described
in the manual are also subject to various accuracies.
These accuracies also depend upon the accuracies of the solids, slurries and system
details and other duty data provided by the client, the availability of specific slurry
pumping testwork data when necessary to reduce margins of error, the accuracy of
empirical estimations of clear water friction head losses (usually 5%) and the accuracy of
empirical and arbitrary methods used for estimating system resistance characteristics.
Definition of “Value”, “Values”:
The word “value” appears often throughout this manual in expressions such as: “value of
Cw”, “value of HR” and “slurry Hf value”. In these expressions “value” means a single
numerical measure of a quantity, such as solids concentration, head ratio or head; or an
amount or quantity denoted by a mathematical term or expression such as:
" e m (worn )"

e m (new)
“Values” means simply more than one value. No other meaning of “value” or “values”
eg: “monetary worth”, “desirability” or “utility” is implied in these expressions.
WARNING
As in most complex and developing technical disciplines, no single slurry pump

application manual can fully provide for every foreseeable application. Experience and
skill in the interpretation of duty data and in the use of many empirical and arbitrary
factors are necessary for the proficient engineering of many crucial pump applications.
The publisher expressly accepts no responsibility for or liability to any party of any loss,
damage, death or injury caused as a result of the accuracy, use or interpretation of any of
the empirical and other formulae and data published in this manual or elsewhere.
However, experienced and skilled Warman Engineers and the facilities of the Warman
hydraulic laboratories are available to assist authorised Warman Pump Sales Offices and
prospective Warman Pump purchasers in the preparation of slurry pumping system
designs and in Warman pump selections.

SLURRY PUMPING MANUAL Section 0 Page 1
Section 0 GLOSSARY OF SYMBOLS USED

Notes:
1. The term “mixture” refers to a slurry mixture of solid particles and a liquid. The
subscript “m” refers to a head, efficiency or other factor related to the pumping of
a mixture, as distinct from the pumping of a clear liquid: subscript “l”, or
specifically for water: subscript “w”.
2. A “mixture has a Specific gravity, Sm, different to the Sl of its component liquid.
Sm is usually greater than Sl. Where symbols for heads, including head losses, are
defined as “head of mixture” (m), it is important to employ the values (m) for the
heads of actual mixture pumped.
Only if no solids are present with the liquid, do the symbols correctly describe these
heads as “head of liquid” (m).
ALPHABETICAL SYMBOLS
Cg Concentration of solids in mixture expressed as grams of solids per litre of
mixture (g/L)
Cv Concentration of solids in mixture, by (true occupied) volume (percent)
Cw Concentration of solids in mixture, by weight (percent)
D Inside diameter of pipe (m)
Ds Inside diameter of suction pipe (m)
Dd Inside diameter of discharge pipe (m)
d50 Average particle size of solids in a given dry sample. This size is equal to the
screen aperture which would retain exactly 50% by weight of the total sample
(mm or P
em Efficiency of pump when pumping mixture (percent)
ER Efficiency Ratio: eemw for the same flowrate and pump speed (dimensionless)
ew Efficiency of pump when pumping water (percent)
f Darcy Friction Factor (dimensionless)
FL Limiting Settling Velocity factor (dimensionless)
g Gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
h Head symbol utilised for sundry purposes (each must be individually defined
and unit of measurement stated)
H Total dynamic head required by a system: head of mixture (m)
Hatm Atmospheric Pressure head at Pump Location: expressed as head of mixture
pumped (m)
Hd Total Discharge Head: head of mixture (m)
Hf Friction Head Loss: head of mixture (m)
Hfd Friction Head Loss in Discharge Pipe: head of mixture (m)
Hfs Friction Head Loss in Suction Pipe: head of mixture (m)
Hgd Discharge Gauge head (above atmospheric pressure) of mixture at the pump
discharge tapping point, corrected to pump centre-line: head of mixture (m)
Hgs Suction Gauge Head (positive (+ve) value if above atmospheric pressure or
negative (-ve) value if below atmospheric pressure) of mixture at the pump
suction tapping point, corrected to pump centre-line: head of mixture (m)

Hi Inlet Head Loss at junction of supply vessel and suction pipe: head of mixture
(m)
Hm Total Dynamic Head developed by pump when pumping mixture: head of
mixture (m)
HO Differential head measured across an orifice: head of mixture (m)
HR Head Ratio: HH mw for the same flowrate and pump speed (dimensionless)
Hpf Exit Gauge Pressure Head, above atmospheric pressure, at exit from pipeline:
head of mixture (m)
Hpr Gauge Pressure Head, above atmostpheric pressure, of gas or vapour
maintained over mixture surface in a closed supply vessel: head of mixture (m)
Hs Total suction Head: (+ve) or (-ve): head of mixture (m)
Hvac Gauge Vacuum Head, below atmospheric pressure, of gas or vapour
maintained over mixture surface in a closed supply vessel: head of mixture (m)
Hvap Absolute Vapour Pressure head of suspending liquid at pumping temperature:
head of mixture (m)
Hv Velocity Head at any given point of evaluation: head of mixture (m)
Hvd Velocity Head, in the pump discharge pipe at discharge tapping point: head of
mixture (m)
Hve Exit Velocity Head Loss, at final discharge from pipeline: head of mixture (m)
Hvs Velocity Head in the pump suction pipe at suction tapping point: head of
mixture (m)
Hw Total Dynamic Head developed by pump when pumping water: head of water
(m)
Hy Yield Head, for Bingham-Type Slurries: head of mixture (m)
L Total Equivalent Length of Pipe: La + L f (m)
La Total Actual Length of Pipe (m)
Lf Aggregate of Equivalent Lengths for all Valves, Bends and Fittings
contributing to Friction Head Loss in pipeline (m)
Ls L for suction pipe (m) (Note: L s = Las + L fs )
Las La for suction pipe (m)
Lfs Lf for suction pipe (m)
Ld L for discharge pipe (m) (Note: Ld = Lad + L fd )
Lad La for discharge pipe (m)
Lfd Lf for discharge pipe (m)
M Mass flowrate of dry solids (t/h)
n Pump Rotational Speed (revolutions/minute: r/min or RPM)
NPSHa Net Positive Suction Head available at Pump Suction Flange: head of mixture
(m)
NPSHr Net Positive Suction Head required at Pump Suction Flange: head of mixture
(m)
NR Reynolds Number (dimensionless)
P Power consumed at pump shaft (kW)
Pr Pressure (Pa)
Q Mixture Flowrate (usually litres per second: L/s or l/s)
S Specific Gravity of Dry Solids: ρρws (dimensionless)
SG ρ
Specific Gravity: ρw
(dimensionless)
Sl ρl
Specific Gravity of Liquid or Transporting Medium: ρw
(dimensionless)

Sm ρm
Specific Gravity of Mixture: ρw
(dimensionless)
V Average Velocity of Mixture in a pipe (m/s)
Vd V in Pump Discharge Pipe (m/s)
Ve V at Exit from pipe (m/s)
VL Limiting Settling Velocity of Mixture (m/s)
Vs V in Pump Suction Pipe (m/s)
Z Net Static Head: Vertical height from end of pump discharge pipe to mixture
supply surface level. Positive (+ve) if end is above supply surface level and
negative (-ve) if below (m)
Zc Differential Column head: head of mixture (m)
Zd Static Discharge Head: Vertical height from end of discharge pipe to pump
centre-line. Positive (+ve) if end is above pump pipe to pump centre-line and
negative (-ve) if below (m)
Zl Vertical height of suction pipe conveying slurry and surrounded by a liquid of
Specific Gravity lower than that of the mixture pumped (m)
Zs Static Suction Head: Vertical height from mixture supply surface level to
pump centre-line and negative (-ve) if below (m)
Zsm Effective Positive Static Suction Head above (+ve) pump centre-line: head of
mixture (m)
(eta) Coefficient of Rigidity (Pa.s)
(mu) Dynamic Viscosity (Pa.s)
a Apparent Viscosity (Pa.s)
aw Apparent Dynamic Viscosity at Pipe Wall (Pa.s)
ew Equivalent Dynamic Viscosity at Pipe Wall (Pa.s)
t Turbulent Dynamic Viscosity (Pa.s)
(nu) Kinematic Viscosity (m2/s)
(rho) Density (kg/m3)
Density of Liquid or Transporting Medium (kg/m3)
m Density of Mixture (kg/m3)
s Density of Dry Solids (kg/m3)
w Density of Water (kg/m3)
(tau) Shear Stress (Pa)
o Yield Shear Stress (Pa)
p Yield Shear Stress at Pipe Wall (Pa)

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Formulae derived or presented in this manual use the fundamental units of measurement
kg, m, s, Pa etc. unless noted otherwise. The use of multiples or submultiples of the
fundamental units are stated together with the formulae.
MEASURED QUANTITY UNIT REMARKS
Mass kg kilogram
t tonne = 1 000 kg
g gram = 0.001 kg
Length, Head or Height m metre
mm millimetre = 0.001 m
P micrometre = 0.001mm = 0.000 001 m
Area m2 square metre
mm2 square millimetre = 0.000 001 m2
Volume m3 cubic metre
L litre = 0.001 m3
kL kilolitre = 1 000 L = 1 m3
Pressure and Stress Pa pascal
kPa kilopascal = 1 000 Pa
Power W watt
kW kilowatt = 1 000 W
MW megawatt = 1 000 000 W
Dynamic Viscosity Pa.s pascal-second
Kinematic Viscosity m2/s square metres per second
Coefficient of Rigidity Pa.s pascal-second
Density kg/m3 kilograms per cubic metre (numerically
equal to g/L)
Temperature ºC degrees Celcius
Time h hour
min minute
s second

CONVERSION FACTORS
Although it is recommended to work in SI Pump Units, there are occasions when it will
be necessary to convert known British, U.S. or old Metric units to the proper SI units.
The SI pumping units shown are in accordance with AS1686-1974.
To obtain the SI value, multiply the other value by the conversion factor.
If the result of a Metric calculation requires checking divide by the conversion factor.
For ease of reference physical quantities are listed in alphabetical order.

PHYSICAL VARIOUS UNITS SI PUMPING UNITS CONVERSION
QUANTITY NAME UNIT NAME UNIT FACTOR
Area square inch in2 square millimetre mm2 6.452 × 102
square foot ft2 square metre m2 9.290 × 10-2
acre ac square metre m2 4.047 × 103
acre ac hectare ha 4.047 × 10-1
hectare ha square metre m2 1.000 × 104
Concentration ounce per British gallon oz/gal milligram per litre mg/L 6.236 × 103
part per million ppm milligram per litre mg/L 1.000
Density pound per cubic foot lb/ft3 kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3 1.602 × 10
pound per British gallon lb/gal kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3 9.978 × 10
pound per US gallon lb/US gal kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3 1.198 × 102
Electrical kilowatt hour per 1000 kW.h/103 kilowatt hour per kW.h/ 2.200 × 10-1
input energy British gallons gal kilolitre kL
per volume
pumped
Energy (work foot pound-force ft.lbf joule J 1.356
and heat) kilogram-force metre kgf.m joule J 9.807
British thermal unit Btu joule J 1.055 × 103
therm therm megajoule MJ 1.055 × 102
kilocalorie kcal megajoule MJ 4.187 × 10-3
kilowatt hour kW.h megajoule MJ 3.6
Force pound-force lbf Newton N 4.448
kilogram-force kgf Newton N 9.807
ton-force tonf Newton N 9.964 × 103
Head of foot ft metre m 3.048 × 10-1
liquid and For centrifugal and axial flow pumps head should be in metres total head of liquid pumped,
NPSH since this is a fundamental performance parameter.
Length inch in millimetre mm 2.540 × 10
foot ft metre m 3.048 × 10-1
yard yd metre m 9.144 × 10-1
mile - kilometre km 1.609
Mass pound lb kilogram kg 4.536 × 10-1
Long ton (2240 pounds) ton tonne t 1.016
tonne t kilogram kg 1.000 × 103
Mass Flow pound per hour lb/h kilogram per second kg/s 1.260 × 10-4
Rate Long ton per hour ton/h kilogram per second kg/s 2.822 × 10-1
tonne per hour t/h kilogram per second kg/s 2.778 × 10-1

PHYSICAL VARIOUS UNITS SI PUMPING UNITS CONVERSION

QUANTITY NAME UNIT NAME UNIT FACTOR
Power horsepower (electric) hp kilowatt kW 7.457 × 10-1
foot pound-force per
second ft.lbf/s kilowatt kW 1.356 × 10-3
kilogram-force metre per
second kgf.m/s kilowatt kW 9.807 × 10-3
British thermal unit per
hour Btu/h kilowatt kW 2.931 × 10-4
Long ton of refrigeration - kilowatt kW 3.517
Pressure pound-force per square
inch lbf/in2 kilopascal kPa 6.895
kilogram-force per
square centimetre kgf/cm2 kilopascal kPa 9.807 × 10
bar b kilopascal kPa 1.000 × 102
millibar mb kilopascal kPa 1.000 × 10-1
standard atmosphere atm kilopascal kPa 1.013 × 102
millimetre of mercury mmHg kilopascal kPa 1.333 × 10-1
torr torr kilopascal kPa 1.333 × 10-1
inch of mercury in Hg kilopascal kPa 3.386
When specifying pressure, the density of the liquid must be stated for conversion to head of
liquid pumped.
Torque pound-force inch lbf.in Newton metre N.m 1.130 × 10-1
pound-force foot lbf.ft Newton metre N.m 1.356
kilogram-force metre kgf.m Newton metre N.m 9.807
Velocity foot per minute ft/min metre per second m/s 5.080 × 10-3
foot per second ft/s metre per second m/s 3.048 × 10-1
Viscosity
Dynamic centipoise cP millipascal second mPa.s 1.000
Kinematic centistoke cSt square millimetre per mm2/s 1.000

second
Volume cubic inch in3 cubic millimetre mm3 1.639 × 104
cubic foot ft3 cubic metre m3 2.832 × 10-2
cubic foot ft3 litre L 2.832 × 10
British gallon gal litre L 4.546
US gallon US gal litre L 3.785
Volumetric cubic metre per hour m3/h litre per second L/s 2.778 × 10-1
Flow Rate British gallon per minute gpm litre per second L/s 7.577 × 10-2
million British gallons
per day mgd litre per second L/s 5.262 × 10
cubic foot per second
(cusec) ft3/s litre per second L/s 2.832 × 10
acre foot per hour ac.ft/h litre per second L/s 3.426 × 102
acre foot per day ac.ft/d litre per second L/s 1.428 × 10
US gallon per minute US gpm litre per second L/s 6.309 × 10-2
barrel (42 US gal) per
day - litre per second L/s 1.840 × 10-3

Section 1 SLURRY PUMP PERFORMANCE AND DUTY DATA

INDEX
1.0 Abstract 2
1.1 Slurry Pump Duty Data 2
1.2 Determination of Slurry Flowrates 3
1.3 Basic Formulae for Mixtures of Liquids and Solids 3
1.4 Basic Formula for Slurry Mixture Flowrate 4
1.5 Derivation of Flowrates in Process Circuits 5

Thickener Feed 5
Classifier Feed 7
Constant Density (C.D.) Tank Underflow 9
Closed Circuit Grinding 10
Closed Circuit Grinding Alternative Circuits 16
1.6 Methods of Slurry Flowrate Measurement 18

Simple Volume and Time Measurements 19
Horizontal Pipe Exit Stream Trajectory 20
Pitot Tube at End of Pipeline 21
In-Line Slurry Flow Measurement Methods 25
Magnetic Flowmeters 26
Quarter Circle Orifice Plate 26
Inverted Whistle Flowmeters 28
1.7 Effects of In-Line Flow Measurement Devices on Flowrate 28

1.0 Abstract
SLURRY PUMP DUTY DATA
Mixtures of Liquids and Solids: Formulae
Data relevant to the composition of a mixture of liquid and solids are mathematically
related by several formulae.
C v (S − S l )
S m = Sl +
100
Other formulae utilise values of Cw or Cg in lieu of Cv.
Mixture flowrate: Formulae
Data relevant to the mixture flowrate, dry solids flowrate and mixture composition are
mathematically related by a basic formula:
M
Q=
0.036 S m × C w
DERIVATION OF MIXTURE FLOWRATES
Flowrate Balances, for Dry Solids and for Mixtures, around circuits or individual process
equipment items, may be utilised to derive individual flowrates for dry solids and for
mixtures as well as composition of mixtures for any stream in the circuit by the specific
formulae provided, for example: for Thickener Underflow and for Mill Discharge.
METHODS OF SLURRY FLOWRATE MEASUREMENT
Slurry Flowrates may be measured by several methods including: simple volume and
time, exit stream trajectory, exit stream pitot as well as by in-line methods including:
magnetic flowmeter, orifice plate, inverted whistle. In-line flow measurement devices
may cause a permanent head loss, possible reducing flowrate during test depending on
specific circumstances.
1.0 Slurry Pump Duty Data

Special care should be exercised in considering slurry pump duty data provided by the
client: by, or on behalf of, prospective end-users. It must be acknowledged in many cases
that these duty data may be simply the client’s best estimates of the values of intended or
expected dry solids flowrates, circulating loads, sieve analyses (particle sizings) of solids
and concentrations of solids in slurry mixtures, etc. The possibility of variations in any
one or more of the factors must be taken into account when evaluating each slurry pump
duty prior to the execution of slurry pumping calculations and pump selection.

1.1 Determination of Slurry Flowrates

The first fundamental requirement for the investigation of any slurry-pumping duty is to
obtain from the client an accurate estimate of the proposed slurry flowrate.
In some cases, accurate values of flowrates will be stated by the client but in other cases,
the true values of flowrates required may not be readily available and consequently may
have to be derived by other methods.
Such methods include:
1. Direct Measurement of Slurry Flowrate in existing operations by one or more of

several methods available (refer Section 1.6 “Methods for Slurry Flowrate
Measurement”).
2. Derivation of Slurry Flowrate given indirect data: Mass Flowrate of Dry Solids,
densities or Specific Gravities of Dry Solids and Liquid and Concentration of
Solids in Slurry Mixture.
Derivation of Slurry Flowrates
Certain data relevant to the composition of flowrate of a slurry are mathematically related
as shown in section 1.3.
1.2 Basic Formulae for Mixtures of Liquids and Solids

Nbr. 1.  C (S − S l ) Nbr. 5.
Cw =
100 S
S m = Sl +  v
 100

 ( )
100 S l
Cv + (S − S l )
Nbr. 2. Sl Nbr. 6. Cg
Sm = Cw =
1− ( )( )
Cw
100
S − Sl
S 10 S m
Nbr. 3. 100 − C v Nbr. 7. 100(S m − S l )

Sm = Cv =
100 − C w (S − S l )
Nbr. 4. Cv
Sm = S
Cw
Where:
Sl = SG of liquid*
S = SG of Dry Solids
Sm = SG of Mixture
Cw = Concentration of Solids in Mixture by weight (percent)
Cv = Concentration of Solids in Mixture by (true occupied) volume
(percent)
Cg = Concentration of Solids in Mixture expressed as grams of Solids per
Litre of Mixture.

Note* Aqueous slurries encountered in slurry pumping most commonly consist of

mixtures of solids and fresh, or recycled, process water. Generally, the SG of such water
may be taken as 1.0. However, as any higher value of Sl directly affects both Sm as well
as the power consumed by the pump, the actual values of Sl should be confirmed
beforehand, particularly where recycled process water may contain dissolved mineral
salts leached from the solids being processed or reagent chemicals introduced to the
circuit.
Typical Sl values greater that 1.0 are:

Sea Water: Sl = 1.03
Raw Cane Sugar Juice: Sl = 1.05 (when juice contains approx. 15% sucrose by weight)
1.3 Basic Formula for Slurry Mixture Flowrate

Q C
M = 3600 × × Sm × w
1000 1000
Mass Fraction of Solids in Mixture
SG of Slurry Mixture (t/m3 = kg/L)
Slurry Flowrate (m3/s)
s/h
Dry Solids Flowrate (t/h)
M = 0.036Q × S m × C w
M
or Q =
0.036 S m × C w
where M = Mass Flowrate of Dry Solids (t/h)
Q = Flowrate (L/s)
Sm = Specific Gravity of mixture
Cw = Concentration of Dry Solids in mixture by weight (percent)
For example: given that M = 200 t/h
Sm = 1.33
Cw = 40.0%
200
Q =
0.036 × 1.33 × 40.0
= 104.4 L/s

In many cases, Sm may not be given, in which cases it must be calculated.
Sl
Sm =
( )( )
Example: S − Sl
1−
Cw
100 S
where Sl = Specific Gravity of Liquid (for fresh water: Sl = 1.0)

Cw = Concentration of Dry Solids in mixture by weight (%)
S = Specific Gravity of Dry Solids
For example given that:
M = 200 t/h
Sl = 1.03 (example Sea water)
Cw = 40.0%
S = 2.65 (example Silica sand)
1.03
Sm = = 1.36
1− ( 40
100
)(2.652.−651.03 )
200
Q = = 102.1 L/s
0.036 × 1.36 × 40.0
1.4 Derivation of Flowrates in Process Circuits
THICKENER FEED
OVERFLOW AND UNDERFLOW (Refer to fig 1.1)
Under stable thickener operating conditions
Total Volumetric Flowrate in = Total Volumetric Flowrate out
ie Q1 = Q2 + Q3
Total Mass Flowrate of Dry Solids in = Total Mass Flowrate of Dry Solids out
ie. M1 = M2 + M3
as M2 = ZERO
M1 = ZERO + M3 = M3
As M1 = 0.036 Q1 Sm1 × Cw1
and M3 = 0.036 Q3 Sm3 × Cw3 = M1
Q1 × S m1 × C w1
then Q3 =
S m 3 × C w3

Given values for S, Sl, M1, Cw1 and Cw3:
Values of Sm1 and Sm3 may be obtained from reference tables or calculated from Basic
Equation Nbr. 2. Q1 and Q3 may then be derived from values given for M1, M3, and S
and Sl.
For Example:
Solids S = 5.6 (example Sulphide concentrate)
Liquid Sl = 1.0
Thickener feed M1 = 50 t/h
Cw1 = 30%
Thickener underflow M3 = M1 = 50 t/h
Cw3 = 65%
Calculations:
1.0
(Feed): Sm1 = = 1.327
1− ( 30
100
)(5.65−.61.0 )
1.0
(U/F): Sm3 = = 2.146
1 − (100 )( 5.6 )
65 5.6 −1.0
50
(Feed): Q1 = = 34.89 L/s
0.036 × 1.327 × 30
34.89 × 1.327 × 30
(U/F): Q3 = = 9.96 L/s
2.146 × 65
(O/F): Q2 = Q1 – Q3 = 34.89 – 9.96 = 24.93 L/s
Mixture Mass Flowrate Balance:

These calculations may also be checked by means of the mixture mass balance, which
exists under stable conditions as follows:
t/h Feed Mixture = (t/h O/F Mixture) + (t/h U/F Mixture)
t/h Feed Mixture = W1 = 0.036 Q1 × Sm1 × 100
= 0.036 × 34.89 × 1.327 × 100 = 166.68 t/h
t/h O/F Mixture = W2 = 0.036 Q2 × SL × 100
= 0.036 × 24.93 × 1.0 × 100 = 89.75 t/h
t/h U/F Mixture = W3 = 0.036 Q3 × Sm3 × 100
= 0.036 × 9.96 × 2.146 × 100 = 76.95 t/h
166.70 t/h
Therefore within the accuracy of these calculations, the derived data provide a correctly
balanced Mixture Mass Flowrate:
W1 = 166.68 t/h = W2 + W3 = 166.70 t/h
CLASSIFIER FEED
OVERFLOW AND UNDERFLOW (Refer to fig. 1.2)
Under stable classifier operating conditions.
Total Volumetric Flowrate in = Total Volumetric Flowrate out
ie: Q1 = Q2 + Q3
Total Mass Flowrate of Dry Solids in = Total Mass Flowrate of Solids out
ie: M1 = M2 + M3
as M = 0.036 Q × Sm × Cw
Q1 × Sm1 × Cw1 = (Q2 × Sm2 × Cw2) + (Q3 × Sm3 × Cw3)

Given values for S, Sl, M1, Cw1, M2, Cw2; Values of Sm1, Sm2, Sm3, M3 and Cw3 as well as
Q1, Q2 and Q3 may be derived.
For example:
Solids S = 3.7
Liquid Sl = 1.0
Classifier Feed M1 = 120 t/h
Cw1 = 45%
Classifier Overflow M2 = 30 t/h
Cw2 = 28%
Calculations:
1 .0
(Feed): Sm1 = = 1.489
1− ( 45
100
)(3.73−.71.0 )
1 .0
(O/F): Sm2 = = 1.257
1− ( 28
100
)(3.73−.71.0 )
120
(Feed): Q1 = = 49.75 L/s
0.036 × 1.489 × 45
30
(O/F): Q2 = = 23.68 L/s
0.036 × 1.257 × 28
(U/F): Q3 = Q1 – Q2 = 49.75 – 23.68 = 26.07 L/s
Dry Solids Flowrate Balance:
M3 = M1 – M2 = 120 – 30 = 90 t/h

Mixture Mass Flowrate Balance:
t/h U/F Mixture = W3 = (t/h Feed Mixture) – (t/h O/F Mixture)
= (0.036 × 49.75 × 1.489 × 100) – (0.036 × 23.68 × 1.257 × 100)
= (266.68) – (107.16)
= 159.52 t/h
t / h _ Solids 90
(U/F): Cw3 = = × 100% = 56.42%
t / h _ Mixture 159.52
1 .0
(U/F): Sm3 = = 1.700
1− (56.42
100
)(3.73−.71.0 )
Dry Solids Flowrate Balance:
These calculations may also be checked by means of the Dry Solids Flowrate Balance:
(Feed): M1 = 0.036 × 49.75 × 1.489 × 45 = 120.00 t/h
(O/F): M2 = 0.036 × 23.68 × 1.257 × 28 = 30.00 t/h
(U/F): M3 = 0.036 × 26.07 × 1.700 × 56.42 = 90.02 t/h
120.02 t/h
Therefore within the accuracy of these calculations, the derived data provide a correctly-
balanced Dry Solids Mass Flowrate:
M1 = 120.00 t/h = M2 + M3 = 120.02 t/h
CONSTANT DENSITY (C.D.) TANK UNDERFLOW

(Refer to fig. 1.3)
Given that Q1 always exceeds Q3 so that a solids-free overflow, Q2, is maintained and the
solids surge capacity of the C.D. Tank is sufficient to cope with variations in Cw1 and M1.
M3 = Average value of M1
M3
Q3 =
0.036S m3 × C w3
and Q2 = Q1 – Q3

For example:
Given: Average Value of M1 = M3 = 600 t/h

and Cw3 = 65%
S = 2.65
Sl = 1.03
1.03
Sm3 = = 1.659
1 − (100
65
)(2.652.−651.03 )
600
Q3 = = 154.56 L/s
0.036 × 1.659 × 65
CLOSED CIRCUIT GRINDING

MILL CLASSIFIER FEED (MILL DISCHARGE)
Figure 1.4 represents a typical simple closed-circuit grinding operation which provides
for a classifier (usually a hydraulic cyclone or a number of hydraulic cyclones operating
in parallel) to treat the solids discharged from the grinding mill.
The classifier overflow contains the required fine product from the circuit (example:
solids particle sizing: 80% - 235 mesh) and water.
The classifier underflow contains the remaining coarse solids which are returned to the
mill (usually by gravity-flow) for further grinding.
The mass-flowrate of dry solids contained in the Mill Classifier Feed (M3), ie: in the mill
discharge (M6), is the sum of the mass flowrates of dry solids contained in the New Feed
(M1) and in the Classifier Underflow (M5).
Accordingly the value of M5 must be derived in order to estimate M3.
The term “Circulating Load” employed in respect of closed-circuit grinding processes

describes the Mass Flowrate of Dry Solids (t/h) contained in the Classifier Underflow and
returned to the Mill.

The term “Circulating Load Percentage” or “% Circulating Load” (C.L.%) expresses the
relationship between M5 and M1 as a percentage.
% Circulating Load
Mass _ flowrate _ of _ Dry _ Solids _ returned _ to _ the _ Grinding _ Mill

= × 100%
Mass _ flowrate _ of _ Dry _ Solids _ in _ the _ New _ Feed
M5
= × 100%
M1
Values of % Circulating Load vary widely in practice: usually from as low as 100% to
around 1000%. For any proposed mill feed solids, the optimum % Circulating Load is
based on practical metallurgical experience and/or grinding and classification testwork on
the particular ore or other solids concerned.
Existing Operations
Circulating Load in any existing closed-circuit grinding operation may be derived from
tests on the circuit. See Section 1.5 “Determination of Circulating Load and C.L.%”.
Proposed Operations
All Mill Classifier Feed Pump duty details (Q3 and M3) normally would be supplied by
the client. However, given the proposed % Circulating Load (or range of % Circulating
Loads) and other data, the Classifier Feed Pump Duty values (or range of values) for Q3
and M3 may be derived.

The title “Mill Discharge Pump” is frequently applied to this duty, however the title “Mill
Classifier Feed Pump” recognises the usual practice of dilution of the mill discharge
mixture.
Notes:
(A) Dilution Water is usually added at the Mill Discharge Hopper:
a) To control Classifier feed solids concentration (Cw3) for optimum performance

of the classifier.
b) To enable higher values of solids concentration (Cw6) to be maintained within

the grinding mill for optimum performance of the mill.
(B) The Mill Classifier Feed Pump is normally provided with an automatically-
controlled, variable-speed drive to enable the pump speed to be varied, while
maintaining a maximum value of Zs. This has the following advantages:
a) H (i.e. Hd – Hs) is minimised.
b) Pump speed is minimised, yielding minimum power consumption and wear.
c) Aeration of the classifier feed is minimised, avoiding deleterious effects on

the cyclone classification performance.
d) The pump Hm/Q characteristic is automatically varied to meet the varying H/Q
requirements of the system due to variations in grindability of the ore supplied
and in performance of the grinding and classification circuit, necessitating
variations in the new ore feed rate (M1) to match the effective capacity of the
circuit at any given time.
(C) The New Feed to the mill could consist of a slurry mixture (Q1, M1, Cw1) from a
previous grinding or other treatment process or could consist of separate streams
of dry solids and water which are regarded as forming the slurry mixture (Q1, M1,
Cw1) on entering the mill.
DRY SOLIDS MASS FLOWRATE AND VOLUMETRIC FLOWRATE

BALANCES AROUND CIRCUIT:
Under Stable Operating Conditions Dry Solids Mass Volumetric

Flowrate Flowrate
IN = OUT IN = OUT
Whole Circuit M1 = M4 Q1 + Q2 = Q4
Mill M1 + M5 = M6 Q1 + Q5 = Q6
Mill Classifier Feed Pump Hopper M6 = M3 Q2 + Q6 = Q3
Mill Classifier M3 = M4 + M5 Q3 = Q4 = Q5

M5
Given the % Circulating Load (C.L.%) i.e. × 100% = C.L.%
M1
C.L.%
then M 5 = M1 ×
100
The Dry Solids Mass Flowrate Balance around the Mill Classifier is:
M3 = M4 + M5
 C.L.% 
= M1 +  M1 × 
 100 
The Volumetric Flowrate Balance around the Mill Classifier is:
Q3 = Q4 + Q5
Values of Cw1, Cw3, Cw4, Cw5 and C.L.% must be established by prior experience and
testwork, as described above, and would be supplied by the client, together with values
for M1, S and Sl.
Mill Classifier Feed Mixture
Given S, Sl and Cw3, Sm3 may be determined from the formula:
Sl
S m3 =
1− ( )( )
Cw3
100
S − Sl
S
and Q from the formulae:
M3
Q=
0.036S m3 × C w3
or
M 1 + M 1 (C100
. L .%
)
Q=
0.036S m3 × C w3
Example:
Calculation of Mill Classifier Feed (“Mill Discharge”) Pump Duty
Values: M, Q and Sm
----------------------------------
A closed-circuit grinding operation is proposed for handling a given ore and with a
constant Circulating Load (M5 = constant) given:
M1 = From: 275 t/h maximum at 300% Circulating Load

To: 155 t/h minimum

S = 3.0
Sl = 1.0
Cw3 = 58.0%
Calculations
Sl 1.0
S m3 = = = 1.63
1− ( )( )
Cw 3
100
S − Sl
s
1 − (58
100
)( 3.0 )
.0 3.0 −1.0
NEW FEED MAXIMUM MINIMUM
M1 275 t/h 155 t/h
C.L.% 300% Unknown
Circulation Load:
C.L.% 300 ---

M 5 = M1 × 275 × = 825 t/h
100 100
M5 (min) = M5 (max) as --- 825 t/h

specified
M3 = M1 + M5 1100 t/h 980 t/h
M3 1100 980
Q3 =
0.036S m 3 × C w3 0.036 × 1.63 × 58.0 0.036 × 1.63 × 58.0
= 323.3 L/s = 287.9 L/s
Note that in the case of the minimum New Feed rate:
M5
Circulating Load % = × 100%
M1
825
C.L.% = × 100% = 532%
155
Determination of Circulating Load and C.L.%
It is not common practice for mill operators to provide instrumentation which can directly
measure the mass flowrate of dry solids returned to the Grinding Mill as classifier
underflow. However, the circulating load may be derived from the screen analyses of
samples all taken at the same time within the circuit and the given New Feed Dry Solids
Mass Flowrate.
For the Simply Closed-Circuit Grinding Operation, Figure 1.4:
M 5 = M 1 × C.L.%

and C.L.% =
(a − b ) × 100%
(c − a )
where C.L.% = % Circulating Load
M5 = Mass Flowrate of Dry Solids returned to the Grinding Mill (= Circulating
Load)
M1 = Mass Flowrate of Dry Solids in New Feed
a = Cumulative % solids retained on a specified mesh in the Mill Discharge
b = Cumulative % solids retained on the same mesh in the Mill Classifier
Overflow i.e. Fine Product.
c = Cumulative % solids retained on the same mesh in the Mill Classifier
Underflow i.e. Coarse Product (Circulating Load).
For a more accurate evaluation, the C.L.% is best calculated for a number of different
specified meshes and the average value of C.L.% adopted.
Streams which are sampled for screen analyses yielding the values a, b and c are shown
in Figure 1.4.
For example:
SCREEN ANALYSES IN A SIMPLE CLOSED-CIRCUIT GRINDING OPERATION:

Screen (a) MILL (b) MILL (c) MILL
Aperture DISCHARGE Cw% CLASSIFIER O/F CLASSIFIER U/F
( P Cw% Cw%
Fraction Cumulative Fraction Cumulative Fraction Cumulative
+300 41.0 -- 0.7 -- 49.1 --
+212 14.1 55.1 5.3 6.0 15.8 64.9
+150 9.8 64.9 10.1 16.1 9.8 74.7
+106 6.0 70.9 10.2 26.3 5.1 79.8
+75 6.8 77.7 12.9 39.2 5.6 85.4
-75 22.3 -- 60.8 -- 14.6 --
100.00 100.0 100.00
For each specified aperture, the Cw (%) cumulative values are substituted in the C.L.%
formula:
55.1 − 6.0
For +212 P C.L.% = × 100% = 501%
64.9 − 55.1
64.9 − 16.1
For +150 P C.L.% = × 100% = 498%
74.7 − 64.9
70.9 − 26.3
For +106 P C.L.% = × 100% = 501%
79.8 − 70.9
77.7 − 39.2
For +75 P C.L.% = × 100% = 500%
85.4 − 77.7
22.3 − 60.8
For –75 P C.L.% = × 100% = 500%
14.6 − 22.3

__________________________
Average C.L.% = 500%
__________________________
Given M1 = 430 t/h
430 × 500%
M5 = = 2150 t/h
100%
Other methods are available for determining Circulating Load and C.L.%. However, the
value of New Feed Dry Solids Mass Flowrate and the required screen analyses are
normally known to, or can be readily provided by the client.
It should be noted that the values of Circulating Load and C.L.% from any one set of
samples are valid at the time of sampling only. These values may be subject to variations
due to changes in grindability of the ore supplied and in performance of the grinding and
classification circuit.
CLOSED CIRCUIT GRINDING ALTERNATIVE CIRCUITS

In addition to the simple closed-circuit grinding operation, Figure 1.4, alternative closed-
circuit or partially-closed circuits are known:
A: Combined Rod Mill and Close-Circuited Ball Mill Circuit
e.g. Figure 1.5 represents a partially-closed grinding circuit where a New Feed of ore +
water is subjected to a single pass (open-circuit) through a rod mill then mixed with ball
mill discharge and dilution water prior to being fed to the mill classifier. This operation
allows any sufficiently fine solids contained in the rod mill discharge to report to the
classifier overflow (together with the fine solids from the ball mill discharge) thereby
avoiding any unnecessary over-grinding in the ball mill.
The coarse solids from the combined rod and ball mill discharges report to the classifier
underflow and are fed to the ball mill (closed-circuit).

DRY SOLIDS MASS FLOWRATE AND VOLUMETRIC FLOWRATE

BALANCES AROUND CIRCUIT:
Under Stable Operating Conditions Dry Solids Mass Volumetric Flowrate

Flowrate
IN = OUT IN = OUT
Whole Circuit M1 = M4 Q1 + Q2 = Q4
Rod Mill (Open-Circuit) M1 = M1 Q1 = Q1
Ball Mill (Closed-Circuit) M5 = M5 Q5 = Q5
Mill Classifier Feed Pump Hopper M1 + M5 = M3 Q1 + Q2 + Q5 = Q3
Mill Classifier M3 = M4 + M5 Q3 = Q4 + Q5
= M1 + M5
This circuit differs from the simple closed-circuit grinding circuit in that a proportion of
the New Feed Solids from the rod mill never enters the ball mill with the Circulating
Load (M5) solids.
Consequently, Mill Classifier Feed Pump duty details (Q3, M3, Cw3 etc) would have to be
supplied by the client based on his experience with, or testwork on, this type of circuit for
the particular ore concerned.

Alternatively, given sufficient data: for example in respect of Circulating Load (M5) and
Solids Concentrations (Cw1, Cw5) or Dilution Water Flowrate (Q2) it would be possible to
derive values for the Mill Classifier Feed Pump Duty.
B: Other Grinding Circuits
Other grinding circuits, more complex than the simple closed-grinding circuit, may be
encountered.
These include:
(a) Open Circuit rod milling, the product feeding directly (in series) into one or more
stages of closed circuit ball milling.
(b) Two or more stages in series of individually closed-circuit ball milling with the fine
(classified) product from one stage fed to the classifier of a subsequent stage.
(c) Dilution of a Mill Classifier Underflow with water and feeding to a secondary
classifier for separation of any fines which were not eliminated by the Mill Classifier.
The secondary classifier overflow and underflow would report to the circuit product
and circulating load streams respectively.
SUMMARY
In every case, each grinding circuit can be subjected to an analysis of the Dry Solids
Mass Flowrate and Volumetric Flowrate Balances around the circuit to yield the duty
data (Q, M and Cw) required for the Mill Classifier Feed Pump or any other pump which
may be required in the circuit.
1.5 Methods of Slurry Flowrate Measurement

It is often necessary to obtain flowrate measurements, in the field, for one or more of a
number of reasons: for example:
(a) To assist a pump user in specifying the flowrate required for a proposed Warman
pump application
(b) To contribute in the examination of the performance of a pump, particularly where

the actual performance (including power consumption) may not appear to correspond
to the specified or desired performance.
Back-calculation of flowrate, given pump speed, total dynamic head, power consumption
and other duty data, is rarely sufficiently accurate because of the normally unknown
actual extent of depression of performance due to variations in solids concentration,
overspeeding, wear of pumps parts and adjustment of running clearances.
Introduction of dye, fluorescent or radio-active materials, or other tracers, into the

pipeline and measuring the time required for the tracer to travel a given length of pipeline
may yield false (high) values of V and Q, particularly where some partial settlement of
solids exists or where any local velocity, “v”, see Figures 3.1.1 and 3.1.3, exceeds the
Average Velocity, “V”, by a significant proportion.

SIMPLE VOLUME AND TIME MEASUREMENTS

Slurry flowrates may be measured, in some cases, by determining the time required for
the slurry discharging from the end of the pipeline to fill a container (for example: drum,
tank or agitator) of known volume. An alternative method of measurement is to
determine the time required for the pump to remove a measured volume of slurry from a
supply vessel:
For example, Figure 1.6 represents a pump feed hopper No. 1 (with a standby No. 2) with
parallel sides providing a liquid surface area of A × B square metres.
It is essential that the pump is operating at a constant speed, that Zs is at least 1.5 m to
avoid aeration and that stable operating conditions are indicated by both Zs and power
consumption remaining constant.
The entire slurry supply to hopper No. 1 is then cut off (for example: diverted to the
standby hopper/pump unit). Without any alteration to the constant speed the time “t”
(seconds) taken for Zs to reduce by a convenient value: C (metres) is taken by stopwatch.
Flowrate is calculated:
A × B × C × 1000
Q= L/s
t
This method is usually best suited to applications such as tailing disposal where hoppers
are relatively large and accurate measurements of the value C are not impeded by
excessive quantities of froth on the liquid surface. Stable speed and power consumption
must be maintained during the test time “t”: any reduction in power consumption being

an indication of a reduction in flowrate, due to aeration or possibly cavitation, and an

incorrect value of Q being measured.
However, this method has the advantages of being simple and of not affecting the
flowrate by the imposition of any in-line restriction to the flowrate during testing.
HORIZONTAL PIPE EXIT STREAM TRAJECTORY

This method also has the advantages of being simple and not affecting the flowrate by
any in-line restriction. However, the following prerequisites apply:
(a) The pipe must be exactly horizontal at the exit point
(b) The mixture emerging from the pipe must occupy the full bore of the pipe
(c) Measurements must be taken reasonably close to the exit to avoid errors due to wind
or air drag
(d) The flow regime must be such that variations in local velocity, v, are negligible.
The horizontal and vertical co-ordinates of the upper surface of the discharge stream are
measured with a carpenter’s square, or equivalent, at a convenient distance from the pipe
exit, usually corresponding to a pre-determined value for the vertical co-ordinates. (see
Figure 1.7)
The theoretical parabolic trajectory of the discharge stream conforms to the following
formulae:
Horizontal Co-ordinates: X = Ve ⋅ t
gt 2
Vertical Co-ordinates: Y=
2
and where t = time for stream to travel from pipe exit to point of
measurement of co-ordinates
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
Ve = Pipe Exit Velocity (m/s)

X and Y = Co-ordinates (m)
X 2Y
From (1) & (2), t= = (s)
Ve g
X
i.e. Ve = (m/s)
2Y
g
For example:
if X = 1.050 m
and Y = 0.200 m
and g = 9.81 m/s2
1.050 1.050
Ve = = = 5.20 m/s
2×0.200 0.202
9.81
if d = 200 mm
d 2 × Ve 40000 × 5.20
Q= = = 163.4 L/s
1273 1273
PITOT TUBE AT END OF PIPELINE

PIPE EXIT VELOCITY AND FLOWRATE
Figure 1.8 illustrates another method which is simple and does not affect the flowrate by
any in-line restriction. The following prerequisites apply:
(a) The slurry density must be relatively low: Sm not in excess of 1.20 and/or the solids
must be of relatively small particle sizing, to avoid rapid settlement of solids int eh
manometer and consequent errors in measurement of h. See Figure 1.8.
(b) The Pitot Tube should be manufactured as closely as possible to the geometry
indicated in Figure 1.9.
(c) The Pitot Tube intake tip must be positioned level with the pipe exit end plane.
(d) The exit end of the pipe must be normal (i.e. at 90º) to the longtitudinal axis of the
pipe.
(e) For Part-Bore flow, the upper liquid surface should intersect the pipe exit end plane
on a horizontal line.
(f) The pipe may be horizontal or inclined; providing that prerequisite © is always
observed to avoid errors due to gravitational acceleration of the liquid stream, after it
leaves the pipe.

(g) The pipe may be discharging at full-bore or part-bore: providing that the intake tip is
positioned at mid-depth of the slurry on the central vertical plane of the exit liquid
stream.
(h) The flow regime must be such that variations in local velocity, v are negligible.
This prerequisite may be confirmed by a preliminary departure from prerequisite (g):

the intake tip may be test-traversed to several positions across the exit liquid stream at
the pipe exit end plane, as in Figure 1.10. Providing h remains constant during this
traverse, v is constant across the stream. If h is NOT constant but varies within ± 5%,
the average value of h from values obtained during the traverse may be taken as the
approximate value of h for the derivation of approximate value of v and Q, using the
formulae provided.
Given that the local velocity, v, is the same value at all points across the exit liquid
stream, h represents the velocity ehad (expressed in mm) corresponding to v:
h(mm ) v 2 2 × 9.81 × h
i.e. = (m) or v= (m/s)
1000 2g 1000
i.e. v = 0.14 h (m/s)

When the pipe is discharging at Full-Bore, v = Ve
2 2 gh 2
d 2Ve d 1000  d 
i.e. Q= = = 1.1  h L/s
1273 1273  100 
When the pipe is discharging at Part-Bore, a constant k, must be applied to correct for the
reduced cross-sectional area of the exit stream:
Cross − Sectional _ area _ of _ Part − Bore _ Stream

k=
Cross − Sectional _ area _ of _ pipe _ inside _ diameter _ at _ exit
See Figure 1.13.
FOR FULL-BORE OR PART-BORE

2
 d 
Q = 1 .1 × k ×   × h (L/s)
 100 
Note: For Full-Bore discharge: k = 1.0 and v = Ve
At Part-Bore discharge: k is less than 1.0 and v is simply the stream velocity
at exit. It is possible that full-bore flow may exist
upstream as in Figure 1.11.
The derived value v ( = 0.14 h ) must therefore be used with caution: In order to
determine V for the portions of pipe where full-bore flow is occurring, the value of Q is
first derived using the factor k, as above. This value of Q is then substituted in the
formula.
1273Q
V = for Full-Bore Flow
d2
CAUTION: This Pitot-Tube method would not be suitable where wide variations, greater
than ± 5%, in local velocity, v, exist. For example, if the lower portion of the pipe
contains a stationary or very slow-moving layer of relatively high solids concentration,
values of v will be much higher in the upper portion of the pipe as illustrated in Figure
1.12 (see Figure 3.1.3 also).

IN-LINE SLURRY FLOW MEASUREMENT METHODS

Many in-line flow measurement devices employed for water and other clear liquids are
generally unsuitable for use with slurries. Such devices include oscillating piston meters.
nutating disc meters, propeller meters, pitot tubes, sharp-edges orifices and rotameters.

These devices could be readily blocked or damaged by the coarser solids in slurries or
may suffer rapid loss of accuracy and extremely short service lives due to abrasion.
However, certain in-line flow measurement devices (for example Magnetic Flowmeters)
used for water and other clear liquids, have potentially long service lives on slurry
applications.
Others are quite satisfactory for short-term slurry flow measurement tasks where the
effects of abrasive wear are minimal. (For example Inverted Whistle Flowmeters,
Venturi Meters and Quarter Circle Orifice Plates.) Slurry flow measurements obtained
with these devices, which were originally developed for clear fluids, are considered as
being sufficiently accurate for practical purposes, although calibration of these devices or
confirmation of these slurry flow measurements by reliable fundamental methods or
accurate metallurgical accounting should be considered where possible.
Warman Head Office is available to assist in the selection of flow measurement devices
for specific slurry flow measurement problems.
MAGNETIC FLOWMETERS
Normally, magnetic flowmeters are selected such that the internal diameter of the
flowmeter is, for practical purposes, the same as that of the pipeline. When this internal
diameter is preserved throughout the length of the flowmeter the additional permanent
head loss and any consequent effects on total friction head loss and flowrate are
negligible.
Magnetic Flowmeters actually measure the values of V (Average Velocity), while the
instrumentation is normally calibrated to indicate Q (Flowrate, for example litres/second).
When a Density (Concentration of Solids) Gauge is also employed at the same time, the
signals from velocity and density measuring devices may be integrated, via a computer,
to obtain an indication of M (Mass Flow of Dry Solids).
Magnetic flowmeters and Density Gauges are commerically available units, and
manufacturers’ recommendations regarding selection and operation should be adopted.
Magnetic flowmeters and density gauges may be constructed from materials providing
long service lives.
QUARTER CIRCLE ORIFICE PLATE

The Quarter Circle Orifice Plate is one of a number of various types of orifice Plates
employed in clear liquid flow measurement. It is the only type recommended for most
short-term slurry flow measurement tasks, due to its simple design, ease of manufacture,
relatively low cost and ease of installation for most abrasive slurry applications. It is
particularly suitable for flow measurements of viscous fluids (including slurries) retaining
acceptable accuracy over a wide range of viscosities. The term “Quarter Circle” refers
simply to the radius featured in upstream profile of the orifice plate. Note that this term
is distinct from the ratios of orifice diameter to pipe internal diameter: Dd , which may be
selected from the range: approximately 0.245 to 0.6 subject to certain other restrictions.

The dimensions, manufacturing tolerances, ranges of application, correct installation of

these orifices, as well as the location of approved alternative gauge tapping points for
both upstream and downstream gauge head measurements are provided in various
Standards established throughout the world: e.g. British Standards. See Figure 1.14.
Figure 1.14 illustrates the approximate streamlines for a slurry mixture in a straight
section of pipe containing a Quarter Circle Orifice Plate. The rapid increase of gauge
head immediately upstream of the orifice, as well as the progressive reduction and
subsequent partial recovery in gauge head downstream of the orifice, emphasise the need
for accurate location of the particular gauge tapping points as selected from the available
standard alternatives.
For any given standard Quarter Circle Orifice Plate installation, the flow equation is
generally, as follows:
Q = CA 2 gH o
where Q = Flowrate (L/s)
C = Coefficient of discharge for orifice plate (dimensionless)
A = Area of Orifice (m2)
g = Gravitational Acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
Ho = Gauge Head Difference between tapping points
i.e. Differential head across orifice, head of mixture (metres).
Note:

C is dependent upon the following factors:
(a) Locations of Gauge Tapping Points employed.
Orifice _ Diameter
(b) Ratio =
Pipe _ Internal _ Diameter
(c) Reynolds Number for actual flowrate through orifice.
As most slurries tend to completely or partially settle in the manometer gauges, the gauge
tubes are normally purges with clear water if necessary to obtain accurate gauge
measurements, but expressed as metres or water, which may then be converted to “metres
of mixture” to determine Ho.
The Permanent Head Loss indicated in Figure 1.14 represents the friction head loss
imposed by the orifice plate at the particular flowrate, Q, measured.
INVERTED WHISTLE FLOWMETERS

The inverted whistle flowmeter, Figure 1.15, is often chosen to avoid the problems
associated with the presence of slow-moving solids concentrated in the lower portion of
the discharge pipe, particularly the possible accumulation of coarse solids upstream of the
point of reduction of pipeline diameter and subsequent blockage of the flow path at this
point. This type of flowmeter may be used at the discharge end of a pipeline only.
The gain in velocity head from Hvd to Hve, in addition to the additional (permanent)
friction head loss through the unit, imposes a significant head loss upon the system and
consequently a possible reduction in flowrate as compared with the system operating
normally without the whistle flowmeter, i.e. the flowrate determined by test may require
to be corrected to obtain an estimate of the normal flowrate. See Section 1.7 “Effects of
in-line Flow Measurement Devices on Flowrate”.
1.6 Effects of In-Line Flow Measurement Devices on Flowrate

It is important to note that certain flow measurement devices, e.g. Inverted Whistle
Flowmeters, Venturi Meters and Quarter Circle Orifice Plates each impose a permanent
head loss which could be of a quite significant proportion. This may possibly result in

the actual flowrate being reduced below the normal (i.e. without the in-line device)
depending on the particular circumstances in each case, e.g. Note the following typical
simplified examples:
Example (a) FIXED SPEED PUMP (Fig. 1.16)
Permanent head loss in flowmeter during test may be offset by natural positive increase
of Zs in pump feed hopper or pit to maintain pump discharge flowrate (Q) at normal value
(Q) as presented to pump suction system.
Example (b) VARIABLE SPEED PUMP (Fig. 1.17)
(Gravity Feed or Suction Lift also). Permanent head loss in flowmeter is offset by
increase in head developed by pump by suitable increased pump speed during test. Value
of Zs therefore may be maintained at the precise “normal” level during test.

Example (c) FIXED SPEED PUMP (Zs constant) (Fig. 1.18)
Permanent head loss in flowmeter will result in Q3 on test being less than normal Q3. Cw
as pumped will also increase, causing reductions in Hm and Q3.
Example (d) VARIABLE SPEED PUMP (Zs constant) (Fig. 1.18)
Permanent head loss in flowmeter can be offset by increase in pump speed as in (b).
However, Q1, Q2 and Cw as pumped must be maintained at normal values, during the test,
to correctly present normal values of Q3 and Cw to the pump.
Example (e) CONSTANT Zs, “INFINITE” SUPPLY AVAILABLE, FIXED OR

VARIABLE SPEED PUMP (Fig. 1.19)
Permanent head loss in flowmeter will result in Q on test being less than normal at a
given speed.

However, providing that the permanent friction head loss due to the flowmeter can be
determined accurately for the normal flowrate, the pump speed may be increased
sufficiently to offset this loss with the pump discharging normal flowrate, Q.

Section 2 EFFECTS OF SOLIDS CONCENTRATION ON PUMP

PERFORMANCE
INDEX
2.0 Abstract 2
2.1 Effects of Solids Concentration on Pump Performance 3
2.2 Concentrations of Solids in Slurry Mixtures 3
2.3 Average Particle Size of Solids 9
2.4 Pump Efficiency 10
2.5 Comparison of Pump Performance on Clear Water and Slurry 12
2.6 Effects of Solids Concentration on Head and Efficiency 12
2.7 Head Ratio (HR) and Efficiency Ratio (ER) 13
2.8 Estimating Required Pump Speed and Pump Efficiency on Slurry 13
2.9 Estimating Values of Head Ratio and Efficiency Ratio 13
2.10 Allowances for Effects of Wear on Pump Performance 20
2.11 Warman Pump Performance on Mixtures of Viscous Liquids and Solids 22
2.12 Estimating Performances of Centrifugal Pumps Handling Solids-Free

Viscous Liquids 23

2.0 Abstract
CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLIDS IN SLURRY MIXTURES
Concentrations of solids in mixtures of liquid and solids may be expressed as % weight:

Cw; % volume: Cv or grams/litre: Cg.
These concentrations are mathematically related.
AVERAGE PARTICLE SIZE OF SOLIDS: d50
d50 is determined from the sizing analysis of a sample of the dry solids.
HEAD RATIO, HR and EFFICIENCY RATIO, ER.
Both head developed, Hm, and efficiency, em, or a pump when pumping a slurry are less
than the head developed, Hw, and efficiency, ew, when pumping water at the same speed
and at the same flowrate. These relationships are termed:
Hm
Head Ratio = HR =
Hw
em
Efficiency Ratio = ER =
ew
For practical purposes, HR = ER.
For Mixtures of Solids and Water, HR = ER may be empirically estimated, given d50, S
and Cw.
For Composite Mixtures of Solids and Heavy Media, HR = ER may be empirically

estimated for the Heavy Medium Mixture only, arbitrarily ignoring the presence of the
other solids.
For Mixtures of Solids and Liquids other than water, details should be referred to Head
Office for estimation of HR and ER.
ESTIMATING REQUIRED PUMP SPEED AND PUMP EFFICIENCY ON SLURRY
Pump speed on slurry is that for the given flowrate and the head, Hw,
Hm
where H w =
HR
Pump efficiency on slurry, em, is determined from that for water, ew, at the given flowrate
and head, Hw, and the Efficiency Ratio, em,

where em = e w × ER
EFFECTS OF WEAR ON PUMP PERFORMANCE
H m (worn ) em (worn )
= = 0.85 to 0.95* approximately
H m (new) em (new)
* For Design purposes, a value of 0.90 is normally adopted.
WARMAN PUMP PERFORMANCE ON MIXTURES OF VISCOUS LIQUIDS AND

SOLIDS
HR and ER data should be established by testwork.
2.0 Effects of Solids Concentration on Pump Performance
Comparison with Clear Water Pumping
It is well known amongst operators and suppliers of all makes of centrifugal slurry
pumps, that the performance of a centrifugal pump, when pumping a slurry, is depressed
relative to the performance when pumping clear water: the depression being increasingly
pronounces with increasing solids concentrations.
This depression in performance is evidenced by:
Higher Pump Speed Requirement: The pump must be operated at a higher speed on
slurry to develop the same head, expressed as metres of mixture pumped, at the same
flowrate as for water.
and:
Higher Power Requirement:
The pump exhibits a higher power consumption on slurry than would be calculated by
simply multiplying the power consumed when pumping water, at the same flowrate and
with the numerically same head (metres of water) developed, by the Specific Gravity of
the slurry mixture.
In recent years, extensive studies have been conducted on a wide range of slurries by
Warman personnel, both in the Warman hydraulics laboratories and in field tests with the
valued co-operation of many users of Warman pumps. These studies have contributed to
the development of empirical methods for estimating both the required speeds and power
consumptions of slurry pumps for various slurry-pumping duties.
2.1 Concentrations of Solids in Slurry Mixtures
Cw: CONCENTRATION OF SOLIDS IN SLURRY MIXTURE BY WEIGHT

(PERCENT)

Cw represents the % weight of dry solids in the mixture of solids + liquid.
e.g. if 200 kg of silica sand particles were added to 900 kg of water:
200
Cw = × 100% = 18.18%
200 + 900
Cv: CONCENTRATION OF SOLIDS IN SLURRY MIXTURE BY TRUE

OCCUPIED VOLUME (PERCENT)
Cv represents the % by true volume* occupied by the particles of solids in the mixture of
solids and liquid.
e.g. if 200 kg of silica sand particles (density = s = 2650 kg/m3) were added to 900 kg of
water (density = w = 1000 kg/m3)
2650
Specific Gravity of silica sand particles S= = 2.65
1000
i.e. a silica sand particle has a mass 2.65 times that of the mass of the volume of water it
would displace.
as 1 m3 = 1000 litres
2650 kg/m3 = 2.65 kg/litre; and 1000 kg/m3 = 1.0 kg/litre
200
Equivalent volume of water displaced by solids = = 75.47 litres
2.65
900
Actual volume of water present = = 900.00 litres
1 .0
Total Volume of (Slurry) Mixture = 975.47 litres
75.47
Cv = × 100% = 7.74%
975.47
* CAUTION
As with all slurry pump duty data provided by end-users and others, care should be
exercised in accepting data on concentration of solids and in confirming that the terms or
units in which the data are supplied correspond with those employed in this manual as
standard or if not, are clearly understood and can be accurately converted to standard.
For example, the civil dredging industry often requests a proposal for a dredge pump with
a capacity for solids output at a specified “solids concentration”.

e.g. “500 tonnes per hour of dry solids at 15% by volume as in Figure 2.1. The “% by
volume” term in civil dredging commonly refers to the % bulk settled volume of solids
apparent in a sample of slurry mixture which has been allowed to settle:
However, the true % by volume of total water present in the sample is greater than 85%:
i.e. 85% PLUS the % representing the volume of water occupying the voids between the
particles of settled solids.
EXAMPLE:
Given a slurry exhibiting a 15% bulk settled volume of silica ( s = 2650 kg/m3) sand
particles in water and given that the DRY BULK DENSITY (i.e. with air filling the voids
between the particles) of the sand = 1600 kg/m3
For 1.0 m3 of settled sand, with water filling the voids between the particles:
True volume occupied by all the solids particles:
Weight _ of _ 1.0m 3 _ of _ bulk _ dry _ solids 1.600kg

= = 0.604 m3
Density _ of _ solids (= ρ s ) 2650kg / m 3
NOTE:
Actual volume of water in voids = 1.0 m3 – 0.604 m3 = 0.396 m3
As the 15% bulk settled volume of solids occupies: 1.0 m3
100% − 15%
Volume of overlying water = × 1 .0 m 3 = 5.667 m3
15%

Total volume of mixture = 6.667 m3
0.604
True Cv = × 100% = 9.06 %
6.667
i.e. Actual total % water by volume = 100% - 9.06% = 90.94 %
COMPARISON OF TOTAL VOLUMES OF MIXTURE
Concentration of Solids Cv = 9.06% Cv = 15%
Total _ Volume _ Mixture 100% 100%

= 11.04% = 6.67%
True _ Volume _ of _ Solids 9.06% 15%
From the above table, it is apparent that if the value of Cv were incorrectly taken at 15%,
instead of the true value of 9.06%, the volume of mixture related to a given weight of
solids would be grossly understated and any pumping system and pump selections based
on such incorrect values must also be grossly incorrect.
However, if the client provides the values for the dry bulk density of “loose” solids and
s, as well as solids concentration expressed in % bulk settled volume of solids, it is
possible to calculate the true value: Cv.
Cg: CONCENTRATION OF SOLIDS IN SLURRY MIXTURE, AS GRAMS/LITRE
Cg represents the weight, expressed in grams of dry solids, present in one litre of mixture
of solids + liquids.
e.g. if 250 grams of silica sand particles ( s = 2650 kg/m3) were present in one litre of
mixture consisting of these particles and water ( w = 1000 kg/m3), Cg = 250 g/L
As 1 m3 = 1000 litres; 2650 kg/m3 = 2.65 kg/L
and 1000 kg/m3 = 1.0 kg/L = 1000 g/L
Also as 1000 g = 1 kg, 250 g = 0.250 kg
Equivalent volume of water displaced by solids
0.250kg
= = 0.0943 L
2.65kg / L
Volume of water, actual
= 1.000 – 0.0943 = 0.9057 L
Total 1.0000 L

Weight of 1 litre of Mixture = Weight of Solids + Weight of Water
= (0.250 kg) + (0.9057 L × 1.0 kg/L) = 1.1557 kg.
m = Density of Mixture = (1.1557 kg/L) × (1000 L/m3) = 1155.7 kg/m3
ρ m 1155.7
Sm = S.G. of Mixture = = =1.1557
ρw 1000
Note also:
0.0943
Cv = × 100% = 9.43%
1.000
0.0250kg
and Cw = × 100% = 21.63%
0.250kg + 0.9057 kg
Cg 250
or, Cw = = = 21.63%
10S m 10 × 1.1557
Data on the effects of solid concentration on pump performance and pipeline friction
losses have been correlated to “Cv” in some data, and to “Cw” in others. The value of Cv,
given S and Cw or Cg (and for Cw, given S and Cv or Cg) may be determined for mixtures
of solids + liquids from the nomograms or formulae provided in Figure 2.2.


2.2 Average Particle Size of Solids
The symbol d50 (expressed in PRUPPTXDQWLILHV³7KH$YHUDJH3DUWLFOH6L]HRI6ROLGV

in a Given Sample”. It represents the size expressed as a screen aperture which would
retain exactly 50% by weight of a given dry solids sample. (i.e. 50% by weight is coarser
than, and 50% is finer than, the d50 size.)
EXAMPLES: TYPICAL SCREEN ANALYSES
Sample Reference No. No. 1 No. 2
Mesh: Apertures*: % By Weight % By Weight
PREVIOUS (Micrometres) Fraction Cumulative Fraction Cumulative

B.S.S. MESH
+36 mesh (+ 425) P 4.7% 4.7% 4.4% 4.4%
- 36 + 44 (- 425 + 365) 8.3% 13.0% 8.1% 12.5%
- 44 + 60 (- 365 + 250) 20.9% 33.9% 19.0% 31.5%
- 60 + 85 (- 250 + 180) 16.1% 50.0% 14.0% 45.5%
- 85 + 120 (- 180 + 125) 18.4% 68.4% 21.0% 66.5%
- 120 + 170 (- 125 + 90) 16.7% 85.1% 19.3% 85.8%
- 170 + 0 (-90) 14.9% 100.0% 14.2% 100.0%
TOTAL 100.0% - 100.0% -
*Note: Apertures listed against the respective PREVIOUS B.S.S. MESHES (or any other
selected standard mesh series which may be employed) are available from
published data e.g. Figure 3.3.)
Sample No. 1
In this case, by a coincidence, the Cumulative % by weight for this sample indicates that
exactly 50% by weight is retained at the (85 B.S.S. MESH) 180 PSDUWLFOHVL]Hi.e. d50
= 180 P
Sample No. 2
The Cumulative % by weight tabulation shows that 45.5% is retained on 180 PDQGWKDW
66.5% is retained on 125 PE\ZHLJKWLVREYLRXVO\ UHWDLQHGRQ DQLQWHUPHGLDWH
aperture size which may be determined grpahically (Figure 2.3).
From Figure 2.3, d50 = 165 P
Note that the value estimated for d50 need not necessarily correspond exactly to any
standard mesh aperture.
Estimated values of d50 are required for estimation of HR and ER as described in this
Section as well as for the estimation of FL (and VL) as described in Section 3.

CAUTION:
The symbol “d50” as defined above must not be confused with the similar symbol “d50”
employed in metallurgical classification processes. (The latter normally refers to the
PARTICLE SIZE OF WHICH 50% by weight reports with the fine product and 50% by
weight reports with the coarse product, i.e.: it indicates a particle size to provide a
definition of the classification process but that particle size is not necessarily numerically
equal to the value of “d50: Average Particle Size” as defined above, of any slurry mixture.
2.3 Pump Efficiency
The hydraulic (useful) power imparted to the mixture pumped is usefully employed
outside the pump to move the mixture through a system against the resistance to flow
characterised by the system.
For any given flowrate, Q, the system resistance may be expressed as the Total Dynamic
Head, H.
The hydraulic (useful) power is described by the formula:

Q × H × Sm
Hydraulic (useful) power = (kW)
1.02
where Q = Flowrate (L/s)
H = Total Dynamic Head (m)
Sm = Specific Gravity of Mixture (dimensionless)
The power input, P, i.e. the power consumed at the pump shaft, is the sum of the
hydraulic frictional losses within the pump.
The term “efficiency” of a pump is used in this manual to describe the % relationship
between the hydraulic (useful) power imparted to the mixture pumped and the power
absorbed at the pump shaft:
Hydraulic _(useful ) _ power _ imparted _ to _ the _ mixture

Pump Efficiency % = × 100%
Power _ consumed _ at _ the _ pump _ shaft
Q × H × Sm
i.e. em =
1.02 × P
Where P = power consumed at the pump shaft (kW).
alternatively:
Q × H × Sm
P= (kW)
1.02 × em
Note:
When the mixture is solids-free water, the symbol ew is used, instead of em.
Q × H × Sl Q × H × Sl
i.e. ew = or P=
1.02 × P 1.02 × e w
Power output from Prime Mover
When the pump is driven by a prime mover, e.g. electric motor or diesel engine, the
power output from the prime mover will be at least as great as the power consumed at the
pump shaft, P, depending upon the amount of any power losses in any power
transmission equipment, e.g. vee belts, gear box or hydraulic coupling, between the prime
mover and the pump shaft. See Section 7 “Selection of Prime Mover Nominal Power
Rating”.

2.4 Comparison of Pump Performance on Clear Water and Slurry
Warman Pump performance curves present performance on clear water only as the
performance on slurries will be depressed, by varying degrees, depending on certain
characteristics of each slurry mixture.
2.5 Effects of Solids Concentration on Head and Efficiency
Figure 2.4 represents test performance curves, Hw and ew, all at the same fixed speed, for
a pump handling water (unbroken curves) and also for handling a typical mixture of high
solids concentration (broken curves).
For any given flowrate, Q1, both head developed on mixture (Hm) and efficiency of
mixture (em) are depressed with respect to Hw and ew, at the same flowrate, Q1.
The depressant effects on pump performance caused by solids in a slurry are due,
principally, to:
(a) Slip between the fluid and the solid particles, during acceleration and deceleration of
the slurry, while entering and after leaving the impeller. This slip of solids and the
attendant energy loss is greater with particles of greater natural settling velocity.
(b) Increased internal friction losses in the pump. These losses are greater for higher
concentrations of the solids in the slurry.

2.6 Head Ratio (HR) and Efficiency Ratio (ER)
Hm
By definition, HR = ;
Hw
em
also ER =
ew
Obviously, when the solids concentration in the mixture is zero (i.e. Cw = zero); Hm = Hw;
em = ew, hence HR = 1.0; ER = 1.0. However, both HR and ER are known to decrease
with increasing concentration of solids in the mixture.
HR and ER, for any given slurry mixture, principally depend on:
Average particle size of solids; (d50)
Specific Gravity of solids: (S)
Concentration of solids by weight in the mixture of solids + liquid: (Cw)
2.7 Estimating Required Pump Speed and Pump Efficiency on Slurry
Hm
As H w =
HR
then given the required total head (Hm), and providing HR can be estimated, Hw may also
be estimated. The required pump speed for the slurry is then obtained from the
appropriate Warman pump performance curve, as if the pump were handling a clear
water duty of Q and Hw.
Similarly, providing ER can be estimated, ew is then obtained from the same published
curve, at the same clear water duty point (Q and Hw). The estimated pump efficiency for
the slurry duty is then calculated:
em = ew × ER; enabling em to be applied in the estimation of power consumed at

the pump shaft.
2.8 Estimating Values of Head Ratio and Efficiency Ratio
Simple Mixtures of Solids in Water
Both HR and ER can be determined accurately only by test on each slurry mixture
concerned. Typical values of HR and ER for various slurry mixtures are:

SOLIDS IN SLURRY S d50 Cv * HR ER
Lime Stone & Clay 2.65 0.069 mm 10% 0.985 0.985

(Raw Portland Cement 20% 0.975 0.975
Slurry) 30% 0.960 0.960
40% 0.950 0.950
Iron Sand 4.60 0.121 mm 10% 0.800 0.800

20% 0.720 0.720
Silica Sand 2.60 0.300 mm 10% 0.91 0.91

20% 0.83 0.83
30% 0.78 0.78
40% 0.77 0.77
*: Cw or Cg may be converted to Cv and vice versa by use of the Formulae or

Nomograms: Figure 2.2.
For any given slurry mixture, the true values of HR and ER may not necessarily be equal,
although most tests to date indicate that this is generally the case.
i.e. for practical purposes, HR = ER.
The nomogram: Figure 2.5 has been developed for use with mixtures of solids and water
in the estimation of HR and ER, knowing d50, S and Cw. The example illustrated
represents a slurry of the following characteristics:
d50 = 0.880 mm (880 P
S = 2.0
Cw = 35%
…yielding: HR = ER = 0.85


TYPICAL DENSITIES OF DRY SOLIDS
Solid Material s * (kg/m3)

Gypsum (CaSO4, 2H2O) 2 320
Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) 5 120
Galena (PbS) 7 500
Magnesite (MgCO3) 3 037
Molybdenite (MoS2) 4 801
Quartz (Silica) (SiO2) 2 650
Rutile (TiO2) 4 260
Water w = 1 000
*Note: s is equal to the weight of a block of solid void-free material with a volume of
one cubic metre. (This must not be confused with any bulk density term
expressing the weight of a cubic metre volume of loose particles i.e. with air-
filled voids between the particles, e.g. sand, gravel, powder, dust, etc.)
ESTIMATING VALUES OF HR AND ER: FOR COMPLEX MIXTURES
Composite Mixtures Consisting of Relatively Coarse Solids in Heavy Media
Warman pumps are extensively employed in heavy media circuits. The heavy medium
usually consists of a mixture of finely-ground particles of magnetite, S = 5.2
approximately; or ferrosilicon, S = 6.1 (if pure, but lower depending on the commercial
grade employed) or blends of magnetite and ferrosilicon. Sizings are typically 95% finer
than 50 P&RQFHQWUDWLRQVRIWKHVHfinely-ground solids may be established to provide
mixtures of specific gravities from 1.25 to as high as 3.4.
As the particles in these heavy media mixtures have very slow natural-settling rates and
the mixtures have sufficiently low viscosities, they can substitute for true clear heavy
liquids, such as halogenated hydrocarbons, which have similarly high specific gravities
but are too expensive and hazardous for use in metallurgical processes.
Heavy media processes are adopted for the gravity separation of relatively coarse solids
particles. Particles of S.G. lower than the S.G. of the heavy medium mixture, float in the
mixture while particles of S.G. higher than that of the heavy medium, sink in the mixture.
The heavy medium S.G. is predetermined to provide the required gravity separation e.g.:
(a) of high-S.G. mineralised particles being separated from low-S.G. gangue particles
or
(b) high-S.G. waste being separated from low-S.G. coal.
Heavy media separations are usually carried out in

(a) Baths (i.e. tanks) or rotating drums, which are fed with dry ore (or raw coal) and
usually a separate stream of circulating heavy medium mixture.
or
(b) Hydraulic cyclones (of “cycloids”) which are fed with a Composite Mixture
consisting of:
i) The ore (or raw coal) particles
combined with
ii) The heavy medium: e.g. consisting of both the finely-ground magnetite (and/or
ferrosilicon) and water.
Estimation of Values of HR and ER for Composite Mixtures of Solids in Heavy Media
As the heavy medium provides considerable buoyancy to the coarse particles, the slip
between the coarse particles and the medium during acceleration and deceleration is less
than if the medium were simply water.
No accurate testwork has been carried out to date by Warman International Ltd. on this
topic. For application engineering purposes, HR and ER are usually estimated from
Figure 2.5 on the basis that the pump is handling the heavy medium mixture ONLY i.e.
the presence of ore or raw coal is arbitrarily ignored.
This arbitrary basis has proved satisfactory in practice, probably because the values of
HR and ER, for the heavy medium mixture only, are relatively high and are not
significantly affected by the presence of other solids introduced to form the composite
mixture.
Any errors in estimation of HR and ER are probably negligible when compared with
reserves in Hm and em, to cater for wear or accuracies of duty data.
However, all other pumping calculations, including NPSH evaluations, must take into
account the presence of all solids: The heavy medium mixing only is regarding as a
transporting medium and its specific gravity is taken for Sl.
i.e. S = S.G. or Dry Solids i.e. the average S.G. of the ore or raw coal
Sl = S.G. of Heavy Medium Mixture
Sm = S.G. of Composite Mixture Pumped i.e. of the ore or raw coal plus Heavy
MediuM

EXAMPLE:
TYPICAL SIMPLE SPEED AND POWER ESTIMATION
Required Duty: A pump to handle a sand-water slurry:
The system is protected from tramp oversize, by use of a 10 mm aperture screen. Given:
Q : 125 L/s
Hm : 35 m
Cw : 50%
s : 2650 kg/m3
w : 1000 kg/m3
d50 : 0.150 mm (=150 P
OBJECTIVE: Estimation of Pump Speed and Power Consumption
CALCULATIONS:
ρ s 2650kg / m 3
S= = = 2.650
ρ w 1000kg / m 3
From Figure 2.5 for d50 = 0.150 mm, S = 2.65, Cw = 50%
HR = ER = 0.85
H m 35m
Hw = = = 41.18m
HR 0.85
From Figure 2.2 Sm = 1.45
It is assumed that other considerations (See Section 10) indicate that the most suitable
pump to select is a Warman 8/6 F-AH, the performance curve being shown as Figure 2.6
For Q = 125 L/s and Hw = 41.18 m

Pump Speed = 930 r/min----------------------*
and ew = 65.0%
em = ew × ER = 65.0% × 0.85 = 55.3%
Power consumed at pump shaft:
Q × H m × Sm
(kW)
1.02 × em
125 × 35 × 1.45
= (kW)
1.02 × 55.3
= 112.5 kW ................... *

*Note: Consideration must also be given to other practical factors influencing speed or
speed range and power allowances for this duty:

e.g. a) Possible future changes in required Pump Duty (Q, H and Sm).
b) Provision for pump wearing parts being in “worn” condition (See Section
2.10: “Allowances for Effects of Wear on Pump Performance”).
c) Possible additional power required by centrifugal seal. (See Section 7.7:

“Shaft Sealing”).
d) Possible additional power required by variable speed drive or other power

transmission (See Section 7.6 “Selection of Prime Mover Nominal Power
Rating”).
Note: As the d50 is small and the maximum particle size which will enter the pump is 10
mm (as the pump is protected from tramp oversize), the use of a rubber-lined
pump, fitted with a rubber impeller, is indicated.
The limitations on the Warman 8/6 F-AH pump are:
Normal Maximum Power = 260 kW
Normal Maximum Speed = 1 000 RPM
Maximum Particle Size = 63 mm diameter sphere
These limitations are not exceeded on the proposed duty.
2.9 Allowances for Effects of Wear on Pump Performance
All makes of centrifugal slurry pumps suffer progressive reduction in the performance
values, Hm and em, as the pump wearing parts become worn. The reductions in Hm and em
are caused by a combination of factors resulting from abrasive wear, e.g.:
Reduction of impeller diameter
Increased running clearance on the suction side
Detrimental alterations to geometry of wetted surfaces
The reduction in Hm and em, due to wear, is frequently overlooked in the slurry pump
application engineering but allowances for these effects MUST be made in every case.
Prospective clients should be informed regarding allowances made for these effects, to
allow for proper comparison with competitive proposals. Some competitors may not
properly allow for depression of performance due to solids concentration or for wear.

Comparative hydraulic performance tests, over many years, on Warman Pump wearing
parts in new and worn (“throw-away”) condition indicate that usually:
A: Head: Hm (worn) = 0.85 to 0.95 Hm (new), depending on the nature of individual

duties and resultant wear patterns.
For design purposes, it is normally* allowed that:
Hm (worn) = 0.90 Hm (new)
H (worn )
i.e. m = 0.90 *
H m (new)
B: Efficiency: em (new) also reduces to em (worn) as Hm (new) reduces to Hm (worn).

This reduction in efficiency is approximately the same percentage as for the reduction
in head. i.e. For design purposes, it is normally* allowed that:
em (worn) = 0.90 em (new)
e (worn )
i.e. m = 0.90 *
em (new)
*Note: In some cases, the adoption of higher values may be necessary. See Section 5.11
“Relative Geometry of Pump Performance curves and Slurry System Resistance
Curves”.
Should a centrifugally-sealed pump be proposed for a duty, the value:

Hs
× 100% in new or worn condition,
Hd
should not exceed the limit specified for the size and type of pump concerned. (See
Section 7.7 “Centrifugally-Sealed Pumps”).
2.10 Warman Pump Performance on Mixtures of Viscous Liquids and

Solids
Slurries of Water and Solids (or Low Viscosity Aqueous Solutions and Solids)
In general, the effects on HR and ER with increasing concentration of solids int eh

mixtures is already accounted for in the methods of estimating HR and ER, see Figure
2.5.
Mixtures of Viscous Liquids and Solids
HR and ER values should be determined by specific pump performance testwork,

employing the particular slurry and preferably the proposed pump size and type
concerned.
Clear Viscous Liquids
Warman Slurry Pumps are not commonly applied to pumping clear viscous liquids.
However, some nominally clear liquids may be most economically handled by Warman
Slurry Pumps because of some aspect(s) of the duty e.g.:
Abrasives: Presence of a very small concentration of solids which are

significantly abrasive.
Corrosives: Natural rubber of other standard Warman elastomers are

economical for the duty.
Maximum Particle Size: Warman Pumps are capable of handling the occasional
tramp solid particles or occasional surges of solids, as
specified for the duties.
Standardisation: Other Warman Pumps at the site.
Given that the average solids concentration is so small as to be neglected, the duty may
be assessed as simply one involving the pumping of a clear but significantly viscous
fluid. However, to data, negligible testwork has been carried out to determine the
performance of Warman Pumps on clear viscous fluids.
For other makes of pumps, of conventional hydraulic design, for use as clear liquid
pumps (e.g. water pumps) significant increases in power consumption and reduction in
head and capacity are known to occur with fluids of moderate to high viscosities.

2.11 Estimating Performances of Centrifugal Pumps Handling Solids-Free

Viscous Liquids
A Performance Correction Chart has been published by the Hydraulic Institute (U.S.A.).
The Chart is based on testwork carried out by the Hydraulic Institute on some makes of
pumps described as being “conventional hydraulic design”: with open or closed impellers
in pump sizes of 2” to 8” (50 mm to 200 mm) and handling petroleum oils of various
viscosities in the “normal operating range” of each pump. The values of Correction
Factors published in the chart are stated to be averaged from the wide-ranging testwork
and are therefore simply guides only to the order of correction factors applicable to those
pumps. The Hydraulic Institute suggests that specific pump performance tests should be
conducted, using the actual viscous fluid at the pumping temperature intended, when
reliable performance data are required.
The Correction Factors yielded by the chart should NOT be generally applied to Warman
Pump Performances as Warman Pumps are NOT of conventional hydraulic design e.g.:
Warman pumps have deeper impeller blades and larger passageways in their casings; and
therefore, probably, would be subject to Correction Factors quite different (more or less)
from those (“CH”, “CQ” and “CE”) published. Where potential Warman Pump
applications exist for such duties, details should be forwarded to Head Office for
assessment and priority testwork if practical.
However, for preliminary field estimates only, the published Correction Factors, (“CH”,
“CQ” and “CE”) but for viscosities not exceeding 15 centistokes (0.0001 m2/s) only, may
be applied to Warman Pumps but subject to final Head Office assessment as above.

Section 3 LIMITING SETTLING VELOCITIES

INDEX
3.0 Abstract 2
3.1 Local Velocity 2
3.2 Average Velocity 3
3.3 Limiting Settling Velocities: Horizontal Pipelines 3

+RPRJHQHRXV6OXUULHV3DUWLFOHV)LQHUWKDQ P 3
+HWHURJHQHRXV6OXUULHV3DUWLFOHV&RDUVHUWKDQ P 4
Method (A): Estimating FL: Closely-Graded Particle Sizings 5
Method (B): Estimating FL: Widely-Graded Particle Sizings 5
Method (C): Estimating FL: Sizings Containing Significant
3URSRUWLRQVRI3DUWLFOHV)LQHUWKDQ P 11
3.4 Determination of VL by Testwork 16
3.5 Effect of Pipe Diameter on Limiting Settling Velocity 17
3.6 Limiting Settling Velocities: Non-Horizontal Pipelines 17

3.0 Abstract
AVERAGE VELOCITY, V
V, (m/s), is mathematically related to the volumetric flowrate, Q, (L/s), and inside

diameter of pipe, d, (mm):
1273 × Q
V =
d2
LIMITING SETTLING VELOCITY VL: HORIZONTAL PIPELINES
Average Velocity, V, should not be less than VL, in order to avoid settlement of solids
leading to pipeline blockages or other operational problems.
HOMOGENEOUS SLURRIES: Solids particles coarser than 100 mm
VL should be determined, preferably by testwork.
Estimation of VL:
VL may be estimated by Durand’s Formula:
 S − Sl 
VL = FL 2 gD 
 Sl 
The parameter FL is obtained, using an appropriate method, from graphs of empirical data
relating FL to d50 and Cv (or Cw).
EFFECT OF PIPE DIAMETER ON LIMITING SETTLING VELOCITY
Durand’s Formula indicates that VL is proportional to D, for Closely-Graded Sizings and

for values of Cv from 2% to 15%. However, this relationship appears not to hold for
other mixtures.
LIMITING SETTLING VELOCITY: NON-HORIZONTAL PIPELINES
The true value of Limiting Settling Velocity for a non-horizontal pipeline is less than the
true value, VL, for a horizontal pipeline.
3.1 Local Velocity

Considering a liquid or slurry flowing through a pipe, the Local Velocity, v, normally
varies across the pipe diameter from zero at the pipe wall to a maximum at, or near, the
centre.

Typical examples of Local Velocities in pipes are shown in Figures 3.1.1, 3.1.2 and 3.1.3
where the Local Velocity value, v, parallel to axis of pipe, is indicated by length of
arrows.
3.2 Average Velocity

Throughout this manual the symbol “V”: Average velocity (m/s) of liquid or slurry
mixture through a pipe; represents the velocity calculated from the flowrate: “Q”, (L/s),
and the inside diameter of the pipe, “d” (mm), with full-bore flow.
1273 × Q
V =
d2
“V”, so defined, disregards variations in local velocity, or the pipe partly filled with
settled solids i.e. including variations due to any complete or impending settlement of
solids in the pipe, as illustrated in Figure 3.1.3.
3.3 Limiting Settling Velocities: Horizontal Pipelines
+RPRJHQHRXV6OXUULHV3DUWLFOHV)LQHUWKDQ P
Slurries containing solids consisting of particles essentially finer than approximately 100
PHJ5DZ3RUWODQG&HPHQW6OXUULHV&OD\VOXUULHVZKHQWUDQVSRUWHGE\DOLTXLGLQD

pipe, generally maintain their solids in suspension at relatively very low values of
Average Velocity, V.
At sufficiently low solids concentrations, these slurries behave similarly to water, in that
they have zero Yield Stress. They may be treated as for Heterogenous Slurries in respect
of estimating Limiting Settling Velocities: using Method B below, and Pipe Friction
Head Losses.
At sufficiently high solids concentrations, certain rheological properties (e.g. Yield

Stress; Co-efficient of Rigidity etc.) of these slurries become the dominant influences in
the determination of the most economic combination of average velocity and pipe
diameter, See Section 9: “Non Newtonian Slurries”. Limiting Settling Velocities for
these slurries are usually low.
The transition with increasing solids concentration, from Yield Stress = ZERO to Yield
Stress = a measurable value, i.e. transition to a Bingham-Type Slurry, commences in
some cases at fairly high values of solids concentration e.g. Cw = 45%.
CAUTION: Some very fine slurries (e.g. Bentonite mud) will show non-Newtonian
rheology and a significant yield stress at very low solids concentrations (Cw = 10%).
7KHVHVOXUULHVFRQVLVWRIPDLQO\FROORLGDOVL]HSDUWLFOHVVPDOOHUWKDQ P
+HWHURJHQHRXV6OXUULHV3DUWLFOHV&RDUVHUWKDQ P
LIMITING SETTLING VELOCITY, VL
6OXUULHV FRQWDLQLQJ VROLG SDUWLFOHV HVVHQWLDOO\ FRDUVHU WKDQ DSSUR[LPDWHO\ P DUH
transported in suspension by a liquid in a pipe, providing that the Average Velocity, V, is
no less than the Limiting Settling Velocity, VL.
At any velocity below VL, solids are deposited in the pipeline. This results in increased
pipeline friction head loss, with reducing flowrate and possible blockage of the pipeline.
Determination of Limiting Settling Velocity
In order to determine VL accurately, it is necessary to conduct testwork with the slurry on

a pipeline test rig. Where this is not possible, the VL may be established by a skilled
specialist estimator or estimated by one of the following methods, each based on
Durand’s formula:
(S − S l )
Durand’s formula: VL = FL 2 gD
Sl
Where the parameter FL is dependent upon particle sizing and solids concentration.
Durand’s formula was derived initially from testwork carried out on slurries each of
closely-graded particle sizing. See Fig. 3.2.

A closely-graded Particle sizing is, for the purposes in this manual, regarded as one
where the ratio of particle sizes, expressed as testing screen apertures, does not exceed
approximately 2:1 for at least 90% by weight of the total solids in the sample.
Subsequent testwork indicates that values of FL from Fig. 3.2 provide conservative (high)
values for VL in respect of:
i) Slurries of more widely-graded particle sizings and/or:
ii) Slurries of sizings containing significant proportions of particles finer than 100
P
The avoidance of excessively conservative estimates of FL (and VL) will benefit in the
avoidance of high pipeline velocities, high power consumption and high wear-rates
on pipes and pumps.
Method (A): Estimating FL: Closely-Graded Particle Sizings

Given values for d50 and Cv; values of FL are obtained from Figure 3.2.
Method (B): Estimating FL: Widely-Graded Particle Sizings

Widely-graded sizings are more commonly encountered in slurry-pumping operations.
Figure 3.4 represents the results of field testwork on slurries of widely-graded sizings.
The particle sizing is simply expressed by the d50 term.
The resultant values of FL (and consequently, VL) are significantly below those which
would be yielded from Fig. 3.2.




Example (A) Closely-Graded Particle Sizings
A silica sand (S = 2.65) waste fraction and water (Sl = 1.0) from a sand screening and
blending plant has the following screen analysis. It is to be pumped to disposal as a
mixture of Cw = 26%.
MESH: APERTURES: % BY WEIGHT

(MICROMETRES)
TYLER STANDARD FRACTION CUMULATIVE
+28 mesh P 1.2% 1.2% Retained
-28 + 32 (-595 + 500) 48.1% 49.3% Retained
-32 + 35 (-500 + 420) 49.0% 98.3% Retained
-35 + 0 (-420 + 0) 1.7% 100.0% Retained
TOTAL 100.0%
$VLVUHWDLQHGRQ PSDVVLQJ PLV LHG50 is

VOLJKWO\OHVVWKDQEXWIRUSUDFWLFDOSXUSRVHVHTXDOWR P
$VWKLVVDQGLVFORVHO\JUDGHGLHLVFRQWDLQHGLQWKH± P PUDQJH

Ratio 1.42:1) Figure 3.2 should be used for estimating purposes.
Figure 3.2 requires that the concentration of solids in mixture be expressed as Cv. From
Figure 2.2, for S = 2.65 and Cw = 26%:
(Sm =1.2 and) Cv = 11.7%
From Figure 3.2, for d50 PDQG&v = 11.7%:
FL = 1.47
Given that this slurry were to be pumped through a 150 mm Internal Diameter pipe (D =
0.150 m):
(S − S l ) (2.65 − 1.0) = 3.24

VL = FL 2 gD = 1.47 2 × 9.81 × 0.150 m/s
Sl 1.0

Example (B) Widely-Graded Particle Sizings
A mineral concentrate with the following solids screen analysis is to be pumped (to a
dewatering stockpile) as a mixture, at Cv = 35%, S = 4.2, Sl = 1.0.

(MICROMETRES)
+32 mesh P 8.0% 8.0% Retained
-32 + 42 (-500 + 354) 10.4% 18.4% Retained
-42 + 60 (-354 + 250) 27.3% 45.7% Retained
-60 + 80 (-250 + 177) 29.9% 75.6% Retained
-80 + 115 (-177 + 125) 22.5% 98.1% Retained
-115 + 170 (-125 + 88) 1.1% 99.2% Retained
-170 + 0 (-88) 0.8% 100.0% Retained
TOTAL 100.0%
$VWKHRIVROLGVILQHUWKDQ PLVQHJOLJLEOHQRVLJQLILFDQWDGYDQWDJHLVDYDLODEOH
for increase in the effective value of Sl.
From a plot of cumulative % weight retained, Figure 3.5, the particle sizing at which 50%
by weight is retained, i.e.: d50 P
From Figure 3.4, for d50 PDQG&v = 35%:
FL = 1.10
Given that this slurry were to be pumped through a 150 mm Internal Diameter pipe (D =
0.150 m):
(S − S l ) (4.2 − 1.0) = 3.38 m/s

VL = FL 2 gD = 1.10 2 × 9.81 × 0.150
Sl 1.0

Method (C): Estimating FL: Sizings Containing Significant

3URSRUWLRQVRI3DUWLFOHV)LQHUWKDQ P
For these slurries, the whole of that IUDFWLRQRISDUWLFOHVILQHUWKDQ P is regarded as
being combined with the liquid (usually water) to effectively act as a heavy medium i.e. a
transporting medium. The Specific Gravity of this transporting medium is the value
taken for Sl for use in Durand’s formula. This Sl value is numerically greater than that
for clear water.
7KHIUDFWLRQRISDUWLFOHVFRDUVHUWKDQ PLVUHJDUGHGDVIRUPLQJDPL[WXUHRI

P VROLGV ZLWK WKH WUDQVSRUWLQJ PHGLXP 7KH HIIHFWLYH YDOXH RI P VROLGV
concentration, Cv, for use in Figure 3.2 or 3.4, as appropriate, is accordingly less than if
WKH± PSDUWLFOHVZHUHWDNHQLQWRDFFRXQW
The value of d50 used to enter Figures 3.2 or 3.4 is greater due to the absence of the –100
PIUDFWLRQLQWKHVFUHHQDQDO\VLVZKHQLWLVUHFDOFXODWHGIRU PVROLGVRQO\$VD
result, the value of FL will normally be higher.

 S − Sl 
Generally, any increase in FL will be more than offset by a decrease in the term  
 Sl 
and the value of VL obtained from Durand’s formula will be less.
These slurry mixtures usually exhibit friction head losses relatively lower than for those
notFRQWDLQLQJVLJQLILFDQWSURSRUWLRQVRISDUWLFOHVILQHUWKDQ P
Example (C) 6L]LQJV&RQWDLQLQJ6LJQLILFDQW3URSRUWLRQVRI6ROLGV)LQHUWKDQ P
A solids/water slurry, at Cw = 46.0%, consists of solids, S = 3.1, or the following particle

sizing:

(MICROMETRES)
-16 + 32 (-1000 + 500) 20.0% 20.0% Retained
-32 + 60 (-500 + 250) 20.0% 40.0% Retained
-60 + 150 (-250 + 105) 30.0% 70.0% Retained
-150 + 170 (-105 + 88) 5.0% 75.0% Retained
-170 + 0 (-88 + 0) 25.0% 100.0% Retained
TOTAL 100.0%
The cumulative percentages retained, graphed on Figure 3.6.1, show that an estimated
ZRXOGEHUHWDLQHGRQD PDSHUWXUHPHVKDQGZRXOGSDVV P
7KH ± P VROLGV DUH FRQVLGHUHG WR FRPELQH ZLWK WKH ZDWHU WR DFW DV D transporting
medium.
7KH± Pfractions are converted into percentages.
APERTURES FRACTION FRACTION AS % CUMULATIVE % BY

MICROMETRES BY WEIGHT WEIGHT RETAINED
100
20.0 × =
-1000 + 500 73 27.4% 27.4%
100
20.0 × =
-500 + 250 73 27.4% 54.8%
100
30.0 × =
-250 + 105 73 41.1% 95.9%
100
3 .0 × =
-105 + 100 73 4.1% 100.0%
100
73.0 × =
TOTAL 73 100.0%

These cumulative %’s, graphed on Figure 3.6.2, yield a value for d50 P
mm).

Calculation of Cv and SlIRU P6ROLGVLQWKH³7UDQVSRUWLQJ0HGLXP´FRQWDLQLQJ±

PVROLGV
Already given:Cw = 46%;
DQG P = 73.0% of total solids
BASIS: 100 kg OF MIXTURE WEIGHT VOLUME
Water Content  100% − 46%  54.0 kg 54.0 L

= 100kg  =
 100% 
Total Solids Content  46%  46.0 kg

= 100kg  =
 100% 
Equivalent Volume of Water

Displaced by Total Solids:
Weight _ of _ Total _ Solids 46.0 - 14.84 L

= = =
S 3 .1
P6ROLGV&RQWHQW  73%  33.58 kg -

= 46kg ×  =
 100% 
(TXLYDOHQW9ROXPHRI:DWHU'LVSODFHGE\ P6ROLGV
Weight _ of _ + 100 µm _ Solids 33.58kg - 10.83 L

= = =
S 3.1kg / L
P6ROLGV&RQWHQW 100% − 73% 12.42 kg

= 46kg × =
100%
(TXLYDOHQW9ROXPHRI:DWHU'LVSODFHGE\± P6ROLGV
Weight _ of _ − 100 µm _ Solids 12.42kg - 4.01 L

= = =
S 3.1kg / L
TOTALS 46.0 kg 14.84 L
For “Transporting Medium”
Weight _ of _ − 100µm _ Solids + Water 12.42kg + 54.0kg

= = 1.145 kg/L
Volume _ of _ − 100µm _ Solids + Water 4.01L + 54.0 L
As 1000 L = 1 m3

l = 1.145 kg/L × 1000 L/m3 = 1,145 kg/m3
ρ l 1145
Sl = = = 1.145*
ρ w 1000
*(Caution: This value of Sl must not be confused with Sm: see Note below)
)RU P6ROLGV&DUULHGE\³7UDQVSRUWLQJ0HGLXP´:
Volume _ of _ + 100µm _ Solids

Cv = × 100%
Volume _ of _ Total _ Solids + Volume _ of _ Water
10.83L
= × 100% = 15.73%
14.84 L + 54.0 L
*Note: For the whole mixture pumped:
Weight _ of _ (Water + Total _ Solids ) (54.0kg + 46.0kg )

= = 1.453kg / L
Volume _ of _ (Water + Total _ Solids ) (54.0 L + 14.84 L )
m = 1.453 × 1 000 = 1 453 kg/m3
ρ m 1453
Sm = = = 1 453 +
ρ w 1000
+
Sm is the usual value for the whole mixture pumped which must be employed as usual
in all hydraulic calculations e.g.: estimation of power consumed by the pump and
calculations of pressures and vacuums in units such as kPa, mm of Mercury, etc.
Estimation of FL and VL “Transporting Medium” SOXV P solids
From Figure 3.4, for d50 = 0.285 mm and Cv = 15.73%:
FL = 1.08
substituting in the Durand formula:
S − Sl  3.1 − 1.145 
VL = FL 2 gD = 1.08 2 gD 
Sl  1.145 
Note:
If the slurry were to be considered simply as a whole mixture only (i.e. not considered as
a mixture of Transporting Medium plusVROLGVRI PVL]LQJYDOXHVZRXOGEH
d50 = P)LJXUHIRUUHWDLQHG

14.84 L
Cv = 21.56% (Figure 2.2); or: × 100% = 21.56%
54.0 L + 14.84 L
FL = 1.06 (Figure 3.4)
Sl = 1.0
 3.1 − 1.0 
VL = 1.06 2 gD 
 1.0 
The value of VL would be higher by the ratio:
3 .1 − 1 .0
1.06
1 .0 1.06 2.1 1.536 1.09
= = =
3.1 − 1.145 1.08 1.707 1.411 1
1.08
1.145
Accordingly, due to ignoring the effect of the “Transporting Medium”, VL would be

estimated to be 9% higher than necessary in this case.
If the design velocity is 9% higher than is necessary, pipeline friction head losses would
be approximately 18% higher and the relevant proportion of power consumed to
overcome these friction head losses would be approximately 30% higher.
The actual % effect of the Transporting Medium will vary from case to case. In some
cases, the disadvantage from the higher value of d50 may virtually offset the combined
advantages of the lower values of Cv and the term
S − Sl
Sl
yielding no appreciable net difference in VL.
3.4 Determination of VL by Testwork

In many cases, one of the above (correctly selected) methods of determining VL will be
quite adequate for practical purposes, particularly for short-distance pumping duties.
However, in other cases, accurate determinations of VL and Friction Head Loss is

required in each case in order to establish the lowest practical velocity for design
purposes. This results in the lowest friction head being safely achieved in each
installation, minimising the total head, pump speed, power, capital cost of the pumping
plant and wear rates of the pump and pipeline.

Long-distance pumping applications such as many Tailings Disposal or Shore-to-Ship

concentrates pumping duties are examples where the slurries should be tested on a
pipeline test rig to determine VL.
The Warman hydraulic laboratories are also equipped with slurry pump and pipeline test-
rigs for the determination of all crucial characteristics of slurries. These characteristics
include: Variation of VL with pipe diameter, Friction Head Losses, Head Ratios,
Efficiency Ratios, as well as Yield Stress, Coefficient of rigidity and other rheological
data for Bingham-type slurries.
3.5 Effect of Pipe Diameter on Limiting Settling Velocity

Durand’s formula for closely-graded solids, indicates that VL increases proportionally
with the square root of D for any given particle size and solids concentration.
i.e. VL ∝ D
However, tests on some slurries of widely-graded solids, containing a proportion of solids

ILQHU WKDQ P LQGLFDWH WKDW WKLV VTXDUHURRW UHODWLRQVKLS \LHOGV FRQVHUYDWLYH KLJK
values for VL, when extrapolating VL, from tests, to larger diameter pipes and,
conversely, could yield unsafe (low) values of VL when extrapolating VL from tests to
smaller diameter pipes. Testwork on the slurry pipeline test rigs is recommended for
accurate determination of VL for varying pipe diameters.
3.6 Limiting Settling Velocities: Non-Horizontal Pipelines

The preceding text relates to the determination or estimation of VL in horizontal
pipelines.
Published data are readily available, in metallurgical reference books, on the free-settling
and hindered-settling velocities of solids, of specific particle sizes, present in a vertical
column with an upwards flow of liquid, usually water. The values of VL in horizontal
pipelines are always greatly in excess of the free-settling or hindered-settling velocities
for the solids particles.
Consequently, if the actual average velocity, V, of a slurry moving upwards in a vertical

pipeline exceeds the value VL, for a horizontal pipeline, it is also greatly in excess of the
respective free-settling or hindered-settling velocities of any particles present in the
slurry. Under these conditions, teetering cannot occur, i.e. no particles of holds will
accumulate in, or fall downwards against the direction of flow in, the vertical pipeline.
Some pump users have reported that teetering or settling of solids has occurred in vertical
pipelines, with upwards flow; and occasionally have suggested that average velocities in
vertical slurry pipelines should be higher than those in horizontal slurry pipelines. There
is no documented technical evidence or theory to suggest that this is the case, in fact the
opposite should apply.

Where it is necessary to obtain highly accurate data for determination of VL and Hf for
vertical or inclined pipelines, special testwork should be undertaken. However, for
practical purposes, the diameter chosen for the horizontal sections of a pipeline, to
provide a velocity no less than VL, is normally applied to any vertical or inclined sections
of the same pipeline. Similarly, slurry friction head losses are taken to be the same for
vertical and inclined pipelines as for horizontal pipelines. See Section 4.4 “Non-
Horizontal Pipelines”.
Note that teetering or settling of solids in the vertical section of a pipeline, with upwards
flow, can occur under the following conditions:
1. If the diameter of the pipeline is grossly oversized. The observable effect of any
settling of solids in the horizontal sections may be negligible if the horizontal sections
are very short and if the pump Hm/Q characteristic curve is relatively steep at the duty
point.
2. If the design flowrate, Q, of slurry pumped is greatly reduced due to: Reduction of
slurry supplied to the pump; Increase in System Resistance (e.g. due to a partial
blockage of the system) or Reduction in pump Hm/Q characteristic due to wear,
cavitation or Reduction in the value of HR due to changes in the characteristics of the
slurry mixture.

Section 4 SLURRY FRICTION HEAD LOSSES IN PIPELINES

INDEX
4.0 Abstract 2
4.1 Slurry Friction Head Losses: Horizontal Pipelines 4
4.2 Determination of Slurry Friction Head Losses 6
4.3 Estimation of Slurry Friction Head Losses 6
4.4 Slurry Friction Head Losses: Non-Horizontal Pipelines 11
4.5 Estimation of Friction Head Losses for Clear Water 13
4.6 Estimation of Friction Head Losses for Clear Viscous Liquids 17
4.7 Hydraulic Grade Lines and Energy Lines 20
4.8 Construction of the System Resistance Curve 25

4.0 Abstract
HORIZONTAL PIPELINES
Slurry Friction Head Losses, expressed as head of mixture pumped (metres) in the area of
interest, i.e. reasonable in excess of VL, are usually numerically greater than for Water
Friction Head Losses, expressed as head of water (metres).
DETERMINATION OF SLURRY FRICTION HEAD LOSSES
Specific testwork should be conducted when accurate Hf data are required.
ESTIMATION OF SLURRY FRICTION HEAD LOSSES
HOMOGENEOUS SLURRIES: Solids particles finer than 100 P
If Yield Stress = Zero, Hf will be close to that for clear water, estimated by the same
method as for Category “A” Slurries.
If Yield Stress is a measurable value, the mixture is probably a Bingham-type Slurry.

See Section 9.
HETEROGENEOUS SLURRIES: Solids particles essentially coarser than 100 P
CATEGORY SOLID PARTICLE Cw ESTIMATION OF Hf

SIZING
A +100 PWR± P Zero to 40% Empirical graphical method for

range 0.7 VL to 1.3 VL.
Constructed in relation to water
Hf.
B +100 PWR± P over 40% As for Category A, subject to

reserves.
C +300 P Zero to 20% 1.10 × water Hf, for range V = VL

and over when FL = 1.4.
D +300 P Over 20% As for Category C, subject to

reserves.
NON-HORIZONTAL PIPELINES
True values of slurry Hf could be lower than those estimated for the slurry in horizontal
pipelines.

ESTIMATION OF WATER FRICTION HEAD LOSSES IN PIPELINES
Darcy’s formula is employed for water Hf estimates:
L V2
Hf = f × ×
D 2g
The Darcy Friction Factor, f, is obtained from the Warman Pipe Friction Chart, Figure
4.4.
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES AND ENERGY LINES
Uses of and methods for construction are described.

4.1 Slurry Friction Head Losses: Horizontal Pipelines

Figure 4.1 is an example of the graphical form recommended for representing friction
head losses in a given horizontal pipeline, for given sizing of solids and at different solids
concentrations.
As in Figure 3.2 and 3.4 it can also be seen that, as FL varies with varying solids
concentrations, VL varies proportionally.
Values for Hf: Friction Head Loss, Head of mixture (m) are plotted against V: Average
Velocity of Mixture in the Pipe.
It is important to note that Hf is always expressed as Head of ACTUAL Mixture

PUMPED whether the mixture consists of a specific concentration of solids or whether
the concentration is ZERO i.e. water only. For example, if the friction head losses were
measured during testwork using pressure gauges and readings were taken in kPa; (or
measured by manometers filled with water, mercury or another fluid of different S.G. to
that of the actual mixture being pumped through the pipe, with readings taken in
manometric heights of those fluids); these readings would each have to be converted to
Head of Mixture (m). See Section 5 “Relationships between Head, Specific Gravity and
Pressure or Vacuum”.
The use of the term Hf expressed as Head of Mixture, allows for use of the same units in
the estimation of values of Hf as for all other head terms for the determination of Total
Dynamic Head, H.


4.2 Determination of Slurry Friction Head Losses

The only reliable method of accurately determining slurry friction head losses, for a given
slurry, is to conduct tests on a pipeline test rig to obtain the values of Hf for varying
values of V.
It is often possible to conduct this testwork in the field on an existing pumping system
OR on a specially constructed test loop. Usually, these arrangements have the
advantages of unrestricted supply of slurry for the test and possibly of testing at large
pipe diameters closer to the size of interest. Where field testwork is not practical, slurry
samples may be tested in the Warman Hydraulics Laboratories. In either case, and with
adequate facilities provided, Hf data are readily obtained as well as additional specific
data, of value in application engineering. The latter data include VL and variation of VL
with pipe diameter, as well as HR and ER.
4.3 Estimation of Slurry Friction Head Losses

Despite the long history of successful slurry pumping operations covering a wide range
of slurries, limited published data are available to aid in accurate estimation of Hf, for
every possible duty. However, a high degree of accuracy is normally required only
when:
a) Hf represents a high proportion of the Total Dynamic Head, H, on a

proposed application, such that large errors in estimating Hf would reflect in
correspondingly large errors in estimating H.
and
b) Practical insurance provided by generous reserves of pump speed

capability (for increased or reduced head) and installed prime mover power
rating (for increased power) may render a proposal uncompetitive.
The combination of conditions (a) and (b) normally applies to very long distance
pumping duties only. Consequently most remaining Warman Pump applications do not
require a very high degree of accuracy in estimating Hf.
In addition, most clients would prefer to establish some insurance, as in (b), due to the
possibility of some uncertainties affecting their own best estimates of the proposed duty
details. Care should be taken when clients specify the duty point Flowrate and Total
Head as some clients tend to add safety factors (i.e. reserves) into values given.
A recent striking example was the provision of reasonably generous reserves of speed
range and power for a major concentrator tailings disposal application. Adequate
thickener capacity was provided to thicken the tailings to Cw = 50% before pumping.
However, after commissioning, the client discovered that an increase in the flowrate of
fresh water introduced to the concentrator circuits, resulting in an equal reduction in the

recycling of polluted process water (tailings thickener overflow) to the concentrator,

markedly increased the metallurgical performance of the concentrator.
The tailings disposal pump installation was able to handle an increase in flowrate of
approximately 30% without any modification, due to the reserves in speed range and
installed power provided. This allowed the disposal of polluted process water with the
tailings, avoiding the need for an additional pumping installation for the purpose.
However, the philosophy of some clients is to design and construct a plant for a specific
production capacity only and clearly with no intent of any provision for future increases
in capacity. In such cases, the client’s wishes must be adhered to.
Where it is apparent that the slurry Hf should be estimated accurately and/or advice is
required on the amounts of reserves (speed and power) which should be provided, details
on the proposed application should be forwarded to Head Office for examination.
HOMOGENEOUS SLURRIES
(Particles essentially all finer than 100 P
At sufficiently low concentrations, where Yield Stress = ZERO, Hf will be close to that
for clear water and may be estimated by the same empirical method as applied to
Category “A” Heterogeneous Slurries.
At sufficiently high concentrations, the Yield Stress characteristic largely influences the
value of Hf. See Section 9: “Non-Newtonian Slurries”.
HETEROGENEOUS SLURRIES
(Particles essentially all coarser than 100 P
Category “A”: Particles essentially all coarser than 100 P DQG ILQHU WKDQ P DQG
with Cw from ZERO to 40%
Typical friction head loss curves for this category, are illustrated in Figure 4.1. Analyses
of Hf data on these slurries indicate that for any given solids concentration, the slurry Hf
is numerically higher Hf for velocities below approximately 1.30 VL, but does not fall
below a minimum at lower velocities due to solids settled in the pipe. This minimum
occurs at approximately 0.70 VL where the slurry Hf is approximately numerically equal
to the Hf for water at VL.

The empirical data are summarised:
At 1.30 VL (approximately)
Slurry Hf is numerically equal to water Hf.
At 0.70 VL (approximately)
Slurry Hf is at its minimum value.
Slurry Hf is numerically equal to the Hf for water at VL.
As the most economical slurry velocity is one a little in excess of VL, the above empirical
relationships allow the construction of the useful portion of the estimated slurry Hf curve
in relation to the water Hf curve for the same pipe.
Consequently, a reliable method for estimating of Hf for water should be adopted when
estimating a Category “A” Slurry Hf. Note that both water Hf (head of water) and slurry
Hf (head of mixture) must be expressed each in head of actual “mixture” pumped (NOT
in head of fluid of a different S.G. or in units of pressure).
Figure 4.1 also illustrates the construction of estimated slurry Hf curves upon the
estimated water Hf curve. Each slurry Hf curve meets tangentially with the water Hf
curve where the value of V corresponds to 1.30 VL.
It is emphasised that this empirical method of estimating Hf for these Category “A”
slurries is not precise but, in the absence of pipeline test rig data or other more reliable
data, it provides estimates considered to be reasonable accurate for many practical slurry
pumping applications.
Category “B” Particles essentially all coarser than 100 PDQGILQHUWKDQ PEXWZLWK
Cw greater than 40%
Generally, friction head losses for this category are much higher than for Category “A”
due largely to the increased friction effect of the more closely packed solids content upon
the pipe wall. This effect generally increases with increasing Cw* and is so greatly
influenced by a number of variables e.g. Cw, S, Sl, d50, and actual sieve analysis of solids
present that from the limited data published to date, it is not possible to provide a simple
empirical method for estimating slurry Hf.
In general slurry Hf values may vary over a range commencing with values about equal to
those applicable to Category “A” slurries at Cw = 40% up to double or more those of
Category “A” slurries, for velocities in excess of VL.
Large numbers of Warman pumps produced are employed on important, heavy-duty,

Category “B” slurry applications.

Typical examples include:

Mill Discharge
Thickener Underflow
Sand Tailings Stacking
Gravity Concentrator Feed
and many others.
Consequently, Hf values for Category “B” slurries must often be estimated. The Hf
values are first estimated as if for category “A”, after allowing for the lower values of FL
(and VL) associated with values of Cv in excess of Cv = 30%. See Figure 3.4.
However, as the true values of Hf may be double or more the estimated values, the
reserves provided (speed and power) should allow for the true values of Hf being up to
double, or more, the values estimated for Hf. While this indicates the risk of large error
in the estimation of Hf, the effective overall error in estimating the Total Dynamic Head,
H, is relatively small if the other components of H (e.g. Z, Hpf and Hve), when combined,
represents the major portion of H.
Should the value of H be estimated with a relatively small error, the effect would
probably be almost insignificant e.g. it would simply result in a slightly higher or lower
value of Zs in the hopper and/or a correspondingly slightly higher or lower power
consumption. Should the error be more significant, with obvious overspeed or
underspeed, the pump speed may be adjusted e.g. by changing the motor pulley or by
operation of any variable speed control provided. In either case, the drive motor should
be adequately rated. See Section 7.
*Note: Some testwork on slurry containing heavy solids (S = 4.6 to 5.3) of

DSSUR[LPDWHO\ PVL]LQJKDVVKRZQDWUHQGRIDGHFUHDVLQJKHDGORVVZLWKLQFUHDVLQJ
solids concentration between Cv = 10% and Cv = 25% (i.e. Cw between approximately
40% and 60%).
&DWHJRU\³&´3DUWLFOHVHVVHQWLDOO\FRDUVHUWKDQ PDQG&w from ZERO to 20%
Generally, friction head losses for Category “C” slurries are also much higher than for
Category “A”.
The more common applications for Warman pump on Category “C” slurries are the
suction dredging of gravel and/or coarse sand. In normal dredging operations, Cw is
usually less than 20%, due to the impracticality of continuously entraining such coarse
particles at the intake of the suction pipe, at any higher value of Cw.
Hf for these slurries is estimated on the basis of the minimum average velocity FOR
DESIGN being no less than VL when FL = 1.4.
For VL and for velocities greater than VL, the slurry Hf is taken to be numerically equal to
1.10 Hf for water. i.e. numerically 10% higher than the estimated water Hf.

&DWHJRU\³'´3DUWLFOHVHVVHQWLDOO\FRDUVHUWKDQ PDQG&w greater than 20%
Generally, friction head losses for Category “D” slurries are higher than for Category
“A”. The values of Hf may be first estimated by the same method as for Category “A”.
However, the true slurry Hf may vary from values close to those for Category “A” up to
three times or more those of Category “A” slurries, for velocities in excess of VL.
Consequently, reserves of speed and power should be provided.

4.4 Slurry Friction Head Losses: Non-Horizontal Pipelines

The vertical component of Average Velocity, V, in a horizontal pipeline is ZERO.
Upwards Flow: However for, upwards flow, Figure 4.2, in vertical or inclined pipelines,
the upwards vertical component of V reinforces the turbulent forces which oppose the
gravitational force tending to cause settling of the solids either directly against the flow of
mixture or upon the lower side of the pipe wall.
Downwards Flow: For downwards flow, Figure 4.3, in vertical pipes no settlement could
effectively occur in the direction of flow at practical slurry pumping velocities.
In inclined pipes, the horizontal component of V reinforces the turbulent forces which
oppose the settlement of solids upon the lower side of the pipe wall.
For a Horizontal Pipe, (for mixtures other than Bingham-type Slurries) the Limiting
Settling Velocity, VL represents the value of V, at and below which settling occurs.
However, at VL, the solids particles are not evenly distributed over the whole cross-
sectional area of the pipe. The concentration of solids, particularly those particles of
largest size and highest S.G., is greater towards the lower portion of the cross-sectional

area. This effect creates more frictional resistance at the lower inside surface of the pipe
which causes lower adjacent local velocities, v, as compared with the upper portions. See
Figure 3.1.3. Any reduction in V below VL will result in some solids becoming
permanently settled in the lower portion of the pipe.
For an Inclined Pipe, and for a value of V, equal to VL for Horizontal Pipe, the
distribution of solids particles over the whole cross-sectional area becomes more uniform
as the angle of inclination, above or below horizontal, is varied from 0º (horizontal) to ±
90º (vertical: flow upwards or downwards). Consequently, the effective velocity at
which settling of solids occurs becomes lower as the angle of inclination varies from 0º to
± 90º and the true value of slurry Hf for the inclined pipe becomes less.
For practical purposes, this reduction in value of slurry Hf, for non-horizontal pipes, is
normally disregarded as it would lead to a relatively insignificant over-estimation of
slurry Hf for most applications where either:
a) It is small, compared with the Total Dynamic Head, H.
and/or
b) The length of non-horizontal pipe is small compared with the total length
of pipe.
For certain applications, such as long-distance pumping of tailings or concentrates

through an inclined pipeline, testwork for the determination of Hf and VL data could be
carried out on a test rig at the angle proposed.

4.5 Estimation of Friction Head Losses for Clear Water

The recommended method for estimating Hf for clear water is the use of Darcy’s formula:
L V2
Hf = f ⋅ ⋅
D 2g
where
Hf = Friction Loss (m)
L = Total Equivalent Length of pipe (m)
D = Inside diameter of pipe (m)
f = Darcy Friction Factor
V = Velocity (m/s)
The Darcy Friction Factor “f” is obtained from the Warman Pipe Friction Chart, Figure
4.4.
Note that, for convenience, this chart is entered at values of Inside Diameter of Pipe: “d”,
expressed in mm.
Caution: The Darcy Friction Factor must not be confused with the Fanning Friction
Factor obtained from published Charts of appearance similar to the
Warman Pipe Friction Chart. The Fanning Friction Factor values are only
25% of the Darcy values and misuse could lead to gross errors.
The application of Darcy’s formula in combination with the Warman Pipe Friction Chart
is the recommended method of estimating Hf for water and the subsequent construction
of the System Resistance Curves for clear water and Category “A” slurries by the
empirical method illustrated in Figure 4.1.
The advantages of this procedure, in comparison with the use of Williams and Hazen
Tables (or similar tables) to directly provide values of Hf for slurry, are:
1. Not all actual internal diameters for commercially-available pipes are tabulated in
such tables, but actual internal diameters are readily applied in Darcy’s formula to
yield more accurate estimations.
2. The Warman Pipe Friction chart provides the Darcy Friction Factor (and thus Hf)
values for clear water based on the most reliable data available to the date of this
publication. These data take into account the maintenance of certain values for
Relative Pipe Wall Roughness, k d due to the continuous “polishing” action of
abrasive slurries flowing through the pipes, e.g. Values of k d for “commercial steel”
pipes are shown to be the same as those for “asbestos-cement” and “polythene” pipes.
However, when these pipes are used for handling non-abrasive liquids only, such as
clear water, the true values of k d for steel pipes would be actually a little higher,
yielding correctly higher values of Hf for water.


3. The empirical method for construction of the estimated System Resistance Curve for
water and the subsequent construction of the System Resistance Curve for slurry
allows for the varying degrees of difference between Hf for water and Hf for slurries,
particularly in the range of flowrate (VL to 1.30 VL) usually of most interest. In
contrast, the use of Williams and Hazen Tables leads to errors when a fixed value of
the W and H Roughness Constant, “C”, is assumed; or at the best, any choice of the
appropriate range of “C” values to apply over the flowrate range (VL to 1.30 VL) is
doubtful.
4. Calculations involving Darcy’s Formula and all other calculations leading to the
evaluation of Total Heads, followed by construction of system Resistance Curves for
water and slurries, are readily carried out with the aid of electronic calculators.
EXAMPLE OF FRICTION HEAD LOSS ESTIMATION FOR WATER
Given L = 700 m of commercial steel pipe

d = 200 mm (i.e. D = 0.200 m) See Figure 4.5
Q = 94.25 L/s
g = 9.81 m/s2
Calculations:
Cross-sectional area of Pipe at inside Diameter
=π
D2
=π
(0.200) = 0.031416 m2
2
4 4
As 1 m3 = 1000 litres,
Q 94.25
Flowrate in m3/s = = = 0.09425 m3/s
1000 1000
As V =
(
Flowrate m 3 / s )
Cross − Sectional _ area _ of _ pipe m 2 ( )
0.09425
Average Pipeline Velocity, V = = 3.0 m/s
0.031416
Alternatively,
1273 × Q 1273 × 94.25
V = = = 3.0 m/s
d2 200 2
As illustrated with arrowed lines, the chart, Figure 4.4, is entered at the right hand bottom
scale along the applicable “d” co-ordinate and, at its intersection with the appropriate
(“pipe surface material”) reference line, the corresponding “ k d ” co-ordinate is followed
across towards the left hand portion of the chart until it intersects the “NR = 107” co-
ordinate. From this intersection, the “ k d ” co-ordinate is drawn as a curve following the
geometry of the adjacent family of curves.

The left hand portion of the chart is entered separately via a line drawn across the
nomogram axes “d” and “V”, at their applicable values, to intersect the “f = 0.008” co-
ordinate. This is equivalent to entering the chart at the appropriate value of Reynolds
number (NR) for clear water at 20ºC. From this intersection, the “NR” co-ordinate is
followed until its point of intersection with the “ k d ” curve drawn.
This point lies on the required “f” value co-ordinate: “f” = 0.0158
L V2
Hf = f × × (m)
D 2g
700 3.0 2
H f = 0.0158 × × = 25.4 m
0.200 2 × 9.81
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON VISCOSITY OF WATER
The Viscosity of Water varies with temperature, e.g.
Temperature (ºC) 0 10 20 30 40 60
Approximate 1.8 × 1.3 × 1.0 × 0.8 × 0.7 × 0.5 ×

Kinematic Viscosity 10-6 10-6 10-6 10-6 10-6 10-6
(m2/s)
Approximate 1.8 × 1.3 × 1.0 × 0.8 × 0.7 × 0.5 ×

Dynamic Viscosity 10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3
(Pa.s)
Note: 1 centistoke (cSt) = 1 mm2/s = 1 × 10-6 m2/s
1 centipoise (cP) = 1 m Pa.s = 1 × 10-3 Pa.s
Generally, values of Hf for water (Figure 4.4) are taken as if the water were at 20ºC,
when Hf values for water-solid mixtures are being estimated.
EFFECT OF SLURRY VISCOSITY
Slurries of Water and Solids
In general, the effect on Hf of increasing slurry viscosity due to increasing

concentration of solids is already accounted for in the methods of estimating Hf
given in the preceding pages or in Section 9 for Non-Newtonian type slurries.
Slurries of Solids and Viscous Liquids
On occasions, the slurries encountered may be mixtures of very viscous liquids

(e.g. molasses) and solids (e.g. raw sugar crystals).
Hf data for these slurries would normally have to be established on a pipeline test
rig.

4.6 Estimation of Friction Head Losses for Clear Viscous Liquids

Friction head losses for liquids with kinematic viscosities different from that of clear
water at 20ºC may also be estimated from Figure 4.4.
For Newtonian fluids, when the viscosity is known, the correct value of Reynold’s
Number, NR, must be adopted for entering the left hand portion of the chart. This
requirement may be met by two methods:
METHOD A
Calculation of Reynold’s Number, NR
The Reynold’s number may be calculated by the formulae:
DVρ
NR =
µ
DV
NR =
ν
where D = Inside diameter of pipe (m)
V = Average velocity of liquid (m/s)
= Density of liquid (kg/m3)
= Dynamic viscosity of liquid (Pa.s)
µ
ν = = Kinematic viscosity of liquid (m2/s)
ρ
Example A (1)
Given: Clear water at 20ºC

D = 0.205 m
V = 3.12 m/s
ν = 1.0 × 10-6 m2/s
Calculations:
DV 0.205 × 3.12
NR = = = 640000 = 6.4 × 10 5
ν 1.0 × 10 −6
This value of NR corresponds to the example, illustrated with arrowed lines, in figure 4.4,
yielding f = 0.0158.

Example A (2)
Given: A Sucrose solution at 15ºC
Dynamic Viscosity = 7.50 centipoises
Specific Gravity = 1.18
D = 0.205 m
V = 3.12 m/s
Calculations:
DVρ 0.205 × 3.12 × (1000 × 1.18)
NR = = = 100630 = 1.0063 × 10 5
µ (
7.5 × 10 −3
)
This value of NR, is applied to the left hand portion of the chart to intersect the
appropriate “ k d ” curve drawn, at the value of “f” being sought.
e.g. for the “ k d ” value; 2.5 × 10-4 illustrated, f = 0.0195
Comparing the value of Hf in these examples for this sucrose solution and water at the
same velocity (flowrate) in the same pipe the ratio of Hf values are:
H f (sucrose ) 0.0195
= = 1.234
H f (water ) 0.0158
i.e. the friction head loss for the sucrose solution is 23.4% higher than for water, due to
the higher kinematic viscosity of the former.
METHOD B
Correction of “Indicated” Reynolds Number for Kinematic Viscosity
A line is drawn across the nomogram axes “d” and “v” at their applicable values and the
“indicated” value of NR at the intersection of this line with the f = 0.008 co-ordinate is
noted. This “indicated” value, is divided by the ratio of kinematic viscosity of the liquid
to that of water at 20ºC to provide the correct value of NR for the liquid. i.e.
" Indicated " _ N R
Correct _ N R =
 ν _ fluid 
 
 ν _ water _ 20º C 
Example B
Given data as for Example A-2.
For the given sucrose solution:
7.50
µ= = 7.5 × 10 −3 Pa.s
1000


ρ = 1000 × 1.18 = 1180 kg/m3
µ 7.5 × 10 −3
ν= = = 6.36 × 10 −6 m2/s
ρ 1180
For water at 20ºC:
ν = 1.0 × 10 −6 m2/s
Ratio:
ν (sucrose _ solution ) 6.36 × 10 −6
= = 6.36
ν (water _ 20º C ) 1.0 × 10 −6
Correct NR, for sucrose solution:
640000
= = 100630 = 1.0063 × 10 5
6.36
Note: The viscosities of various fluids are frequently reported in:

“Centistokes” for Kinematic Viscosity
and “Centipoises” for Dynamic Viscosity
1 Centistoke (1cSt) = 1.0 mm2/s = 0.000001 m2s
1 Centipoise (1cP) = 1.0 m Pa.s = 0.001 Pa.s
For any fluid
Dynamic _ Vis cos ity
Kinematic _ Vis cos ity =
Density
e.g. for the given sucrose solution
µ 7.5 × 10 −3
ν= = = 6.36 × 10 −6 m2/s or 6.36 cSt
ρ 1.18 × 1000
For clear water at 20ºC
1.0 × 10 −.3
ν= = 1.0 × 10 −6 m2/s or 1.0 cSt
1000
ν ( fluid ) 6.36
= = 6.36
ν (water 20º C ) 1.0
i.e. the ratio is numerically equal to the kinematic viscosity of the fluid expressed in
centistokes: cSt (or mm2/s).
" Indicated " _ N R
Accordingly, Correct _ N R =
Kinematic _ Vis cos ity _ of _ fluid (cSt )

4.7 Hydraulic Grade Lines and Energy Lines

HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES
A Hydraulic Grade Line (H.G.L.) represents the gauge heads, each expressed in metres of
mixture pumped, at successive points along a pipeline, e.g.: in a simple case of a
horizontal pipeline discharging to atmosphere, Figure 4.6, where the progressive
reduction in gauge head along the line represents the pipe friction head loss along that
section of pipe at a given flowrate, Q.
ENERGY LINES
An Energy Line (E.L.) represents the sum of the gauge head and the actual velocity head
(Hv) at successive points along the pipeline at a given flowrate, Q.
e.g.: in the above simple example, Figure 4.6, where the pipe diameter remains constant
to the discharge end, (and hence Vd = Ve and Hvd = Hve), the energy line is represented by
the sum of the gauge head value and Hvd throughout that section of the pipeline.
Should the diameter vary at any points along or in any sections of the pipeline, H v will
vary accordingly (e.g. see Figure 5.1.6) and the H.G.L. and E.L. gradients will be
affected.
Hydraulic Grade Lines and Energy Lines are valuable aids in understanding the sources
of head losses in pumping systems and for predicting the gauge heads which would exist
in any given discharge pipeline. This is important where the discharge pipeline profile
reveals any significant downwards run of pipe. In such cases, the actual physical
gradients of the pipeline profile should be compared with the H.G.L. to determine
whether or not any negative (-ve) gauge heads could exist in the pipeline.

AVOIDANCE OF NEGATIVE VALUES OF GAUGE HEAD
For example, given the discharge pipeline profile in Figure 4.7, the theoretical H.G.L.
reduces through zero gauge head at point B, to negative values, due to the theoretical full
siphonic effect of that portion of the pipeline, B-C-D, where the overall physical gradient
exceeds the hydraulic gradient. However, in practice, this full siphonic recovery does not
occur: the maximum amount of recovery possible is limited by the value of
H atm − H vap
Sm
(see Section 6), the further effective reduction of this value by the liberation of dissolved
air (often erratic) and the possible ingress of atmospheric air through joints or holes worn
in the pipeline.
In effect, the net practical value of any siphonic recovery is at the best, minimal and at
the worst, erratic (variable) resulting in unwelcome surging conditions throughout the
pumping system.
Accordingly, it is good practice to avoid designing for any siphonic recovery where the
H.G.L. indicates that significant negative values of gauge heads would exist with normal
flowrate existing.

For example, it would be necessary in the case of pipeline described in Figure 4.7 to
introduce atmospheric pressure in the pipeline at point C, as shown in Figure 4.8, by
means of an open standpipe.
Note that as the physical gradient in the section from Points C to D exceeds the hydraulic
gradient required for full-bore normal flow, the slurry in this section will accelerate to an
actual average of local velocities (v) such that the flow will not fill the whole bore of
pipeline section C-D. The high velocity may tend to cause excessive wear rates on the
wetted surface of the pipe. This problem may be minimised by replacing some of the
piping point D with (sacrificial) lengths of smaller bore pipe to increase the overall
hydraulic grade in Section C-D to a value at least equal to the physical gradient in section
C-D, thus reducing the average of local velocities (v) in the normal diameter pipe, to Vd.
Figure 4.9 represents an ideal balanced condition where the overall hydraulic gradient in
section C-D has been made exactly equal to the physical gradient by the correct selection
of smaller-bore piping for a suitable distance before point D. Additional losses to
achieve “balance” are due to:
a) Increase in Velocity Head (Hve – Hvd)
b) Loss due to sudden contraction at Point E

c) Increase in Pipeline Friction in Section E-D

Under these conditions, the Average Velocity in Section C-E is Vd.
STANDPIPE DESIGN FOR POSITIVE GAUGE HEAD VALUES
In some instances, it is necessary to provide a standpipe in a discharge pipeline at a high

point where, under normal operating conditions, a positive gauge head will exist. When
the pump is stopped as a result of normal operating requirements or as a result of a power
supply failure, the slurry in the pipeline should be allowed to drain downhill in both
directions from the pipeline, reducing the risk of blockages occurring at the next startup.
A typical discharge pipeline profile is shown in Figure 4.10. When the pump is stopped,
without a standpipe fitted, the slurry in the pipeline will tend to flow in the direction Z-
W, depositing solids, particularly in the Z-Y-X zone. However when a standpipe is
fitted, the slurry will flow more quickly (and simultaneously) in both the direction Y-X-
W and Y-Z.
The H.G.L. for the specified flowrate indicates that, for the highest point, Y, in the
pipeline, the gauge head value is 46.5 – 36.0 = 10.5 m of mixture. As any solids present
in the mixture originally entering the standpipe will settle back into the pipeline, the
standpipe will contain virtually clear water. The gauge height of the water in the
standpipe will be Sm × 10.5 m, i.e. If the Sm = 1.18; Water height = 1.18 × 10.5 = 12.39

m. Accordingly, the height of the standpipe installed should be in excess of 10.3 m… say
12.5 m.

4.8 Construction of the System Resistance Curve

The System Resistance curve for any given flowrate range may be constructed after
completion of the System Resistance calculations which provide the values of Total
Discharge Head Hd and Hvd as well as Hs and Hvs at various flowrates.
The point being made in this section is that heads (friction, static etc.) which go to make
up the system resistance curve have a physical counterpart in the system.
Simple examples for clear liquid duties are given below:
A: Positive (+ve) Values of Hs
If a diagram of the pump and pipeline system is drawn to scale in the vertical direction
then vertical distances represent heads. If a graph is drawn using the same vertical scale
as the diagram then vertical distances from the diagram can be transferred directly onto
the graph and so become heads. The datum (zero) for the graph is taken at the head
corresponding to the pump suction head. Starting at the elevation of the free liquid
surface on the suction side of the pump certain head losses including friction will occur in
the pump suction pipe (the pump supplies the head to cover these losses).
Hence at the pump suction flange the head will be the head of the free liquid surface
minus Hfs – the graph datum (zero) is positioned at the elevation (or head). For any given
flowrate the pump must supply energy to overcome static, friction and velocity heads (Z,
Hfd, and Hvd). Physically, if a tube was connected just past the pump discharge, liquid
would rise in the tube to a level representing Zd + Hfd. Refer to Figure 4.11.
The head Zd + Hfd can be transferred horizontally from the diagram to the graph. As the
pump must supply the additional velocity head in the discharge pipe Hvd must be added to
find the system resistance at any flow. Calculations for a range of flowrates enables the
system resistance curve to be drawn over the range of interest.
The pump characteristic (at constant speed) is then added to the graph and where the
pump and system characteristics cross is the Duty Point.
Obviously heads can be represented on the graph without resorting to drawing the system
to scale. Refer to graph on right hand side of Figure 4.11. It should be kept in mind that
the heads added to the graph have a physical counterpart in the system.
B: Negative (-ve) values of Hs:
Refer to Figure 4.12.
Given that the free liquid elevation on the pump suction is below the pump centreline,
and assuming that NPSHa is greater than NPSHr for all values of Q, see Section 6, the
comments in Section (a) above apply equally to this case.
Note that Z = Zs + Zd and the datum for the graph (zero) is obtained in the same manner
as for a positive Hs.



Section 5 TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD

INDEX
5.0 Abstract 2
5.1 Positive and Negative Values of Head Terms and Total Suction Head 4
5.2 Total Dynamic Head 6
5.3 Different Diameters for Suction and Discharge Pipes 8
5.4 Same Diameter for Suction and Discharge Pipes 8
5.5 Suction Supply from Pressure Vessel 9
5.6 Suction Supply from Vacuum Vessel 10
5.7 Exit Velocity Head Loss 11
5.8 Vertical Shaft Pumps: Reference Datum Levels 13
5.9 Estimation of Total Dynamic Head 15
5.10 System Resistance Curves 21
5.11 Estimation of Variations in Flowrate and Head due to Speed Variations or
Wear 26
5.12 Construction of Estimated Slurry System Resistance Curves 28
5.13 Relative Geometry of Pump Performance Curves and Slurry System
Resistance Curves 32
5.14 Effect of Pipeline Wear on System Resistance 42
5.15 Relationships Between Head, Specific Gravity and Pressure or Vacuum 44
5.16 Correction of Gauge Readings to Pump Centreline 49
5.17 Effects of Liberated Air 50

5.0 Abstract
Total Dynamic Head = Total Discharge Head – Total Suction Head
i.e. Algebraically, H = (Hd) – (Hs) (m)
or, H = (Hgd + Hvd) – (Hgs + Hvs) (m)
The values of Hvd and Hvs are always positive (+ve)
Hd is usually positive (+ve)
Hs may be positive (+ve) or negative (-ve)
When Hs is positive (+ve): H = (Hd) – (+Hs) i.e.: H = Hd – Hs
When Hs is negative (-ve): H = (Hd) – (– Hs) i.e.: H = Hd + Hs
Total Discharge Head, Hd:
Basic Simple Formula: Hd = Zd + Hfd + Hve (m)
Zd may be positive (+ve) or negative (-ve)
If applicable, additional terms must be included in the formula to account for increased
value of Hd, due to any contractions (e.g. nozzle friction loss) and enlargements; friction
loss in a flow-measuring device and exit into pressure-fed equipment e.g. a hydraulic
cyclone.
Total Suction Head, Hs:
Basic Simple Formula: (Hs) = (Zs) – Hi – Hfs (m)
(Hs) and (Zs) may each be positive (+ve) or negative (-ve).
If applicable, additional or substitute terms must be included in the formula to account for
increased or decreased values of Hs due to any contractions, enlargements, flow
measuring device; liquid supply surface being under pressure, Hpr, or under vacuum, Hvac;
differential column head loss, Zc; and substitution of effective mixture static suction head Zsm in
lieu of Zs.
Note that values of Hs are directly applicable in NPSHa calculations and in selection of shaft-
sealing arrangements.
VERTICAL SHAFT PUMPS
Reference Datum levels, for Hs, Hd and NPSHa calculations are provided.
APPLICATION OF SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVES
The Duty Point: Q (L/s) and H (m) always occurs at the intersection of the pump Hm/Q curve and
the System Resistance (S.R.) curve.
Q and H will vary only if the point of intersection moves due to a displacement of the Hm/Q
curve, e.g. due to wear, cavitation or speed change; or of the S.R. curve, e.g. due to a change in
Zs.

CONSTRUCTION OF SLURRY SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVES

Estimated Slurry S.R. curves generally may be constructed directly upon the estimated water S.R.
curves using values of slurry H, incorporating estimated slurry Hfs and slurry Hfd values.
However, where the terms Zc and Zsm are applicable, it is preferable to estimate the slurry friction
loss values, Hfs and Hfd, for the separate estimation of Hs and Hd respectively, followed by values
of H for use in the construction of the slurry S.R. curve.
True Slurry S.R. Curves, based on accurate test data, may be constructed without reference to a
water S.R. curve.
The terms Zc and Zsm may be applicable in the estimation of Hs for some duties.
RELATIVE GEOMETRY OF PUMP PERFORMANCE CURVES AND SLURRY SYSTEM
RESISTANCE CURVES
The slurry S.R. curves and/or the Hm/Q curves should be steep i.e. proficient application
engineering always ensures that the algebraic angle between the slurry S.R. curves and the Hm/Q
curves at the point(s) of intersection should be of adequately high value(s). This assists in
avoiding or minimising the unfavourable effects on power consumption and flowrate (complete
failure, insufficient, excessive or unstable) due to errors in estimation of H, variations in Hm with
wear or variations in specified duty.
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN HEAD, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, AND PRESSURE OR
VACUUM
The term “Total Dynamic Head” correctly describes the driving force developed by a centrifugal
pump, regardless of the Specific Gravity of the liquid or slurry pumped. The head (+ve) or (-ve)
at any point in the system may be converted to pressure or vacuum, respectively, by the
application of conversion formulae.
EFFECTS OF LIBERATED AIR
Hgs should exceed equilibrium pressure head for liquids or slurries which contain dissolved air to
avoid liberation of dissolved air and complete loss, or reduction, or flowrate.

5.1 Positive and Negative Values of Head Terms and Total Suction Head
Some head terms may be either positive (+ve) or negative (-ve), including measured or
estimated terms such as Zs, Zd, Zsm, and Hs and (rarely) Hd.
If all head terms were to be correctly expressed algebraically, i.e. their values expressed
as either positive (+ve) or negative (-ve) values, whichever is correct: the correct (+ve) or
(-ve) values of (Hs), (Hd) and (H) would be yielded from algebraically-relevant formulae.
If values of (Hs), (Hd) and (H) were each correctly calculated using the appropriate
formula, the application of the algebraically-correct value of each term in those formulae
would result in the algebraically-correct value of (Hs), (Hd) or (H).
e.g. taking the Basic Simple Formula:
Hs = (Zs) – Hi – Hfs
and given: Head loss at Intake = Hi = 0.4 m
and Friction Head Loss = Hfs = 1.2 m
and Total Discharge Head = Hd = +20.0 m
(A) If (Zs) = (+3.0 m)
(Hs) = (+3.0 m) – 0.4 m –1.2 m = (+1.4 m)…i.e. (Hs) is positive (+ve) as
in Figure 5.1.1.
(H) = (Hd) – (Hs) = (+20.0 m) – (+1.4 m) = 18.6 m
or (B) If (Zs) = (-3.0 m)
(Hs) = (-3.0 m) – 0.4 m –1.2 m = (4.6 m)…i.e. (Hs) is negative (-ve) as in
Figure 5.1.2.
(H) = (Hd) – (Hs) = (+20.0 m) – (-1.4 m) = 20.0 m + 4.6 m = 24.6 m
In general, and providing that all head term values were expressed in algebraically-
correct, i.e. (+ve) or (-ve), forms and substituted in algebraically-relevant formulae, the
algebraically-correct results would always be obtained for (Hs), (Hd) and (H).
Unfortunately this would require the frequent use of the subtraction of a negative value
(which algebraically is identical to the addition of a positive value)
e.g. (+20.0 m) – (-4.6 m)
= 20.0 m + 4.6 m = 24.6 m
While this algebraic procedure is commonly known to technical people, many pumping
calculations are carried out with the aid of small electronic calculators. These calculators
generally are not receptive to the algebraic logic of subtracting a negative value. i.e. If
the calculator keys “20.0” “–” “–” “4.6” “=” were operated in sequence, the calculator
would provide the incorrect answer “15.4”, while the correct algebraic value for (+20) –
(-4.6) is 24.6.

Note also that if the calculator keys “20.0” “–” “+” “4.6” “=” were operated in sequence,
the calculator would provide the incorrect answer “24.6”, while the correct algebraic
value for (+20) – (+4.6) is 15.4.
Accordingly, it is considered that a single pure algebraic formula and relevant procedure
for calculation of the Total Dynamic Head, H could lead to serious errors.
Consequently explanations and appropriately amended alternative formulae are
employed.
e.g. H = Hd – Hs: when (Hs) is (+ve)
alternatively H = Hd + Hs: when (Hs) is (-ve)
Negative values may sometimes be correctly provided by calculators
e.g. when (Zs) is positive (+ve), values of Hi and Hfs could combine sufficiently to yield a
negative value of (Hs).
For example, in a simple gravity-fed pump application similar to Figure 5.1.1, but where
the friction losses in the suction pipe are relatively greater:
If (Zs) = (+2.0 m), Hi = 0.1 m and Hfs = 3.8 m
as (Hs) = (Zs) – Hi – Hfs
i.e. (Hs) = (+2.0) – 0.1 m – 3.8 m
= 2.0 m – 3.9 m
=(-1.9 m)
In this simple case, the calculator would provide the correct answer.
Obviously all such calculations should be carried out by engineers who have a full
understanding of the sources and effects of all head terms on the Total Heads: Hs, Hd and
H. To assist in this understanding, most diagrams in this Section employ Hydraulic
Grade Lines and Energy Lines to graphically demonstrate the algebraic relationships
between:
Hs and its determinants: e.g. Zs, Hi, Hfs, Zc
Hd and its determinants: e.g. Zd, Hfd, Hve
H and its determinants: Hs and Hd

5.2 Total Dynamic Head

Total Dynamic Head, H, is the head which is required by a given system to maintain a
given flowrate, Q, through the system.
H varies as the flowrate through the system, Q, varies. The relationship of H with Q is
known as the System Resistance and may be expressed algebraically or graphically.
Total Dynamic Head: With Positive (+ve) Suction Head
Figure 5.1.1 illustrates a pump discharging a flowrate, Q, with discharge and suction
gauge pressure heads, both relative to atmosphere and both corrected to pump centreline,
measured at the pump’s discharge flange and at the pump suction flange, respectively.
All heads are expressed in metres of actual mixture being pumped.
The Total Dynamic Head, H, required to maintain a flowrate Q through the system is the
algebraic difference between the Total Discharge Head and the Total Suction Head,
i.e. H = Hd – (Hs)
= (Hgd + Hvd) – (Hgs + Hvs)
Vd2 Vs2
where Hvd = ; and Hvs =
2g 2g

These velocities represent the actual values for average velocity at the pump discharge
flange (Vd) and at the pump suction flange (Vs) respectively.
Total Dynamic Head: With Negative (-ve) Suction Head
When Hs is negative (-ve) i.e. a vacuum head is indicated by the gauge, as in Figure 5.1.2,
the substitution of the negative value in the formula serves to positively increase the
value of H with respect to Hd as in Figure 5.1.2.

5.3 Different Diameters for Suction and Discharge Pipes

While values of Hgd and Hgs can be measured in any existing pumping system, true values
of Hvd and Hvs cannot always be measured conveniently. However, providing that Q and
d may be measured or accurately estimated, Vd and Vs may each be estimated by the
formula:
1273Q
V =
d2
5.4 Same Diameter for Suction and Discharge Pipes

When Ds = Dd:
Vs = Vd: and Hvd = Hvs (i.e. Hvd – Hvs = ZERO)
Thus, H = (Hgd + Hvd) – (Hgs + Hvs)
= (Hgd) + Hvd – (Hgs) - Hvs
= (Hgd) – (Hgs)
i.e. In an existing installation but only where the internal diameters at the pump suction
and discharge flanges (and at the points of attachment of the gauges into the adjacent
connecting pipework) are identical, measurement of Hgd and Hgs are sufficient for the
determination of H as in Figure 5.1.3.

5.5 Suction Supply from Pressure Vessel

Figures 5.1.1 and 5.1.2 illustrate the more common suction systems where the upper
surface of the liquid supply to the suction system is exposed to atmosphere i.e. is at
atmospheric pressure. However, if this upper liquid surface is under gauge pressure, in
excess of atmospheric pressure, as in Figure 5.1.4 the value of Hs will be positively
(+vely) affected by the gauge pressure expressed as head of mixture pumped (metres).
Hs = Hpr + Zs – Hi – Hfs
= Hgs + Hvs
Note: Zs and Hs may be positive (+ve) as illustrated above, or negative (-ve).
NPSHa
For suction supply from a pressure vessel, cavitation will occur if NPSHa is less than NPSHr.
This must be evaluated. Hs may be high due to a high value of Hpr. However the negative effect
of the term: Hvap may also be high, particularly at high pumping temperatures. See Figures 6.7.1
and 6.7.2.

5.6 Suction Supply from Vacuum Vessel

If the upper surface of the liquid supply to the suction system is under a gauge vacuum,
below atmospheric pressure, as in Figure 5.1.5, the value of Hs will be negatively (-vely)
affect by the gauge vacuum expressed as head of mixture pumped (metres).
(Hs) = Zs – Hvac – Hi - Hfs
= (Hgs) + Hvs
Note: Zs may be positive (+ve) as illustrated in Figure 5.1.5 or negative (-ve).
(Hs) may be positive (+ve), although it is usually negative (-ve) as illustrated above.
NPSHa
For suction supply from a vacuum vessel, cavitation will occur if NPSHa is less than
NPSHr. This must be evaluated. See Figure 6.8.
Differential Column Head Loss: Zc
The value of Hs is negatively (-vely) affected by the value of the loss Zc. See Figure 6.9.
Effective Positive Static Suction Head: Zsm
The value of Hs is negatively (-vely) affected by the substitution of Zsm for Zs. See
Figure 6.9.1.

5.7 Exit Velocity Head Loss

It is important to note that the diameter of the discharge pipeline at the final exit from the
pipeline:
a) Could be the same diameter as at the pump discharge flange, in which case Ve =
Vd and Exit Velocity Head Loss, Hve = Hvd.
or
b) Could be a different diameter from that at the pump discharge flange, see Figure
5.1.6, in which case Ve does not equal Vd and accordingly, Hve does not equal Hvd.
In either case, the actual value of exit diameter must be used to calculate the value Hve for
application in the formula:
Hd = Zd + Hfd + Hve
= Hgd + Hvd

Head Loss At Exit Into Pressure-Fed Equipment

The Exit Velocity Head, Hve, must also be treated as a Head Loss when the slurry
required to discharge, under pressure, into Pressure-Fed equipment such as hydraulic
cyclones (Figure 5.1.7) or filter-presses.
Hd = Zd + Hfd + Hve + Hpf
= Hgd + Hvd
where Hve = Exit Velocity Head corresponding to the point of evaluation of Gauge
Pressure Head, Hpf.
Note: If the value of Hpf is specified by a client, the value must allow for all head losses,
downstream of the point of evaluation of Hpf.
Estimation of Total Dynamic Head in the absence of Hgs and Hgd values
Obviously, values of Hgs and Hgd cannot be measured on a duty which does not
physically exist. However, values of Friction Head Loss, Exit Velocity Head Loss and
other pertinent head loss terms may be estimated allowing the value of Total Dynamic
Head to be estimated, as described later in this Section.

5.8 Vertical Shaft Pumps: Reference Datum Levels

FOR Hs, Hd AND NPSHa CALCULATIONS
Sump Pumps (Refer to Figures 5.2.1 and 5.2.2)
Performance curves for Warman Sump Pumps are based on performance tests carried out
with the pump strainers fitted to the pump. Therefore friction head losses through the
strainers are included in the performance curve and consequently for the purpose of
calculating Total Dynamic Head for a Sump Pump Installation:
Hs = Zs
If a suction pipe extension is fitted to the pump (Fig. 5.2.2) then:
Hs = Zs – Hfs
Note: When a Warman Type “SP” Sump Pump is pumping with the lower part of the
impeller only (e.g. through a suction pipe extension, Fig. 5.2.2), the flowrate obtained for
a given total dynamic head is approximately 90% of the flowrate indicated on the
performance curve.

Froth Pumps (Refer to Figure 5.2.3)

Due to the presence of the vortex, effective down the centre of the conical hopper to the
impeller, the eye of the impeller remains at atmospheric pressure.
i.e. Zs = ZERO, for design purposes
and Hs = ZERO
The Casing Split-line is taken as Reference Datum for Calculating Static Discharge Head.

5.9 Estimation of Total Dynamic Head

As H = (Hd) – (Hs) and as the suction and discharge pipes are often of different internal
diameter, it is advisable to estimate values of Hd and Hs separately. The formulae used
should be the Basic Simple Formulae, but amended where necessary to allow for any
additional or substitute terms specific to the proposed duty:
Total Discharge Head: Hd
Basic Simple Formula: Hd = (Zd) + Hfd + Hve
Typical Possible Additional Terms
Head Loss on conical enlargement: See Fig. 5.3.2
Head loss on contraction: See Fig. 5.3.2
Head Loss on Exit into Pressure-Fed Equipment: See Fig. 5.3.3
Head Loss in In-Line Flow Measuring Device: See Section 1.7
Total Suction Head: Hs
Basic Simple Formula: Hs = (Zs) – Hi – Hfs
Typical Possible Additional Terms
Head GAIN in supply from Pressure Vessel: Hpr: See Fig. 5.1.4
Head Loss in supply from Vacuum Vessel: Hvac: See Fig. 5.1.5
Head Loss in Differential Column: Zc: See Fig. 6.10
Typical Possible Substitute Term
Head Loss in substitution of Zs by: Zsm: See Fig. 6.9.1
SEPARATE ESTIMATES OF SUCTION HEAD AND DISCHARGE HEAD
Pipeline Friction Head Loss, Hf
The friction head loss in a given pipeline is estimated for the Total Equivalent Length of
Pipe, L (m), which is the sum of the Total Actual Length of Pipe, La (m) and the
Aggregate of Equivalent Lengths for all valves, bends and like fittings, Lf (m) (see Fig.
5.3.1) contributing to friction head loss in the pipeline.
i.e. Generally: L = La + Lf
Specifically:
a) for Suction Side: Ls = Las + Lfs (Friction Head Loss = Hfs)
b) for Discharge Side: Ld = Lad + Lfd (Friction Head Loss = Hfd)


Values of Hfs and Hfd should be estimated separately i.e. during preparation of the
respective separate sets of calculations leading to estimates of Hs and Hd. By separately
estimating Hs, its value is readily available for use also in NPSHa calculations, see
Section 6, and in the selection of Shaft-Sealing arrangements, see Section 7.7 “Shaft
Sealing”.
Inlet Head Loss, Hi; Exit Velocity Head Loss, Hve
Separate provision is always made in the standard formulae for the terms:
Hi = Inlet Head Loss (Suction side only)
and
Hve = Exit Velocity Head Loss (Discharge side only).
i.e. the terms Hi and Hve are included in the standard formulae for Hs and Hd
respectively.
Head Losses due to Contractions and Enlargements
These additional head losses are calculated by use of the formulae provided in Figure
5.3.2. As no separate provisions are made in the standard Hs and Hd formulae for
individual symbols or terms anticipating these friction head losses, any such estimated
head losses, if applicable, should properly be added to the values calculated for Hfs or Hfd
respectively.
Friction losses in jet nozzles may be treated as for conical contractions unless more
reliable head loss, hn, data are available.
Sundry additional causes of effects on Hfs or Hfd
As further additions to the calculated values for Hfs and Hfd, additional permanent friction
head losses must also be allowed when any in-line restrictions, such as flow-measuring
devices e.g. Quarter-circle orifice plates, are intended to be installed.

ESTIMATION OF TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD (H)

Example: Simple Gravity-Fed Pump Duty
For slurry pumping duties, the suction system piping is normally of larger diameter than
the discharge system piping, to suit pump suction and discharge and for other reasons.
Consequently, the values of Hd and Hs are normally estimated separately. Figure 5.4
represents a simple gravity-fed pump installation where the applicable head formulae are:
Hd = Zd + Hfd + Hve
Hs = Zs – Hfs – Hi
H = Hd – Hs
And the Duty details given are:
Fluid pumped = clear water
PUMPING SYSTEM
Suction System Discharge System
Zs = 2.50 m (constant) Zd = 21.00 m
ds = 200.0 mm (D = 0.200 m) dd = 150.0 mm (D = 0.150 m)
including exit diameter
Las = 3.50 m Lad = 97.50 m
Bends = 1×135º, Long Radius Bends = 3×90º, Long Radius
Entrance = Flush Connection at Hopper Valves = 1× “Tech-Taylor” ball type
Piping = Commercial Steel Piping = Commercial Steel

CALCULATIONS
TOTAL EQUIVALENT LENGTH OF PIPE (Refer Figure 5.3.1)
Bends 50% × 4.27 m = 2.14 m 3 × 3.35 m = 10.05 m
Valve (None) - 1 × 0.37 m = 0.37 m
Total Lfs = 2.14 m Lfd = 10.42 m
Las = 3.50 m Lad = 97.50 m
Ls = 5.64 m Ld = 107.92 m
SUCTION SYSTEM Q: (L/s) Zero 20 30 60 90

1273Q 0 0.64 0.96 1.91 2.86
Vs =
d2
f (Fig 4.4) - 0.0185 0.0176 0.0165 0.0160
Ls 5.64 28.2 28.2 28.2 28.2 28.2
=
Ds 0.200
Velocity Head
Vs2 Vs2 0 0.02 0.05 0.19 0.42
H vs = =
2 g 2 × 9.81
Friction Head Loss:
Ls Vs2 0 0.01 0.02 0.09 0.19

H fs = f ⋅ ⋅
Ds 2 g
Entrance Loss:
Vs2 0 0.01 0.02 0.09 0.21
(Fig. 5.3.2) H i = 0.5
2g
Total Losses: Hfs + Hi = 0 0.02 0.04 0.18 0.4
Suction Static Head: Zs 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Total Suction Head:
Hs = Zs – (Hfs + Hi) 2.5 2.48 2.46 2.32 2.1

DISCHARGE SYSTEM Q: (L/s) Zero 20 30 60 90

1273Q 0 1.13 1.7 3.4 5.1
Vd =
d2
f (Fig 4.4) - 0.0185 0.0178 0.0167 0.0164
Ld 107.92 719.5 719.5 719.5 719.5 719.5
=
Dd 0.150
Exit Velocity Head Loss:

Vd2 Vd2 0 0.07 0.15 0.59 1.32
H ve = H vd = =
2 g 2 × 9.81
Friction Head Loss:
Ld Vd2 0 0.87 1.88 7.1 15.6
H fd = f ⋅ ⋅
Dd 2 g
Discharge Static Head:

Zd 21.0 21.0 21.0 21.0 21.0
TOTAL SYSTEM Q: (L/s) Zero 20 30 60 90

Total Discharge Head:
Hd = Zd + Hfd + Hve 21.0 21.94 23.03 28.7 37.9
Total Suction Head: Hs 2.5 2.48 2.46 2.32 2.1
Total Dynamic Head:
H = Hd – Hs 18.5 19.5 20.6 26.4 35.8
Note: Hvs is not a head “loss”, as it represents the dynamic energy possessed by the fluid
at the pump suction flange. Hve is a head “loss” as it represents the energy possessed by
the slurry as it is discharged from the system.
One or two decimal places of head, in metres, provides adequate accuracy.

5.10 System Resistance Curves

The graphical representation of H versus Q (System Resistance Curve), as shown in
Figure 5.4.1, is the most convenient for examination and subsequent superimposition
with pump performance curves.
PRELIMINARY (APPROXIMATE) CALCULATIONS:
When Zs is a small positive value and the losses: Hfs and Hi, are relatively small, as in this
example, Hs is a small positive value which may be disregarded, i.e. treated as if Hs = 0.
i.e. H = Hd – 0 = Zd + Hfd + Hve
This approximation yields a conservative (high) value for H, providing some “reserve”
head and power, assisting the pump to handle limited surges in flowrate, and to offset
effects of wear. See Section 7.3 “Suction Static Head Variation: Pump Feed Hoppers”.
System Resistance Curve: Simple Suction – Lift Duty (Fig. 5.5)
Duty Details Given:
Exactly as for Figure 5.4 in all respects excepting that the liquid level is below the pump
centreline, and Ls is greater.
i.e. Given Las = 4.0 m
and Zs = -3.0 m
Total suction head and total dynamic head must be recalculated.

CALCULATIONS
SUCTION SYSTEM Q: (L/s) Zero 20 30 60 90
Ls 8.14 40.7 40.7 40.7 40.7 40.7
=
Ds 0.200
Hfs 0 0.01 0.03 0.12 0.27

Hi 0 0.01 0.02 0.09 0.21
Total Losses = Hfs + Hi 0 0.02 0.05 0.21 0.48
Suction Static Head: Zs -3.0 -3.0 -3.0 -3.0 -3.0
Total Suction Head:
Hs = Zs – (Hfs + Hi) -3.0 -3.02 -3.05 -3.21 -3.48
Discharge System:
Total Discharge Head: Hd 21.0 21.94 23.03 28.7 37.9
Total System:
Total Dynamic Head:
H = Hd – Hs 24.0 25.0 26.1 31.9 41.4
The above values of H and Q may also be plotted on a graph to produce a System
Resistance Curve: Fig 5.5.1.
The System Resistance Curve for this Suction-Lift Duty indicates that values of H, for
any given value of Q, are higher than for the Gravity-Fed Duty. The higher values are
principally due to the increase in the value of Net Static Head, Z, in this case.

Application of System Resistance Curve

Certain misconceptions prevail regarding the capabilities of centrifugal pumps.
One misconception is that a centrifugal pump has a fixed or nearly-fixed capacity. This
is an incorrect statement as the flowrate which is discharged by a centrifugal pump
depends primarily on two factors:
1. The Head/Flowrate, H/Q, characteristic of the pump, at a given speed, for a given
liquid (or slurry)
i.e. Hw/Q or (Hm/Q) characteristic curve.
2. The System Resistance characteristic, H/Q, to which the pump is applied, for the
given liquid or slurry, i.e. System Resistance Curve.
For example given the System Resistance (S.R.) Curve from Fig. 5.4.1, any centrifugal
pump applied to this system will discharge a flowrate, Q, which corresponds to the
intersection of the pump Hw/Q (or Hm/Q) curve, for a specific pump speed, with the
S.R.Curve.
The pump Hw/Q curves at 2000, 1600 and 1200 r/min for the 4/3 D-AH pump (from Fig.
6.14.2) are superimposed on this S.R. Curve as in Fig. 5.6.
SHUT-OFF HEAD
As 1200 r/min the pump does not develop sufficient head to overcome the Net Static
Head. It operates at its shutoff head for that speed, i.e. at point A: zero flowrate. i.e. On

startup, the pump will move fluid into the discharge pipeline only until a nett static head
of 16.0 m is developed, but no further flow will occur.
At the higher speeds, where the shutoff head exceed Z = 18.5 m, the flowrates discharged
by the pump will each be indicated by the points of intersection of each pump
characteristic curve and the S.R. curve.
e.g. At 1600 r/min, Q = 36.5 L/s; H = 21.5 m (Duty Point B)
At 2000 r/min, Q = 58.0 L/s; H = 25.5 m (Duty Point C)
Obviously, if a different S.R. curve is applicable, the intersected values of Q and H would
be different, yielding different Duty Points.
Should a specific flowrate, e.g. 50.0 L/s be required (Duty Point D) the value of H, 23.7
m, may be read from the S.R. curve and the pump speed when estimated from the pump
Hw/Q performance curves.
NPSH required
The above example assumes that, for all conditions illustrated, the performance of the
pump is not affected by inadequate NPSH available. See Section 6.

Design of System Resistance

It is important to note that a System Resistance is quite independent of the characteristics
of any pump.
It is normal good practice to design a System Resistance to require the minimum practical
value(s) of Total Dynamic Head for the flowrate(s) required. In consequence, the speed,
power consumption and wearing rate of the pump correctly selected and applied to the
system will all be as low as practical.

5.11 Estimation of Variations in Flowrate and Head due to Speed Variations

or Wear
Speed Variation
The commonly-stated characteristics of centrifugal pumps, viz:
i) Q varies directly with speed, n
and
ii) H varies directly with n2…
…are approximate generalities only and cannot be used to reliably predict variations in Q
and H, with variations in n, for any given system.
This is particularly important in cases where the client specifies the duty in terms of
flowrate, Q, and head, H, only… i.e. without providing complete data enabling a System
Resistance curve to be prepared. For example, a client may simple specify a “duty” of
Q = 35.6 L/s
and H = 21.5 m… but not specify full system details, e.g. Zs, ds, Las, Zd, dd, Lad, etc.
This Duty Point could be intersected by, S.R. Curve No. 1, see Fig. 5.7, or by an infinite
number of other S.R. Curves, each passing through this Duty Point, and satisfied by the
4.3 D-AH pump at 1600 r/min.

S.R. Curve No.2 represents a system featuring a lower value of Z but greater Dynamic
Head Losses due to increased pipeline length, reduced pipeline diameters or other causes.
Assuming that the effect of increasing pump speed from 1600 r/min to 2000 r/min was to
be considered:
S.R. Curve No. 1 intersects the 2000 r/min H/Q curve at Point C, yielding Q = 58.0
L/s and H = 25.5 m
S.R. Curve No. 2 intersects the 2000 r/min H/Q curve at Point E, yielding Q = 45.0
L/s and H = 33.5 m
The large differences in the 2 sets of values yielded for Q and H indicate the need for
preparing the correct System Resistance Curve representing the actual system concerned.
Pump Wear
H w ( worn)
An extreme value for = 0.85
H w (new)
This value, applied to the n = 1600 r/min curve yields the (broken) n = 1600 r/min (worn)
curve, Figure 5.7
S.R. Curve No. 1 intersects the “worn” curve at Point F, yielding Q = 30.0 L/s and H
= 20.5 m
S.R. Curve No. 2 intersects the “worn” curve at Point G, yielding Q = 33.0 L/s and H
= 19.5 m
Again, the significant differences in the 2 sets of values yielded for Q and H indicate the
need for preparing the correct System Resistance curve representing the actual system
concerned.

5.12 Construction of Estimated Slurry System Resistance Curves

Category “A” Slurries
)RU&DWHJRU\³$´VOXUULHVRISDUWLFOHVHVVHQWLDOO\FRDUVHUWKDQ PDQGILQHUWKDQ
P DQG IRU &w not exceeding 40%, as indicated in Section 4) and in the absence of
accurate pipeline test-rig data, the estimated Slurry Hf Curve may be constructed by an
empirical method upon the estimated Water Hf Curve, providing that the value of VL is
also given or accurately estimated.
Similarly, the estimated Slurry System Resistance Curve may be constructed, by the
equivalent empirical method, upon the estimated Water System Resistance Curve for
most Slurry Pumping Duties.
Note: For those duties where the Differential Column, Zc, as well as Zsm must be
accounted for, the Slurry S.R. Curve obtained by the following method must be modified
such as to increase H by the actual value of Zc and the difference between values of Zs
and Zsm.
For Example
Taking the Simple Gravity-Fed Pump Duty, Figure 5.4, but assuming that the System is
required to handle a heavy mineral concentrate slurry with the following estimated
characteristic:
For dd = 150 mm: VL = 3.80 m/s
The Water System Resistance Curve (water S.R.) is plotted on a graph: figure 5.8, Curve:
A-B-C.
Although the value for VL in the suction pipe (ds = 200 mm) would be greater than for d
= 150 mm, any effect is insignificant in such a short, part-sloping, suction pipe and is
disregarded.
For dd = 150 mm and VL = 3.80 m/s
d 2V 150 × 150 × 3.80

Q= = = 67.2 L/s
1273 1273
At Q = 67.2 L/s, the corresponding value of H on the Water S.R. Curve is 28.0 m (point
E). Life EF is drawn to represent the 28.0 m value of Q = ZERO.
The value for Q at 1.30 VL is calculated:
1.30 × 67.2 L/s = 87.4 L/s
At Q = 87.4 L/s, the corresponding values of H on the S.R.:
Water Curve is 34.3 m (point M)
The value for Q at 0.70 VL is calculated:
0.70 × 67.2 L/s = 47.0 L/s

Point N is marked on line E-F at this flowrate.

Point X indicates Q for VL on the Slurry S.R. curve*.
*Caution
This simplified procedure does not take into account:
a) The terms Zc and Zsm which serve to increase the value of H for slurry.
See Section 6.6
If Zc and Zsm are applicable, the values of H must be increased by the appropriate
method.
or
b) the recommended procedure of separately estimating Hs values. Hs may be
required for the estimation of NPSHa or in the selection of shaft sealing
requirements.
This estimated Slurry S.R. Curves may be considered as follows:

SLURRY SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVE

Figure 5.8
PORTION COMMENTS
P-N Velocities well below 0.70VL (i.e.: a large amount of solids deposited in the
pipe). H numerically greater than for water, but increasing rapidly with
reducing velocities: due to partial and potentially complete blockage of the
pipe. Generally a completely unsafe operating zone.
N-X Velocities of 0.70VL to VL (i.e. some solids deposited in the pipe). H
numerically greater than for water but becoming proportionally less great,
as velocities approach VL. Although N-X is generally regarded as an unsafe
operating zone, it is possible to operate in this zone providing that pump
Hm/Q curve always passes through the portion N-X of the S.R. Slurry,
preferably at a point well clear of point N.
X-M Velocities from VL to 1.30VL (i.e. no solids deposited in the pipe). H
numerically greater than for water but reducing to equal* numerical values
at point M (1.30VL).
This is generally the preferred zone for a combination of safe operating
velocities and reasonable low values of H.
M-C Velocity from 1.30VL and higher (i.e. no solids deposited in the pipe). H
numerically equal* to H for water.
Values of H in this zone are generally too high for economic application.
*Caution
The above comments apply only to Category “A” slurries (with solids particles
HVVHQWLDOO\FRDUVHUWKDQ PDQGILQHUWKDQ PDW&w values from ZERO to 40%.
See Section 4.
Category “B” and “D” Slurries
The approximate estimated slurry S.R. Curve may be constructed by the same empirical
methods as for Category “A” Slurries. However, due to the possible errors in the slurry
Hf estimated for “B” and “D” adequate reserves of speed and power must be provided.
See Section 4: “Estimation of Slurry Friction Head Losses”.
Category “C” Slurries
The estimated slurry Hf curve may be constructed but only for values of V greater than
VL when FL = 1.4. See Section 4: “Estimation of Slurry Friction Head Losses”. As most
category “C” Slurries are encountered in suction-dredging operations, the loss, Zc,
usually must be allowed in the calculation of Hs. The values of slurry H are then
separately calculated for construction of the slurry S.R. Curve.

CONSTRUCTION OF TRUE SLURRY SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVE

When accurate pipeline test-rig data on slurry friction head loss are available for a
specific slurry, these data may be applied directly to the calculation of slurry Hfs and
slurry Hfd for the calculation of Hs and Hd, followed by H. i.e. no reference to a water
S.R. curve is necessary.
Note: Where the terms Zc and Zsm are applicable, they should be incorporated in the
calculation of Hs.

5.13 Relative Geometry of Pump Performance Curves and Slurry System

Resistance Curves
A number of factors e.g.: pump speed, efficiency, NPSHr and maximum particle size
capability, must be considered in the selection of a pump for a given duty. See Section
10: “Selection of Pump Size and Type”.
However, a further factor is vital to the successful performance of a pump at any given
duty point or over any given operating range: The actual prevailing Pump Hm/Q
Performance Curve must always intersect the actual Prevailing Slurry System Resistance
(S.R.) Curve at the required Duty Point at any given time, despite:
a) Variations in the actual geometry of the Slurry S.R. Curve(s) due to any
specified variations in Zs, Zd, Ld, Cw, Dd, d50 and other factors affecting the
Slurry S.R. Curve(s).
b) Variations in the geometry of the Pump Hm/Q Performance Curve(s) due
to any specified variations in Cw, d50, wear on pump and other factors
affecting the pump Hm/Q Curve(s).
Although all data provided for the estimation of both Pump Hm/Q and Slurry S.R. Curves
may be the best available they are always subject to at least normal tolerances in respect
of accuracy. It is prudent and to the advantage of all parties concerned, to avoid selecting
pumps for duties where the pump may, in practice, fail to handle a duty satisfactorily due
to causes such as:
Cause (a) Insufficient allowance for tolerances of accuracies in estimation of both
Pump Hm/Q and Slurry S.R. Curves.
and/or
Cause (b) Actual conditions in service revealing true values of Q, Zs, Zd, Ld, Cw, d50
and other pertinent factors which are not strictly within specified limits (and
which, as such, should indemnify the pump supplier against any claim in
respect of unsatisfactory performance).
No pump selection can be competitive and, at the same time, cater for any gross errors in
the specification of pump duty or in the above estimations. However, avoidance of
dangerous combinations, e.g. “flat” Hm/Q curves with “flat” S.R. Curves, will assist in
ensuring that the duties may be handled with less apparent effect caused by the variations
described above.
A “flat” curve, either Pump Hm/Q or Slurry S.R., is one where the value of H does not
vary greatly with varying values of Q, in the zone of interest.
Note that the Hm(new)/Q and Hm(worn)/Q curves represent the extreme limits of the
estimated pump Hm/Q performance capabilities.
Hm(new)/Q: represents the estimated pump performance with all wearing parts in new
condition and with impeller running clearances properly adjusted.

Hm(worn)/Q: represents the estimated pump performance with all wearing parts in
completely worn (“Throw-away”) condition.
EXAMPLES
The following graphical examples are provided simply to illustrate typical combinations
of “flat” and “steep” curves, and to indicate how varied values of flowrates and heads
would result from the effects of wear and possible errors in estimated data. The
relationship of these varied values to any particular criteria, e.g. QA (Specified Flowrate)
and QL (Flowrate at limiting settling velocity), may differ from one application to
another, i.e. each proposed application should, in practice, be examined by a similar
graphical method, as the degrees of “flatness” or “steepness”; will depend on the
individual pump/system combination.
Example A: Combination of “Flat” Pump Hm/Q and “Flat” Slurry S.R. Curves
Figure 5.9 illustrates an example of the application of a “flat” Hm/Q curve to a “flat”
Slurry S.R. (No. 1) Curve.
For the specified flowrate, QA (in excess of QL at VL) the pump speed has been selected
to handle the estimated Duty Point “A” at a certain speed, in worn condition, with the
estimated Pump Hm(worn)/Q curve intersecting S.R. No. 1 at Duty Point “A”.

Any temporary interruption to supply of slurry to the pump or temporary restriction to the
flow through the system could reduce the flow rate to QL (solids commence to deposit in
the pipe) and to below QC when the Hm(worn)/Q curve shows Hm values less than S.R.
No. 1 (broken line). The pump would then progressively reduce its flowrate of slurry
discharged until the system became blocked with settled solids, when the pump would
finally adopt “shut-off” condition: Point “D”.
Alternatively or, subsequently, the flowrate may be limited to QC, because of solids
deposited in the pipe or, perhaps, the combination may yield unstable flowrates: varying
between QA and QC.
The Hm(new)/Q curve intersects S.R. No. 1 at point “B”: for a flowrate QB, much greater
than QA; indicating that in new condition, the pump could handle flowrate QA at a
reduced speed, or with increased Z (e.g. decreased Zs). However, as the pump wears and
its performance reduces from Hm(new)/Q to the Hm(worn)/Q curve, the flowrate will
progressively reduce to QA: when it is estimated that replacement of wearing parts is
required to restore the pump performance to the Hm(new)/Q curve. Should the pump be
capable of further pumping with the worn parts, its Hm/Q curve would be progressively
depressed further below the Hm(worn)/Q curve: The flowrate would progressively reduce
to below QL when the system would become progressively prone to blockages, or
reduced or unstable flowrates.
Note: There are some applications where the combination of “flat” Hm/Q and “flat” S.R.
curves is unavoidable, but where the minimum flowrate is critical for process reasons i.e.
flowrate should not fall below QA.
With fixed speed drives, and as the combination results in large variations in actual
flowrate with relatively small changes in Hm (due to wear), a higher ratio:
H m ( worn)
H m (new)
must be allowed in the application engineering. i.e. the pump wearing parts must be
replaced with the new parts before reaching the nominal “worn: throw-away” condition.
These partly-worn parts could possibly be utilised by the end-user as replacement parts
on other pumps operating on less critical applications.
This higher ratio requirement is even more important on multi-stage pump applications
with the unavoidable combination of “flat” curves: e.g. Some direct-coupled, fixed-speed,
multi-stage pump units installed for power station ash disposal duties. See analysis for
“S.R. No. 2” below.
Assuming that the Hm(new)/Q and Hm(worn)/Q curves are strictly correct but that Slurry
S.R. No. 1 Curve is incorrect due to causes described above, i.e. the strictly correct Slurry
S.R. yields higher values of H.
i) If S.R. No. 2 is the correct curve, the Hm(new)/Q curve intersects the S.R. No. 2 at
point “E” for a flowrate, QE greater than QA ensuring that the pump would handle
QA. However, the Hm(worn)/Q curve fails to intersect S.R. No. 2 at all, passing
well below its lowest point “F”.

Accordingly, the pump would handle flowrates of at least QA in new condition to

a partly-worn condition, point G. As wear progressed further, the flowrate
discharged by the pump would become less than QA.
It would progressively reduce through QL (at which flowrate, solids would
commence to deposit in the pipe) to QF at point F. Immediately upon further
wear, the Hm(part-worn)/Q curve would fail to intersect S.R. No. 2 at all. The
pump would fail to discharge any further slurry and quickly adopt “shut-off”
condition: point J.
ii) If S.R. No. 3 is the correct curve, both Hm(new)/Q and Hm(worn)/Q curves fail to
intersect S.R. No. 3 at any point and the pump would fail to discharge any slurry
i.e. it would adopt a “shut-off” condition in the zone: point K to point D,
depending on the condition (“new” to “worn”) of the pump.
Incorrect Hm/Q curves
If the values of Hm(new)/Q and Hm(worn)/Q were incorrect: higher than actual due to
incorrect (high) values of H.R. or the ratio:
H m ( worn)
H m (new)
being estimated, the correct Hm(new)/Q and Hm(worn)/Q curves, respectively, would
reflect lower values of Hm.
Correction i.e. Lowering the Hm/Q curves to their correct positions relative to the correct
Slurry S.R. curve would indicate the same effects as raising an incorrect S.R. No. 1 to a
correct higher position e.g. S.R. No. 2 or S.R. No. 3. i.e. the same problems: reduction in
flowrate, unstable flowrates or blockage and “shut-off” conditions would be indicated.
Example B: Combination of “Steep” Pump Hm/Q and “Flat” Slurry S.R. Curves
Figure 5.10 illustrates an example of this combination, to handle Duty Point “A” at a
certain speed, in worn condition.
The Hm(new)/Q intersects S.R. No. 1 at Point “R” (for a flowrate slight greater than QA).

Again assuming that the Hm(new)/Q and Hm(worn)/Q curves are strictly correct but that
Slurry S.R. No. 1 curve is incorrect:
i) If S.R. No. 2 is the correct curve, the Hm(new)/Q curve intersects S.R. No. 2 at
point “S” for a flowrate slightly greater than QA. However, the Hm(worn)/Q curve
intersects S.R. No. 2 at point “T” yielding a flowrate QT, a little less than QA and
approximately equal to QL.
ii) If S.R. No. 3 is the correct curve, the Hm(new)/Q curve intersects S.R. No. 3 at
point “U” for a flowrate a little less than QA. However, the Hm(worn) curve
intersects S.R. No. 3 at point “W” for a flowrate less than QA and QL. Although
QW is less than QL, a stable flowrate is expected as the Hm(worn) curve rises
steeply above S.R. No. 3 for reducing values of Q.
Correction of Hm/Q curves to lower positions would indicate the same effects as raising
an incorrect S.R. No. 1 to a correct higher position e.g. S.R. No. 2 or S.R. No. 3.

Example C: Combination of “Flat” Pump Hm/Q Curves and “Steep” Slurry S.R. Curves
Figure 5.11 illustrates an example of this combination, to handle a Duty Point “A” at a
certain speed, in worn condition.

The Hm(new)/Q intersects S.R. No. 1 at point “B” for a flowrate QB slightly greater than
QA.
Again assuming Hm(new)/Q and Hm(worn)/Q curves are correct but that Slurry S.R. No.
1 curve is incorrect.
i) If S.R. No. 2 is correct:
Hm(new)/Q intersects S.R. No. 2 at point C, yielding QC slightly less than QA.
Hm(worn)/Q intersects S.R. No. 2 at point D, yielding QD slightly less than QA.
ii) If S.R. No. 3 is correct:
Hm(new)/Q intersects S.R. No. 3 at point E, yielding QE slightly greater than QA.
Hm(worn)/Q intersects S.R. No. 3 at point F, yielding QF less than QA and QL.
Although QF is less than QL, a stable flowrate is expected as the S.R. No. 3 curve
falls steeply below the Hm(worn)/Q curve for reducing values of QL.
Correction of Hm/Q curves to lower positions would indicate the same effects as raising
an incorrect S.R. No. 1 to a correct higher position e.g. S.R. No. 2 or S.R. No. 3.
Example D: Combination of “Steep” Pump Hm/Q and “Steep” Slurry S.R. Curves
Figure 5.12 illustrates an example of this combination, to handle Duty Point “A”, at a
certain speed in worn condition.
The overall result of the analysis of the substitution of alternative correct Slurry S.R.
curves and Hm/Q curves is similar to that in the “Flat” Hm/Q and “Steep” Slurry S.R.
curves combination although the resulting range of flowrates QF to QB is smaller.


SUMMARY: RELATIVE GEOMETRY OF PUMP PERFORMANCE CURVES AND

SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVES
COMBINATION:
1) “Flat” Pump Hm/Q and “Flat” Slurry S.R. Curves (Fig 5.9)
a) Flowrate discharged may vary widely with small changes in pump Hm due to
wear.
b) Accordingly, power consumed would vary widely also.
c) Fixed-speed pumps may required replacement of wearing parts, before worn to
nominal “throw-away” condition, if the specified minimum flowrate is critical.
d) Applications are sensitive to errors in estimating Hm and Slurry S.R. and may be
prone to blockage and reduced or unstable flowrates.
e) This combination should be avoided.
COMBINATIONS:
2) “Steep” Pump Hm/Q and “Flat” Slurry S.R. Curves (Fig 5.10)
or
3) “Flat” Pump Hm/Q and “Steep” Slurry S.R. Curves (Fig 5.11)
or
4) “Steep” Pump Hm/Q and “Steep” Slurry S.R. Curves (Fig 5.12)
a) The flowrate discharged varies much less than for Combination (1) with small
changes in pump Hm e.g. due to wear.
b) Power consumed accordingly varies less widely also.
c) Applications are less sensitive to errors in estimating Hm and Slurry S.R.
d) Variations in flowrate discharged and in power consumed are progressively less
with increased degree of relative steepness of the Hm/Q curve in relation to the
Slurry S.R. Curve. i.e. for a greater “algebraic angle” at the intersection of these
curves at any duty point.
e) The final choice from among combinations (2), (3) and (4) may be limited by the
available practical alternatives for suitable slurry system designs and suitable
pumps. However, normally, a combination can be chosen to provide a
satisfactory pump application.
Should the degree of relative steepness appear, from analysis, to be inadequate for any
proposed installation, improvement can usually be achieved by:
a) Substitution of a pump with a steep Hm/Q curve
and/or

b) Alteration to the system design, e.g.: by substitution of a smaller-diameter for the

pipe.
VARIABLE SPEED
All combinations above usually benefit by the application of variable speed drives to:
a) Limit or control flowrate
and
b) Minimise power consumed and wear rate.
As Combination (1) is very sensitive to small variations in Hm: yielding wide variations
in flowrate, the application of speed control is of little value unless it is sufficiently
sensitive to be closely-matched to the application.

5.14 Effect of Pipeline Wear on System Resistance

Slurry pipelines are also subject to abrasive wear which effectively increases the pipe
diameter, D. The effects are most significant on long-distance pumping duties.
Pipelines used for transporting slurries of relatively large particle sizes usually suffer a
higher wear rate on the lower portion of the pipe as in Figure 5.13.1. Provision should be
made to enable the pipe lengths to be rotated from time to time so as to submit the less
worn surfaces to the higher wear rates. By this means, the maximum material utilisation
is obtained from the pipe before replacement becomes necessary.
The pipeline selected for a given slurry duty must have sufficient wall thickness to
withstand the intended maximum service pressure, which would vary along the pipeline,
and additional wall thickness to allow for a reasonable amount of pipe wear to occur
before the pipe need be replaced. During the service life of the pipe the inside diameter
will increase from “D(new)” to an effective “D(worn)” as in Figure 5.13.2.
The prime effect of this diameter increase is to reduce the value of Hf for any given
flowrate, Q. This is of greatest significance n long-distance pumping applications. (It
also has a small effect in increasing the value of VL). Where the pump speed is fixed, the
actual flowrate and power consumption will normally increase. The extents of these
increases will depend, essentially, upon the algebraic relationships between the pump
H/Q characteristics and the System Resistance characteristics in the operating range.
Example
Figure 5.14 illustrates the simplest case, where the pump speed is fixes and the only
variables are those affected by wear on the pump parts and the pipeline. The extreme
conditions are:
Operation with new pump parts and a new pipeline is represented by Duty Point “A”.

Operation with worn pump parts and a new pipeline is represented by Duty Point “B”.
Operation with new pump parts and a worn pipeline is represented by Duty Point “C”.
Operation with worn pump parts and a worn pipeline is represented by Duty Point “D”.
Obviously, other combinations including partly-worn pump parts and/or partly-worn pipe
would exist, yielding an operating zone contained by the area A-B-D-C.
Note: From the Durand Formula,
D( worn)
V L ( worn) = VL (new) ×
D(new)

5.15 Relationships Between Head, Specific Gravity and Pressure or

Vacuum
Other prevailing misconceptions are “that liquids or slurries of high Specific Gravity
require high-head pumps”, or “that the estimated head on slurry must be multiplied by the
S.G. to obtain a corrected water head on which the pump speed is selected”. (This
“correction” possibly has its origin in an attempt to arbitrarily compensate for the
depressant effects of solids and wear on head developed, Hm. In some instances this
“correction” would be nearly equivalent to the proper use of the true value of HR but can
lead to gross errors for widely-varying values of d50.)
The Total Dynamic Head (H) developed by a centrifugal pump at a given flowrate: Q, is
related essentially to the pump speed. i.e. liquid entering the impeller is accelerated by
the centrifugal action of the impeller to develop the head (H).
Considering clear liquids whose kinematic viscosity is the same as for clear water (i.e.
there is no depression of pump performance due to viscosity), the Total Dynamic Head,
developed by the pump is the same, at the same flowrate, Q, and at the same speed.
Considering slurry mixture, the head developed when pumping mixture is depressed
relative to the head developed when pumping clear water.
Example
In this simplified case, Figure 5.15, it is given that Vs = Vd, i.e. Hvs = Hvd and that Hs =
zero. i.e. H = Hgd (in this case only). Also that, when pumping water at flowrate Q, H =
Hgd = 16.0 metres of water.

New Condition: Clear Liquids and Slurries

Liquid or Mixture Pumped H = Hgd H = Hgd H = Hgd
metres of actual expressed as expressed as
mixture Gauge Pressure Water Gauge
Pr (kPa) (refer Pressure: m water
to formulae)
Water Hw = 16.0 Pr = 157 16.0
Clear Liquid SL = 1.2 (given H = 16.0 Pr = 188 16.0 × 1.2 = 19.2
same Kinematic Viscosity as
for water)
Slurry (HR = 0.85) Sm = 1.5 Hm = 16.0 × 0.85 Pr = 200 16.0 × 0.85 × 1.5
(pump in new condition) = 13.6 = 20.4
Slurry (HR = 0.89) Sm = 1.10 Hm = 16.0 × 0.89 Pr = 154 16.0 × 0.89 × 1.10
(pump in new condition) = 14.24 = 15.7
For water and the clear liquid, the values of Hgd in metres of actual liquid pumped are the
same but the discharge pressures will be different owing to the difference in Specific
Gravities.
For the slurries, the value of H is reduced by the Head Ratio factor. The discharge
pressures will be different to those for water, greater or less, due to the differences in H
and Specific Gravity.
Worn Condition :Slurries
As compared with a pump in “new” condition, a pump in “worn” condition will develop
a smaller head at a given flowrate. Given that Hm(worn) = 0.88 Hm(new), as a typical
example, the values of H (=Hgd) will be correspondingly smaller:
Mixture Pumped H = Hgd H = Hgd H = Hgd
metres of actual expressed as expressed as
mixture Gauge Pressure Water Gauge
Pr (kPa) (refer Pressure: m water
to formulae)
Slurry (HR = 0.85) Hm(worn) = Pr = (16.0 × 0.85 ×
Sm = 1.5 (16.0×0.85×0.88) (200 × 0.88) 0.88 × 1.5)
Hm(worn) = Hm(new) = 12.0 = 176 = 18.0
(Pump in worn condition)
Slurry (HR = 0.89) Hm(worn) = Pr = (16.0 × 0.89 ×
Sm = 1.10 (16.0×0.89×0.88) (154 × 0.88) 0.88 × 1.10)
Hm(worn) = Hm(new) = 12.5 = 135 = 13.8
(Pump in worn condition)

It is apparent from the above two tables that the Head developed on Slurry is always less
than the Head developed on Water when the Heads are expressed in metres of actual
mixture pumped.
However, the Gauge Pressure values, expressed in “kPa” or “metres of water”, may be
greater or less than the value for water depending on the actual combination of the
factors: HR, Sm and correction for wear.
Head/Pressure/S.G. Conversion Formula
Pr
H= where H = Head (metres of mixture pumped)
g×ρ
Pr = Pressure (Pa)
= Density of liquid of mixture (kg/m3)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
For the examples in Figure 5.15: Pr = Hgd × g ×
Water Pr = 16.0 × 9.81 × 1000
w = 1000 kg/m3 = 156960 Pa
= 157 kPa
Clear Liquid (Sl = 1.2): Pr = 16.0 × 9.81 × (1000 × 1.2)
l = 1.2 × w = 188352 Pa
= 188 kPa
Slurry (HR = 0.85, Sm = 1.5) Pr =(16.0 × 0.85) × 9.81 × (1000 × 1.10)
m = 1.5 × w = 200124 Pa
= 200 kPa
Slurry (HR = 0.89, Sm = 1.10) Pr = (16.0 × 0.89) × 9.81 × (1000 × 1.10)
m = 1.10 × w = 153664 Pa
= 154 kPa
Note Performance Curves and Total dynamic Head calculations for centrifugal slurry
pumps should always express each head value as head of the actual liquid or mixture
pumped (metres). Pressure values have no direct use in these slurry pumping
calculations, and, in fact, can cause confusion and serious errors if introduced.
However, it may be necessary to convert actual heads to pressures when considering the
service pressure ratings of pipework or high-pressure casings.
Conversely, vacuum or pressure gauge readings taken at the pipelines adjacent to an
operating pump may be required for conversion to heads for assessment of Hs, or of the
head being developed by the pump.

Head/Vacuum/S.G. Conversion Formula

Vacuum readings (i.e. below atmospheric pressure) are normally measured by a Mercury
manometer of vacuum gauge with the vacuum expressed as the height (usually in mm) of
a Mercury column below atmospheric pressure.
As the S.G. of Mercury = 13.6, the corresponding value of Head of mixture pumped
h × 13.6
= metres
1000 × S m
where h = Vacuum reading, expressed in mm Hg

Sm = Specific Gravity of mixture pumped.
Refer to Figures 5.16 and 5.17 for examples of vacuum readings.


5.16 Correction of Gauge Readings to Pump Centreline

Correction of Gauge Reading to Pump centreline is simply the adjustment of the Gauge
Pressure Head value, in metres of mixture, by the addition of the algebraic value of the
vertical height of the gauge above pump centreline.
Gauges are usually conveniently located above, but could also be located below, pump
centreline as in Figure 5.18. The latter arrangement is more liable to blockages by solids.
Corrected values of Gauge Pressure heads are then:
Hgs (corrected) = (Hgs (indicated) + X) metres of mixture
Hgd (corrected) = (Hgd (indicated) + Y) metres of mixture
When gauges are located below pump centreline, the vertical height values have a
negative (-ve) effect on the indicated values of Hgs and Hgd.
Hgs (corrected) = (Hgs (indicated) – A ) metres of mixture
Hgd (corrected) = (Hgd (indicated) – B) metres of mixture
Gauges Calibrated in Water Heads
Certain pressure gauges available are calibrated in heads of water e.g. metres of water.
When these gauges are employed to measure Gauge Pressure Heads for slurries the gauge
water head indicated must be divided by the Specific Gravity of the mixture to obtain the
correct indication of Gauge Pressure Head in metres of mixture pumped. e.g. if Gauge
Pressure Head indicated 92.0 metres of water and Sm = 1.25.
92.0
Gauge Pressure Head = = 73.6 m of mixture
1.25
The value of Gauge Pressure Head must then be corrected to pump centreline as usual.

5.17 Effects of Liberated Air

Variations in Solubility of Air in Water
Air is soluble in water and in solids-water mixtures. The equilibrium (maximum or
saturated) content of dissolved air in water varies with both pressure of the air in contact
with the water and with temperature.
The equilibrium air content increases with increasing air pressure. The equilibrium air
content decreases with increasing water temperature.
Equilibrium dissolved air content in water values generally appear small, when expressed
on a weight basis. However, when estimates are made of the maximum values of
changes in air content that may occur due to decreases in pressure and/or to increases in
temperature, the amounts of air liberated from the water can represent very significant
volumes:
APPROXIMATE VALUES FOR AIR SOLUBILITY IN WATER: EQUILIBRIUM
DATA
Absolute Pressure of Air (Above Absolute Zero) 0.6 ATM 1.0 ATM 50.0 ATM
Equivalent Gauge Head of Water (metres) -6.205 m Zero 41.36 m
Weight of air dissolved/litres water at 20ºC (gms) 0.0129 0.0215 0.107
Weight of air dissolved/litre water at 60ºC (gms) 0.00844 0.0141 0.704
e.g. if 1.0 kg of water, which has been in equilibrium with air at 5.0 Atmospheres
Absolute Pressure and at 20ºC, were subsequently exposed to an absolute pressure of 0.6
Atmospheres (-6.204 m water gauge head) at the same temperature, 20ºC, then dissolved
air content would immediately reduce from 0.107 gms to 0.0129 gms. i.e. 0.0941 gms of
air would be liberated from the water.
As 1 litre of dry air at 0ºC and at 1 Atm contains 1.2928 grms of dry air.
From Standard Gas Laws, 1 grm of dry air at 20ºC and 0.6 Atm occupies
1 273 + 20 1.0
× × = 1.3836 litres
1.2928 273 0 .6
0.0941 grms of dry air at 20ºC and 0.6 Atm occupies
0.0941 × 1.3836 = 0.1302 litres
Note that the actual volume of liberated air would be somewhat greater than 0.1302 litres,
due to the presence of water vapour in the liberated air.
AIR LIBERATION
Should the Gauge Head of Water at or prior to arriving at a pump suction flange fall
below the equilibrium pressure for the actual dissolved air content of the water, air
liberation will commence immediately, reducing the dissolved air content to the volume
which would be equilibrium with the value of Gauge Head.

The air is normally initially liberated in the form of minute bubbles, dispersed throughout
the water. The presence of these bubbles lowers the effective overall Specific Gravity of
the dispersion passing into the pump suction.
e.g. if 0.0941 L of air was liberated from 1.0 L (1.0 kg) or water of 20ºC and 0.6
Atmospheres, at the suction flange of a pump:
Weight of Water + Total Air Present = 1.00107 kg
Volume of Water + Liberated air = 1.1302 litres
Specific Gravity of air-water dispersion:
1.00107
For the dispersion: Sl = = 0.8857
1.1302
This dispersion would be of lower Specific Gravity than that of the static water (free of
liberated air) contained in a pump suction gauge manometer. Accordingly, the
manometric gauge head reading will not correctly represent the true suction gauge head
value expressed as head of actual dispersion being pumped.
As the liberated air-water dispersion enters the pump, the actual gauge head of the
dispersion reduces further, See Section 6, reaching a minimum at the eye of the impeller.
Providing that the amount of liberated air is not sufficient to completely air-lock the
pump, with complete failure by the pump to discharge any liquid, further air will be
liberated and all liberated air will expand to occupy a greater volume until the dispersion
passes into a higher pressure zone within the pump where the liberated air will commence
to redissolve under the higher gauge head conditions.
Redissolution may be partial or complete, depending on the discharge gauge head value.
The discharge gauge head measurement may also be misleading, due to the difference
between the Specific Gravities of the water in discharge manometer gauge and the
dispersion emerging from the pump.
As the effective values of Sl would not be known it would not be possible to correct
either manometric readings or pressure and vacuum gauge readings to heads of
dispersion.
A further effect of the presence of liberated air is to reduce the potential flowrate of clear
water pumped by the volumetric equivalent flowrate of liberated air presented at the eye
of the impeller. This effect is often incorrectly diagnosed as Cavitation. See Section 6.3
“Pseudo Cavitation”.
Liberating air does not present a significant problem in the majority of slurry-pumping
applications. However it requires to be anticipated and avoided in proposed applications
where the proposed suction gauge head (above absolute zero) could be below the
equilibrium absolute pressure head of any slurry (or liquid) which ahs been exposed to
aeration and may contain significant quantities of dissolved air or other gas. Typical
slurries in this category include:
Concentrates and tailings etc., from, and within, froth flotation circuits. (Note:
Specially designed Warman Froth Pumps are available).

Hot raw cane sugar juice from primary juice heaters. (Air is liberated as a result of
increased temperature of the juice which has been aerated during the process of its
extraction from the sugar cane and being pumped under pressure into the juice
heaters.)
Coal Ash slurries produced by venturi-jet ejection of ash from dry ash storage
bunkers.
Slurries produced by sluicing* techniques.
Filtrates from vacuum Filters.
In many cases, low suction gauge heads can be avoided by designing for positive suction
gauge heads (e.g. * submersible gravel pumps).
For most duties with positive (+ve) values of Zs, adequate venting of any entrained air, as
well as of any liberating air, before the slurry reaches the suction pipe inlet and again as
the slurry approaches the pump suction flange, is also recommended. See Section 7.3
“Suction Static Head Variation: Pump Hoppers”.

Section 6 NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD

INDEX
6.0 Abstract 2
6.1 Net Positive Suction Head 3
6.2 Cavitation 4
6.3 Determination of NPSHa: Existing Systems 6
6.4 Estimation of Atmospheric and Vapour Pressure Head 8
6.5 Estimation of NPSH Available: Proposed Systems 13
Simple Gravity-Feed 13
Simple Suction-Lift 14
Pressure Vessel 14
Vacuum Vessel 16
Differential Column Head Loss 17
Effective Positive Static Suction Head 18
Dredge18
Densifying Tank 19
6.6 Estimation of Limiting Flowrate for Cavitation-Free Performance 21
High Solids Concentration: Densifying Tank22
Vacuum Filtrate Extraction Duty 38
Suction Dredge Duty 44
Pressure Vessel 53

6.0 Abstract
NPSHa (available from the system) must not be less than NPSHr (required by the pump)
to avoid cavitation.
Cavitation causes a reduction in flowrate and head developed by the pump, vibration,
mechanical damage and accelerated wear.
NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap + (Hs)
= Hatm – Hvap + (Hgs) + Hvs
Note: (Hs) and (Hgs) may be positive (+ve) or negative (-ve).
Hatm is estimated from the barometric pressure, at the pump location, and Sm.
Hvap is estimated from the absolute vapour pressure of the suspending liquid, at the
pumping temperature, and Sm.
ESTIMATION OF NPSHa
Specific formulae are provided for the estimation of NPSHa for several typical types of
applications.
ESTIMATION OF LIMITING FLOWRATE FOR CAVITATION – FREE
PERFORMANCE
A graphical method of estimating the limiting flowrate (i.e. when NPSHa = NPSHr) is
provided. The limiting flowrate is significant on duties where flowrate is required to be
variable or where a reserve in flowrate over specified flowrate, is desired.

6.1 Net Positive Suction Head

Net Positive Head
The net positive head existing at any point in a system (e.g. in a pipeline) is the pressure
head of liquid above Absolute Zero at that point, minus the liquid vapour pressure head,
plus the velocity head at that point. i.e. NPH - Hatm + (hg) – Hvap + Hv.
NPSHa: The net Positive Suction Head Available is the actual net positive head existing
at a point close* to the pump suction flange.
i.e. NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap + (Hgs) + Hvs
= Hatm – Hvap + (Hs)
Note: (Hgs) and (Hs) could be negative (-ve) values.
NPSHr: The Net Positive Suction Head Required by a centrifugal pump, at any given
point on its Head/Quantity (H/Q) characteristic curve, is the minimum net positive
suction head value which the liquid pumped must posses at a point close* to the pump
suction flange, in order to avoid pump cavitation.
(*The actual standard specified distance is equal to twice the suction pipe diameter, i.e. 2
× Ds, upstream of the pump suction flange.)

6.2 Cavitation
Cavitation occurs if the Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHa) from the suction
system at this point, is Less than the Net Positive Suction Head required (NPSHr) by the
pump. Cavitation is the rapid formation of pockets of tiny bubbles of vapour at points
within* the pump and subsequent collapse of these vapour pockets as they flow within
the liquid to a zone of higher net positive head within the pump. See Figure 6.1.
*Notes: The lowest net positive head within a centrifugal pump actually occurs behind
the leading edge of the vanes, in the “eye” of the impeller.
Cavitation has the following undesirable effects on the pump performance:
Effects of Cavitation
1. Head developed by the pump is decreased, resulting in reduction of flowrate through
the system.
2. Efficiency of the pump is decreased.
3. Rumbling or crackling noises and severe vibration usually occur, often resulting in
severe mechanical damage to the pump and pipework.
4. Accelerated rate of wear of the impeller frequently occurs.

These effects progressively become more apparent and more severe as the value of
NPSHa falls further below NPSHr. Classical references to cavitation in water pumps, of
conventional design, indicate that, with a given suction system, the pump performance
follows the normal H/Q curve from shut-off head (zero flowrate) to a point where
cavitation commences at a certain flowrate. Beyond this flowrate, the “cavitating” H/Q
curve (for that suction system) falls off sharply, and drops almost vertically to complete
failure of the pump to discharge any liquid.
Tests show that this is not entirely the case with most Warman slurry pumps, as the
“cavitating” H/Q curve does not fall off so sharply after commencement of cavitation, but
falls away gradually from the normal cavitation-free H/Q.

This is particularly noticeable in Warman pumps, which employ wide impellers, where
vapour pockets do not form across the whole width of the impeller and the flow is only
partly restricted. Total performance failure does not occur as sharply as it does with
narrow pump impellers.
However, continuous operation of Warman pumps in zones of any degree of cavitation
must be avoided, in order to avoid the above undesirable effects.
SUMMARY
For any proposed or existing pump installation:
1. NPSH available (NPSHa) from the suction system is entirely independent of the
pump.
Its value is determined by the characteristics of the suction system and the liquid
pumped.
2. NPSH required (NPSHr) is a characteristic of the pump selected. Its value, for any
given flowrate and pump speed, is obtained from the published pump performance
curve.
3. NPSHa must not be less than NPSHr at any proposed duty point in order to avoid
cavitation of the pump selected.
Note: Cavitation is a term which is often wrongly applied to certain other conditions of
reduced pump H/Q performance, e.g. where air is induced into the pump through leaking
shaft seals or through leaking suction pipework.
PSEUDO-CAVITATION
This term describes an operating condition where both dissolved air (or other dissolved
gas) as well as vapour from the mixture pumped are liberated simultaneously at the eye
of the impeller. These pockets of air and vapour also collapse as they reach a zone of
higher net positive head within the pump. See Section 5.15 “Effects of Liberated Air”.

6.3 Determination of NPSHa: Existing Systems

Calculation From Actual Gauge Reading
Basic Formula: NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap + (Hs)
= Hatm – Hvap + (Hgs) + Hvs
(Hgs) is positive (+ve) if the gauge reading is a positive (pressure) reading (above
atmospheric pressure( as shown in Figure 6.2.1 and the relevant formula is:
NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap +(Hs)

= Hatm – Hvap + Hgs + Hvs
(Hgs) is negative (-ve) if the gauge reading is a negative (vacuum) reading (below
atmospheric pressure) as shown in Figure 6.2.2 and the relevant formula is:
= Hatm – Hvap – Hgs + Hvs

NPSHa normally reduces with increasing flowrate, due to increased friction head losses in
the suction system.

6.4 Estimation of Atmospheric and Vapour Pressure Head

Atmospheric Pressure Head
Hatm is the Atmospheric Pressure Head, at the intended pump location, expressed as Head
of Mixture Pumped (m).
For a mixture of Specific Gravity, Sm:
Barometric _ pressure _ as _ Head _ of _ Water (m)

Hatm =
Sm
Given the Barometric Pressure in common meteorological units, the Barometric Pressure
Head of Water may be calculated, using the following conversion data:
1 millimetre of Mercury = 0.0136 metres of water
and
1 millibar = 0.0102 metres of water
Given the Altitude of the intended pump location only, the Barometric Pressure Head of
Water may be read from Figure 6.3.
Absolute Vapour Pressure Head

Hvap is the Absolute Vapour Pressure Head of the suspending liquid at the pumping
temperature, expressed as Head of Mixture Pumped (metres).
The suspending liquid is usually water. Vapour pressure of water at various temperatures
are readily available from steam tables in reference books (See Figure 6.4 for water). For
a mixture of Specific Gravity, Sm:
Absolute _ Vapour _ pressure _ as _ Head _ of _ Suspending _ Liquid (m)

Hvap
Sm
It is assumed that the solids present in a slurry mixture do not affect the vapour pressure
of the mixture.
Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric Pressures, i.e. Barometric Pressures, vary principally with altitude above
Sea Level. They also vary, to a lesser extent, with variations in local weather conditions.
Approximate Values of Barometric Pressures at various altitudes, expressed as “mm of
Mercury”, “millibars” and “metres” of water are as follows:
(Note: 1000 millibars = 1 bar = 100 kPa)

Approximate Barometric Pressure
Altitude above Sea mm of Mercury Millibars metres of water (Sl

Level (m) * = 1.0)
ZERO 760 1013 10.34
500 716 954 9.74
1000 673 897 9.15
1500 636 848 8.65
2000 592 789 8.05
2500 556 741 7.56
3000 526 701 7.16
3500 490 653 6.67
4000 461 614 6.26
4500 431 574 5.87
5000 402 536 5.47
*These and additional high altitude data are plotted in Figure 6.3.
The reduction in Barometric Pressure, with increasing altitude, significantly reduces the
value of NPSHa.
Where pumping is to be carried out at any altitude above Sea Level, the NPSHa should be
carefully evaluated for all duties, including Gravity Feed, to ensure that it is not less that
the NPSHr.

ABSOLUTE VAPOUR PRESSURE OF PURE WATER
Temperature ºC Absolute Vapour Pressure of Pure Water - Hvap
mm of Mercury m of water *
0 4.579 0.06
10 9.9209 0.13
20 17.535 0.24
30 31.824 0.43
40 55.324 0.75
50 92.51 1.26
60 149.38 2.03
70 233.7 3.18
80 355.1 4.83
90 525.76 7.15
100 760 10.34
Note: S.G. of Mercury at 20ºC = 13.6
*These data are plotted in Figure 6.4
The high absolute vapour pressure associated with high water temperatures seriously
reduce the value of the term (Hatm – Hvap) and consequently, the value of NPSHa.
Where high temperatures are unavoidable, the NPSHa may have to be increased by
positively increasing the value of Zs.

The vapour pressures of many solutions (e.g. sugar solution, salt solution etc.) are
generally lower than for pure water at the same temperature. Vapour pressure data are
normally available from technical reference books. Care should be taken to allow for the
actual values of Sl and Sm as these solutions usually have densities greater than for pure
water.
High altitude pump applications (even those not customarily subjected to NPSH
considerations when intended for service at or near Sea Level) would require more
careful engineering:
Example (a)
e.g. Considering a slurry pump to operate at a mine and treatment plant in the Andes
at an altitude of 4600 metres above Sea Level and given:
Suspending Liquid = water
Mixture Temperature = 10ºC
Sm = 1.14
Calculations:
For altitude = 4600 m
From Fig. 6.3:
Barometric Pressure = 5.80 m of water
Barometric _ pressure _ as _ Head _ of _ Water (m)

Hatm =
Sm
5.80m
= = 5.09 m of mixture pumped
1.14
For water temperature = 10ºC
From Fig 6.4:
Absolute Vapour Pressure of water = 0.13 m of water
Absolute _ Vapour _ pressure _ of _ suspending _ Liquid (m)

Hvap =
Sm
0.13m
= = 0.11 m of mixture pumped
1.14
The value of the term: (Hatm – Hvap) is:
(Hatm – Hvap) = (5.09 m – 0.11 m) = 4.98 m
This low value of (Hatm – Hvap) for a high altitude contrasts markedly with the value at
Sea Level as in Example (b):

Example (b)
Considering the same temperature and mixture details as for Example (a) but with the
slurry pump to operate at Sea Level (ZERO altitude):
From Figure 6.3:
10.34m
Hatm = = 9.07 m of mixture pumped
1.14
(Hatm – Hvap) = (9.07 m – 0.13 m) = 8.94 m
Accordingly, even a simple gravity-fed pump application (Figure 6.5), engineered for a
service at or near Sea Level altitude may have insufficient NPSHa for high altitude
service.
The NPSHa may have to be increased by increasing Zs; or an alternative pump with a
lower NPSHr should be substituted.

6.5 Estimation of NPSH Available: Proposed Systems

NPSHa = Net Positive Suction Head Available at the Pump Suction Flange: head of
mixture (m)
i.e. NPSHa = Hatm - Hvap + (Hs) = Hatm – Hvap + Hvs + (Hgs)

Note that (Hgs) and (Hs) could be either positive (+ve) or negative (-ve) values.
Obviously, as actual suction gauge readings will not be available for proposed
installation, NPSHa must be estimated. The wide range of types of pump applications,
required NPSHa to be estimated, precludes the statement of one convenient formula for
universal use. However, Hs may be estimated by standard formulae, yielding the derived
NPSHa formulae, below, for common slurry pump applications:
Note
(1) All heads i.e. Hatm, Hvap, Hvac, Hs, NPSHa etc. are each expressed as Head of Mixture
Pumped (m).
(2) In dredge and Densifying Tank applications, the vertical heights: Zs and Zl, may
require to be specially processed into an effective value expressed as head of mixture
Pumped (m).
(3) The illustrations following are schematic only and simply indicate the sources of
heads referred to in the NPSHa formulae.
(4) The value of Hatm depends, in each case, on Barometric Pressure at the pump location
and on Sm,
(5) The value of Hvap depends, in each case, on the Vapour Pressure of the suspending
liquid, at the pumping temperature, and on Sm.
Simple Gravity-Feed
(Refer to Figure 6.5)
When the mixture supply level is above pump centreline, Zs is taken as positive (+ve).
NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap + Zs – Hi – Hfs (metres)

Simple Suction-Lift
When the mixture supply level is below centreline, Zs is taken as negative (-ve).
NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap – Zs – Hi – Hfs (metres)
Pressure Vessel
(Refer to Figure 6.7.1)
When the supply vessel is closed to atmosphere and the mixture surface is pressurised,
with a gas or vapour, above atmospheric pressure, the NPSHa benefits by the amount of
this pressure expressed as:

Hpr = head of mixture (m)

(+)Zs: If the mixture supply level is above pump centreline, as in Figure 6.7.1, Zs is
taken as positive (+ve).
NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap + Hpr + Zs – Hi – Hfs
(-Zs) If the mixture supply level is below pump centreline, as in Figure 6.7.2, Zs is
taken as negative (-ve).
NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap + Hpr – Zs – Hi – Hfs (m)

Vacuum Vessel
When the supply vessel is closed to atmosphere and the mixture surface is subjected to a
vacuum, below atmospheric pressure, the NPSHa is disadvantages by the amount of this
vacuum expressed as Hvac = head of mixture (m).
(+)Zs: If the mixture supply level is above pump centreline, as in Figure 6.7.1, Zs is
taken as positive (+ve) as in Figure 6.8.
NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap + Zs – Hvac – Hi – Hfs (m)
(-Zs): If the mixture supply level is below pump centreline, (not illustrated), Zs is taken
as negative (-ve).

NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap – Zs – Hvac – Hi – Hvs (m)

Differential Column Head Loss

Figure 6.9 depicts a mixture of Specific Gravity, Sm, flowing upwards and drawn from a
supply of settled solids and overlying liquid, Sl. As the Sm is greater than Sl, the vertical
height Zl, of mixture in the submerged portion of the suction pipe is not completely
balanced by the surrounding liquid of the same vertical height, Zl. The resulting effective
static head loss is known as the Differential Column Head loss, Zc:
 S − Sl 
where Z c = Z l  m  (m)
 Sl 

Effective Positive Static Suction Head

Densifying Tank
Figure 6.9.1 depicts a mixture of Specific Gravity, Sm, being drawn from a supply vessel
with surplus clear liquid overflowing. This application is similar to a simply gravity-feed
duty. However the solids present in the feed fall rapidly to the bottom of the tank for
extraction as a mixture of solids concentration higher than that of the feed.
Consequently, the average concentration of solids closely surrounding, as well as
overlying, the submerged suction pipe is very low and is, conservatively, taken as zero.
Accordingly, the given value of (+Zs), for height of liquid, must be reduced to obtain the
effective value as head of mixture pumped i.e. Effective Positive Static Suction Head
Sl
Z sm = Z s (m)
Sm
and Hs = Zsm – Zc – Hi – Hfs
Dredge
The dredging application shown in Figure 6.10 is superficially similar to the simple
suction lift application. However, the Differential Column Head loss, Zc must be allowed
for. Also, positive (+ve) values of Zs is applicable, must be corrected to the Zsm.
(-Zs): If the liquid supply level is below pump centreline, as in Figure 6.10, Zs is taken
as negative (-ve).
NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap – Zs – Zc – Hi – Hfs (m)
(+)Zs: If the liquid supply level is above pump centreline, as in Figure 6.9.1, Zs and Zsm
are taken as positive (+ve).

NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap + Zsm – Zc – Hvac – Hi – Hfs (m)

Note: A positive (+ve) value of Zs is frequently provided in the design of dredge pump
installations to provide adequate values of NPSHa, as well as to facilitate rapid priming.
Densifying Tank
Figure 6.11 represents a densifying tank installation where:
FEED = Q1 (LOW SOLIDS CONCENTRATION)
OVERFLOW = Q2 (WATER ONLY)
UNDERFLOW = Q3 (HIGH SOLIDS CONCENTRATION)
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
(+)Zs: If the liquid supply overflow is above pump centreline, as in Figure 6.11, Zs (and
Zsm) are taken as positive (+ve).

NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap + Zsm – Zc – Hi – Hfs (m)
NOTE:Although Zs may be a positive (+ve) value, (Hs) may be a very small positive
(+ve) value or even a negative (-ve) value, particularly when Sm is high.

(-Zs): If the liquid supply overflow is below pump centreline, as in Figure 6.11.1, Zs is
taken as negative (-ve).
NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap – Zs – Zc – Hi – Hfs (m)*
This application is generally not practical due to low values of NPSHa when (Zs) is
negative (-ve) and values of Sm are high.
*Note that these two formulae are identical to those for corresponding (+Zs) and (-Zs)
Dredge formulae.

6.6 Estimation of Limiting Flowrate for Cavitation-Free Performance

NPSH REQUIRED: NPSHr
Figure 6.12 illustrates portion of a typical Warman Pump Performance Curve at a given
pump speed, showing Hw/Q characteristics (points A to C) and with NPSH required by
the pump, represented by the family of NPSHr values (metres) are plotted against Q to
develop the NPSHr/Q curve for the given pump speed.
NPSH AVAILABLE: NPSHa
The values of NPSHa are calculated by the appropriate formula (see Figures 6.5 to 6.11)
and also plotted against Q.
LIMITING FLOWRATE FOR CAVITATION – FREE PERFORMANCE

From Q = Zero, to QNPSH (corresponding to the intersection of the NPSHa and NPSHr
curves, i.e. for performance from Point A to Point B, NPSHa exceeds NPSHr, indicating
that the suction system will provide a value of NPSHa greater than, to at least equal to
NPSHr, allowing cavitation-free pump performance until flowrate QNPSH is reached.
Beyond flowrate QNPSH the NPSHa for any attempted higher flowrate would be less than
the NPSHr, as emphasised by the shaded area, and cavitation would occur.

The pump Hw/Q performance would depart from the normal Hw/Q curve at Point B and
follow a cavitating characteristic (B-D-E). As indicated, flowrates, somewhat in excess
of QNPSH can be achieved, while the pump is cavitating, but at the expense of suffering
the serious disadvantages previously described.
As continuous cavitation must be avoided in practice, it is necessary to provide a
combination of suction system and pump where the NPSHa exceeds the NPSHr, by a
reasonable safety margin (usually at least 1 metre), for the proposed duty point, or for the
whole of the proposed operating range of duty points.
NPSHa:
The NPSHa/Q characteristic curve of the suction system should be designed initially to
provide the highest practical value or values of NPSHa for the required duty. This may
be achieved by good initial design of the suction system or possibly by improvements to
the design of an existing or proposed suction system.
NPSHr:
The NPSHr/Q characteristic curve (or curves) of the pump at any given speed (or over
any range of speeds) represent(s) the actual value(s) of NPSHr published in the pump
performance curve. It is not possible to alter the value of NPSHr for any point on a given
pump performance curve. Accordingly, the only way in which the NPSHr may be
changed for any given duty point is to substitute a different type of impeller or, usually, a
different size or type of pump.
EXAMPLE:
High Solids Concentration: Densifying Tank

A typical application is the pumping of silica sand tailings, at a high solids concentration,
from a floating Beach Sand Mineral Concentrator, to disposal (Fig 6.13.1). A jet nozzle
is fitted at the end of the discharge pipeline to provide a very high exit velocity, Ve. This
exit velocity is required to project the silica sand through the air up to a point sufficiently
high above, and distant from, the edge of the dredge/concentrator pond. The high Cw of
64% for the Tailings is required to allow the water contained in the mixture to percolate
quickly through and away from the tailings stack without preventing build-up of the stack
of solids. The system is protected from tramp oversize by use of a 10 mm aperture
screen.

DUTY DETAILS GIVEN:
Water, Solids, Slurry PUMPING SYSTEM
S = 2.65 Zs = 2.0 m Zd =12.0 m
Sl = 1.0 Zl = 3.0 m Lad = 110.0 m to nozzle
M = 400 tonnes/hour Las = 3.2 m Bends =2 × 90º long radius
d50 PZLGHO\ Bends = 1 × 90º long + 1 × 135º long radius

graded) radius
Cw = 64% Tees = 1 × ‘run of’ Ve = 13.5 m/s
Water Temperature Entrance = rounded Assumed Nozzle Friction

= 25ºC maximum Head Loss = 0.1 Hve
Piping = Commercial Piping = Commercial Steel

Steel
Altitude at Pump Location = ZERO (Sea Level)
Given also that Pipeline Friction Losses for this Cw = 64% slurry will be 10% higher than
those empirically estimated for values of Cw from ZERO to 40%.
CALCULATIONS
FLOWRATE
From Figure 2.2,
For Cw = 64%; S = 2.65; Sl = 1.0:

Sm = 1.66; Cv = 40.1%
M
Q =
0.036 × S w × C w
400
= = 104 L/s
0.036 × 1.66 × 64.0
NOZZLE DIAMETER
1273Q
As V = and Ve = 13.5 m/s,
d2
Nozzle Diameter,
1273× 104
de =
13.5
= 99 mm
LIMITING SETTLING VELOCITY
From Figure 3.4, for d50 PP P&v = 40.1%:
FL = 1.05
Applying Durand’s formula:
 2.65 − 1.0 
VL = 1.05 2 × 9.81 × D 
 1.0 
= 5.97 D
SELECTION OF PIPE DIAMETER (Required Q = 104 L/s)
3LSH'LDPHWHUG P 150 200 250
Pipe Diameter: D (mm) 0.150 0.200 0.250

VL = 5.97 D (m/s) 2.31 2.67 2.99
*Flowrate at V = VL (L/s) 41 84 147
Comments Unsuitable Suitable Unsuitable
d 2V
*Q =
1273

At the required flowrate Q = 104 L/s, the velocity:

V in 150 mm diameter pipe would be excessively high, c.f. VL
V in 250 mm diameter pipe would be too low, c.f. VL
V in 200 mm diameter pipe would be an adequately safe margin above
104
VL = 2.67 m/s: i.e. V = × 2.67 = 3.31 m/s
84
As 3.31 m/s is approximately 25% greater than VL: For preliminary purposes only, in this
short pipeline, Hf for slurry may be taken as numerically equal to Hf for water at 3.31
m/s.
At this stage of the calculations, it is proposed to obtain an approximate estimation of H,
to assist in a preliminary selection of pump size, for confirmation of pipework details:
Friction Head Loss on Discharge Side: Hfd
Bends: 1 × 90º long radius: 2 × 4.3 = 8.6 m
+ 1 × 135º Long radius: 1 × 2.1 = 2.1 m
(Above from Fig. 5.3.1) Ld = 10.7 m

Lad = 110.0 m
Ld = 120.7 m
From Fig. 4.4, F = 0.0160
0.0160 × 120.7 × (3.31)

2
Hfd = = 5.4 m
2 × 9.81 × 0.200
Velocity Head at Nozzle Discharge = Hve =

(13.5)2 = 9.3 m
2 × 9.81
Friction Head Loss in Nozzle = hn = 0.1 Hve = 0.1 × 9.3 = 0.9 m
Total Discharge Head

Hd = Zd + Hfd + Hve
= 12.0 + (5.4 + 0.9) + 9.3 = 27.6 m
Assuming Hs will be a small negative (-ve) value, H (=Hd – Hs) will probably be close to
30 m.
The 8/6 F-AH pump, fitted with a rubber impeller and rubber liners, Fig. 6.13.2, is the
likely selection: the duty probably falling within the speed, NPSHr and kW limitations of

this pump. The pump can handle a 63 mm diameter sphere: well in excess of the
maximum tramp size of 10 mm.
The pump discharge outlet is 6 inches (150 mm) nominal diameter, consequently, there
will be an additional friction head loss, on the discharge side, due to the conical
enlargement from 150 mm to 200 mm diameter:
104
Velocity in 150 mm diameter = 2.31 × = 5.86 m/s
41
From Figure 5.3.2 for a properly-designed Conical enlargement where θ = 6º: Ke = 0.14

Friction Head Loss on enlargement = 0.14

(5.86 − 3.31)2 = 0.05 m
2 × 9.81
i.e. corrected Hd = 27.6 + 0.05 = 27.65 m
FRICTION HEAD LOSS IN SUCTION SYSTEM: Hfs
Taking D = 200 mm (same at discharge side as pump suction inlet: 8 inches i.e. 200 mm
nominal diameter)
Bends: 1 × 90º Long Radius = 1 × 4.3 m
Run of Tees: 1 × Standard = 1 × 4.3 m
(From Fig. 5.3.1) Lfs 8.6 m

Las 3.2 m
Ls 11.8 m
0.0160 × 11.8 × (3.31)

2
From Fig. 4.4, Hfs = = 0.5 m
2 × 9.81 × 0.200
Hvs =
(3.31)2 = 0.6 m
2 × 9.81
From Fig. 5.3.2, Hi = 0 .5

(3.31)2 = 0.3 m
2 × 9.81
 S − Sl 
From Fig. 5.9, Zc = Z l  m 
 Sl 
 1.66 − 1.0 
= 3.0  = 1.2 m
 1.66 
A conservative (low) evaluation of Zs is to regard the contents of the upper portion of the
hopper as simply clear water:
S   1.0 
Zsm = Z s  l  = 2.0  = 1.2 m
 Sm   1.66 
Hs = Zsm – Zc – Hi – Hfs = 1.2 – 1.2 – 0.3 – 0.5 = (-0.8 m)

Total Dynamic Head
H = Hd – Hs = (27.65 – (-0.8 m) = 28.4 m

Barometric Pressure at sea level
760 13.6
= 760 mm of mercury = × = 10.34 m* (of water)
1000 1.0
10.37
Hatm = = 6.23 m
1.66
*Note: This value is also obtainable directly from Figure 6.3
Vapour Pressure of water at 25ºC
23.756 13.6
= 23.756 mm of mercury = × = 0.32 m (of water)*
1000 1 .0
0.32
Hvap = = 0.19 m
1.66
*Note: this value is also obtainable directly from Figure 6.4.
From Figure 6.11 FORMULA (A) FORMULA (B)
NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap + Zsm – Zc – Hfs - Hi Hatm – Hvap + Hs

= 6.23 – 0.19 + 1.2 – 1.2 – 0.3 – 0.5 = 6.23 – 0.19 + (-0.8)
= 5.2 m = 5.2 m
PUMP SPEED: WORN CONDITION
From Figure 2.4 for d50 = 0.200 mm, S = 2.65, Cw = 64%
HR = ER = 0.78
Allowing Hm (worn) = 0.90 Hm (new)
H m (worn ) 28.4
Hw = = = 40.5 m
0.90 × HR 0.90 × 0.78
From the performance curve, Figure 6.13.2,

At Q = 104 L/s, Hw = 40.5 m:
Pump Speed = 917 r/min
and NPSHr = 6.4 m
but NPSHa is only = 5.25 m, from the above estimate
NPSHa is inadequate by: 1.15 m (Unsatisfactory: Cavitation would occur).

Obviously, an alternative Warman Pump with a lower NPSHr could be selected OR the
system could be altered in an attempt to increase NPSHa. Taking the latter course:
Assuming that the discharge side system cannot be altered significantly and that Cw must
remain at 64%: Zs, Zw, and d only can be altered on the suction side. As Hfs and Hi are
already small values there is little advantage in altering d, leaving Zs and Zw to be altered
if possible:
e.g. Increase Zs from 2.0 to 3.5 m
and
Decrease Zl from 3.0 to 1.5 m
CALCULATIONS: ALTERED SUCTION SYSTEM
 1 .0 
Zsm = 3.5  = 2.1 m (increased from 1.2 m)
 1.66 
 1.66 − 1.0 
Zc = 1 .5 ×   = 0.6 m (reduced from 1.2 m)
 1.66 
Hs = Zsm – Zc – Hi – Hfs = 2.1 – 0.6 – 0.3 – 0.5
= +0.7 m (increased from –0.8 m)
10.34 0.32
NPSHa = − + 0.7 = 6.75 m
1.66 1.66
Note that the NPSHa, for this mixture, is greatly influenced by the high value of Sm.
H = Hd – Hs = (27.65) – (+0.7) = 26.95 m
H m (worn ) 26.95
Hw = = = 38.4 m
0.9 × HR 0.9 × 0.780
From the performance curve, Figure 6.13.2 at Q = 104 L/s, Hw = 38.4
Pump Speed = 893 r/min (ew = 62%)
NPSHr = 6.05 m

NPSHa = 6.75 m
“Reserve” NPSHa = 0.70 m However this small value suggest that the
“reserve” flowrate may be small also.)
The benefits gained in improving the suction system to increase (by a positive shift) the
algebraic value Hs are:
(a) Reduced H, Speed and power required
(b) Increased NPSHa
(c) Reduced NPSHr
em (worn )
em (worn ) = ew (new)× ER × = 62% × 0.78 × 0.90 = 43.5%
em (new)
Power consumed at Pump Shaft with pump in worn condition =
Q × H × Sm 104 × 26.95 × 1.66

= = 105 kW
1.02 × em (worn ) 1.02 × 43.5
Note: With the pump in new condition the pump may be operated at a reduced speed:
H m (new) 26.95
Hw = = = 34.6 m
HR 0.78
From the Performance Curve, Figure 6.13.2, Pump Speed = 847 r/min
ew = 62.5%
em(new) = ew(new) × ER = 62.5% × 0.78 = 48.7%
Power consumed at pump shaft with pump in new condition =
Q × H × Sm 104 × 26.95 × 1.66

= = 94 kW
1.02 × em (new) 1.02 × 48.7
If the pump were operated in new condition but also at the fixed speed of 893 R.P.M., the
flowrate would be greater than 104 L/s. If M is constant at 400 tonnes/hour, the
increased flowrate would result in lower values of Cw and Sm as well as higher values of
HR and ER. Lower values of Cw could unfavourably affect the required build-up of the
tailings stack.

If it is not possible to reduce speed, an alternative method of limiting the flowrate may be
necessary: e.g. an alternative smaller – diameter nozzle could be fitted to increase Ve
above 13.5 m/s i.e. Hve should be increased such that H is increased just sufficiently to
limit Q to 104 L/s with the pump in new condition.
However, as the “Reserve” NPSH appears small, the application should be examined in
more detail to determine the maximum capability of the combination of the Pump and
System Resistance Curves:
CALCULATIONS
DISCHARGE PIPELINE FRICTION Dd = 0.200 m; dd = 200 mm
for WATER:
Q : L/s ZERO 50 100 150
1273Q 0 1.6 3.2 4.8

Vd =
200 2
Vd2 0 0.13 0.5 1.2

H vd =
2 × 9.81
f (from Fig. 4.4) - 0.0170 0.0160 0.0157
Ld 120.7 - 604 604 604

=
Dd 0.200
Ld Vd2 0 1.3 5.0 11.1

H fd = f ⋅ ⋅
Dd 2 × 9.81
The Hfd and Q values are plotted on a graph, Figure 6.13.3.

For VL, Q = 84 L/s
0.70 VL, Q = 59 L/s
1.30 VL, Q = 109 L/s
At 84 L/s, Hfd = 3.5 m

At 109 L/s, Hfd = 35.8 m
At 150 L/s, Hfd = 11.1 m
For Slurry: allowing 10% higher pipe friction head losses (Cw greater than 40%):

Minimum Hfd (at 0.70 VL) =
110%
3.50 × = 3.85 m
100%
110%
Hfd at 1.30 VL = 5 .8 × = 6 .4 m
100%
110%
Hfd at 150 L/s = 11.1 × = 12.2 m
100%
These three points are plotted to construct the estimated Slurry Friction Head Loss Curve:
Fig. 6.13.3.

CALCULATIONS
CONICAL ENLARGMENT
From Figure 5.3.2, Head Loss = 0.14 ×

(V − VL )
2
2g
For enlargement from 150 mm to 200 mm:
200 2
Velocity in 150 mm diameter = × Velocity in 200 mm diameter
150 2
i.e. V = 1.78 × Vd
(1.78Vd − Vd )
2
Head Loss = hc = 0.14 ×

2 × 9.81
0.14(0.78Vd )
2
=
2 × 9.81
hc = 0.00434Vd2

FOR WATER: TOTAL HEAD

Note: As Ds = Dd = 0.200 m: ds = Dd = 200mm, Vs = Vd and Hvs = Hvd.
For water: Zw = zero i.e. Zc = zero
Q : L/s ZERO 50 100 150
Discharge System
Water:
1273Q
Vd =
(d d )2 0 1.6 3.2 4.8
2
V
H vd = d
2 × 9.81 0 0.13 0.5 1.2

f, (Fig. 4.4) 0 0.0170 0.0160 0.0157
Ld 120.7
=
Dd 0.200 604 604 604
1273Q
Ve =
(d e )2 0 6.5 13.0 19.5
hc = Loss in conical Enlargement:
hc = 0.0434Vd2 0 0.01 0.04 0.10
2 2
V V
H ve = e
= e
2 g 2 × 9.81 0 2.2 8.6 19.4

hn = Nozzle Friction
hm = 0.1H ve 0 0.2 0.9 1.9
2
Ld V
H fd = f ⋅ ⋅ d
Dd 2 × 9.81 0 1.3 5.0 11.1

Zd 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
Water:
H d = Z d + hc + H fd + hn + H ve 12.0 15.7 26.5 44.5
Suction System
Water: Zs 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
L 11.8
H fs = s × H fd = × H fd
Ld 120.7 0 0.1 0.5 1.1
H i = 0.5 H vs = 0.5H vd 0 0.07 0.25 0.6
Water: H s = Z s − H i − H fs 3.5 3.3 2.8 1.8
Total System
Water: H = (H d ) − (H s ) 8.5 12.4 23.7 42.7
Values of H and Q are plotted, Figure 6.13.2, to construct the Water S.R. Curve.
However the slurry S.R. Curve, in this example is difficult to construct directly upon the
Water S.R. Curve in this case, due to the special allowances to be made for Slurry: Hfd,
Hfs, Zsm and Zc in the estimation of H. In addition, Hs for slurry must be separately
evaluated for the estimation of NPSHa.

FOR SLURRY: TOTAL HEAD AND NPSHa

Note: As Ds = Dd = 0.200 m; ds = dd = 200 mm, Vs = Vd and Hvs = Hvd
Q : L/s 50 80 100 120 150
Discharge System:
1273Q 1273Q
Vd = = (m/s)
(d d ) 2
(200)2 1.6 2.5 3.2 3.8 4.8
1273Q 1273Q
Ve = = (m/s)
(d e ) 2
(99)2 6.5 10.4 13.0 15.6 19.5
hc = Loss in Conical Enlargement
= 0.00434 (Vd2) (m) 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.1
Slurry Hfd (from Fig. 6.13.3.) (m) 3.9 4.3 5.5 7.7 12.2
Ve2
H ve = (m)
2 × 9.81 2.2 5.5 8.6 12.4 19.4
hn = Nozzle Friction Head
loss = 0.1 Hve (m) 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.2 1.9
Zd (m) 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
H d = Z d + hc + H fd + hn + H ve (m) 18.3 22.4 27.0 33.4 45.6
Suction System (note Vs = Vd)
Zsm (m) 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1
Zc (m) 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Ls 11.8
H fs = H fd × = H fd × (m)
Ld 120.7 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.2
Vs2
H i = 0.5H vs (= 0.5H vd ) = 0.5 (m)
2 × 9.81 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6
H s = Z sm − Z c − H fs − H i +1.0 +0.9 +0.7 +0.3 -0.3
Total System:
H = (H d ) − (H s ) 17.3 21.5 26.3 33.1 45.9
Hatm – Hvap = 6.23 – 0.19 6.04 6.04 6.04 6.04 6.04
NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap + (Hs) 7.0 6.9 6.7 6.3 5.7
*Note: Hs is a negative (-ve) value at 150 L/s

FOR SLURRY (continued)

Values of H and Q are plotted on Figure 6.13.2 to construct the Slurry S.R. Curve from
which:
At Q = 104 L/s : H = 27.2 m (Point A)
Given that the pump must handle this duty in the worn condition.
H m (worn )
Hw = = 38.75 m
0.9 × 0.780
Pump Speed = 895 r/min: ew = 61% for Duty Point A
The Pump Curve for Hm(new)/Q: Hm(new) = 0.78 Hw and the Pump Curve and
Hm(worn)/Q: Hm(worn) = 0.90 Hm(new) and the NPSHa curve are drawn on Figure
6.13.2.
The Hm(worn)/Q pump curve intersects the Slurry S.R. Curve at 104 L/s and 27.2 m.
The Hm(new)/Q pump curve intersects the Slurry S.R. Curve at 112 L/s and 29.8 m.
NPSHr values at 895 r/min from the Hw/Q curve are as follows:
Q : (L/s) 50 80 100 120 150
NPSHr : (m) less than 5.0 5.0 6.0 6.7 7.6
Values of NPSHr are also plotted on the graph.

The NPSHr and NPSHa (Cw = 64%) curves intersect at Q = 113 L/s (Point X) which is the
estimated limiting flowrate for cavitation – free operation at 895 r/min. This is just a
little in excess of the specified flowrate of 104 L/s (Point A) or the estimated flowrate of
112 L/s (Point B) for the pump in new condition.
However at 112 L/s and providing that M remained constant, Cw would be a little less
than 64%, for the pump in new condition, unless reduced speed or a smaller-diameter
nozzle were employed to restrict Q to 104 L/s. Alternatively if Cw were kept constant M
would be greater than 400 Tonnes/hour.
Assuming that the pump speed is reduced to handle Duty Point A in new condition:
H m (new) 27.2m
Hw = = = 34.87 m
HR 0.78
From Fig. 6.13.2,
Pump Speed = 850 r/min
(Note: NPSHr at 850 r/min is less than NPSHr at 895 r/min)

PUMP CONDITION WORN NEW

Qualifications - - Reduced Reduced
Diameter Speed
Nozzle
Nozzle Dia: de (mm) 99 99 < 99 99
Pump Speed (r/min) 895 895 895 850
Cw 64% 64% 64% 64%
M (Tonnes/hour) 400 > 400 400 400
Duty Point A B C A
Q (L/s) 104 112 104 104
H (m) 27.2 29.9 30.2 27.2
ew (%) 61.5% 63% 61.5% 62.5%
em(worn) = ew × 0.9 × 0.78 43.2% - - -
em(new) = ew × 0.78 - 49.1% 48.0% 48.8%
Power absorbed at pump shaft:
Q × H × Sm 107 kW - - -
Worn:
1.02 × em (worn )
Q × H × Sm - 111 kW 107 kW 95 kW
New:
1.02 × em (new)
The Performance Curve WPA 86A01B Figure 6.13.2, represents the 8/6 F-AH pump and
the 8/6 E-AM pump. The maximum power rating of the 8/6 E-AM Pump is 120 kW
which is just greater than that estimated to be required at any of the above duty points.
SUMMARY
The 8/6 E-AM Pump is estimated to be capable of handling the Duty to the duty details
given but amended in respect of Zs and Zw to increase NPSHa. Nevertheless, it would be
operating close to its maximum kW rating and either pump (8/6 E-AM or 8/6 F-AH)
would be operating very close to the flowrate limit imposed (113 L/s) by the combination
of its NPSHr and the amended System’s NPSHa, at Cw = 64%.
An alternative Warman Pump with lower NPSHr characteristics should be selected,
especially if:

(a) Further “reserve” NPSHa is considered necessary to compensate for any inaccuracies
likely in the duty details given, as amended, or in empirical methods employed in the
above calculations.
(b) M, Cw or any other relevant factors are likely to vary such as to adversely affect
either NPSHa or NPSHr.
Vacuum Filtrate Extraction Duty

A special application for Warman pumps is the pumping of filtrates originating from
rotary vacuum filters. These filtrates usually contain very small amounts of fine abrasive
solids which have passed through the filter medium. The Warman Submerged-Gland
Type Pump is invariably applied to these duties in view of the simple and very reliable
shaft-sealing design, which precludes any air ingress to the pump, via the shaft seal.
EXAMPLE
Figure 6.14.1 represents a typical Vacuum Filtrate Extraction Duty. The vacuum gauge
indicates the vacuum existing in the vapour space above the liquid. Note: The Balance
Leg provides a vent for air entrained with liquid entering the suction pipe. It also ensures
that the liquid will gravitate into the pump suction, despite the high vacuum on the upper
surface of the liquid supply.

DUTY DETAILS GIVEN PUMPING SYSTEM
Liquid: Sugar Juice Filtrate Suction System Discharge System
Sl = 1.05 (+) Zs = 5.0 m Zd = 22.0 m

Cw = Negligible * Ls = 3.1 m Ld = 41.0 m *
Temperature = 45ºC ds = 100 mm dd = 100 mm
Vapour Pressure of Filtrate Piping = Piping =
= 1.77 m of water Commercial Steel Commercial Steel
Barometric Pressure Entrance: Flush connection
= 10.34 m of water
Receiver Vacuum (max)
= 584 mm of Mercury
Q = 28 L/s
Kinematic Viscosity * Includes allowances for conical enlargement, bends etc.

= 1.0 mm2/s
CALCULATIONS
h × 13.6 584 × 13.6

H vac = = = 7.56 m of liquid
1000 × S m 1000 × 1.05
10.34 1.77
H atm − H vap = − = 8.2 m of liquid
1.05 1.05
H = (H d ) − (H s ) = (Z d + H fd + H vd )− (Z s − H vac − H i − H fs )
* Note: As Ds = Dd : Velocity, Friction factors, etc., are the same for Suction and
Discharge Pipelines.
As Kinematic Viscosity is equal to that of Water, friction factors are the same as for
water.

Q : (L/s) ZERO 10 20 30 40 50
Discharge System
1273Q
Vd =
d2 0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1 6.4
f (Fig. 4.4) - 0.0198 0.0185 0.0180 0.0175 0.0173
Ld 41
=
Dd 0.1 410 410 410 410 410 410
Vd2
H ve = H vd =
2 × 9.81 0 0.1 0.3 0.7 1.3 2.1
Ld V d2
H fd = f ⋅ ⋅
D d 2 × 9.81 0 0.8 2.3 5.2 9.3 14.9
Zd 22 22.0 22.0 22.0 22.0 22.0
Hd = Zd + Hfd + Hve 22 22.9 24.6 27.9 32.6 39.0
Suction System
Zs 5 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Hvac 7.56 7.56 7.56 7.56 7.56 7.56
Hi = 0.5 Hvs = 0.5 Hvd 0 0.05 0.15 0.4 0.7 1.1
3 .1
H fs = × H fd
41.0 0 0.06 0.2 0.4 0.7 1.1
Hs = Zs – Hvac – Hi – Hfs -2.6 -2.7 -3.0 -3.4 -4.0 -4.8
Total System
H = (Hd) – (Hs) 24.6 +25.6 +27.6 +31.3 +36.6 +43.8
Hatm = Hvap 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2

* Hs -2.56 -2.65 -2.9 -3.4 -3.9 -4.7
NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap – Hs 5.6 5.6 5.3 4.8 4.3 3.5
* Note: Hs is negative (-ve) in this example.

The values of Q and H are plotted as the System Resistance Curve superimposed on a
selected pump performance curve, Fig. 6.14.2, in this case the 4/3 C-AM Pump which,

when supplied in the Submerged-Gland fitup, is designated 4/3 C-AMW. As the solids
concentration is negligible, HR = 1.0 (and ER = 1.0).
Allowance for Wear

Assuming that Hm(worn) = 0.95*Hm(new) and that em(worn) = 0.95*em(new).
(*This high value is normally expected on these duties)

PUMP CONDITION NEW WORN
Duty Point Flowrate, Q 28 L/s 28 L/s

Duty Point Head, H = Hm 30.8 m 30.8 m
H m (new) 30.8m 30.8 m -

Hw = =
HR 1 .0
H m (new) 30.8m - 32.4 m

Hw = =
HR × 0.9 1.0 × 0.9
Pump Speed for Q and Hw, (r/min) 1760 1800
Reference Point on Pump Performance Curve A B
It is now necessary to confirm that the pump will not cavitate when operating at
Reference Points A and B.
The values of NPSHa/Q are plotted on the same performance curve.
Pump in New Condition: 1760 r/min
As HR = ER = 1.0, the values of NPSHr/Q are obtained from the NPSHr values
intersected by the S.R. Curve and plotted. The NPSHa exceeds NPSHr at values of Q up
to 35 L/s. The Reserve NPSHa at 28 L/s (Reference Point A) is approximately 1.8 m, i.e.
the 4/3 C-AMW Pump would operate without cavitation on this duty, in new condition, at
1760 r/min.
Pump in Worn Condition: 1800 r/min
At 1800 r/min (Reference Point B) NPSHr is marginally (0.06 m) higher at 3.30 m
compared with NPSHr = 3.24 m (Reference Point A). The Reserve NPSHa is
approximately 1.7 mm, i.e. the 4/3 C-AMW Pump would operate without cavitation on
this duty, in worn condition, at 1800 r/min.
Fixed Speed Operation: 1800 r/min
If the pump is operated at 1800 r/min in both new and worn condition, the pump Hm/Q
curve would always intersect an S.R. Curve, which varies according to the variations in
Zs. At the maximum flowrate specified: 28 L/s, the pump in new condition would be
attempting to develop Hm = 32.4 m. However: with Zs = 5.0 m, the system requires H =
Hm = 30.8 m only. Accordingly, the pump would draw down (reduce) Zs such that Hm
increased to 32.4 m. If this occurred, Zs would be reduced by (32.4 – 30.8) = 1.6 m and
the Reserve NPSHa would be reduced from 1.8 m to (1.8 – 1.6) = 0.2 m. Cavitation
would not occur under this condition although the reserve is very small.

Assuming that Fixed Speed Operation at 1800 r/min is required, the duty extremes are:
Pump Speed (r/min) 1800 1800

Duty Point Reference B A
Duty Point Flowrate: Q 28 L/s 28 L/s
H = Hm(new) 32.4 m -
H = Hm(worn) - 30.8 m
ew (at 1800 r/min) 58.0% 58.0%
em(new) = ew × ER = ew × 1.0 58.0% -
em(worn) = 0.95 em(new) - 55.1%

Q × H m (new)× S m 28.0 × 32.4 × 1.05 16 kW -

=
1.02 × em (new) 1.02 × 58.0
Q × H m (worn )× S m 28.0 × 30.8 × 1.05 - 16 kW

=
1.02 × em (worn ) 1.02 × 55.1
Note that, in this instance, Zs must be maintained at the fairly high value of 5.0 m
minimum, to maintain the NPSHa at a satisfactorily high value.
The duty point is fairly well to the left side of the Best Efficiency curve of this pump.
This is generally a good practice in filtrate pump selection, as the elimination of entrained
air in vacuum receivers is rarely perfect. The liquid capacity of the pump is less affected
by reasonably small quantities of entrained air when operating well to the left, rather than
to the right, of the Best Efficiency curve.
Should it be likely that the duty flowrate may have to be increased at a future date, and in
view of the small Reserve NPSHa in new condition, attempts could be made to amend the
Duty Details Given to increase NPSHa and/or to reduce NPSHr e.g.:
NPSHa
(a) Consider increasing available Zs from 5.0 m to at least 6.0 m.
(b) Consider increasing Ds to reduce Hi and Hfs.
NPSHr
(c) Consider an alternative Warman Submerged-Gland Pump with a lower NPSHr for
the duty.

NOTE
At 28 L/s, V in 100 mm pipe is unnecessarily high at 3.6 m/s. If Dd were also increased,
Hfd and Hve would be reduced which would correspondingly reduce H (= Hm). While in
this case, a small reduction in H would not greatly reduce NPSHr, it would result in a
reduced power consumption.
Suction Dredge Duty

VARIABLE DISCHARGE PIPE LENGTH AND VARIABLE FLOWRATES
In many suction dredging duties, such as the winning of sand or in reclamation, the
length of discharge pipeline may be required to vary and the flowrate may be required to
vary within the limits imposed by the NPSHa and the Limiting Settling Velocity.
EXAMPLE:
Figure 6.15.1 represents a typical Suction Dredge Duty.
DUTY DETAILS GIVEN:
WATER, SOLIDS, SLURRY PUMPING SYSTEM
Solids: River Sand Zs = -0.5 m (negative) Zd = 10.0 m

S = 2.65 Zl = 3.0 m (maximum) *Ld = 140 m (minimum)
to 900 m (maximum)
Sl = 1.0 *Ls = 10.0 m
dd = 250 mm including
d50 PZLGHO\JUDGHG Entrance = Dredge pipe exit
Suction Type
**Cw = 30% (maximum) Piping = Commercial
ds = 250 mm Steel
Water Temperature
= 25ºC (maximum) Piping = Commercial
Steel
Barometric Pressure Head
= 10.34 m (of water)
Vapour Pressure Head
= 0.32 m (of water)
Solids Capacity required
= 150 Tonnes/hour (minimum) * Allows for bends etc. in pipelines
**Note: The Cw value of 30% if given by and assured by the client who assumes full
responsibility for its applicability to a deposit where the sand is reported to be reasonably
free-running, such that this value may be reliably achieved.

CALCULATIONS
Limiting Deposit Velocity
From Fig. 2.2 for S = 2.65 and Cw = 30%
Sm = 1.24, Cv = 14%
From Fig. 3.4 for d50 PDQG&v = 14%
FL = 1.03
 2.65 − 1.0 
VL = 1.03 2 × 9.81 × 0.250 ×  
 1.0 
VL = 2.9 m/s
2.9 × (250 )
2
At Limiting Settling Velocity, Q = = 144 L/s
1273
At 144 L/s, Cw = 30%
Dry Solids Capacity = M = 0.036 × Q × Sm × Cw
= 0.036 × 144 × 1.24 × 30
= 193 t/h
This value is well in excess of the required minimum 150 t/h but will provide available
reserve capacity to assist the client in offsetting occasional reductions in solids output,
due to unavoidable interruptions to full production rate, as normally experienced in
suction dredging operations.
Differential Column
 S − Sl  1.24 − 1.0 
Z c = Z l  m  = 3.0  = 0.6 m
 Sm   1.24 
Barometric _ pressure _ Head _ of _ Water (m) 10.34
Hatm = = = 8.3 m
Sm 1.24

Vapour _ pressure _ Head _ of _ Water (m)

Hvap =
Sm
0.32
= = 0.26 m
1.24
Hatm – Hvap = 8.3 m – 0.26 m = 8.0 m
SUCTION HEAD AND NPSHa:
Q: (L/s) 100 150 200 250 300
FOR WATER:
1273Q
Vs =
d2 2.0 3.1 4.1 5.1 6.1
f (Fig. 4.4) 0.0160 0.0153 0.0151 0.0149 0.0148
Ls 10.0
=
Ds 0.250 40 40 40 40 40
Vs2
H vs =
2 × 9.81 0.2 0.5 0.9 1.3 1.9
Hi = 1.0 Hvs 0.2 0.5 0.9 1.3 1.9
Ls Vs2
H fs = f × ×
Ds 2 × 9.81 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.1
Zs -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 -0.5
Hs* = Zs – Hi – Hfs -0.8 -1.3 -1.9 -2.6 -3.5
FOR MIXTURE
Zc 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Hs* = Zs – Hi – Hfs – Zc
= Hs (for water) – Zc -1.4 -1.9 -2.5 -3.2 -4.1
Hatm – Hvap 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.1
NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap + Hs 6.7 6.2 5.6 4.9 4.0
*Notes:
(1) Hs is negative for water and for mixture in this example.

(2) In this short and mainly inclined suction pipework the difference between Hfs for
water and Hfs for the Cw = 30% mixture is insignificant. However, the necessary
allowance for the constant head loss, Zc, results in the difference in Hs values for
mixture, in comparison with water, pumped.
DISCHARGE HEAD AND TOTAL HEAD Ld = 140 m; D = 0.250 m:
Q: (L/s) 100 150 200 250
FOR WATER
1273Q
Vd =
d2 2.0 3.1 4.1 5.1
f (Figure 4.4) 0.0160 0.0153 0.0151 0.0149
Ld 140
=
Dd 0.250 560 560 560 560
Vd2
H vd = = H ve
2 × 9.81 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.3
Ld Vd2
H fd = f × ×
Dd 2 × 9.81 1.8 4.3 7.6 10.8
Zd = 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Hd = Zd + Hfd + Hve 12.0 14.8 18.5 22.1

Hs = Hs (for water) -0.8 -1.3 -1.8 -2.6
Hγ = Hd – Hs 12.8 16.1 20.3 24.7
FOR MIXTURE
Zc 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
H = H (for water) + Zc 13.4 16.7 20.9 25.3

Ld = 900 m; D = 0.250 m:
Q: (L/s) 100 150 200 250
FOR WATER
900
H fd = × H fd (for Ld = 140 mm)
140 11.6 27.6 48.9 69.4
Hd = Zd + Hfd + Hve 21.8 38.1 59.8 82.0
Hs = Hs (for water) -0.8 -1.3 -1.8 -2.6
H* = Hd – Hs 22.6 39.4 61.7 80.7
FOR MIXTURE
Zc 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
H = H (for water) + Zc 23.2 40.0 62.3 81.3
*Note: Each of these H (for water) values must be adjusted by the constant value of
Zc (in this case, Zc = 0.6 m) to allow for this additional effective static suction
head loss when handling mixture. Each resulting S.R. Curve (i.e. representing
“Water S.R. + Zc”) is then the correct base upon which the Slurry S.R. Curve
is to be constructed as described in Section 4.
Q for 1.30 VL = 1.30 × 144 L/s = 187 L/s
Q for 0.70 VL = 0.70 × 144 L/s = 101 L/s
Assuming that a suitable pump for this duty is probably the 10.8 F-G (Performance Curve
WPA108A11) Figure 6.15.2.
Mechanical limitations on this pump are:
Speed: 1100 r/min (maximum)
Power consumed at pump shaft: 260 kW (maximum)
It is apparent that the pump, when in worn condition, will require a speed in excess of
1000 r/min to produce a flowrate in excess of 144 L/s when Ld = 900 m.

A pump speed of 1050 r/min is selected for trial:

The Hw/Q curve for 1050 r/min is plotted by extrapolation.
From Fig. 2.3, HR = ER = 0.895.
The Hm(new) curve is plotted.
From Section 7, Hm(worn) = Hw × 0.895 × 0.9 = 0.806 Hw
The Hm(worn) curve is plotted.

The values of NPSHa and NPSHr are plotted on the selected pump performance curve,
Fig. 6.15.2. The intersection of the NPSHa and NPSHr curve represents the Limiting
flowrate for the cavitation – free operation, which in this case is 215 L/s.
OPERATING RANGE
For Ld = 900 m: the maximum speed selected must be sufficient to provide a slurry
flowrate not less than 144 L/s (i.e. VL) with the pump in worn condition. Point B (1050
r/min) meets this requirement. (The pump would also just meet the requirement at Point
G, representing a slightly reduced pump speed.) Point A represents the Duty Point in
new condition at 1050 r/min.
For Ld = 140 m to Ld = 900 m: (i.e. including intermediate values for Ld), slurry
flowrates must not exceed 215 L/s (Point F to D or C) which is the constant maximum
flowrate for cavitation – free operation for the specified duty range. (*Note that for the
pump in this example, values of NPSHr are constant at all values of Hw(new), in excess of
approximately 15 m, for any given flowrate. When NPSHr is not constant in respect of
Q, separate NPSHr curves must be drawn in respect of each Slurry SR Curve,
representing the pump’s NPSHr characteristic at the Hw(new)/Q point relating to each
selected H/Q point on the Slurry S.R. Curve.
For Ld = 140 m: the minimum speed range must be sufficient to provide a flowrate not
less than 144 L/s or more than 215 L/s and at the low range of heads (Points E to F) in
new condition. Obviously, higher speeds would be required for the pump in worn
condition.
Allowance for Wear
Assuming that Hm(worn) = 0.90 Hm(new)
and that em(worn) = 0.90 em(new)

Discharge Pipeline Length 900 m (at maximum)

Pump Speed (maximum) 1050 r/min
Wearing Parts Condition New Worn
Duty Point A B
Q 165 L/s 149 L/s
H = Hm 48.0 m 43.9 m
ew 50.5% 47%
em(new) = ew × ER = ew × 0.895 45.2% 42%
em(worn) = em(new) × 0.90 - 37.9%
Power absorbed at Pump Shaft:
Q × H m × Sm 165 × 48.0 × 1.24 213 kW -
=
1.02 × em (new) 1.02 × 45.2
Q × H m × Sm 149 × 43.9 × 1.24 - 210 kW
=
1.02 × em (worn ) 1.02 × 37.9
i.e. The pump is capable of discharging at a flowrate in excess of 144 L/s in both new and
worn conditions, at speed and power consumption within the mechanical limitations
specified.
Duty Points C and D represent duty points at 1050 r/min, but for values of Ld each less
than 900 m, with Q limited by NPSH available:
Pump Speed (maximum) 1050 r/min
Duty Point C D
Q 215 L/s 215 L/s
H = Hm 46.0 m 42.0 m
ew 60% 60%
em(new, worn, respectively) 53.7% 48.3%
Power absorbed at Pump Shaft: 224 kW * 227 kW *
*Note: These power consumptions are also within the maximum rated pump kW.

Duty points E and F represent duty point for the minimum Ld = 140 m at values for Q at
the VL and NPSH limits respectively:
Discharge Pipeline Length: 140 m (at minimum)
Duty Point E F E F
Q 144 L/s 215 L/s 144 L/s 215 L/s

Hm(new), Hm(worn) respect. 17.3 m 22.3 m 17.3 m 22.3 m
H m (new) H m (new)
Hw = =
HR 0.895 19.3 m 24.9 m - -
H m (worn )
Hw =
0.895 × 0.90 - - 21.5 m 27.7 m
Speed for Q and Hw (r/min) 640 760 675 790
ew 57% 62.5% 57% 62.5%
em(new) = ew × ER = ew × 0.895 51.0% 55.9% - -
em(worn) = em(new) × 0.90 - - 45.9% 50.3%

Power absorbed at pump shaft 59 kW 104 kW 66 kW 116 kW
The Pump Speed and Power Consumption range limits are summarised:
Duty Point A B C D E(new) E(worn) F(new) F(worn)
Speed, r/min 1050 1050 1050 1050 640 675 760 790
Power absorbed at
Pump Shaft, kW 213 210 224 227 59 66 104 116
i.e.
Maximum Pump Duty: Pump requires 224 kW and 1050 r/min (Point C)
Minimum Pump Duty: Pump required 59 kW and 640 r/min (Point E: new condition)
Accordingly, the prime mover: electric motor (or diesel engine, etc.) driving the pump,
and the drive transmission, should be capable of providing the required combinations of
pump speed and absorbed power over the range indicated above.
Due allowance should be made when determining the kW rating of the prime mover, for
the power requirement of ancillary equipment (service water pumps, hydraulic oil pumps,
etc.) if powered by the same prime mover, as well as power losses in the drive
transmission (See Section 7).

Pressure Vessel
A possible duty would be the pumping of slurry from a continuously-fed, agitated
pressure-leaching vessel as shown in figure 6.16.1. In this case, the pressure above the
liquid is simply the vapour pressure of the liquid. No source of additional pressurisation
is employed.
Agitation is sufficiently vigorous to ensure that the solids are maintained in suspension
and distributed uniformly throughout the mixture in the vessel.
DUTY DETAIL GIVEN
Liquid, Solids, Slurry Suction System Discharge System
Liquid: Solution of ammonia in Zs = 7.6 m Zd = 41.0 m

water, also containing Las = 3.20 m Lad = 178 m
dissolved minerals, leached Bends=2×135º Long Bends=4×90º Long
from the solids. Valve=1×Plug-lub. Rect.
way.
Entrance=Projecting Type Exit=To atmosphere at Vd
Piping=Commercial Steel Piping=Commercial Steel
Liquid Vapour Pressure = 330 Altitude = 1500 m above Sea Level

kPa Absolute
Sl = 0.98
S = 3.1
Cw = 40%
d50 PZLGHO\JUDGHG
Slurry Temperature : 120ºC
Q = 45 L/s (fixed)
CALCULATIONS
Concentration by Volume
Figure 2.2 is not applicable, as Sl is not equal to 1.0.
From Basic Mixture Formula No. 2, from Section 1.3 “Basic Formulae for Mixture of
Liquids and Solids”.
Sl 0.98
Sm = = = 1.35
 C S − Sl   40 3.1 − 0.98 
1 −  w ⋅  1−  ⋅ 
 100 S l   100 3.1 
m w × Sm = 1000 × 1.35 = 1350

From Basic Mixture Formula No. 1, from Section 1.3: “Basic Formulae for Mixture of
Liquids and Solids”
Cv
Sm = S
Cw
Cw 40
i.e. Cv = S m = 1.35 × = 17.4%
S 3 .1
Limiting Settling Velocity
From Figure 3.4, for d50 PZLGHO\JUDGHGDQG&v = 17.4%: FL = 1.1
 S − Sl  3.1 − 0.98 
VL = FL 2 gD  = 1.1 2 × 9.81D  = 7.17 D
 Sl   0.98 
Selection of Pipe Diameter (Required Q = 45 L/s)
Pipe Diameter: d (mm) 100 150 200
Pipe Diameter: D (m) 0.100 0.150 0.200
V L = 7.17 D (m/s) 2.27 2.78 3.21
*Flowrate at V = VL (L/s) 18 40 101

Comments Unsuitable Suitable Unsuitable
d 2 Q d 2 × 45.0
*V = =
1273 1273

150 mm is selected for both suction, ds, and discharge, dd. At the required flowrate of 45
L/s, the velocity in 150 mm pipe would be about 12% in excess of VL,
V 45
i.e. = = 1.12 , providing a safe margin
VL 40
TOTAL EQUIVALENT LENGTHS OF PIPE D = 0.150 m; d = 150 mm
Bends 2 × 50% × 3.35 m = 3.35 m 4 × 3.35 = 13.4 m
Valves 1 × 2.13 m = 2.13 m - -
Total Lfs = 5.48 m Lfd = 13.4 m

Las = 3.20 m Lad = 178.0 m
Ls = 8.68 m Ld = 191.4 m
DISCHARGE PIPELINE FRICTION: Dd = 0.150 m; dd = 150 mm
FOR WATER: Q: L/s ZERO 20 30 40 50 60
1273Q 0 1.1 1.7 2.3 2.8 3.4

Vd = (m/s)
150 2
Vd2 Vd2 0 0.06 0.15 0.3 0.4 0.6

H vd = = (m)
2 g 2 × 9.81
f (from Figure 4.4) - 0.0185 0.0178 0.0172 0.0170 0.0168
Ld 191.4 1276 1276 1276 1276 1276

=
Dd 0.150
Ld Vd2 0 1.5 3.3 5.7 8.8 12.6

H fd = f× × (m)
Dd 2 g
These water Hfd values are plotted on a graph, Figure 6.16.2, Curve A-B.
For VL, Q = 40 L/s
0.70 VL, Q = 29 L/s
1.30 VL, Q = 52 L/s
The estimated Category “A” Slurry Hfd curve C-D is drawn by the empirical method. See
Section 4: “Estimation of Slurry Friction Head Losses”.

As this Category “D” slurry fails to qualify as a Category “A” slurry, only in that 50% by
weight of its solids are FRDUVHUWKDQ P, it is arbitrarily allowed that its friction losses
will be approximately 50% greater than for a Category “A” Slurry, Curve C-D from
Figure 6.16.2:

Flowrate: (L/s) 30 40 50
Category “A”: Hfd

(from curve C-D) 5.8 m 6.9 m 9.0 m
+50% 2.9 m 3.5 m 4.5 m
Category “D”: Hfd 8.7 m* 10.4 m* 13.5 m*
* These Hf values are plotted on Figure 6.16.2, as curve E-F.

Hpr
The Vapour Pressure of the Liquid is given as 330 kPa “Absolute”, i.e. 330 kPa above
Absolute Zero. This value cannot be converted to Hpr without first adjusting it to a value
relative to atmosphere, i.e. to the atmospheric (barometric) pressure existing at the pump
location.
At 1500 m altitude, from Section 6: “Atmospheric Pressure”
Barometric Pressure = 848 millibars = 0.848 bars
As 1 bar = 100 kPa
Barometric Pressure = 0.848 × 100 = 84.8 kPa
GAUGE Vapour Pressure = 330 kPa – 84.8 kPa
= 245.2 kPa
As 1 kPa = 1000 Pa, Pr = 245 200 Pa above atmospheric pressure.
Pr 245200
H pr = = = 18.5 m
g × ρ m 9.81 × 1350
Hvap
Vapour Pressure = 330 kPa = 330 000 Pa
Vapour _ pressure( Pa ) 330000

H vap = = = 24.9 m
g × ρm 9.81 × 1350
Hatm
At 1500 m altitude, from Section 6: “Atmospheric Pressure Head”,
Barometric Pressure = 8.65 metres of water
Hatm = 8.65 = 6.4 m
1.35

Q: (L/s) 30 40 50
DISCHARGE SYSTEM:
Zd (m) 41.0 41.0 41.0
Slurry Hfd (Fig. 6.16.2, curve E-F) (m) 8.7 10.4 13.5
Hve = Hvd (m) 0.1 0.3 0.4
Hd = Zd + Hfd + Hve (m) 49.8 51.7 54.9
SUCTION SYSTEM:
Hpr (m) 18.5 18.5 18.5
Zs (m) 7.6 7.6 7.6
Hi = 1.0 Hvs = 1.0 Hvd (m) 0.1 0.3 0.4
Ls 8.68
H fs = H fd × = H fd ×
Ld 191.4 (m) 0.4 0.5 0.6
Hs = Hpr + Zs – Hi – Hfs (m) 25.6 25.3 25.1
TOTAL SYSTEM
H* = Hd – Hs (m) 24.2 26.4 29.8
Hatm (m) 6.4 6.4 6.4

Hvap (m) 24.9 24.9 24.9
NPSHa = Hatm – Hvap + Hs (m) 7.1 6.8 6.6
The 6/4D-AM pump appears to be a suitable selection for this duty. The pump discharge
branch is nominally 100 mm (4 inches) internal diameter, requiring a 100 mm × 150 mm
conical enlargement at the pump discharge flange. Adopting the recommended included
angle, θ = 6º, then from Figure 5.3.2 Ke = 0.14, from which the additional friction head
loss may be calculated:
2
 150 
Velocity in 100 mm pipe =  × Velocity in 150 mm pipe.
 100 
= 2.25 Vd

Correction of Total Dynamic Head for Friction Head Loss on Enlargement

Q: (L/s) 30 40 50
Vd (when d = 150 mm) (m/s) 1.7 2.3 2.8
V100 (when d = 100 mm ) = 2.25 Vd (m/s) 3.8 5.2 6.3
V100 – Vd (m/s) 2.1 2.9 3.5
Friction Head Loss on Enlargement
(V100 − Vd )2 (m) 0.03 0.06 0.1
= 0.14
2 × 9.81
H* (disregarding enlargement loss) (m) 24.2 26.4 29.8
H+ (including enlargement loss) (m) 24.23 26.46 29.9
Note that although the Friction Head Loss on Enlargement is a relatively small value, the
recommended angle θ = 6º provides for minimum wear rate. See Section 7: “Conical
Enlargements”.
Values of H+ and NPSHa are plotted on the 6.4D-AM Performance Curve WPA64A01,
Figure 6.16.3.

PUMP CONDITION WORN
H ++ H ++ H ++ 33.9 m (Point D)
= =
Hw ER × 0.85 0.80 × 0.85 49.9 m (Point E)
NPSHr, from Figure 6.16.3 4.6 m
Pump Speed from Figure 6.16.3 1460 r/min
ew, from Figure 6.16.3 52%
em(worn) = ew × ER × 0.85 35.5%
Estimated power consumed at pump shaft:
Q × H ++ × S m 45 × 33.9 × 1.35
= 57 kW
1.02 × em (worn ) 1.02 × 35.5
At NPSHr, 4.6 m is less than NPSHa, 6.4 m the pump would not cavitate at 1460 r/min in
the worn condition. However, as cavitation would occur at 1460 r/min in the new and
partly-worn condition, due to reduction of Zs and NPSHa, speed changes would be
required to maintain Zs, Hs and NPSHa at satisfactorily high values.
The limits of the possible estimated pump duty extremes may be summarised:
POSSIBLE ESTIMATED DUTY EXTREME MINIMUM MAXIMUM
Total Dynamic Head (m) H+ = 27.8 m H++ = 33.9 m

Pump Conditions NEW WORN
Estimated power absorbed at pump shaft 40 kW 57 kW
The kW power rating of the drive motor should be at least 60 kW plus other necessary
allowances. See Section 7: “Selection of Prime Mover Nominal Power Rating”.
Ideally, automatic speed variation could be provided to cover a range of a least 1230 to
1460 r/min but preferably a greater range say 1100 to 1550 r/min. Speed control should
be arranged, ideally, to vary speed as required to maintain a constant value of Zs = 7.6 m.
The uncertainty regarding the true value of Hf and H has been provided for by:
H m (worn )
a) Allowing for a low value of = 0.85
H m (new)
Note that, if necessary, the wearing parts could be replaced before this value is
reached.

b) Allowing for a high value of Hf (Duty Point D)

c) Allowing for a low value of Hf (1100 r/min)
d) Allowing for a variable speed drive with automatic control.
If a variable speed drive is not provided, the pump could be vee-belt drive and the drive
ratio altered from time-to-time to re-adjust the speed to compensate for wear. The initial
speed for new condition would be established by a trial and error process. This would
establish the correct minimum speed for the true value of H. Subsequently the number of
alternative speeds required, for progressively worn conditions, could be established by
trial and error, and would probably be fairly small: perhaps as few as 1 or 2, providing
that NPSHa always exceeds NPSHr as evidenced by satisfactory pump performance.
Pump Frame Size
The maximum estimated pump speed and power absorbed at the pump shaft are just
within the limits for the D-Frame pump, indicating that the 6/4 D-AM would be suitable.
Shaft Sealing
Approximate values for Hs and Hd are:
Hs: 25.2 m
Hd+: Hs + H+ = 25.2 m + 27.8 m = 53.0 m (minimum)
Hd++: Hs + H++ = 25.2 m + 33.9 m = 59.1 m (maximum)
Hs 25.2
i.e. +
× 100% = × 100% = 47.5% (minimum duty)
Hd 53.0
Hs 25.2
++
× 100% = × 100% = 42.6% (maximum duty)
Hd 59.1
Both these values, 47.5% and 42.6%, are greatly in excess of the maximum sealing
capability of a Centrifugally-Sealed pump fitted with a standard impeller. i.e.: leakage
could occur when running.
Although a differential impeller could provide satisfactory sealing while running, See
Section 7: “Differential Impellers”, any leakage of hot ammonia slurry (e.g. in the event
of a power failure) would be a hazard, particularly in view of the high head, Hs = Hpr +
Zs, which would provide the leakage force.
Accordingly, a Gland-Sealed 6/4 D-AM pump should be used, see Section 7: “Gland-
Sealed Pumps”, or if preferred, a Mechanically-Sealed 6/4 D-AM Pump provided with
water-purging of the seal faces.

HR and ER
As Sl does not equal 1.0, Figure 2.3 strictly does not apply. However, at Sl = 0.98 the
error would be negligible for such a small difference.
For d50 = PLHPP
S = 3.1
Cw = 40%
From Figure 2.5, HR = ER – 0.81, say: 0.8
At Q = 45 L/s: from Duty Point “A” on the slurry S.R. Curve for H+ = 27.8 m.
Allowing = = 0.85
H m (new) em (new)
Q (L/s) 45 45
H+ (= Hm) (m) 27.8 27.8
H m (new) 27.8 (m) 34.8 -

Hw = = (Point
ER 0 .8
B)
H m (new) 27.8 (m) - 40.9 (Point
Hw = =
ER × 0.85 0.8 × 0.85 C)
NPSHr (m) 4.1 4.4
ew (%) 56% 55%
em(new) = ew × ER = 56% × 0.8 (%) 44.8% -
em(worn) = ew × ER × 0.85 = 55% × 0.8 × 0.85 (%) - 37.4%
Power absorbed at pump shaft (kW):
Q × H + × Sm 45 × 27.8 × 1.35 37 kW -
=
1.02 × em (new) 1.02 × 44.8
Q × H + × Sm 45 × 27.8 × 1.35 - 44.3 kW

=
1.02 × em (worn ) 1.02 × 37.4
NPSHr (from Pump Curves) (m) 4.1 4.3

NPSHa (from NPSHa curve) (m) 6.7 6.7
Reserve NPSHa (m) 2.6 2.4

The reserve NPSHa is adequate for both new and worn conditions, providing that the
correct speeds are adopted for varying conditions of wear from the extremes of new to
worn. If the pump were operated at a fixed speed of 1320 r/min and at a fixed supply of
45 L/s, then Hm(new) = Hw × ER × 40.9 m × 0.8 = 32.7 m. However, as H required is
only 27.8 m, the level in the pressure vessel would be reduced by the value of 32.7 m –
27.8 m = 4.9 m, i.e. Zs, Hs and NPSHa would all be reduced by 4.9 m.
The new value of NPSHa would be 6.7 m – 4.9 m = 1.8 m.
This is less that the NPSHr: 4.3 m and the pump would CAVITATE.
Accordingly, speed changes e.g. a variable-speed drive, would be required to allow the
speed to be increased progressively from 1230 r/min as wear occurs, to maintain the Zs at
a sufficiently high value, ideally: 7.6 m, and a Hm of 27.8m.
Reconsideration of Arbitrary Allowance for Slurry Hf
At 45 L/s, estimated total friction losses are approximately:
Discharge side, Figure 6.16.2, Hfd: 11.8 m
8.68
Suction side = 11.8m × Hfs: 0.5 m
191.4
Hf: 12.3 m
Hf 12.3m
+
= × 100% = 44% ,
H 27.8m
i.e. The arbitrarily-estimated friction head represents 44% of the Total Dynamic Head.
An error in underestimating Hf could result in an inability of the pump to perform the
duty.
At 45 L/s and up to 1550 r/min, NPSHr does not exceed 5.0 m, for this pump. This
indicates that, providing that NPSHa is maintained at about 6.7 m (or at least greater than
5.0 m) the pump would not cavitate.
Assuming that, possibly, Hf is a further 50% greater than the estimated value Figure
6.16.2; curve E-F.
As previously calculated, H+ = 27.8 m
Additional Hf: 50% of 12.3 m= 6.1 m
Assumed possible H++ = 34.9 m
Note that the loss Hfs is increased by 50% (0.3 m) from 0.5 m to 0.8 m so that, Hs and
NPSHa are reduced accordingly. NPSHa = 6.7 m – 0.3 m = 6.4 m. Considering the pump
condition now requiring maximum estimated values of pump speed and power
consumption:

PUMP CONDITION WORN
H ++ H ++ H ++ 33.9 m (Point D)
= =
Hw ER × 0.85 0.80 × 0.85 49.9 m (Point E)
NPSHr, from Figure 6.16.3 4.6 m
Pump Speed from Figure 6.16.3 1460 r/min
ew, from Figure 6.16.3 52%
em(worn) = ew × ER × 0.85 35.5%
Estimated power consumed at pump shaft:

Q × H ++ × S m 45 × 33.9 × 1.35 57 kW
=
1.02 × e m (worn ) 1.02 × 35.5
As NPSHr, 4.6 m, is less than NPSHa, 6.4 m, the pump would not cavitate at 1460 r/min
in the worn condition. However, as cavitation would occur at 1460 r/min in the new and
partly-worn condition, due to reduction of Zs and NPSHa, speed changes would be
required to maintain Zs, Hs and NPSHa at satisfactorily high values.
The limits of the possible estimated pump duty extremes may be summarised:
POSSIBLE ESTIMATED DUTY MINIMUM MAXIMUM

EXTREME
Total Dynamic Head (m) H+ = 27.8 m H++ = 33.9 m

Pump Conditions NEW WORN
Estimated power absorbed at pump shaft 40 kW 57 kW
The kW power rating of the drive motor should be at least 60 kW plus other necessary
allowances. See Section 7: “Selection of Prime Mover Nominal Power Rating”.
Ideally, automatic speed variation could be provided to cover a range of at least 1230 to
1460 r/min but preferably a greater range say 1100 to 1550 r/min. Speed control should
be arranged, ideally, to vary speed as required to maintain a constant value of Zs = 7.6 m.
The uncertainty regarding the true value of Hf and H has been provided for by:
H m (worn )
a) Allowing for a low value of = 0.85. Note that, if necessary, the
H m (new)
wearing parts could be replaced before this value is reached.
b) Allowing for a high value of Hf (Duty Point D)

c) Allowing for a low value of Hf (1100 r/min)

d) Allowing for a variable speed drive with automatic control.
If a variable speed drive is not provided, the pump could be vee-belt driven and the drive
ratio altered from time-to-time to re-adjust the speed to compensate for wear. The initial
speed for new condition would be established by a trial and error process. This would
establish the correct minimum speed for the true value of H. Subsequently the number of
alternative speeds required, for progressively worn conditions, could be established by
trial and error, and would probably be fairly small: perhaps as few as 1 or 2, providing
that NPSHa always exceeds NPSHr as evidenced by satisfactory pump performance.
Pump Frame Size

The maximum estimated pump speed and power absorbed at the pump shaft are just
within the limits for the D-Frame pump, indicating that the 6/4 D-AM would be suitable.
Shaft Sealing
Approximate values for Hs and Hd are:
Hs: 25.2 m
Hd+: Hs + H+ = 25.2 m + 27.8 m = 53.0 m (minimum)
Hd++: Hs + H++ = 25.2 m + 33.9 m = 59.1 m (maximum)
Hs 25.2
i.e. +
×100% = × 100% = 47.5% (minimum duty)
H d 53.0
Hs 25.2
× 100% = × 100% = 42.6% (maximum duty)
H d+ + 59.1
Both these values, 47.5% and 42.6%, are greatly in excess of the maximum sealing
capability of a Centrifugally-Sealed pump fitted with a standard impeller. i.e.: leakage
would occur when running.
Although a differential impeller could provide satisfactory sealing while running, See
Section 7: “Differential Impellers”, any leakage of hot ammonia slurry (e.g. in the event
of a power failure) would be a hazard, particularly in view of the high head, Hs = Hpr +
Zs, which would provide the leakage force.
Accordingly, a Gland-Sealed 6/4 D-AM pump should be used, see Section 7: “Gland-
Sealed Pumps”, or if preferred, a Mechanically-Sealed 6/4 D-AM Pump provided with
water-purging of the seal faces.

Section 7 SLURRY PUMP INSTALLATIONS: ENGINEERING

INDEX
7.0 Abstract 2
7.1 Direct-Coupled Fixed Speed Pumps 4
7.2 Slurry Pump Speed Requirements 5
7.3 Suction Static Head Variations: Pump Hoppers 6
7.4 Standard Warman Slurry Pump Hoppers 10
7.5 Avoidance of Impeller Loosening 13
7.6 Selection of Prime Mover Nominal Power Rating 18
7.7 Shaft-Sealing 20
Centrifugally-Sealed Pump 20
Gland-Sealed Pump 28
Mechanically-Sealed Pump 38
7.8 Froth Pumping 39
7.9 Conical Enlargements 43
7.10 Vortex Suppression 44
7.11 Instrumentation 45
7.12 Parallel Pumping 48
7.13 Jet Stacking 54

7.0 Abstract
DIRECT-COUPLED, FIXED-SPEED PUMPS
Limitations and disadvantages are described.
SLURRY PUMP SPEED REQUIREMENTS
For a given flowrate, Q, Hm will reduce with wear. Q can be maintained by speed
changes or static suction head variation.
SPEED CHANGES
Pulley ratios may be changed to increase speed, to compensate for wear. Variable speed
drives allow speed changes to compensate for wear and to substantially vary Q and Hm or
to maintain a constant Zs.
SUCTION STATIC HEAD VARIATION: PUMP FEED HOPPERS
Correctly designed hoppers provide means of releasing entrained air, of scuttling the
system on shutdown and to provide reserve Zs to compensate for reduced Hm or to allow
for surges in flowrate. Dimensions of standard Warman Feed Hoppers are provided.
AVOIDANCE OF IMPELLER LOOSENING
Each Warman pump impeller is screwed onto the pump shaft. Means to avoid impeller
loosening and related damage are described for certain abnormal or extreme conditions:
Incorrect direction of rotation and of torque input via pump shaft.
Pump shutdown on high static discharge heads.
Stationary pump: Forced high flowrate.
Diesel engine drive: Rapid deceleration.
SELECTION OF PRIME MOVER NOMINAL POWER RATING
The nominal kW power rating of the prime mover must allow for the estimated power
consumed at the pump shaft, plus by the drive transmission, plus a reserve for pump duty,
plus allowances due to any derating of the prime mover.
SHAFT-SEALING
Centrifugally-sealed pumps
Hs
with Standard Impellers: × 100% should not exceed 15%
Hd
Hs
with Differential Impellers: × 100% may be any value up to approximately 65%.
Hd
Hs
The % Differential is estimated from the value
Hd

Pump efficiencies reduce with increasing % Differential. Power consumed by the

centrifugal-seal is ZERO or very minor. Seal leakage may occur when shut down or
where pipelines become restricted.
Gland-Sealed Pumps
For duties unsuitable for Centrifugally Sealed Pumps.
Gland-Sealing Water must be solids-free. Required flowrates pressures and suitable
controls are described.
FROTH PUMPING
The flowrate of a slurry, when presented as a froth, can be magnified up to 500% by its
Froth Factor.
The characteristics and limitations of Horizontal, Launder and Warman Type “F” Froth
Pumps are compared.
CONICAL ENLARGEMENTS
Included angle of 6º is recommended to minimise friction head loss and wear.
VORTEX SUPPRESSION
Reduction in flowrate can be avoided by vortex suppression.
INSTRUMENTATION
Reliable Pressure and Vacuum Gauge readings may be obtained with remote mounting of
gauges and the use of pressure transmitters.
Instrumentation assists in avoiding and diagnosing operational faults, See Section 11.
PARALLEL PUMPING
Parallel Systems may be applicable for duties involving exceptionally widely varying
flowrates.
Common Systems have serious disadvantages and are NOT recommended for slurry
pumping.
JET STACKING
Application of Jet Stacking and formulae for theoretical trajectories of jet exit streams are
given. Estimated trajectories can be shaped with empirical corrections for air resistance
and allowances for recommended reserves.

7.1 Direct-Coupled Fixed Speed Pumps

Non-Abrasive Process Liquids
Direct-Coupled, fixed speed pumps, have been traditionally favoured by operators of
petroleum, chemical and other related process plants due to the low cost, simple drive
transmission and compact arrangement of the pump units.
One consideration is the small number of standard electric motor synchronous speeds
available (and acceptable to the end-user). Pumps fitted with standard (full-diameter)
impellers are rarely closely matched to any duty when operated at one of the standard
motor speeds.
However the pump H/Q characteristic is readily modified to match each duty by
providing an impeller, machined down to the diameter required. As these process pump
impellers are usually constructed in easily-machined metals: e.g. Cast Iron, Bronze,
Stainless Steel; custom-machining by the supplier or end-user is commonplace,
particularly when it is considered that impeller service lives are very great compared with
those on abrasive slurry duties.
Alternatively, when standard, full diameter impellers are fitted, pump discharge flowrate
may be controlled by manual or automatic control of a throttle valve in the discharge
pipeline.
Abrasive Slurries
It is not economically practical to provide a variety of alternative standard impeller
diameters, for selected use on a given slurry pump, in order to widely vary the Hw/Q
characteristics at any given speed. As these impellers are constructed in very hard metal
alloys or metal-reinforced elastomers, it is also not economical or practical to reduce the
diameter of standard impellers, by grinding, to meet any specific Hw/Q requirement.
Generally, throttle valves are not recommended for use in slurry systems to control
flowrate (by head loss) due to the resultant higher values of head, speed, wear on pump
and valves, and to increased power required as well as increased risk of pipeline
blockages.
Consequently, standard diameter slurry pump impellers must be selected for most
abrasive slurry pump applications. Slurry flowrate control by throttling should be
avoided and the optimum pump speed, or speed range, must be established by suitable
means, e.g. vee-belt drive or variable speed drives.

7.2 Slurry Pump Speed Requirements

As the total head developed by the pump, at a given flowrate, Q, and at a given speed,
will reduce as the wearing parts (impeller and liners) vary from new to worn (“throw-
away”) condition, the flowrate, Q, may be maintained only if:
a) The Pump Speed is increased as required to maintain the required total head: i.e.
Speed Changes… or:
b) The Pump Speed is kept constant but the System Resistance is correspondingly
reduced to match the pump’s available total head, i.e. suction static head
variation.
SPEED CHANGES
Speed Changes are beneficial when providing the lowest practical pump speed to handle
the required duty at any given time, whether the pump wearing parts are new or worn.
The lowest speed results in the lowest power consumption and lowest wear rate, for any
given Warman slurry pump applied to a given duty.
PULLEY RATIO CHANGES
For duties up to approximately 250 kW, Vee-Belt Drives from a fixed-speed motor, are
commonly employed. The pump speed may be changed, as required, by occasional
changes in Vee-Pulley ratio e.g. a larger diameter motor pulley may be fitted. This
procedure has the disadvantages of possible interruption to operation and step-by-step
variation only to pump speed.
VARIABLE-SPEED DRIVES
On many duties, the required pump speed may have to be varied progressively, possibly
over a relatively wide range, due to wear or to maintain Zs at a constant value or due to
variations in required flowrate, static head, pipeline length exit pressure head or solids
concentration. Tailings disposal, mill classifier (cyclone) feed in closed circuit grinding
operations and some variable suction dredging duties are typical examples.
The most effective means of satisfying these progressively varying Hm/Q requirements
and to compensate for wear is, generally, to provide an efficient, step-less, variable-speed
drive.
Variable-Speed, V-S, drives in use include:
V-S Motors: Direct Current
Slip-Ring Induction
Squirrel Cage Induction with Frequency Variation
V-S Engines: Diesel Engines
V-S Couplings: Fluid Couplings
Eddy-Current Couplings
Other V-S drives, usually best suited for low kW duties include: Variable-Pitch Vee-
Pulleys and V-S Hydraulic Pump-Motor Units.

7.3 Suction Static Head Variations: Pump Hoppers

In the case of low-to-medium head duties, when the H/Q requirement is fixed or nearly
so, it is common to operate the pump at a fixed speed, N, and to allow the Suction Static
Head, Zs, to vary naturally.
Assuming Zd remains constant, Z will vary with Zd – Zs. In practice, this variation is
made possible by the use of a Pump Hopper or similar source of supply to the pump
suction.
Figure 7.1 illustrates a typical hopper-fed pump installation. Important features are:
Hopper:
Sufficient height to provide an adequate reserve: Zs2 – Zs1.
Bottom sloped at 30º minimum to minimise accumulation of settled solids.
Liquid surface area sufficiently large to allow continuous release of entrained air or froth
at the free liquid surface. Outlet Axis: sloped at 30º minimum to allow air in suction pipe
to be easily displaced, particularly on start-up.
Suction pipework:
Las as short as possible to minimise head losses and to facilitate displacement of air at
start-up.
Incorporating a flexible pipe coupling at the required minimum distance from the pump
suction flange to provide an easily removable length of suction pipe, allowing access to
the pump suction side for maintenance. The remainder of the suction pipework should be
supported independent of the pump.

A breather pipe is recommended, particularly when the pump is to handle aerated, frothy
or very viscous slurries.
The breather pipe allows any slugs of air to be vented. Any liquid which is airlifted is
directed back into the hopper. Breather pipe diameter = 0.25 Ds (minimum).
Incorporating a vertical scuttle-plug branch. This “plug” is often a moulded-rubber
hemisphere, mounted on a swing-flap and locked against the branch pipe end by a wedge.
The flap swings clear when the wedge is knocked out.
Any change in suction pipe diameter should be effected such as to avoid the potential for
any air pockets. e.g. an offset reducer should be used to reduce the diameter, if required,
before the pump suction flange. See Figure 7.2.2.
Note that in some cases the offset is installed in the opposite way. While this is generally
not recommended it is preferred in the chemical industry and particularly in alumina
plants to avoid accumulation of cemented solids in the lower portion of the pipe. The
high constant values of Hs in such applications and continuous operation usually results
in no formation of stable air pockets forming. See figure 7.2.3.
Branch Diameter = 0.3 to 0.5Ds (Minimum). This allows for rapid “scuttling” (draining)
of slurry and water from the pump, hopper and pipeline, following a power failure or
normal shut-down.
Discharge Pipework:
Incorporating a flexible pipe coupling at the required minimum distance from the pump
discharge flange to provide an easily-removable length of discharge pipe, allowing access

to the pump discharge side for maintenance. The remainder of the discharge pipework
should be supported independently of the pump.
MODERATE VARIATION IN PUMP Hm/Q CHARACTERISTICS (FIXED SPEED)
Given Q, Zd, Ls and Ld are fixed:
Z1 = Zd – Zs1; Z2 = Zd – Zs2
The variation on Hm/Q is essentially caused by wear on pump parts.
Figure 7.3 illustrates a fixed-speed pump selected to perform duty point A: Q1/H1, with a
low liquid level in the hopper, yielding Zs1 and system Resistance Curve (SR1).
As the pump Hm/Q characteristics gradually reduce from the Hm(new)/Q curve to the
Hm(worn)/Q curve, the head developed gradually falls. At the same time, the liquid level
in the hopper gradually rises, finally yielding Zs2 and System Resistance Curve (SR2).
This results from a corresponding gradual reduction of H1 to H2. The required flowrate
Q1 is, accordingly, constantly maintained, providing that the hopper can finally
accommodate the liquid level height Zs2.
Most hopper-fed pumping duties in ore treatment and similar process plant circuits are
usually low-to-medium head duties, i.e. the Total Head, H1 (= Hm(new)), is typically
around 15, i.e. (Z1 – Z2) = (H1 – H2) = (Hm(new) – Hm(worn)) = (1.00 – 0.90)(Hm(new)) =
0.1 (H1) = 0.1 × 15 m = 1.5 m and the pump normally would not be seriously
overspeeded when operating at the fixed speed to perform duty Point A, with wearing
parts in new condition.
As the reduction in efficiency is approximately the same percentage as for the reduction
in head

i.e. =
H m (new) em (new)
there may be no significant increase in power consumed providing that all other factors,
including Q, remain constant.
MODERATE VARIATION IN FLOWRATE TO HOPPER (FIXED SPEED)
Given a Hm/Q curve existing at any one time and given that Zd, Ld, Ls and Cv are fixed:
Z1 = Zd – Zs1; Z2 = Zd – Zs2.
Figure 7.4 illustrates a fixed-speed pump selected to perform at the Duty Point (A) with a
low liquid level in the hopper yielding Zs1 and SR1 at flowrate: Q1.
As the flowrate to the hopper is increased to Q2, the level in the hopper rises
correspondingly, yielding Zs2 and SR2. At the lower H2, but at the same speed, the pump
can handle the higher flowrate: Q2. i.e. it is performing at the Duty Point (C), providing
that the hopper can accommodate the liquid level height Zs2.
For design purposes, Z1 – Z2 will depend upon the actual algebraic relationships between
(Q1 – Q2) and (H1 – H2), which may best be expressed graphically, as above.
As the change in efficiency from em1 to em2 and the change from H1 to H2 are usually
small, the power consumption will usually increase, largely due to the increase of Q1 to
Q2. This may be estimated for specific cases and the maximum power consumption also
estimated and considered when determining the installed power required.
The ability of a fixed-speed, hopper-fed pump to cope with increased flowrates is

valuable for handling minor surges, often encountered in practice.

COMBINED PERFORMANCE AND DUTY VARIATIONS
Combinations of the preceding variations, in Hm/Q characteristics, and required Q

frequently occur. The combinations of causes and effects as illustrated in Figures 7.3 and
7.4 may be superimposed on the one graph to determine the maximum values of Z1 – Z2
and Zs2 required in a hopper for specified variations in values of Q and Hm.
7.4 Standard Warman Slurry Pump Hoppers

A full range of Standard Hoppers is available, designed to match each size and type of
Warman Pump. Each hopper is designed to embody the features previously described,
together with certain options:
Height:Overall height may be increase above Standard to provide higher values of
available Zs where required.
Construction: Hoppers are available in fabricated-steel or in fabricated-steel lined with
rubber or other suitable abrasion-resistant material.
Type: Hoppers are available as Single units (Figure 7.5) or as Double Units (Figure 7.6)
where each hopper feeds a duplicate pump installation.



7.5 Avoidance of Impeller Loosening

Correct Directions of Rotation and Input Torque Via Pump Shaft
Each Warman Pump impeller features a right-hand thread in its boss and engaged to the
pump shaft, which is screwed to suit the impeller thread. The correct driven direction of
rotation of the impeller, when viewed from the suction end of the pump, is ANTI-
CLOCKWISE for all standard Warman pumps.
When the impeller is driven in the correct direction of rotation by means of power
transmitted via the pump shaft, the torque applied to the impeller is transmitted via the
impeller thread. This torque serves to reinforce the fastening of the impeller to the shaft.
IMPELLER LOOSENING
Incorrect Directions of Rotation and of Input Torque via Pump Shaft
Should power be transmitted to the impeller via the pump shaft but in the incorrect
(CLOCKWISE) direction of rotation, the torque would serve to unfasten (unscrew) the
impeller from the shaft.
This incorrect direction of rotation could result from incorrect rotation of the prime
mover (e.g. from incorrect connection of power supply to an electric motor) or of the
output from the drive transmission. In every case, before initial start-up, the pump should
be disconnected from the transmission, preferably at the end of the pump shaft (i.e. vee
belts removed or coupling halves disconnected) and the prime mover started to allow the
actual direction of rotation to be demonstrated. If the direction of rotation is incorrect,
the necessary alterations (e.g. power supply to be correctly reconnected) must be carried
out to enable the correct direction of rotation to be demonstrated before the pump is
reconnected to the transmission.
Should this precaution not be observed and if power is transmitted via the pump shaft to
the impeller in the incorrect direction of rotation, the (starting and running) input torques
would normally be sufficient to cause the impeller to loosen from its fastened position on
the pump shaft and to proceed (spin) towards the suction side of the pump. This axial
movement is normally arrested by the impeller contacting the suction side of the pump
while the impeller and shaft threads are still engaged. The shock of this impact is usually
sufficient to severely damage the impeller and the suction side of the pump (e.g. cover
plate liner, throatbush or door). As the threads are still engaged, but the impeller is
arrested, the input torque acts upon the pump shaft to drive the shaft and bearing
assembly away from the impeller. This screw-jacking action normally results in severe
damage to the bearing housing (and other components) as it breaks through its attachment
to the pump base. The danger of an impeller loosening as above is present regardless of
whether the pump is started when empty or when containing liquid or slurry.
PUMP SHUTDOWN ON HIGH STATIC DISCHARGE HEADS
When a pump is applied on a duty featuring a very high static head, Z (i.e. Zd – Zs), the
mixture in the discharge system will drain (run back) through the pump, immediately the
pump is stopped. When the resistance to this reverse flow is low, the reverse flowrate is
high. This high flowrate is sufficient to drive the impeller (and electric motor) in the

reverse (CLOCKWISE) direction. i.e. as a turbine. As the torque is being applied to the
impeller by the liquid in this clockwise direction, the torque serves to reinforce the
fastening of the impeller to the shaft. However, it is possible for the speed of this reverse
rotation to become significantly high, in some cases resulting in motor speeds in excess
of the maximum safe speed permitted for structural integrity of the motor rotors.
The maximum speed of reverse rotation will vary from one case to another and will
depend upon a complex relationship of several factors including Net Static Head, System
(Hydraulic) Resistance to Reverse Flow, Rotational Inertia or Rotating Elements in
Pump, Drive and Motor, Frictional Resistance in Pump and Motor Bearings and Total
volume of Liquid Run Back.
The motor may be protected from dangerously high speed rotation by various means
including:
a) Magnetic Brake to prevent any rotation of the motor when electric power is
disconnected from the motor e.g. on normal shutdown or power failure.
b) Centrifugal-Clutch to interrupt the mechanical drive connection between motor
and drive when the motor is not running in excess of a predetermined speed and is
not running in the correct direction of rotation.
c) Limiting Reverse Flowrate e.g. by a swing-flap check valve with a small diameter
bleed hole in the flap to allow run back at a small flowrate only.
Effects of Unrestricted Runback and Reverse Rotation
Immediately upon run back being completed, on a gravity-feed installation, liquid may be
present in the pump hopper while the pump and motor are still rotating in the reverse
(CLOCKWISE) direction. Under these conditions, the rotational energy available from
the rotating elements (particularly where a heavy motor rotor is employed) will be
applied to drive the impeller clockwise and pump the liquid back into the discharge pipe.
(This pumping would not occur if the suction system was completely scuttled during the
run back.) As the impeller would be driven in the incorrect direction by the input torque
via the pump shaft, the torque would tend to unfasten the impeller from the shaft. This
could result in damage to the impeller and suction side of the pump and damage by
screw-jacking as described above. In the event that all of the rotational energy is
dissipated before any significant damage is cause to the pump, all rotational motion
would cease with the impeller partially unfastened from the shaft, i.e. the impeller
probably being lightly arrested at the suction side of the pump. This is a dangerous
condition as leakage can occur past the impeller “O” ring into the bearing assembly and
on the next startup, the pump shaft would very rapidly draw the impeller back towards its
fastened position. The impact of this sudden axial movement of the impeller is often
sufficient to damage the shaft sleeve, bearings and other components. This problem is
not commonly encountered in practice but is more likely to occur when:
a) The initial fastening of the impeller is not sufficiently tight e.g. after a new
impeller has been fitted to the shaft without sufficient torque applied in the fitting
operation, and

b) The pump has not been operated for a sufficiently long period to allow the
impeller fastening to be further tightened by normal startup and operating
techniques.
In general, for any proposed application where the value of Z exceeds 50 metres and Ld
exceeds 200 metres, all relevant details on the application should be referred to Head
Office for analysis and specific advice regarding precautions required to avoid the
problems described above and to assist in the design or selection of brakes, clutches or
other suitable protective equipment.
STATIONARY PUMP: FORCES HIGH FLOWRATE
In some cases, a very high flowrate can be forced into the suction side of a stationary
pump. This can occur under certain conditions during the startup of multi-stage pump
units. See Section 8.3 “Multi-Stage Pump Units: Startup and Filling of Pipeline”. As the
very high flowrate of liquid passes through the pump suction, impeller and casing to the
discharge pipe. The reaction serves to rotate the impeller in an ANTICLOCKWISE
direction, which tends to drive the pump shaft, drive transmission and electric motor in
the normal direction of rotation.
Loosening of the impeller may then occur if:
a) The initial fastening of the impeller is not sufficiently tight, and
b) The rotational inertia of the rotating elements in the motor and drive as well as the
frictional resistance in the pump and motor bearings are sufficiently high to
largely resist the torque transmitted from the impeller.
In general, the loosening of the impeller under these conditions, is relatively gentle. The
external moving parts (pump shaft, drive transmission and motor shaft) may possibly be
seen to rotate for a short time then stop, while liquid is being forced through the pump.
The stopping would indicate that the loosened impeller has become gently arrested at the
suction side of the pump.
Subsequent starting of the pump could lead to leakage into the bearing assembly and
damage to “O” rings and other components as described previously.
This problem may be avoided by several means:
a) Avoiding very high flowrate during the startup of multi-stage pump units. e.g. by
firstly filling the discharge pipeline with water at a controlled low flowrate.
b) Utilising a centrifugal clutch in the drive to allow the pump impeller and shaft to
freely rotate together, without any resistance from the motor and drive.
c) Ensuring beforehand that the impeller is securely fastened to the shaft.
DIESEL ENGINE DRIVES
Diesel Engines are frequently the most practical and economic prime movers for Warman
Pumps on some applications in remote areas, or where the plant is mobile, e.g. suction
dredges.

High Static Head Duties: Reverse Rotation

As previously described for high static head duties, run back of liquid from the discharge
system on shut-down will tend to rotate the impeller, drive and diesel engine in the
reverse direction. Although the braking effect of the diesel engine will limit the speed of
reverse rotation, the forced reverse rotation of the engine can result in damage to the
engine because of lack of oil lubrication of the bearings, cylinders and pistons.
Accordingly, the diesel engine drive to the pump should be provided with a clutch e.g.
plate-type or centrifugal-type to provide means, preferably automatic, of disconnecting
the diesel engine from the pump as the unit is shut down. The subsequent reverse
rotation of the impeller and pump shaft will not be damaging to the pump.
Alternatively the drive could be provided with a brake to prevent both pump and diesel
engine rotating in reverse after a shut down.
Deceleration: Impeller Loosening
Diesel engines tend to decelerate quickly when speed reduction is being effected, largely
due to the braking effect of these high compression engines.
Warman Dredge and Gravel Pumps and other large Warman Pumps are fitted with large
diameter, very heavy impellers which typically, weight as much as 4 tonnes. The high
rotational inertia of these impellers at their operating speeds can provide sufficient torque
to loosen the impeller from its fastened position on the pump shaft. This can occur when
the speed of the diesel engine is reduced rapidly in otherwise normal operation (or if the
engine is stopped abruptly), which would correspondingly reduce the speed of the drive
transmission and pump shaft. Under these conditions, the impeller would tend to rotate
relative to the pump shaft and unscrew until arrested by the pump door. The impact can
be sufficient to cause severe damage to the impeller, door, bearing assembly etc., as
described previously. When the engine is restarted or operated again at increased speed,
the impeller would be suddenly drawn back by the pump shaft towards its fastened
position. The thrust on impact can be sufficient to cause severe damage to the impeller,
back liner, “O”-ring seals, bearings and other components as described previously and, at
least, permit contamination of the bearing assembly by the liquid pumped.
In order to avoid the risk of these impellers loosening due to any rapid deceleration of the
diesel engine, a clutch should be provided, to allow disconnection of the drive
transmission between the pump shaft and the diesel engine, as deceleration occurs.
Typical arrangements include:
Plate Clutch:
The clutch should be disengaged as deceleration is commenced, to allow the impeller and
pump shaft to decelerate together without any effective braking of the pump shaft.
Centrifugal Clutch:
The clutch selection may be engineered to engage automatically when the engine has
accelerated to a prescribed speed and to completely disengage automatically when the
engine decelerates below that speed. The clutch may be arranged with contact shoes
which are leading when the engine is accelerating, but effectively trailing relative to the

pump side, on deceleration of the engine, allowing the clutch to be readily disengaged by
a suitable servo mechanism.
The above provisions are typical only of the protection usually essential for the large
pump sizes particularly 14” and larger. Proposed applications should be referred to Head
Office for analysis and assistance in engineering or selecting the clutch types and
controls.

7.6 Selection of Prime Mover Nominal Power Rating

Power Consumed at the Pump Shaft
As indicated previously in this manual, the power consumed by a slurry pump may vary
for a number of reasons, one or more of which could be applicable in any given
installation:
e.g. a) Reduction in em due to wear of pump parts.
b) Increases in Q due to wear of pipeline.
c) Increases in Q due to surges in supply to pump.
d) Changes in pump duty from that originally specified.
e) Errors in estimation of slurry Hf.
The actual maximum power consumed at the pump shaft may be estimated with
reasonable accuracy, given sufficient accurate information on the proposed duty,
including accurate data on slurry Hf.
Power Consumed by the Drive Transmission
The most common type of Drive transmission employed is the vee-belt drive. An
allowance, equivalent to 5% of the maximum estimated power consumed by the pump, is
usually made for power losses in vee-belt drives, unless the drive manufacturers certify
that a lower % allowance would be applicable.
The power losses in other types of transmissions, e.g. fluid couplings, eddy-current
couplings, gear boxes should be established from certified data provided by the
manufacturers.
Selection of Prime Mover Power Rating
The estimated kW output required from the prime mover is determined essentially by the
estimated power consumed at the pump shaft and is also increased by the value of power
consumed by the transmission.
However the specified minimum kW output rating of the prime mover should be well in
excess, usually at least 20% in excess of that required, i.e. providing a generous reserve
to allow for errors by the client in the specification of duty data and/or errors in
estimating Hf and other values and/or overall tolerances in accuracy of all data and
estimations.
Derating of Prime Mover Power Rating
In some cases, it may be necessary to adopt a Prime Mover which has a nominal kW
power rating significantly greater than the specified maximum kW output rating
determined by the pump application engineer. e.g. The manufacturers of the Prime
Mover may specify that the nominal maximum kW output rating of their prime movers
may be subject to derating to meet anticipated local service conditions:

TYPICAL DERATING CONSIDERATIONS

e.g. Electric Motors *Diesel Engines
Ambient temperature Altitude
Supply voltage Ambient Temperature
Hours per day operation
Power consumed by cooling fan or
at other power take-offs e.g. for a
service water pump drive, or
hydraulic pump drives.
*Note: It is customary to provide diesel engines with “derated ratings” with adequate
reserve as advised by any reputable diesel engine supplier, to allow for progressive
reduction in engine performance, between major overhauls. For example:
Estimated maximum power consumed at pump shaft = 80 kW
Given 5% belt drive transmission losses: 5% of 80 kW = 4 kW
84 kW
Reserve for errors in specifications etc. 20% of 84% = 17 kW
Minimum derated kW output of engine = 101 kW
Reserve for diesel engine performance reduction 25% of 101 kW = 25 kW
126 kW
Given a diesel engine nominally rated at 175 kW and that its manufacturer derated it by
30 kW for anticipated local service conditions, its “derated rating” = 175 kW – 30 kW =
145 kW, which is excess of 126 kW and accordingly would be satisfactory.

7.7 Shaft-Sealing
Centrifugally-Sealed Pumps
CENTRIFUGALLY-SEALED PUMPS: APPLICATIONS
Warman Centrifugally-Sealed Pumps are designed to operate on gravity-fed duties,
without the use of water-flushed glands or mechanical seals, providing that the values of
Hs
Hd
do not exceed the limits specified for either Standard or Differential Impellers. In many
cases, water-flushed, gland-sealed pumps are not favoured by the end-user due to
disadvantages resulting from dilution of the process slurry with the water or the difficulty
in obtaining adequate supplies of clean water at the required service pressures.
Warman Centrifugally-Sealed pumps are rarely applied now to duties where Hs is
negative (-ve), e.g. on Suction-Lift duties, due to the problems associated with
establishing and maintaining the pumps in primed condition i.e. avoiding ingress of
atmospheric air via the shaft seal. Generally, Warman Sump, Vertical or
Electrosubmersible-type pumps are now preferred for pumping from pits, sumps and
similar duties.
Principles of Operation:
Standard Impellers
The head developed by the pump H (=Hd – Hs) on any given duty, e.g. Figure 7.7, is
developed by the main vanes of the impeller. The Back Vanes of the standard impeller
are of slightly larger effective diameter than the main vanes and of a higher-head
characteristic, developing a head, Hx, approximately 20% greater than the main vanes (at
the pump Best Efficiency Point) for any given speed. See Figure 7.8. The Pressure Head
in the casing, at the discharge side of the impeller, is approximately equal to Hd (= H +
Hs).

The Pressure Head Hd, in the casing provides a driving force tending to cause slurry to
leak past the back vanes, into the expeller chamber, past the expeller and along the shaft
sleeve to atmosphere. However, as the slurry reaches the back vanes, it is resisted by a
sealing head of, for example, approximate value: Hx = 1.2 H (at Best Efficiency Point).
Providing this sealing head is not less than Hd, no leakage will occur, i.e. the limiting
balanced condition at the Best Efficiency Point is represented by the equation:
Hx = 1.2 H = Hd = H + Hs
i.e. Hs = 0.2 H
Hd = H + 0.2 H
H s 0.2 H
= × 100% = 16.7% (at Best Efficiency Point)
H d 1.2 H
While the sealing head, Hx, remains fairly constant for a given pump speed, H obviously
varies with Q. Consequently at flowrates less than Q at Best Efficiency Point, H will
increase: often being sufficient to exceed Hx; particularly as shut-off head (Q = zero) is
approached; causing leakage along the shaft sleeve. As pumps are not normally selected
to operate at or near shut-off, this limitation is rarely significant. However, should it be
unavoidable, e.g. where flow control valves must be used in the pump discharge pipeline,
the centrifugally-sealed pump should not be recommended (A gland-sealed or
mechanically-sealed pump should be considered).
At flowrates greater than Q at Best Efficiency Point, H is obviously smaller and Hx will
be greater than 1.2 H.

Hs
The value of at Best Efficiency Point varies from one pump model, size and
Hd
impeller type to another and also varies with pump speed. Figures 7.9.1 and 7.9.2 show
test results indicating allowable pump suction heads for a Warman 10/8 F-M Pump. The
vastly different results obtained for rubber and metal impellers are due to different back
vane design.
Testwork and research being carried out by Warman International will result in
centrifugal seal selection curves similar to Figure 7.9.1 and 7.9.2 being issued for most
pump sizes at a later date.

Hs
The value of × 100% = 15% can be considered to be a typical value for the range of
Hd
Warman Pumps however it applies only for water or homogeneous slurries. For
Hs
application with heterogeneous slurries the value of × 100% should not exceed 10%
Hd
for practical purposes.
Applications in excess of 10%, or applications with high density slurries containing high
density solids or large particle sizes, should be referred to Warman International Head
Office.
Maximising Sealing Effect
The effective application of the available sealing head, Hx, at any time, depends upon
maintaining a minimum running clearance, see Figure 7.10, between the impeller back
vanes and the adjacent Frame Plate Liner (or – insert). This is easily effected by
adjusting the impeller clearance to the back (rather than to the front as in the case of most
centrifugal pumps), if leakage has occurred with a larger running clearance.
Effect of Wear on Sealing Head Value

Function of the Expeller
With all wearing parts in new condition, Figure 7.11, and providing Hx is not less than
Hd, no leakage will occur. As the wearing parts become eroded, the running clearance
will increase, Figure 7.12, and the back vanes will be heavily worn at the periphery.
These factors will progressively reduce the effective value of Hx.
Ultimately, Hx may reduce to an effective value a little below Hd, when slurry will
commence to leak past the back vanes and into the expeller chamber. The pressure head
value of slurry entering the expeller chamber will be very small. This head is

comfortably repelled by the expeller, which although of smaller diameter, can develop a
head, well in excess of that required to prevent any leakage along the shaft sleeve.
The Expeller operates as a reserve for the back vanes of the impeller and does not receive
any significant sealing head load until the effective value of Hx has dropped below Hd.
This usually occurs when the impeller and other main wearing parts are about due for
replacement.
DIFFERENTIAL IMPELLERS
Hs
As standard impellers are limited to centrifugally-sealed pump duties at values of
Hd
not generally exceeding 15%, Differential Impellers have been developed for duties
H
where s exceed 15%, Figure 7.13.
Hd
Typical duties include transfer of raw Portland cement slurries between silos and counter-
current decantation duties.
In these duties, H = Hd – Hs is usually relatively small, representing the sum of a small
nett static head and dynamic losses.
The Differential Impeller is supplied with standard diameter back vanes but reduced
diameter main vanes, Figure 7.14. The back vanes develop a sealing head, Hxx, higher
than H and in Proportion to the square of the ratio of diameters of the “reduced” to
“standard” diameters.
At a given speed, n, at Best Efficiency Point
At full diameter, d1, main vanes would develop: H1
At full diameter, d1, back vanes would develop: 1.2 H1
At reduced diameter, d2, main vanes would develop:

2
d 
H 2 =  2  ⋅ H 1
 d1 
For the reduced diameter impeller at the Best Efficiency Point,

2
d 
H xx = 1.2 H 1 = H d = H 2 + H s =  2  ⋅ H 1 + H s
 d1 
 d  2 
1.2 H 1 =  2  ⋅ H 1  + H s
 d1  
[(
H s 1.2 H 1 − d1 ⋅ H 1
=
d2
)
2
]
Hd 1.2 H 1

H s 1.2 − d1 ( )
d2 2
=
Hd 1.2
Given % Differential: 80% 70%

d2
i.e. = 0.8 0.7
d1
Hs 1.2 − 0.64 1.2 − 0.49

=
Hd 1 .2 1 .2
Hs
= 0.467 0.592
Hd
Hs
× 100% = 46.7% 59.2%
Hd
Hs
Conversely, knowing the required value of , the value of d2 may be estimated.
Hd
Pumps fitted with Differential Impellers are subject to the same requirements regarding
“Maximising Sealing Effect” as for those fitted with standard impellers. The function of
the expeller is also the same.
Pump Speed and Efficiency
In order to develop the required Total Dynamic Head (H), Differential Impellers must be
driven at higher speed than the full diameter standard impellers.
Some commonly-used differential impellers have been tested and individual performance
curves are available. When the standard impeller performance curve only is available,
the speed, n1, for the required Q/H duty should be noted for the full diameter impeller and
multiplied by the ratio of the diameters:
d1
to obtain the required differential impeller speed:
d2
d1
n2 = n1 ⋅
d2
The efficiency, ew1, of the standard pump at the required duty point should be derated by
applying a factor which reduces with decreasing % Differential, e.g. to determine the
efficiency, ew2, of the differential impeller.

ew 2
% Differential Factor
e w1
Full Diameter Impeller: 100% 1.00

Differential Impeller: 80% 0.88 (approx)
Differential Impeller: 70% 0.75
Factors for intermediate % differentials may be interpolated.
CENTRIFUGALLY-SEALED PUMPS: POWER CONSUMPTION
The published performance curves for Warman Slurry Pumps are produced following
performance testing using clear water over wide ranges of pump speeds, flowrates
available, NPSH’s and total dynamic heads.
It is necessary to ensure that there is no possibility of air being induced through the shaft
seal, into the pump, resulting in false indications of any performance characteristics. A
standard water-flushed, gland-type seal is employed on each pump tested to eliminate air
induction. This is indicated by the notation “Gland-Sealed Pump” on each published
performance curve.
A further notation “Absorbed Power May Increase Up To 5% With Centrifugal Seal”
(Expeller Fitup) is also included on most of the published curves. It is important to note
that the 5% value is regarded as an arbitrary, conservative (maximum) allowance which
will be subject to review as special testwork on the effect of the centrifugal seal on power
consumption and as product development proceeds.
The power consumed by the centrifugal seal is believed to be influenced by a number of
variables including:
Hs
Value of the ratio:
Hd
Proximity of Duty Point to Best Efficiency Point

Concentration and Particle Sizing of Solids in mixture
Effects of wear on Impeller, Frame Plate Liner and Expeller
Test work carried out on clear water only and on pumps in new condition indicates:
ZERO increased power consumption on a new 14/12 G-AM although a small measurable
(but less than 5%) increased power consumption on smaller pumps, e.g. 2/1½ B-M.
Obviously, the arbitrary application of a 5% increase in estimated power consumption
could render a centrifugally-sealed Warman Pump selection apparently unattractive,
particularly where competitive pumps may be offered at much lower estimated power
consumptions due to ignorance of, or avoidance of, the use of Efficiency Ratios or
equivalent efficiency depression factors for both new and worn conditions.

Where (total) pump power consumptions are regarded as critical for any particular
proposals, the details should be referred to Head Office when priority testwork may be
arranged or when appropriate recent testwork results may be available.
CENTRIFUGALLY-SEALED PUMPS: Seal Leakage
Centrifugally-sealed pumps, correctly applied and serviced will not leak when running.
However, leakage usually occurs when the following conditions are encountered:
1) When the pump is stopped, mixture or liquid introduced into or remaining in the
pumping system will leak past the stationary lip seals (or packing rings) after some
wear has occurred on these parts or the shaft sleeve.
2) When the pump is running and the discharge pipeline is severely restricted or closed
off e.g. by operation of a throttle valve, stop valve, or a blockage in the pipe. i.e.
Centrifugally-sealed pumps generally should not be applied to duties where the flow
control valves are employed in the discharge pipeline.
3) When the pump suction system is severely restricted or blocked by causes similar to
(2), the value of Hs will be reduced by a negative (-ve) shift, and may even reduce to
a value close to ZERO (atmospheric pressure). Under this condition, the pump will
leak in reverse, i.e. air will be induced through the lip seals (or packing rings).
Gland-Sealed Pump
GLAND-SEALED PUMPS: APPLICATIONS
Warman gland-sealed pumps are employed generally on duties beyond the range of
application of Warman centrifugally-sealed pumps e.g.:
Hs
a) Where the ratio exceeds the maximum specific values allowed for pumps
Hd
fitted with regular or differential impellers.
b) Where leakage of a slurry mixture from the pump (when running and not running)
must be avoided.
c) When negative (-ve) values of suction head (Hs) exist e.g. in suction-dredging and
suction-left duties.
d) When the pump may be subjected to operation against throttle valves or stop
valves in the discharge or suction pipelines.
e) When the pumps and discharge or suction pipelines may be subjected to high
pressure purging or flushing, when running or stopped.
GLAND-SEALING WATER FLOW PATHS
The total Gland-Sealing Water (G.S.W.) flow enters the Stuffing Box by way of the
Lantern Ring (or Lantern Restrictor) and is evenly distributed around the periphery of
that surface of the Shaft sleeve (and/or Shaft Spacer) surrounded by the Lantern Ring.
See Figures 7.15 and 7.16.

a) The larger proportion of the total G.S.W. flow passes from the Lantern Ring
towards the impeller. This purging flow (Qa) passes along the narrow annular space
between the Shaft Sleeve (or Spacer) and the Lantern Restrictor (or the inboard
Packing Ring/Neck Ring). The water velocity in this annular space serves to (and
must be sufficient to) prevent the egress of any slurry from the pump casing.
b) The remainder of the total G.S.W. flow passes from the Lantern Ring towards the
Gland. This flow (Qb) passes along the very narrow annular space between the Shaft
Sleeve and the outboard Packing Rings, to the Gland, at which point it leaks to
atmosphere. The water flowrate in this annular space need be sufficient only to
lubricate and cool the Packing Rings and Shaft Sleeve.
GLAND-SEALING WATER QUALITY
The G.S.W. passes through control valves, flow regulators or very small bore tubing prior
to entry into the Stuffing box to perform its purging, cooling and lubrication duties. It
follows that the quality of the G.S.W. must be such as not to introduce problems of
blockages in small orifices in regulators or elsewhere along its flow paths, or of high rates
of abrasion or corrosion of the controls or of the Stuffing Box, Shaft Sleeve or other
pump parts wetted by the G.S.W.



Corrosion by saline G.S.W. may be minimised by the use of appropriate alloys, e.g.
A.I.S.I. Type 316 Stainless Steel, for critical components. However, the leakage of saline
G.S.W. from the Gland must be trapped and conveyed to waste to avoid corrosion of the
pump base and other components and equipment in the vicinity.
The presence of abrasive solids in the G.S.W. is a more common problem resulting in
more frequent failure of the G.S.W. Supply Pump and controls etc. Mud, sand and other
solids tend to impregnate the packing rings to accelerate wear rate on the Shaft Sleeve
and adjacent pump components. Accordingly, special care should be exercised to avoid
the introduction of any solids into the G.S.W. supply. Where the G.S.W. is drawn from a
source where the presence of solids is unavoidable, the water from this source should be
treated prior to feeding to the G.S.W. supply pump.
In many cases, two or more stages of treatment and pumping may be required e.g. water
drawn from rivers, dams, creeks, or ponds may contain mud, sand, gravel, pumice, fish,
eels, terrapins, leaves, twigs, sticks and other debris, some of which may float.
Initial treatment should consist of screening before the intake at the suction pipe to
protect the raw water pump and pipeline from blockages. The raw water form this pump
should be delivered to a final treatment unit where fine screening, hydraulic cycloning,
sedimentation or filtration should be employed, as required, to produce a solids-free
source of clean water.
In some instances, a source of “clean G.S.W.” nominated by a client may promise to be
quite suitable but may prove to be unsatisfactory in service. Past examples include:
Condensed Steam (Alumina Plant): The G.S.W. from this source was found to contain
scale, broken away from the condensers, which cause blockages in the G.S.W. Controls.
It became necessary to provide filters to trap the scale.
Dredge Pond (Mineral Sands Dredge/Concentrator): The G.S.W. drawn from the pond at
the stern of the dredge was found to contain abrasive fine sand and pumice as well as
weed. It was necessary to fine-screen the raw water to remove the pumice and weed and
to treat the screen water in hydraulic cyclones to remove the sand.
Sea Water (Power Station Ash Disposal): The sea water drawn from an estuary through a
well-designed, screened intake system was effectively free of solids. However, the
G.S.W. pipework near the ash pump was found to be blocked with mussels which, in an
infant stage, had passed through the intake screens, attached to the pipework and grown.
It was necessary to chlorinate the water passing through the intake system to destroy any
minute marine life in the G.S.W. supply system.
GLAND-SEALING WATER: FLOWRATE REQUIRED
Towards the Impeller: Qa
The practical minimum clearance between the shaft Sleeve (or Shaft Spacer) and a metal
Lantern Restrictor (or Neck Ring) is in the order to 0.5 mm.
The use of a PTFE Lantern Restrictor allows a much smaller clearance to be used. A
newly installed PTFE Lantern Restrictor has an initial “wear in” period in which some
contact will occur between the Shaft Sleeve and the Lantern Restrictor, however due to

the special material properties of PTFE no damage is done to either the Shaft Sleeve or
the Lantern Restrictor. The very small clearance obtained results in a high resistance to
flow of G.S.W. and consequently a very low flowrate. This is an advantage in pump
applications where dilution of slurry being pumped must be kept to a minimum.
Metal Lantern Restrictors may be used when a larger G.S.W. flowrate can be tolerated
and where the type of pump duty requires a high G.S.W. flowrate.
The nominal accepted minimum velocity of G.S.W. flow through the annulus is 1.5 m/s.
The corresponding flowrate Qa = 1.5 π Ø c (L/s)
where Ø = Average diameter of Annulus, (m) i.e.
approximately equal to outside Diameter of
Shaft Sleeve.
c = radial clearance between shaft sleeve and
lantern restrictor (mm).
Towards the Gland: Qb
The flowrate Qb is, in practice, controlled by the tightening of the Gland against the
Packing Rings which in turn contract towards the Shaft Sleeve.
Excessive tightening will result in the Packing Rings contracting so tightly around the
Shaft Sleeve that it prevents any flow towards the Gland. This results in overheating and
destruction of the inside surfaces of the Packing Rings and subsequent excessive and
uncontrollable leakage of G.S.W. (or G.S.W. and slurry) past the Gland to atmosphere.
Insufficient tightening will also result in excessive leakage of G.S.W. (or G.S.W. and
slurry) past the Gland to Atmosphere. Correct tightening will result in a slow dribble of
warm clean G.S.W. emerging from between the shaft and packing (not between the
stuffing box and packing), this indicates that the necessary cooling and lubrication is
being properly effected.
Note that on initial startup of a gland pump fitted with new packing rings, a number of
gentle progressive tightening adjustments (i.e. repeated during a period of 1 or 2 hours) is
normally necessary until the gland packing rings have finally conformed to a stable
compressed configuration. Any attempt to adjust tightness too quickly often results in an
uncontrollable rapid transition from an undertightened condition to an overtightened
condition with the resultant overheating and destruction of the packing.
Total Gland Sealing Water Flowrate: Qt
For practical design purposes, the Total G.S.W. flowrate, Qt may be taken as equal to Qa,
as Qb is a relatively negligible flowrate.

The recommended Total G.S.W. flowrates for standard design purposes are:
FRAME SIZES TOTAL G.S.W. FLOWRATES L/s
METAL PTFE
LANTERN RESTRICTOR LANTERN RESTRICTOR
A 0.15 0.06
B, N, NP 0.25 0.09
C, P 0.35 0.11
D 0.55 0.15
E, R 0.70 0.20
F, SHH 1.20 0.26
FAM, G, ST, S, T 1.60 0.40
GAM, H, TU 2.10 0.60
GLAND-SEALING WATER: SUPPLY AND CONTROL
GLAND-SEALING WATER PRESSURE REQUIRED AT THE STUFFING BOX
At the point of entry to the Stuffing Box, the G.S.W. Pressure required is the sum of:
a) The gauge Head of slurry (approximately equal to Hd – Hx) existing at the
impeller boss, i.e. at the inboard end of the Lantern Restrictor (or Neck Ring)
and
b) The friction Head and other dynamic losses for G.S.W. flow between the entry to
the Stuffing Box and the exit from the Lantern Restrictor (or Neck Ring). The
total of these Dynamic Losses is normally so small as to be negligible.
This sum, (a) + (b), being converted to and then expressed in the appropriate units of
pressure, e.g. “kPa”.
Effects of Variations in G.S.W. Pressure Supplied to the Stuffing Box
Insufficient G.S.W. Pressure Supplied
Should the G.S.W. Pressure at the entry to the Stuffing Box be less than that required the
G.S.W. cannot force entry into the Stuffing Box. Slurry will enter the Stuffing Box (and
the G.S.W. supply line) with consequent rapid wear of the Packing Rings and Shaft
Sleeve, resulting in leakage of slurry past the Gland to atmosphere.
Excessive G.S.W. Pressure Supplied
Should the G.S.W. Pressure Supplied at the entry to the stuffing box be much greater than
that required, the flowrate Qt will be much larger than required, resulting in increased
dilution of the slurry, as well as a higher pressure in the Lantern Restrictor, necessitating
increased tightening of the Gland to avoid excessive leakage of G.S.W. past the Gland.
The increased tightening however, causes greater friction between the Packing Rings and

the Shaft Sleeve, increasing the wearing rates of these parts which would require more
frequent replacement.
The excessive leakage usually emerges as a spray thrown from the shaft sleeve and
labyrinth. The spray may cause water damage to electric motors and the pump bearing
assembly. Equipment such as this can aspirate water, particularly when cooling after a
shut-down.
GLAND-SEALING WATER: SUPPLY CONTROL
The actual head, existing at the impeller boss, i.e. Hd – Hx, Figures 7.15 or 7.16, depends
on a number of factors, e.g. Hs, Hm, Hx, which also vary further depending on the extent
of wear on the pump.
For conservative design purposes, the G.S.W. supply pressure available to the G.S.W.
supply controls near the entry to the Stuffing box, should be specified to be at a pressure
Pg, which is nominally 35 kPa in excess of the estimated pressure at the pump discharge
flange. i.e.:
Hd × g × ρm
Pg = + 35 kPa
1000
This available G.S.W. Supply Pressure Value, Pg, would be excessive, if applied directly
to the Stuffing Box particularly when Hd – Hx is a much smaller positive value, or a
negative value, resulting in the disadvantages outlined above. However, Hd – Hx usually
becomes greater, due to wear or possibly due to other pump service conditions, required a
high G.S.W. supply pressure i.e. closer to the value Pg. Consequently, Pg is the value
selected to maintain a positive reserve for all conditions. The excess pressure, at any
given time, should be dissipated by automatically or manually-operated G.S.W. supply
controls upstream of the Stuffing Box. Typical types of G.S.W. supply controls for this
purpose are shown in Figure 7.17.


The special features of these typical types of G.S.W. supply controls are:
Type “A”: Throttle Valve/Visual Flow Indicator
Generally suitable when manual and visual G.S.W. flow control is adequate, i.e. when Hd
– Hx does not vary over a wide range and dilution of slurry pumped is not regarded as a
critical factor (refer to Bulletin WAP/16).
Type “B”: Constant-Flow Orifice Valve
This valve is essentially a synthetic rubber orifice plate housed in a socket. The orifice
plate distorts with variations in pressure drop across the orifice, varying the actual
diameter of the orifice such as to maintain a reasonably constant flowrate independent of
limited variations in G.S.W. Supply Pressure and Hd – Hx. Refer to manufacturer’s
specifications for allowable working pressures and minimum pressure drop (head loss)
data.
Generally suitable when automatic G.S.W. flow control is preferred: to limit dilution of
the slurry pumped and where the G.S.W. Supply Pressure and/or Hd – Hx may be variable
within the applicable range of the orifice valve.
Type “C”: Combined Rotameter/Flowrate Regulator
Generally suitable when dilution of the slurry pumped is critical and G.S.W. flowrate
must be maintained at exceptionally low values. Used in conjunction with Lantern
Ring/Neck Ring fitup, Figure 7.16, or with a PTFE Lantern Restrictor.
Recommended also where Hd – Hx may vary over a very wide range, particularly when
due to wide fluctuations in Hs. G.S.W. supply must be filtered to prevent blockage of the
very small diameter orifice in the flow regulator (Refer to Bulletin WPA/16B).
Type “D”: Selected Capillary Tubing
Generally suitable when the G.S.W. supply pressure is (or is designed to be) well in
excess of Hd – Hx. The inside diameter and length of each capillary are chosen such as to
dissipate excess G.S.W. pressure by friction loss but to maintain a flowrate close to the
specified flowrate, Qt, regardless of variations in G.S.W. Supply Pressure and/or Hd – Hx.
This effect is achieved by selecting a capillary tube for each pump where the value of Hf
in the tube increases (or decreases) rapidly with very small increases (and decreases) in
the flowrate through the tube, thereby assuring a near-constant flowrate.
The advantages of this method of control are:
i) The G.S.W. supply and control system are free from the risk of blockages or the
need for very fine filtration as may be the case with Type “C”.
ii) In the case of Multi-Stage Pump Sets, two or more pumps may be supplied with
G.S.W. from one high pressure G.S.W. supply source, although the values of Hd – Hx
vary markedly between successive stages of pumps. The capillary tubing selected for
each pump is individually designed to dissipate the excess G.S.W. pressure.

Mechanically-Sealed Pump
Some applications are best served by mechanically-sealed pumps, particularly on duties
where the liquid pumped may be expensive, corrosive or combustible such that any
leakage would be regarded as a costly waste or hazardous.
At the date of this publication, Warman International Ltd. does not design or manufacture
mechanical seals suitable for the whole of the Warman Pump range. However, various
types of mechanical seals are manufactured and marketed by other organisations.
It is usually possible to obtain a mechanical seal to suit any proposed Warman Pump
duty. Typically, the proprietary mechanical seal is normally installed in a Gland-Type
Warman Pump where the Packing Rings, Gland, Neck Ring and Lantern ring (or Lantern
Restrictor) are replaced by the Mechanical Seal. additional and substitute components
e.g. Seal Clamping Plate and Seal Housing (in lieu of Stuffing Box) are normally
required to allow proper installation of the Mechanical Seal.
The stationary and rotating faces of mechanical seals are normally manufactured with
extremely smooth polished finishes. Leakage will occur if these faces are subjected to
abrasion by solids continued in the mixture pumped or crystals which may deposit on the
faces due to cooling or evaporation of liquid at the faces. In such cases, the mechanical
seal may require to be provided with a flushing service, similar to that of a Gland-Sealed
Pump.
Proposed applications for Mechanically-Sealed Warman Pumps should be referred to
Head Office for advice on selection and application.

7.8 Froth Pumping

The pumping of frothy slurries from and within froth-flotation circuits often imposes
additional problems in the estimation of pump duties and in the selection of the type, size,
speed and power requirements of pumps.
These frothy slurries (froths) are produced by the additions of surface-active chemicals to
slurries and the subsequent forced aeration of these slurries to form bubbles. Froths vary
widely in stability: some are tenacious froths which preserve their bubbles for a
considerable time and are difficult to reduce (de-aerate) to a bubble-free slurry… others
are less stable as the bubbles collapse more quickly or respond more quickly to external
action (e.g. water sprays) to induce collapse of the bubbles.
Horizontal Centrifugal Pumps
The success of application of horizontal centrifugal pumps to froth pumping is affected
largely by two factors.
i) Froth Factor
The actual flowrate of froth (slurry PLUS bubbles) to be handled can vary
typically from 150% to 500%, the Froth Factor, of the flowrate of slurry only (i.e.
without any bubbles). The Froth Factor may be as low as 150% for a less stable
froth to as high as 500% for a very tenacious froth.
The slurry flowrate, Q, must be multiplied by the Froth Factor to determine the
actual froth flowrate, Qf, which is to be handled by the pump. Q and Qf may also
vary widely with actual variations in the grade and nature of minerals treated from
time to time in a given flotation plant.
The presence of air bubbles in the froth reduces the effective value of S m as the
froth enters the pump. The value of Sm is quickly increased due to compression
of the bubbles by the head developed in the pump and subsequently decreased as
the froth passes from the pump, along the discharge pipeline, to discharge at
atmospheric pressure. Conversely, the value of Vd will increase along the
discharge pipeline due to expansion of the bubbles. In view of these
complexities, details of each proposed application should be forwarded to Head
Office for application engineering.
ii) Air Locks
Horizontal pumps, gravity-fed with froth from a conventional hopper, will often
perform in an unstable (cyclic) manner evidenced by alternation between full
flowrate and nearly zero flowrate performance, with the following symptoms:
SYMPTOMS FULL FLOWRATE NEARLY ZERO FLOWRATE
Flowrate Discharged: Q High Zero, or very low
Static Suction Head: Zs Decreasing Increasing
Power Consumption High Low

This cyclic performance is cause by intermittent air locking. The centrifugal

action of the impeller selectively centrifuges slurry away from the eye of the
impeller, leaving a growing air bubble trapped at the eye. This accumulation of
air impedes the movement of froth from the hopper into the pump, eventually
causing the pump discharge flowrate to reduce to zero. Consequently, Zs
increases until it is sufficient to compress this air bubble, allowing froth to reach
the impeller and full flowrate to be restored. The cycle then repeats.
Air Locks may be avoided on less tenacious froths or their effects minimised by
providing a vent pipe to allow trapped air to be released continuously, Fig. 7.18.
This arrangement is similar to a normal vent pipe installation excepting that the froth vent
pipe is extended well into the eye of the impeller to reach the air bubble held by the
centrifugal action.
An oversized pump hopper, fitted with a diagonal baffle, aids in venting air released by
froth passing towards the hopper outlet.
In addition, the indexing of pump heads to the +315º or +270º dispositions assists in
avoiding the entrapment of air (in the upper portion of the casing) by the cutwater. This
trapped pocket of air would be displaced (centripeded) towards the eye of impeller when
the pump is started if “Standard Vertical” or other dispositions are selected.

Launder Pumps
Vertical (sump) pumps are frequently employed to pump froths, each pump being
mounted directly into the launder or into a chamber forming a lateral extension of the
launder. This arrangement is generally satisfactory where small pump sizes are involved
and where closer operator’s supervision of the pump operation is a special advantage.
The discharge static head Zd is usually lower. However, the greater chamber size
required for larger pumps is usually a disadvantage, resulting in restricted clearances in
walkways between banks of cells or costly additional area being required to provide
satisfactory clearances.
The Warman Type “SP” pump, see Bulletin WSUP/1/1, is recommended for launder
pump duties. The double-suction impeller aids in reducing the Froth Factor as the self-

venting upper side of the impeller is exposed to the bulk of the froth bubbles. Proposed
Launder Pump duties should be referred to Head Office for application engineering.
Warman Type “F” Froth Pumps
The Warman Type “F” Froth Pump design, see Bulletin WFP/1 provides features which
overcome the disadvantages associated with Horizontal and Vertical (Sump) types of
pumps employed on froth duties:
The tangential entry to the integral hopper provides a centrifugal force and a continuous
spiral flow path from the point of entry to the top suction impeller. The top-suction
design permits rapid venting of any air released at the impeller eye and the unrestricted
flow of released air to atmosphere via the central vortex.
For practical purposes, the slurry pumped is air-free, i.e. the Froth Factor is only 100%.
Friction head loss calculations may be carried out as for normal air-free slurries, subject
only to normal provisions for maximum required flowrates and other duty specified by
the proposed purchaser.

7.9 Conical Enlargements

In many cases, the correctly selected internal diameter of the discharge pipe may be
greater than that at the pump discharge flange, requiring their mating by means of a
conical enlargement section. From Figure 5.3.2, the head loss factor Ke, due to the
conical enlargement varies from the maximum of Ke = 1.15 when the included angle (θ)
is 65º, to a minimum of Ke = 0.14 when θ = 6º.
In order to minimise head losses and, in particular to avoid excessively high wear rates of
the conical enlargement and the adjacent pipework, it is good design practice to adopt the
included angle, θ = 6º. In practical terms this is equivalent to allowing an increase in
diameter of 10 mm for every 100 mm in length of the conical section.

7.10 Vortex Suppression

The performance of pumps on high-flowrate, suction-lift duties is occasionally
disadvantaged by the formation of a vortex, Figure 7.21.1, with a core of air extending
from the liquid surface to the suction pipe inlet. The volumetric flowrate of air drawn
into the suction pipe reduces the liquid flowrate discharged by the pump.
A vortex can occur despite attempts to reduce local velocities at the suction pipe inlet by
means of a suction bell, as illustrated, or by a fishtail-shaped suction inlet.
However, the air core may be destroyed by the presence of a large diameter captive
floating ball, Figure 7.21.2, on the liquid surface. The ball is kept captive by means of a
chain attached to the suction inlet.

7.11 Instrumentation
PRESSURE AND VACUUM GAUGES
Simple instrumentation is valuable on many Warman pump applications e.g.: Suction
Dredging, to assist the operator in diagnosing operational faults. See Section 11.
The most common type of pressure or vacuum gauge available is the Bourdon-tube type
which employs an internal helical coil of flattened alloy tubing as the sensing element.
This type is prone to blockage or loss of accuracy should solids enter the internal
Bourdon-tube. More expensive diaphragm-type gauges are available where the simple
presence of solids normally would not affect the accuracy but the inlet to the diaphragm
chamber or the chamber itself may become blocked, leading to loss of accuracy.
However, all types of gauge are prone to structural or mechanical damage due to shock or
extensive exposure to vibration. Consequently, gauges intended for measuring heads at
the pump suction (Hgs) and at the pump discharge (Hgd) are best installed a short distance
away from the suction and discharge pipes and connected to these pipes by tubing.
As the tubing may be subject to blockages by the solids pumped, which would cause
gauge readings to be incorrect, the slurry should be prevented from entering the tubing by
means of a suitable diaphragm.
The Warman Pressure Transmitter Figure 7.22.1 has been developed for this purpose, it
consists essentially of a flanged hemispherical elastomer diaphragm, clamped with a
flanged metal housing. The volume above the diaphragm and the tubing leading to the
gauge is filled with clean water. The recommended filling procedure allows the gauge to
indicate the actual gauge pressure, or vacuum, existing at the diaphragm even though the
gauge may be installed at a level above or below that of the diaphragm.

The hemispherical diaphragm can displace a sufficiently large volume of fluid, while the
diaphragm remains in a flaccid condition, such that the true slurry gauge pressure or
vacuum at the diaphragm, is transmitted to the gauge without any error due to resistance
imposed by the diaphragm material becoming stretched. This feature is limited only by
the possibly large volumetric displacements associated with extremely long distances
between the diaphragm and the gauge.
The transmitter is designed for connection to a 50 mm nominal diameter flanged vertical
offtake from the pump suction or discharge pipes, generally as illustrated in Figure
7.22.2. The vertical offtakes should be approximately 500 mm long to ensure that the
diaphragms are not damaged by slivers of timber, bolts, wire or similar tramp which may
spear into the offtake.
As the gauge is in contact with clear water only, the less-expensive Bourdon-tube type
gauge may be employed.
Hydraulic Pulses
Each gauge should be fitted with a snubber, usually available from the gauge
manufacturer. The snubber is normally fitted to the gauge during manufacture or prior to
connection of the tubing. It incorporates a very small diameter orifice which serves to
dampen pulses of pressure or vacuum frequently associated with pumping installations.
These pulses are normally generated by the main pumping vanes and side-sealing vanes
of the impeller as well as by associated prime movers, transmissions and pipework.
A needle valve can also be employed as a snubber, the throttling action simply being
adjusted to dampen any rapid oscillations of the gauge pointer (needle) caused by these
hydraulic pulses.

Compound Gauges
Any gauge which is connected to a pressure or vacuum well outside the range indicated
on its dial is subject to either irreparable damage or at least some distortion, yielding
subsequent incorrect readings until repaired. Accordingly, gauges intended for certain
vacuum applications should be of the compound type (i.e. the dial is marked for a range
extending from full vacuum, through atmospheric pressure, i.e. zero gauge, to a
predetermined pressure) if it is likely that the gauge may be connected to a pressure in
service. For example, a vacuum filtrate extraction pump suction gauge may be connected
to a significant positive gauge head (+) Hgs = (+) Zs when the filter and pump are shut
down and a vacuum is not being applied to the filtrate receiver but the receiver contains
liquid.
Compound gauges are also applied to pressure steam accumulators which, if
disconnected from the steam supply and remain sealed while cooling, would be under
vacuum after the steam condensed. Similarly, pressure gauges applied to pipelines under
pressure during normal service but which may come under a vacuum during startup,
shutdown or when being drained should be of the compound type.
Pressure Gauges: Maximum Pressure Reading Capability
Generally, pressure gauges should be selected with a maximum pressure reading
capability approximately 100% in excess of the expected maximum normal service
pressure. This usually provides for service pressure coinciding with the zone of highest
accuracy of the gauge as well as allowing for a reserve to safely accommodate any
pressure pulse peaks, prior to adjustment of the needle valve, or any abnormally high
pressures caused by a blockage in the discharge pipeline. However, specific
circumstances also should be considered. e.g. Run-back commencing on shutdown of a
multi-stage pump unit on a very high Zd application may temporarily impose a pressure
on say, the 2nd Stage Pump, well in excess of its normal discharge pressure, requiring that
the maximum pressure reading capability be correspondingly higher.

7.12 Parallel Pumping

Normally, Warman pump applications are each satisfied by a single pump handling the
entire flowrate, or a range of flowrates. Even in the case of Series Pumping, the entire
flowrate is handled by each pump in the multi-stage pump unit.
However, there are many recorded cases of Warman Pumps being operated in parallel,
usually for one or more of the following reasons:
a) The total flowrate required for the duty is achieved by using two or more pumps
salvaged from defunct applications, in preference to the purchase of a new large
pump capable of handling the total flowrate.
b) The application may feature an exceptionally high total flowrate, requiring a
single pump size and associated prime mover and pipework much larger than the
client would prefer to operate and service.
c) The total flowrate required may vary over and exceptionally wide range say 20%
to 100% of maximum such that a single large pump and associated single system
may not be well suited to the smaller flowrates.
Parallel Pumping: Parallel Systems
Two or more pumps each with its individual suction pipe and discharge system may be
installed. The number of pumps operating at any one time would depend on the flowrate
required.
e.g. Assuming that 4 identical fixed-speed pumps were installed; each with identical
systems:
From ZERO to 25% of maximum: 1 pump should be operating
From 25% to 50% of maximum: 2 pumps should be operating
Assuming that each pump has the same design maximum flowrate and that each pump
operating would receive an equal share of the actual total flowrate supplied at any given
time, the actual % ranges of design maximum individual flowrate for each pump are:
4 Pumps Available for Operation in Parallel Systems
Total Flowrate: % of Number of Pumps Individual Pump Flowrate
Maximum supplied Operating % of design Maximum
ZERO to 25% 1 ZERO to 100%
25% to 50% 2 50% to 100%
50% to 75% 3 66.7% to 100%
75% to 100% 4 75% to 100%
The above table indicates that generally, the installation of a number of smaller pumps in
parallel can allow each pump to be operated at flowrate closer to 100% of its design

maximum flowrate and each pump with its associated system could be better engineered
for the application.
A typical example of an application requiring an exceptionally wide range of flowrates to
be handled would be the combined disposal of tailings, spillage’s, floor wash and water
run-off from a concentrator site where potential river pollution by all effluents must be
avoided by collection and disposal to a secure site.
In such a case 2, 3 or more separate pump/system combinations, each possibly provided
with variable speed drives, could be installed to handle the application.
Parallel Pumping: Common Systems
The term “parallel pumping” is often understood to describe two or more pumps being
operated in parallel, being fed from the same liquid source, with or without a common
suction pipe, and discharging into a common discharge system. See Figures 7.23.1 and
7.23.2.
For simplification of these diagrams, the pumps are shown on Suction-Lift applications.
However, the following text applies to duties involved both positive (+ve) and negative (-
ve) values of Hs.

A common misconception regarding centrifugal pumps is that the flowrate of liquid

through a system can be doubled (or trebled etc.) by doubling (or trebling etc.) the
number of pumps installed in parallel in a common discharge system. This is an incorrect
statement as the actual flowrate of liquid through a system depends primarily on:
1. The combined Hw/Q (or Hm/Q) characteristic effective for the actual combination of
pumps operated in parallel.
2. The System Resistance, (S.R. Curve) to which the combination is applied, for the
given liquid or slurry.
Pumps in Parallel: Identical Performance Curves:
Combined Characteristic
Figure 7.24 represents various Hw/Q curves and S.R. Curves.
1) Curve A-B represents the Hw/Q performance curve for a given single pump (at a
given speed and with cavitation-free conditions).
2) Curve A-C represents the combined Hw/Q performance curve for 2 such identical
pumps in parallel each with identical performance curves.
3) Curve A-D represents the combined Hw/Q performance curve for 3 such identical
pumps in parallel each with identical performance curves.
4) Similarly, curves for 4 or more pumps in parallel may be drawn.
It can be seen that, for any given value of head, the combined flowrate is the sum of the
flowrates of each of the pumps operating in parallel. However, a constant given value of
head does not exist with varying flowrates through a system. For example, S.R. Curve

X-Y follows the normal trend of increasing H as Q is increased, intersecting the above
curves as follows:
S.R. CURVE: X-Y
Q FOR
Hw/Q CURVE DUTY POINT COMBINED Q TOTAL HEAD
EACH PUMP
A–B
(Single Pump) Point (1) Q1 = 45 L/s H1 = 23.5 m 45 L/s
A–C
(2 Parallel Pumps) Point (2) Q2 = 66 L/s H2 = 35.5 m 33 L/s
A–D
(3 Parallel Pumps) Point (3) Q3 = 75 L/s H3 = 41.5 m 25 L/s
i) Obviously the combined flowrate is NOT increased directly in proportion to the

number of pumps in parallel although the total head is increased at the point of
intersection with the S.R. Curve.
ii) However, the combined flowrate is increased to a value closer to that in
proportion to the number of pumps in parallel when the S.R. Curve is relatively
flat e.g. Curve X – Z: Points (4), (5), (6).
iii) Conversely, the combined flowrate is NOT SIGNIFICANTLY increased and is
certainly NOT in proportion to the number of pumps in parallel, when the S.R.
Curve is relatively steep e.g.: Curve X – P: Points (7), (8), (9).
From (i), (ii) and (iii) above, it is evident that the benefits, if any, from parallel pumping
in a common system must be estimated from data derived from an examination of the
combined pump performance curve and the proposed system resistance curve for each
proposed application.

Non-Identical Performance Curves: Common System

The combined Hw/Q characteristic is obtained by the same procedure i.e. for any given
head, the combined flowrate is the sum of the flowrates of each of the pumps operating in
parallel, as in Figure 7.25.
In this example,
Pump No. 1: Has an individual Hw/Q performance curve A-B-C
Pump No. 2: Has an individual Hw/Q performance curve D-E
The Combined Hw/Q performance curve is D-B-G i.e. the combination will always fail to
generate a total head greater than the value at D as the additional head developed by
Pump No. 1 (shaded area A-B-D) is dissipated by the high head discharge from Pump
No. 1 forcing a reverse flow back into the discharge side of Pump No. 2. Consequently,
the combined flowrate is less than the flowrate from Pump No. 1 when the system
requires a total head in excess of that for points D and B (50.0 m in this example). Under
this condition, operating two pumps in parallel provides a disadvantage only.
When the System requires a head less than that for points D to B, the combined flowrate,
at any given head is the sum of the flowrate of each pump at this head.
However, the disadvantages from the combination of two or more non-identical
performance curves to a common system can apply to other pumping applications even
though the pumps may be regarded as identical. The true performance curves, Hw/Q or
Hm/Q, would NOT be identical because of:
a) Variations in geometry between individual impeller within normal manufacturing
tolerances.
b) Variations between individual adjustments of impeller running clearance at the
pump suction side.

c) Variations in actual extent of wear at any one time between individual impellers.
e.g. in Figure 7.25 the two H/Q curves A-B-C and D-E, could typify two pumps regarded
as identical but with different true Hm/Q curves due to different extents of wear.
Curve A-B-C could represent a lightly-worn pump.
Curve D-E could represent a heavily-worn pump.
For the given common S.R. Curve:
Total Flowrate from Pumps No’s 1 and 2 in parallel is 80 L/s at 46.0 m Total Head.
Flowrate from No. 1 Pump = 49 L/s
Flowrate from No. 2 Pump = 31 L/s
80 L/s
For the above reasons parallel pumping of slurries through a common system is NOT
RECOMMENDED. It is not possible to be certain that each pump can continuously
discharge the required proportion of the total flowrate and the total flowrate would
become less than required.
Where Parallel Pumping is necessary, a separate discharge system and a separate suction
pipe should be provided for each pump installed.

7.13 Jet Stacking

The Jet Stacking technique, see Figure 7.26, is frequently employed in the disposal of
sand tailings from mineral sands mining operation. The deposit is normally mined by
means of a suction dredge which feed a wet concentrating plant, both floating in the
dredge pond which is usually artificially created in the deposit. As the mineral sands
mined originate from a face, some or most of which is above pond water level, the
tailings must be stacked to a height at least equal to that of the mining face, to ensure that
the tailings stack does not advance into the pond any faster than the dredge advances
along its mining path.
The tailings could be placed, after dewatering, by means of long cantilevered conveyors.
However, the high capital cost of these conveyors, the dewatering equipment and
additional flotation required normally renders this technique less economic that jet
stacking.
Theoretical Exit Stream Trajectory
The theoretical exit trajectory, Figure 7.27, is parabolic, due to the interaction of the Exit
Velocity, Ve, and Gravitational Acceleration, g.

In order to minimise the value of Ve, the ideal theoretical trajectory would allow for the
maximum height of placement to occur as the stream arrives at its apex. The theoretical
location of the position of the apex accords to the following formulae:
Ve2
Horizontal Distance from Nozzle: L= × sin 2θ (m)
2g
Ve2
Vertical Height Above Nozzle: L= × sin 2 θ (m)
2g
Ve2
Direct Linear Distance from Nozzle: Y = × sin θ 4 − 3 sin 2 θ (m)
2g
where Ve = Nozzle Exit Velocity (m/s)
θ = Angle of Inclination of Longtitudinal Axis Nozzle above horizontal
(Degrees)
Ve2
Theoretical values of L, H and Y for various values of and of θ may be calculated
2g
from the following tabulated data:
θ For L: For H: For Y:
sin 2θ sin2θ sin θ 4 − 3 sin 2 θ
30º 0.866 0.250 0.901
45º 1.000 0.500 1.119
50º 0.985 0.587 1.148
54.6º 0.945 0.666 1.154
60º 0.866 0.750 1.145
70º 0.644 0.884 1.090
90º ZERO 1.000 1.000
An inclination of θ = 50º usually provides a suitable compromise to achieve near-
maximum practical useful values for L, H and Y. Taking into account the usual angles of
repose of sand tailings both above and below waterline, the higher values of θ are not
appropriate.
Actual Slurry Stream Trajectories
The actual slurry stream trajectory will not conform to the theoretical parabolic
trajectory. Actual values of L, H and Y will be less than the theoretical.

Air resistance will contribute to departure from the theoretical trajectory. Unfavourable
wind direction and wind velocity will further deflect the trajectory.
Trajectory: Rising Portion
Generally, given a well-designed nozzle and an exit velocity, Ve, up to approximately 30
m/s, the slurry stream will remain fairly cohesive, in still air, for most of its rising
trajectory until it reaches a point approximately 70% of the distance to its actual apex. At
this point, the slurry stream commences to break up into discrete droplet, to spread into a
wider stream and to more rapidly depart from the theoretical trajectory.
Figure 7.28 represents a comparison of the theoretical trajectory and a typical actual (in
still air) slurry trajectory from a nozzle inclined at 50º. Actual values of L, H and Y are
approximately 85% of the theoretical values.
However, The actual falling trajectory, after the stream has passed its apex, departs very
rapidly from the theoretical trajectory. It reaches a distance, at a point on the same
horizontal level as the nozzle, of approximately 60% only of the theoretical value “A”
(=2L).
It is usually necessary to design for placement to occur after the stream has passed its
apex. Consequently, the actual velocity, Ve, selected should yield a theoretical trajectory
which can be degraded by application of appropriate percentages in order to shape the
estimated trajectory.
Jet Stacking: Practical Considerations

Jet stacking is usually effected by pumping the tailings through a pipe installed on a jib
extending from the stern of the concentrator. The pipe terminates at a jet nozzle which is
at an angle of inclination (usually 50º above horizontal) which, given a suitable nozzle

exit velocity, Ve, will place the tailings at a satisfactory height above, and/or distance
from, the nozzle.
The jib is usually inclined at an angle near to that of the tailings bank angle of repose.
The use of jets avoids the need for must longer discharge pipes required if jet nozzles
were not employed. These longer pipes would require heavier and more costly
construction for both the job and the concentrator flotation.
Where large tonnages of tailings are handles and where the tailings stack height is
considerable, two or more nozzle locations are usually employed, see Figure 7.29, each
designed to place the tailings at different maximum heights, e.g. such that the tailings
stack is built up by an upper layer being placed upon a lower layer as the operation
progresses in the direction of the mining path.
This also serves to yield lower values of Ld, Zd and consequently Total Dynamic Head,
H, and power required for pumping via the nozzles at the lower locations.
Frequently, two or more nozzles are operated in parallel at the one location. This serves
to distribute the tailings over a wider area of the tailings bank, reducing the required
frequency of jib slewing movements as the tailings stack builds up on the bank.
The grades of the tailings banks above water line, C-D, and below water line, B-C, must
be considered in association, with the selection of jib angle, nozzle locations and jet
trajectories. Sufficient margin should be allowed so that the bank, B-C, does not foul the
concentrator hull at Point A. The estimated trajectory, in each case, should be calculated
such as to provide estimated values of L, H and Y each approximately 20% in excess of
the specified values required. This will provide some reserve in Ve to cater for:
a) Progressive reduction in Ve as the nozzle wears (i.e. exit diameter, De, increases).
b) Additional Ve required to counter effects of at least moderate (unfavourable)
winds on the actual trajectory.

c) Greater effective values of L, H and Y to reduce the frequency of relocation of the

job as the tailings stack advances.
Replacement nozzle tips (exit end) are employed. This allows for simple replacement of
the tip, when worn, and the substitution of alternative tip diameter, De, if required to vary
Ve.
Tailings Solids Concentration, Cw
For most beach sand (silica) tailings, the required value of Cw is approximately 65%. At
this fairly high value, the water contained in the mixture pumped can readily absorb into,
and percolate through, the tailings bank allowing the tailings stack to build up although it
is suffering the constant impact of the slurry stream.
If Cw is less than approximately 65%, or if the slimes content of the tailings is excessive,
the tailings bank will not be able to absorb the additional water or slimes at a sufficiently
high rate and the bank will fail to build up as required.
The break-up and spreading of the slurry stream in the latter portion of its trajectory
serves to facilitate the absorption and percolation of the water and slimes contained in the
mixture.
In any case, the required minimum value of Cw would have to be determined by Jet-
stacking testwork.

Section 8 SERIES PUMPING

INDEX
8.0 Abstract 2
8.1 Series Pumping 3
8.2 Multi-Stage Series Pumping 6
8.3 Single Pumps Spaced at Intervals Along Pipeline Route 21
8.4 Comparison of Multi-Stage Pump Units with Pumps spaced at Intervals
along Pipeline 24

8.0 Abstract
Series pumping is applied when a duty requires a Total Dynamic Head, H, in excess of
the maximum head which can be developed by a single centrifugal slurry pump. Two
types of series pumping arrangements are possible:
a) Multi-Stage Pump Units

b) Separate Pumps, Spaced at Intervals along the Pipeline Route
The characteristics of these types of series pumping arrangements are described.
Advantages and disadvantages are compared, indicating that multi-stage pump
units are superior.
MULTI-STAGE UNITS: STARTUP: INITIAL FILLING OF PIPELINES

1. The pipeline should preferably be filled first with water, ideally while the pumps
are stopped.
2. Alternatively, the pumps may be started in sequence, on water, to fill the pipeline
at a reduced flowrate preferably 25% of duty Q.
NOTE: The above procedures help to avoid excessive flowrates, excessive power
consumption and possible impeller loosening during the filling operation.
3. Where the recommended reduced water flowrates cannot be tolerated due to the
lengthy filling time or are likely to be disregarded, the optimum startup and filling
path on, and with an unlimited supply of water may be estimated, given the
complete system details and the discharge pipeline profile.
This allows the estimation of:
a) Values and duration of maximum water flowrates and of maximum power
consumption for each pump.
b) Time sequences for startup of each stage.
The maximum power consumption (a) may exceed that for stable slurry operation,
necessitating the installation of higher kW power ratings of motors to handle the startup
and filling operation.
4. In some cases, controlled operation of a variable speed drive on the 1st Stage
Pump may assist in avoiding excessively high flowrates and power consumptions.
5. Startup and filling on slurry should be avoided mainly due to the higher maximum
power consumptions involved, the risk of blockages due to possibly low velocities
at certain times and the greater risk of impeller loosening.

8.1 Series Pumping

Many pumping duties require slurries to be transported over long distances and/or against
very high static discharge heads, i.e. against total heads well in excess of heads which can
be developed by a single centrifugal slurry pump.
Typical examples include many requirements for the pumping of concentrates, tailings,
power station ash and underground fill. The high flowrates required are commonly
beyond the capacities of available positive displacement pumps (P.D.P.’s). In addition,
the overall % efficiency, i.e.
(Hydraulic _(useful ) _ power _ imparted _ to _ slurry )×100% ,
(Total _ Electrical _ power _ input _ to _ motors )
of large centrifugal slurry pump installations competes with P.D.P.’s, essentially due to
the high efficiency of large centrifugal slurry pumps and the higher efficiencies of lower-
ratio drives between electric motors and the centrifugal pumps. These very high total
head pump applications can be handled by series pumping, either (a): multi-stage pump
units; or (b): separate pumps spaced at intervals along the pipeline route.
SINGLE PUMP
Figure 8.1 represents a single centrifugal pump operating at duty point “A”, and at pump
speed, n1. For the required flowrate of Q1, the pump can develop a head H1 at an
efficiency, em1, and at a power consumed of P1. i.e. Duty Point “A”: Q1/H1.
2-STAGE PUMP UNIT

Figure 8.2 represents two identical pumps, arranged in series so that the entire flow
discharged from the 1st Stage pump is piped under pressure through a short length of
piping, directly to the suction flange of the 2 Stage pump and finally from the discharge
of the 2nd Stage pump into the discharge pipeline. If both pumps are operated at the same
speed, n1 and as both are handling the same required flowrate, Q1, each will develop the
same Head, H1, at the same efficiency, em1, and consume the same power, P1.
The total head developed by the 2-stage pump unit combination = 2 × H1.

i.e. Duty Point “B”: Q1/2H1

Accordingly, both pumps will be operating under the same conditions except that the
Suction Head and the Discharge Head of the 2nd Stage Pump will both be higher by the
value of the Discharge Head of the 1st Stage Pump (less small losses in the inter-stage
piping).
4-STAGE PUMP UNIT

Figure 8.3 represents an arrangement similar to Figure 8.2 but extended to represent a 4-
Stage Pump unit where the entire flow passes through all 4 identical pumps prior to
entering the discharge pipeline.
If all 4 pumps are identical and are operated at the same speed, n1, and as all are handling
the same flowrate, Q1, each will develop the same head, H1, at the same efficiency, em1,
and each consume the same power, P1.
The total head developed by the 4-Stage Pump unit combined = H1 + H1 + H1 + H1 = 4 ×

H1, i.e. Duty Point “C”: Q1/4H1.
Accordingly, all 4 pumps will be operating under the same conditions except that the
Suction Head and the Discharge Head of each successive stage will be progressively
higher. Neglecting the small losses in the inter-stage piping and assuming that Hs for the
1st Stage Pump = X (metres) the individual values are:

Stage Suction Head Total Head Power Discharge Head

for Stage (m) Developed Consumed by for Stage (m)
by pump (m) each pump
1st Stage X H1 P1 X + H1
2nd Stage X + H1 H1 P1 X + 2H1
3rd Stage X + 2H1 H1 P1 X + 3H1
4th Stage X + 3H1 H1 P1 X + 4H1
4-Stage Unit: Total Head Developed = 4H1; 4P1 = Total Power Consumed
If the Total Head Developed by the Pump, varies from one pump to another, due to
different speeds or different effects of wear, the Total Head Developed by the Multi-
Stage Unit will be the sum of the individual Total Heads Developed by each of the
pumps.
Similarly, the Total Power Consumed will be the sum of the individual powers consumed
by each of the pumps.

8.2 Multi-Stage Series Pumping

Warman pumps have been employed on Multi-Stage Pump Unit installations of up to 6
stages in one unit. The major limitations to the number of stages possible in a given
multi-stage unit are:
pressure ratings of available high-pressure piping, and; casing pressure ratings of pumps.
Generally, suitable high-pressure piping can be obtained, while Warman pumps with
casing pressure ratings of 5000 kPa are in production and 7000 kPa casings are being
developed.
MULTI-STAGE PUMP UNIT STATIONS: DESIGN
Specific design requirements of Multi-Stage Pump Unit Stations include:
1. Thrust loads on pipework between stages can be quite high, consequently,
specially designed pipe connections should be used to minimise the loads
transmitted.
2. The overall layout of pumps and pipework should provide for the discharge of
each pump stage to feed as directly as possible into the suction of the successive
stage, to simplify support of piping and restraint of thrust loads.
3. A reliable supply of clean gland-sealing water (G.S.W.) should be provided. Each
pump requires G.S.W. at a pressure nominally 35 kPa in excess of its discharge
pressure. Frequently a single G.S.W. Supply Pump is installed and the discharge
fed into a manifold from where the supply is distributed to each slurry pump.
The actual pressure fed to each stuffing box is adjusted, by suitable controls, to
obtain the optimum flowrate for purging and for cooling/lubricating of the gland
packing and shaft sleeve. See Section 7: “Shaft Sealing”.
4. Normal design and layout considerations also apply: Removable lengths of inter-
stage and other pipework to facilitate access for pump maintenance; electrical
power supply and control; drainage; instrumentation and controls; maintenance
facilities (craneage etc.); design and selection of piping and pumping units;
consideration of any specific advantages for one (or more) variable speed drive(s).
5. The H.G.L. should be drawn for the proposed discharge system, particularly when
the pipeline route undulates or where the Relative Level at the discharge pipe exit
end is below the Relative Level at pumps centreline.
An examination of the H.G.L. diagram will reveal gauge heads for specification of pipe
pressure ratings, any need for standpipes or reduced diameter of pipeline at exit end to
avoid siphonic effects and the required height of any standpipe required to facilitate rapid
drainage on shut-down. See Figures 4.8, 4.9 and 4.10.
The services of Warman engineers are available to carry out, or assist in, the design of
Multi-Stage Pumping Unit Stations.

MULTI-STAGE PUMP UNITS: STARTUP AND FILLING OF PIPELINES

Multi-Stage Pump Units are usually employed on long-distance pipelines. These
pipelines are initially empty, i.e. containing air only. As the resistance to flow will be
zero when a pipeline is empty but increasing as the pipeline becomes filled, very high
flowrates could result from pumping into an empty or partly filled pipeline.
RECOMMENDED STARTUP AND FILLING PROCEDURES
a) Ideally, the pipeline should be filled with clear water with the pumps stationary.
This may be achieved by introducing water into the highest point in the pipeline
or suction system.
If this is not possible, the water may be introduced into the suction system for
pumping into the discharge system. It is preferable to limit, i.e. control, the
flowrate of water introduced into the suction system to a small value, e.g. around
25% of the proposed duty mixture flowrate, and to maintain this small flowrate
until the discharge pipeline has been completely filled, over its entire length, with
water.
This operation should be commenced with the 1st Stage Pump only running. The
2nd and subsequent stages should be started only as required to maintain this
limited flowrate through the system during the filling operation.
This procedure has the advantages of avoiding excessively high flowrates and
consequently excessively high power consumption by any of the drive motors,
while the pipeline is being filled with water. Excessively high flowrates also
introduce the risk of loosening the impellers on pumps which are not running at
the time. The tendency for impeller loosening normally occurs only on new
pumps or pumps with newly fitted replacement impellers. These impellers may
not have received sufficiently tight fastening during assembly or re-assembly or
as a result of the tightening torques generated during start-up and running, to
resist the loosening torques. See Section 7: “Avoidance of Impeller Loosening”.
b) Obviously, as the time required to fill a long distance pipeline at the limited
(25%) water flowrate may be considered by some clients to be impractically
lengthy, it may be necessary to increase the flowrate to a higher limited value,
BUT preferably to less than 100% of the proposed duty mixture flowrate to avoid
excessively high flowrates or high power consumption.
STARTUP AND FILLING WITH UNLIMITED WATER SUPPLY
In any case when the client insists that the pipeline must be initially filled with water as
quickly as possible, it should be assumed that the flowrate of water which can be
introduced into the suction system is unlimited, i.e. the flowrate discharged at any time is
simply that estimated for the combination of pump (or pumps) actually running with the
suction system and discharge system, the latter being initially empty and becoming
progressively filled.

Under these conditions, it is necessary to examine the system startup and filling
characteristics to determine:
a) The optimum starting (time delay) sequences which should be adopted to achieve
minimum power consumption on each motor and
b) whether the specified rated (mixture duty) power output of any motor or motors
may have to be increased to cover the estimated length of time of and value of
maximum power consumption during the optimum starting (time delay)
sequences.
NOTE: Obviously, initial filling of a pipeline with slurry mixture would exacerbate the
problems of initial filling with water and should be avoided. However, it is possible to
examine the system startup characteristics for cases where it is suspected that there may
not be sufficient supervision and control to ensure that a startup and filling on mixture
would never occur. Details should be referred to Head Office for examination.
The initial Instantaneous System Resistance (I.S.R.) is virtually zero because of the
absence of any Friction and Static Head in the discharge side of the system. However,
the flowrate, Q, will quickly accelerate from Q = 0, at zero pump speed, to Q = a value, at
full speed, which will be limited by either:
The I.S.R., of which the characteristic S.R. Curve will vary as the pipeline is
progressively filled with water or
Cavitation in the 1st Stage Pump (NPSH Limitation)
If all stages were started simultaneously, the absence of any initial resistance in the
discharge side of the system would probably result in extended operation in cavitation of
the 1st Stage Pump and overloading of all or most of the drive motors, until a sufficient
length of pipeline has been filled with water. Accordingly, it is necessary to arrange for a
timed sequence of starting each of the successive stages to avoid excessive overloading
of any of the drive motors, drives and the electrical supply, distribution and control
systems.
As pumping is commenced into the empty pipeline, and the water progressively moves
along the pipeline (displacing air), the varying I.S.R. will be dependant, primarily, upon
the Net Static Head, Z, and the Total Equivalent Length of Pipe, L, both values taken for
the point in the pipeline at which the water has just arrived.
In many instances, the pipeline may follow an uneven ground profile, i.e. rising and
falling, when the value of Z will vary significantly, possibly between positive (+ve) and
negative (-ve), and vice versa, at varying distances along the pipeline. In the case of a (-
ve) value of Z at a point in the pipeline close to the pumping station, the I.S.R. would
probably be (-ve) to the point, resulting in a high value of Q, limited only by cavitation in
the 1st Stage Pump during startup, and a correspondingly high power consumption.
However, when the time period of startup operation at high flowrates is extensive, the
power consumed by the motor during this time, either must not exceed the full load rating

of the motor or at least must not exceed the allowable percentage overload and duration
limitation, specified by the manufacturers of the motor.
As the pipeline is progressively further filled with water, the I.S.R. would normally
increase, resulting in a reduction in (Q and consumed power) to a value where the 2nd
Stage Pump may be started.
With both 1st and 2nd Stage Pumps running, Q would normally increase again but as the
pipeline is progressively further filled with water, the I.S.R. should again increase,
resulting in a reduction in Q to a value where the 3rd stage pump may be started. The
startup of the 4th and any subsequent stages should follow similarly.
In order to determine the time delay required for the startup of each successive stage, it is
first necessary to establish the startup path that the System should follow, as the pipeline
is progressively filled with water.
STARTUP PATH
Typical Method of Determination
Certain assumptions may be made to simplify calculations but the applicability of certain
assumptions may vary from one case to another:
Assumptions:
1. Inside Diameter of Pipe (D) is constant throughout entire length and no
restrictions are imposed anywhere in the pipeline.
2. Velocity Head (Hvd) are small and may be neglected.
3. 1st Stage Pump is not cavitating when all stages are operating with a full pipeline.
4. Time required for each pump to accelerate from rest to full speed is insignificant
compared with time required to fill pipeline.
5. Pipeline is initially empty and pumping is commenced with water.
6. Allowance for efficiency of vee-belt drive = 95%.
7. Frictional resistance of stationary (idling) pumps = zero.
8. Pipeline Friction Factor is constant during startup.
9. Time to accelerate flow in pipeline may be significant.
10. Water supply to 1st Stage pump is limited.
Procedure
Pipeline Profile
The values for Rx, Relative Level (e.g. relative to Sea Level or other datum)
corresponding to progressive actual lengths, Lx, of pipeline are graphed against actual

lengths of pipelines as in Figure 8.4. Zx can then be calculated relative to the pump
position (Ro).
Several intermediate values of Lx (e.g. 500 m, 1000 m, 1500 m, etc.) are chosen and the
corresponding values of Zx read from the plot. These sets of values are tabulated.
Power Consumption (kW) Curves

From pump performance data on clear water, at the proposed pump speed, the
power/flowrate (kW/Q) characteristics are calculated and plotted on a graph, Figure 8.5.
Note that the appropriate drive efficiency is employed in the kW/Q calculation. The
maximum continuous rating motor kW is drawn also in Figure 8.5. The value of Q
corresponding to this rated kW is the estimated maximum flowrate, QOL, attainable
without motor overload.

NPSH Limitation
Values of NPSH available for the specific suction system, when handling clear water are
calculated (see Section 6). The values of NPSH Required by the pump are obtained from
the performance curve. These 2 sets of values are plotted on a graph Figure 8.6, to yield
the flowrate, QNPSH above which cavitation will commence.
The value of QNPSH is also plotted on Figure 8.5 to determine the kW consumed at QNPSH.
Tests on Warman pumps, to date, indicate that the kW consumed at values of Q in excess
of QNPSH under cavitating conditions do not exceed the value of kW at QNPSH, enabling
this value to be treated as the maximum kW consumed when cavitating.

Multi-Stage Pump H/Q Curves

The Hw/Q curves for the number of stages required are plotted on a graph, Figure 8.7,
showing the different Hw/Q characteristics when the 1st stage only, 1st and 2nd stages only,
etc., are operating.
The value of QOL is marked on the graph.
The value of QNPSH is marked on the graph.
Point “A” is established by the empirical formulae:
QA = 1.20 QNPSH
HA = 0.75 HWQA (From Hw/Q curve where Q=QA)
The broken Hw/Q Curve for cavitating conditions is constructed by departing the Hw/Q
curve at Q = QNPSH, passing through Point “A” then dropping sharply down to Hw = zero
at a value slightly in excess of QA. This method of construction is sufficiently accurate
for the purpose as in Figure 8.7.

Varying System Resistance Curves

Suitable Flowrates, including at least one in excess of QNPSH, i.e. Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4 are
selected and tabulated.
1273Q
After applying the formula: V = (m/s),
d2
an average value of Friction Factor, f, to apply over the range of flowrates Q1 to Q4 is
determined.

At each of the tabulate conditions (Lx, Zx) the total Head, Hx, is calculated for each of the
selected flowrates, (Qx = Q1, or Q2, or Q3, etc.) by formula:
[
H x = Z x + 8.25 × 10 7 ]Df 5
L x ⋅ Q x2 (m) Equation (1)
The values of Hx for each value of Qx are plotted (Figure 8.7) to obtain the I.S.R. curve
for each pipeline length Lx. It will be noted that these curves, L1, L2, L3 etc. become
steeper as Lx increases from zero to full length but the values of Hx are also influences by
the values of Zx.
Planning the Startup and Filling Path
The Startup Path originates at Q = zero and H = zero. With the 1st stage Pump only, the
path moves very rapidly along the H = zero abscissa, with Q increasing, until a value, QI,
is reached, corresponding to the cavitation condition where H = zero. Flowrate QI will be
maintained until sufficient length of pipeline has become filled with water to increase the
I.S.R. sufficiently to reduce the flowrate. The steps in startup are:
Flowrate QO (= zero) exists immediately on startup.
Flowrate QI exists after startup, being limited by cavitation.
Flowrate QII exists when water has just filled pipeline length L1.
Flowrate QIII exists when water has just filled pipeline length L2.
Flowrate QIV exists when water has just filled pipeline length L3.
In this example, each of these flowrates, QO to QIV, represents a power consumption less
than the kW absorbed for QNPSH, which has been established to be less than the maximum
continuous rating of the motor, Figure 8.5.
It is apparent from Figure 8.7 that if the 2nd Stage Pump were started shortly after
pipeline length L1 had been filled, the 1st Stage Pump would operate in cavitation for a
longer period although the power consumed by each pump would be below that for QOL.
The 2nd Stage Pump is started when water has just filled pipeline length L3. The flowrate
increases rapidly from QIV to QV as the 2nd Stage Pump quickly accelerates to full speed
and progressively reduces to the stable flowrate QVI when the water has reached the end
of the pipeline (length L4) and continues to discharge from the end. As each of the
flowrates QIV to QVI also represents a power consumption less than maximum continuous
rating of each motor, the 2 – Stage unit has been started without exceeding the maximum
continuous rating of the motors and with a minimum period of operation of the 1st Stage
Pump in cavitation.
Note: In this example:

QNPSH is given to be less than QOL, i.e. kW at QNPSH is less than kW at QOL. However, in
some cases it is possible for QNPSH to be greater than QOL which can result in a power
consumption in excess of the maximum continuous rating of the 1st stage (and possibly
subsequent stages). In certain cases, the excessive power consumption may be so
prolonged that high power motors may be required simply to meet startup requirements.

In any case, it is necessary to determine the time periods required for the water to reach
each point in the pipeline which corresponds to the time for startup of the relative pump
stage.
This is calculated as follows:
The average flowrate Qav for filling the pipeline between any 2 points, e.g. for L0 to L1:
Q + QI
Qav = II (L/s)
2
QIII + QII
and for L1 to L2: Qav = (L/s)
2
…and so on.
1273Qav
The average value of V is calculated: Vav = (m/s)
d2
the time required to fill each selected section (∆L) of pipeline is calculated:
∆L
t av = (seconds)
Vav
L2 − L1
e.g. for L1 to L2: t av = (seconds)
Vav
Note: The times required to accelerate each pump from startup to full speed are treated as
zero. i.e. Times required to charge from flowrates QO to QI and from QIV to QV are taken
as zero.
The values of tav (seconds) are converted to minutes (Tav). The progressive sums of the
individual values of Tav are taken to establish:
i) Time delay from startup of 1st Stage to startup of each of the subsequent stages.
ii) Total time to fill pipeline with water.
The total time should be checked by the approximate formula:
L ⋅ D2
Ttotal ≈ (minutes)
(Q + QVI )
76300 ⋅ I
2
The following table represents a convenient form for tabulating the calculated data:

Lx Rx Zx = Rx - RO AX (HLX)QX ∆L Qav Vav tav Tav TTOTAL
(m) (m) (m) (L/s) (m) (m) (L/s) (m/s) (s) (min) (min)
SLURRY PUMPING MANUAL

LO RO Zero Zero Zero
L1 – L0 QII + QI F F T1 T1
L1 R1 Z1 Q1 (HL1)Q1 2 R R
Q2 (HL1)Q2 O O
Q3 (HL1)Q3 L2 – L1 M M
T2 (T2 + T1)
Copyright
Q4 (HL1)Q4 QIII + QII

2 E E
©
Q Q
WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LTD
L2 R2 Z2 Q1 (HL2)Q1 U U
Q2 (HL2)Q2 L3 – L2 A A
Q3 (HL2)Q3 T3 (T3 + T2 + T1)
QIV + QIII T T
Q4 (HL2)Q4 I I
2
O O
N N
L3 R3 Z3 Q1 (HL3)Q1
Q2 (HL3)Q2 L4 – L3 T4 (T4+T3+T2+T1)
Q3 (HL3)Q3 QVI + QV
Q4 (HL3)Q4 2
Section 8 Page 16
L4 R4 Z4 Q1 (HL4)Q1
Q2 (HL4)Q2
Q3 (HL4)Q3
Q4 (HL4)Q4
A typical more complex example is illustrated and summarised in Figures 8.8 and 8.9. A
very detailed analysis was necessary in view of the wide fluctuation in Zx in the first half
of the pipeline:
Prior to any consideration of Startup and Filling Path, it was estimated that a 45 kW
motor was adequate for each drive for the slurry-pumping duty range.
1st Stage Startup
However, the power consumed initially at point “A” by the 1st Stage Pump Unit is nearly
60 kW for QNPSH but reduces progressively, passing through 45 kW after about 47
seconds when approximately 270 m of linear pipeline length has been filled and Q
progressively decreases.
The shut-off head of the 1st Stage Pump, at 1300 r/min, is 41 m.
For Zx = 41 m: Rx = RO + Zx = 12 + 41 = 53 m
From Figure 8.8, Q will progressively decrease to reach zero when around 500 linear
metres of pipeline has been filled unless the 2nd Stage is started beforehand.
2nd Stage Startup
The 2nd Stage is planned to start at Point “B” when at least 350 linear metres of pipeline
has been filled, in order to avoid any further overloading. Q and the power consumed by
each stage will both increase but not beyond overload conditions, to Point “C”. Note that
the detailed analysis reveals that Q fluctuates in the region between points “C” and “D”
due largely to respective fluctuations in Zx.
3rd and 4th Stages Startup
The 3rd and 4th stages are planned to start at point “D” when 1900 linear metres of the
pipeline has been filled and the values of Q and the power consumed by all 4 stages will
both increase, but not beyond overload conditions, to Point “E” and thence to point “F”
when the pipeline has been completely filled and the flowrate is stable.
The 3rd and 4th stages could be started in sequence, if preferred, yielding the alternative
path “D” – “X” – “Y” – “F”.
Motor Size: Summary
In view of the extended period of operation in excess of maximum continuous rating of a
45 kW motor, a 60 kW rating would probably be recommended by the manufacturers for
the 1st stage. 45 kW rating motors would be adequate for the 2nd, 3rd and 4th stages.


Startup on and Filling Pipeline with Slurry

Although not normally recommended, startup on slurry may be unavoidable in some
installations. This would require a separate analysis resulting in another graphical
presentation similar to Figure 8.9. Values of kW consumed would be higher than for
water, suggesting that in the above example, a motor of kW rating greater than 60 for the
1st Stage and possibly also the 2nd stage would be required.
The Startup Path would have to be planned to avoid flowrates corresponding to pipeline
velocities below the Limiting Settling Velocity (VL).

MULTI-STAGE PUMP UNITS:

STARTUP AND FILLING WITH VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES
A variable speed drive on the 1st Stage Pump may be employed to limit the values of Q
and kW consumed throughout the entire startup path. This may assist in avoiding the
need for high motor ratings, simply to cater for startup conditions, providing that
adequately sensitive speed control can be applied.
The application of variable speed would require a separate analysis, resulting in another
graphical presentation in a form similar to Figure 8.9, but made more complex by reason
of the variations of H/Q characteristics with speed.

8.3 Single Pumps Spaced at Intervals Along Pipeline Route

A: HOPPER FED BOOSTING PUMPS
Figures 8.10.1 and 8.10.2 depict an arrangement where a long-distance and/or a high
static head pumping duty is handled by a number of fixed-speed, hopper-fed, single pump
units, each handling a Hm/Q duty within the capability of a single centrifugal pump.
Theoretically, if each pump were correctly speeded for its actual duty, this approach
should prove satisfactory. However, in practice, it has been found that, as actual wear

rates vary amongst identical pumps, the Hm/Q characteristics of each pump vary
differently with progressive wear.
e.g. If Pump No. 2 wore more rapidly than No. 1, the flowrate from Pump No. 2 would
reduce, the level in No. 2 hopper would rise and spillage would occur. This could result
in an inadequate velocity in the discharge pipeline from Pump No. 2 with probably
settling of solids and blockage. The entire flow into No. 2 hopper would then overflow
as spillage.
Disadvantages and advantages of this arrangement are summarised below.
B: PRESSURE BOOSTING PUMPS
Figures 8.11.1 and 8.11.2 depict an alternative arrangement consisting of a number of
single pumps, spaced at intervals along the pipeline route and each acting as an in-line
pressure booster.
It is theoretically possible to locate each pump such that, under normal stable operating
conditions, the suction head at each pump is close to atmospheric pressure, and the
discharge head is approximately Hm, apparently enabling relatively low-pressure
pipework and pump casings (and possibly centrifugally-sealed pumps) to be employed.
However, it would also be necessary to start each pump in sequence with very carefully
controlled low flowrates to avoid exceeding normal stable maximum operating pressures
throughout the system. It is not generally practical for these conditions to be met.
If the pumps were started in sequence, with water, or slurry, being fed into an empty
pipeline, the initial flowrate from the 1st stage could be well in excess of the normal, due
to the initially low system resistance. The high momentum of the long cylinder or slug of
liquid arriving at the next pump has been demonstrated to generate sufficient hydraulic
shock to burst the centrifugal-seal, the pump casing and/or pipeline and couplings.
When high static discharge heads exist, abnormally high pressures would be experienced
at the lower levels of the pipeline immediately following shutdown.
A further disadvantage of this arrangement is that the failure (e.g. due to wear) of one of
the pumps to develop sufficient head may result in a negative (-ve) suction head at, and
cavitation of, the pumps downstream. This would result in insufficient head being
developed to maintain an adequate flowrate in the system, probably resulting in a pipeline
blockage. Disadvantages and advantages of this arrangement are summarised below.


8.4 Comparison of Multi-Stage Pump Units with Pumps spaced at

Intervals along Pipeline
A: MULTI-STAGE PUMP UNITS:
ADVANTAGES:
Reduced cost for buildings, craneage and other facilities for maintenance, at the one
station.
Reduced cost for installation and operation of power supply, electrical equipment,
electrical controls and instrumentation at the one station. Minimum manpower owing to
supervision of operation being required at one station only.
Combined Hm/Q characteristics range required, if required to vary flowrate and to allow
for wear, is usually adequately satisfied by variable speed (V-S) on one stage only.
Poor performance of one pump e.g. if heavily worn, usually does not seriously affect the
operation.
DISADVANTAGES:
High pressure-rating pipe may be required for at least part of the pumping distance.
Gland-sealed Warman pumps are required for all stages or for at least the 2nd and
successive pump stages. i.e. gland-sealing water supply and controls are required.
B: PUMPS SPACED AT INTERVALS ALONG PIPELINE
ADVANTAGES:
Low pressure, less expensive pumps possibly may be used.
Low pressure-rating pipeline possibly may be used, e.g. Asbestos-cement or Plastics, if
hopper-fed pumps are used at each station. Centrifugally sealed pumps may be used, at
each station, where pumps are hopper-fed.
DISADVANTAGES:
Additional costs for provision of buildings, hoppers, craneage and other maintenance
facilities at each station.
Additional installation and operating costs for the long distance of and multiplicity of
station power supply and controls.
Additional cost for multiplicity of variable-speed drives for each pump if speed control is
specified for any necessary variation of Hm/Q characteristics.
Additional manpower required for supervision or inspection of operation at all stations.
Spillages and blockages are likely if pumps are hopper-fed at downstream stations, due to
variations between Hm/Q characteristics of individual pumps, with wear.

Additional costs for transportation of personnel and spare parts between stations.
Poor performance of one pump, e.g. if heavily worn, may result in spillage and pipeline
blockages.
Gland-sealing water supply and controls are required at each station if the Pressure-
Boosting arrangement is used.
Pumps and pipework may be burst or severely damaged by hydraulic shock at startup, or
by high pressure on shutdown if the Pressure-Boosting arrangement is used.

Section 9 NON-NEWTOWNIAN SLURRIES

INDEX
9.0 Abstract 2
9.1 Characteristics of Bingham-Type Slurries 3
9.2 Rheological Theory 5
9.3 Determination of Rheological Properties 8
9.4 Pipeline Friction Head Losses 15

9.0 Abstract
When solids are suspended in a liquid the presence of the particles invariably increases
the suspension apparent viscosity to a value greater than that of the fluid itself.
Suspensions generally exhibit non Newtonian rheology i.e. a non-linear relationship
EHWZHHQVKHDUVWUHVV DQGVKHDUUDWH dV
dy .
( )
For practical purposes, the non Newtonian Bingham model will adequately represent the
most commonly encountered slurries. It is also a relatively simple model to work with.
BINGHAM-TYPE SLURRIES
Mixtures with solids particles essentially finer than 100 P DQG DW FRQFHQWUDWLRQV
sufficiently high to demonstrate a measureable Yield Stress, o (Pa), are known as
Bingham-type slurries. For any given pipeline, the Slurry Friction Head applied must
exceed a minimum value (when Hf = Hy, where Hy = Yield Head) to allow flow to
commence.
i.e. when V = ZERO
16 Lτ o
Hf = Hy = (metres)
3gρ m D
PREFERRED FLOW REGIME

Bingham-type slurries are effectively homogeneous, i.e. VL = ZERO. The most
economical pumping is effected in the Laminar Flow Regime.
i.e. where V is less than the critical velocity, Vc.
2000η  τ ρ D2 

Vc = 1+ 1+ o m 2 (metres/second)
Dρ m  6000η 

ZKHUH &RHIILFLHQWRIULJLGLW\Pa.s).

Values of Hf increase rapidly with increasing values of V in the transitional and turbulent
flow regimes, where V exceeds Vc, and are unnecessarily high and therefore uneconomic.
CRUCIAL CHARACTERISTICS, oDQG

Values of o DQG PD\ EH HVWDEOLVKHG E\ WHVWZRUN RQ VDPSOHV XVLQJ D /DERUDWRU\
rotational viscometer or preferably either the Warman Hydraulic Test Rig or a Pipe
Viscometer.
PIPE FRICTION HEAD LOSS
For the Laminar Flow regime:
 32ηLV 
H f =  + Hy
2 
(metres)
 gρ m D 

9.1 Characteristics of Bingham-Type Slurries

Bingham-type slurries are often encountered in slurry-pumping practice. Typical
examples are: Raw Portland Cement Slurries, Clay Slips, and certain other slurries of
high solids concentration e.g. some Thickened Flotation Concentrates and Smelter
Baghouse Dust Slurries.
Bingham-type slurries (also known as Bingham Fluids or Bingham Plastics) consist of
particles essentially finer than 100 P
A Bingham-type slurry has the peculiar physical property of acting as a solid when at
rest. For example, pump leakage of a Bingham-type slurry may form a jelly-like heap on
the floor, rather than spread across the floor as would water.
A significant physical stress must be applied, to induce a Bingham-type slurry to
commence any movement from rest. The stress value is dependent upon the nature and
concentration of solids in the slurry. For a given pumping system it can be expressed as a
fixed head term: Yield Head, Hy (metres) which is independent of, i.e. additional to, the
true nett static head (Z) and other head terms. Accordingly, due allowance must be made
for the value of this additional head term, (as it is often a significantly high value) in the
design of the pumping system and in estimation of the system resistance.
True Bingham-type slurries exhibit negligible, or extremely low, natural settling
velocities. Consequently, for practical pumping purposes, they may be regarded as
completely homogeneous fluids, eliminating the necessity to consider Limiting Settling
Velocity, VL.
For a graphical comparison, typical system resistance curves for: a Bingham-type slurry,
a sand slurry and clear water are shown in Figure 9.1 for the same range of flowrates, in
the same pipeline system: In this example: Zd – Zs = Z = zero.
Figure 9.1 illustrates that the pipeline friction loss, for a Bingham-type slurry, increases
rapidly, for a given pipeline diameter, after the velocity, V, exceeds a certain value which
corresponds to the actual upper limit of laminar flow.

Testwork indicates that this limit generally corresponds to a Reynolds No. of

approximately NR = 2000 to 4000, at which limit, the corresponding velocity is termed
the Critical Velocity, Vc. At velocities in excess of Vc, the values of Hf increase rapidly
to approximate the values for clear water, as the flow pattern moves into the Transition
and Turbulent Flow regimes.
In the Laminar flow regime, i.e. at velocities below Vc, Hf does not increase greatly
between V = 0 and V = Vc.
Consequently, the most economical velocity for any given pipe diameter, D, is one
approaching, but less than, Vc, in order to design for the lowest value of Hf, combined
with the smallest practical pipe diameter.
Vc must be determined from tests or estimated from accurate rheological data, to allow
for designed flowrates to be established in the Laminar Flow regime.
It can also be seen from Figure 9.1 that any failure to allow for the relatively high values
of Hf for Bingham-type slurries, particularly at values of V well below Vc, could lead to a
gross under-estimation of total dynamic head, pump speed and power required.

9.2 Rheological Theory

Internal Shear in a Fluid:
In order to produce relative movement between adjacent layers of a fluid, a force must be
applied to overcome the fluid’s resistance to the shear strain.
Newtonian Fluids:
With a conventionally viscous or “Newtonian” fluid: such as ethanol, kerosene, sulphuric
acid or water; the shear stress required is equal to the product of the dynamic viscosity
and the velocity gradient across the plane of shear. When the velocity is zero the shear
stress is always zero.
This is represented by Figure 9.2 where:

= shear stress
= dynamic viscosity
dv
= velocity gradient
dy
)RUD1HZWRQLDQIOXLGDWDJLYHQWHPSHUDWXUH LV
constant for all velocities and is the slope of the
curve RI YHUVXV dv dy .
Non Newtonian Fluids:

Various non Newtonian fluids can be identified by looking at their rheograms (see Figure
9.3).
It can be seen by looking at this figure that non Newtonian fluids need more than a single
parameter to define their rheological characteristics. A non Newtonian fluid will have a
QXPEHURI³DSSDUHQWYLVFRVLWLHV´ a) depending on the shear rate.
Some non Newtonians are also time dependent i.e. either shear thickening (rheopectic) or
shear thinning (dilatant).
Bingham Fluids:
Bingham fluids, when at rest, act as if solids and have a definite modulus of elasticity.
These Bingham fluids require a finite shear stress to be applied to initiate flow. This
VWUHVV LV WHUPHG WKH ³<LHOG 6KHDU 6WUHVV´ GHQRWHG o. Flow occurs only when an
externally-applied shear stress exceeds o.

When a velocity is imparted to a Bingham fluid to effect a flowrate in the laminar flow
UHJLPHWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJVKHDUVWUHVVLVUHJDUGHGDVWKHVXPRIWKH<LHOG6KHDU6WUHVV o
DQGWKH'\QDPLF6KHDU6WUHVV dv dy i.e.:
dv
τ = τ o +η
dy
ZKHUH LVWKH³Coefficient of Rigidity” for the Bingham-type fluid.

Figure 9.4 shows the relationship between shear stress and shear strain (rate of shear or
velocity gradient) for a Bingham-type slurry, in laminar flow.

Turbulent Flow:
When the velocity of a Bingham fluid is increased to where turbulent flow exists and
beyond, it the behaves as if a true Newtonian fluid.

9.3 Determination of Rheological Properties

The principal rheological properties of a Bingham-type slurry:
o : Yield Shear Stress

and Coefficient of Rigidity…
…may be determined by testing a sample of the slurry.
&$87,21 o varies with Cw, particularly at high values of Cw where small variations in
Cw UHVXOW LQ UHODWLYHO\ ODUJH YDULDWLRQV LQ o. Consequently, care must be exercised to
obtain a truly representative sample for testwork and to prevent any settlement of solids
within the sample. Any settlement would lead to variations in Cw and in particle sizing
throughout the sample.
Several test methods are available including:
Laboratory Rotational Viscometer
The “Stormer” Viscometer is generally suitable for determining the principal rheological
properties of true Bingham-type slurries. This viscometer consists of a small cup which
contains the slurry sample and a bob which is immersed in the sample. The bob is rotated
by a spindle which is powered by means of a falling weight connected via a rope and
pulley system. The weight may be varied and the speed of rotation measured by a
revolutions counter and stopwatch.
Some difficulty may be experienced with some Bingham-type fluids in obtaining
accurate and reproducible test results, should there be any tendency for the solids in the
samples to settle towards the bottom of the cup.
Warman Pipeline Test Rig
9DOXHV RI o DQG DUH GHWHUPLQHG IURP SLSHOLQH )ULFWLRQ +HDG /RVV GDWD RQ D VDPSOH
pumped through the Warman Pipeline Test Rig.
Rheological data obtained n this Test Rig are considered more reliable as each sample is
maintained in a uniform (homogeneous) condition by continuous agitated movement
through the test circuit. In addition, Vc, Vs if applicable, Hf, HR and ER data may be
obtained for each sample at the same time.
PIPE VISCOMETER
Rheological data obtained on a Pipe Viscometer, as in Figure 9.5 and as described below,
are also considered to be more reliable as the slurry sample is maintained in a uniform
condition by mechanical agitation in the head tank and by flow through the test pipe.
A baffle is fitted to prevent the agitation affecting the flow pattern approaching the tank
outlet.

The Pipe Viscometer is a small, low-cost, simple unit, readily assembled in the field from
items such as a 200 litre oil drum, standard small-bore piping and a small agitator.
Although some “trial and error” approach e.g.: changes of internal diameter of pipe and
lengths of pipe chosen, may be necessary to obtain a satisfactory combination for tests on
a particular Bingham-type slurry, the following general recommendations are a guide:
Internal Diameter of Pipe: D = 0.010 m to 0.025 m

Approximate Length of Long Pipe A: L(a) = 100D (m)
Approximate Length of Short Pipe B: L(b) = 50D (m)
The pipes must be straight and horizontal and of identical internal diameter.
Tests are carried out to determine the relationship between flowrates and Static Suction
Heads for both Long, L(a), and Short, L(b), lengths of pipe. For any given flowrate, the
difference in Static Suction Heads, Z(a) – Z(b), for Long and Short pipes represents the
actual friction head for the difference, L(a) – L(b) = L(c), in length. i.e. values for Hi are
the same for the same flowrate and values for Hv are the same for the same flowrate.

It is important that the connection to the head tank has the same geometry when fitting
both Long and Short pipes so that Hi values are not influenced by any change in
geometry.
If length L(a) is prepared by adding a length L(c) to the length L(b), then two lengths
must be joined by means of a full-bore smooth butt joint to avoid any additional friction
loss at the joint.
For a small measured volume discharged during each test, the corresponding Static
Suction Head value measured is almost constant but the arithmetic average value is taken.
The measured samples collected from each test may be used to confirm values of Cv and
particle sizing for each test run.
A tapered rubber plug is fitted to the discharge end of the pipe. The plug is removed to
allow flow to commence and replaced to stop the flow.
The flow must be allowed to attain a stable flowrate before each measured volume is
discharged and timed.
The Pipe Viscometer is first fitted with a long length, L(a), of pipe. Several flowrates,
corresponding to various measured values of Suction Static Head are each obtained by
using a stopwatch to record the time for a discharge of a measured volume (usually 1 to 2
Litres) into a calibrated measuring cylinder.
Zs(a) = Hi(a) + Hf(a) + Hv(a) = Suction Static Head (metres)
Volume _ measured( Litres )

Q(a) = = Flowrate (Litres/second)
Time( Seconds)
The Pipe Viscometer is then fitted with a short length, L(b), of the same pipe and new
values for Flowrates and Suction Static Head measured for the same slurry.
Zs(b) = Hi(b) + Hf(b) + Hv(b)
Volume _ measured( Litres )

Q(b) =
Time( Seconds)
Note the Hi(a), Hi(b), Hf(a), Hf(b), Hv(a) and Hv(b) are not measured independently.
However, for any given flowrate Q1:
Zs(a) = Hi(a) + Hf(a) + Hv(a)

and
Zs(b) = Hi(b) + Hf(b) + Hv(b)
For the same given flowrate,
Hi(a) = Hi(b)
and
Hv(a) = Hv(b)
i.e. Zs(a) – Zs(b) = Hf(a) – Hf(b)

but La – Lb = Lc
therefore Zs(a) = Zs(b) = Hf(a) – Hf(b) = Hf(c)
Accordingly, the values of Hf(c), corresponding to various values of flowrate, Q1, Q2, etc.
may be obtained by:
8V
(1) Plotting values of Zs(a) versus on a graph (Figure 9.6)
D
8V
(2) Plotting values of Zs(b) versus on the same graph (Figure 9.6)
D
8V
(3) Taking values of Zs(a) and Zs(b) for given values of from graph (Figure 9.6) and
D
calculating values of Hf(c) = Zs(a) – Zs(b).
The Shear Stress at the wall of the pipe is given by the formula:
H f (c )⋅ g ⋅ ρ m ⋅ D
=
4 ⋅ L(c )
p
where p = Shear Stress at pipe wall, (Pa)

Hf(c) = Friction Head Loss, (m)
g = Gravitational acceleration, (m/s2)

m = Density of slurry, (kg/m3)

D = Inside Diameter of Pipe, (m)
L(c) = Actual Length of Pipe = L(a) – L(b), (m)
Using values of HfF REWDLQHG DV DERYH YDOXHV RI p are calculated for corresponding
8V
values of and plotted on a further graph (Figure 9.7).
D
7KHOLQHSORWWHGLVH[WUDSRODWHGWRLQWHUVHFWWKH p axis, at
8V
= ZERO
D
WR\LHOGWKHYDOXH p where:
4
τp = ×τ o
3
3
i.e. τo = ×τ p (Pa)
4
The slopeRIWKLVOLQHUHSUHVHQWVWKHYDOXH ZKHUH
&RHIILFLHQWRI5LJLGLW\3DV
EXAMPLE: $3LSH9LVFRPHWHU7HVWLVFDUULHGRXWWR'HWHUPLQH oDQG IRU a given
Bingham-type Slurry
Given m = 1 660 kg/m3
D = 0.025 m
L(a) = 2.50 m
L(b) = 1.20 m
Measured Volume approximately 1.0 to 2.0 Litres as indicated.
Preliminary Calculations
Measured Volume = K (litres)
Measured Time = t (seconds)
1273Q 1273Q
Average Velocity, V = = = 2.0368Q
d2 (25.0)2
K K
As Q = , V = 2.0368
t t
8V 8 K
= × 2.0368
D 0.025 t

8V K
i.e. = 651.8
D t
PD H f (c )⋅ g ⋅ ρ m ⋅ D H f (c )× 9.81 × 1660 × 0.025

τp = = =
4L 4 ⋅ L(c ) 4(2.50 − 1.20)
i.e. τ p = 78.29 H f (c )
TEST RESULTS
LONG PIPE, L(a) Test Run No. (1) (2) (3) (4)
Average Z(a) (m) 0.791 0.749 0.715 0.679

Measured Volume, K (L) 2.000 2.000 1.000 1.000
Time, t (s) 6.0 8.2 6.0 14.6
CALCULATIONS
8V K 217.3 159.0 108.6 44.6

= 651.8
D t
SHORT PIPE, L(b) Test Run No. (5) (6) (7) (8)
Average Z(b) (m) 0.409 0.380 0.357 0.326

Measured Volume, K (L) 2.000 2.000 2.000 1.000
Time, t (s) 5.8 7.4 10.4 14.5
CALCULATIONS
8V K 224.8 176.2 125.3 45.0

= 651.8
D t
8V
Values of Z(a) and Z(b) with respectively corresponding values of are plotted on
D
Figure 9.6.
8V
Values of Z(a) and Z(b), each for the same values of , are taken from Figure 9.6 and
D
p calculated:

8V 50 100 150 200

D
Average Z(a) 0.680 0.710 0.740 0.778

Average Z(b) 0.327 0.348 0.368 0.395
Z(a) – Z(b) = Hf(c) 0.353 0.362 0.372 0.383
p = 78.29Hf(c) 27.64 28.34 29.12 29.99
8V
Values of DQGFRUUHVSRQGLQJYDOXHVRI p are plotted on FIgure 9.7 and extrapolated
D
8V 4
WRWKH D[LV =(52ZKHUH p = 26.8 = τ o
D 3
3
τo = × 26.8 = 20.1 Pa
4
29.99 − 26.8
Slope of line = = 0.016
200 − 0
LH 0.016 Pa.s.

9.4 Pipeline Friction Head Losses

The Apparent Viscosity, a, of a Bingham-type slurry varies with average velocity, V, as
follows:
τo ⋅D
µa = η +
6V
the applicable formula for Reynolds number of a Bingham-type slurry is:
DVρ m
NR =
τ ⋅D
η+ 0
6V
Laminar Flow: Hf
For values of V less than Vc:
 τ D
η + o 
64
f = = 64 ⋅  6V 
NR  DVρ m 
 
 
H f ⋅ D ⋅ 2g
Also: f =
L ⋅V 2
 32ηLV   16 Lτ o 
Reducing to: H f =   + 
2 

 gρ m D   3gρ m D 
Note: When V = 0, Hf has a finite value (= Hy = Yield Head) proportional to the Yield
Shear Stress, o.
16 Lτ o
i.e. when V = 0, H f = H y =
3gρ m D
Critical Velocity: Vc
64
f = is generally applicable for velocities up to but not exceeding Vc, i.e. at
NR
velocities up to Reynolds Numbers, NR = approximately 4000. The velocity
corresponding to NR = 4000 is calculated by the following formula:
2000η  τ ⋅ ρ ⋅ D2 

Vc = 1+ 1+ o m 2
Dρ m  6000η 


Example: Part (1)

Raw Portland Cement Slurry
Duty Details Given:
Solids Slurry
Composition: Limestone = 88% Cw = 64.0%
Clay = 12% Sl = 1.0 (i.e. water)
Average S = 2.65 o = 20.11 Pascals
Particle Sizing: Tyler Standard = 0.0163 Pascal seconds
+20 mesh : 0% (+841 P Sm = 1.66
-20 + 48 : 0.3% P w = 1000 kg/m3
-48 + 100 : 3.4% P Piping Commercial Steel
-100 + 170 : 11.0% P D = 0.300 m
-170 + 200 : 1.3% P L = 888 M
-200 + 325 : 21.0% P Water
-325 + 0 : 63.0% P
100.0% o = 0
= 0.0010 Pascal seconds
LHSDVVLQJ P w
CALCULATIONS
Slurry Density m = Sm × w
= 1.66 × 1000
= 1660 kg/m3
Critical Velocity
$V WKH VROLGV SDUWLFOHV DUH QRW HQWLUHO\ ILQHU WKDQ SDVVLQJ P D 5H\QROGV
Number of 4000 is considered appropriate for derivation of Vc:
2000 × 0.0163  20.11 × 1660 × (0.300) 

2
i.e. Vc = ⋅ 1+ 1+ 
0.300 × 1660  6000 × (0.0163) 
2
 
= 2.908 m/s
DVρ m = 0.3 × 1660V = 498V
τ o ⋅ D 20.11 × 0.3 1.0055

= =
6V 6V V
Hf =
( )
fL V 2
=
( )
888 f V 2
= 150.87 f V 2 ( )
2 gD 2 × 9.81 × 0.300
Water
DVρ m = 0.3 × 1000V = 300V

τo ⋅ D
=0
6V
η w = 0.0010 Pascal-seconds
DVρ w
NR = = 300000V
η+0
+RZHYHU IRU %LQJKDPW\SH VOXUULHV FRQVLVWLQJ HQWLUHO\ RI VROLGV ILQHU WKDQ P WKH
actual upper limit of stable laminar flow may correspond to a Reynolds Number
approximating NR = 2000 and the value of Vc is accordingly lower.
Transitional and Turbulent Flows: Hf

For values of NR greater than 4000:
The value of NR as calculated above may be employed in the determination of f. The
Warman Pipe Friction chart, figure 4.4, is entered at the right hand bottom scale to obtain
the dk co-ordinate, as previously described in Section 4.
However, the left hand portion of the nomogram is entered at the co-ordinate for the
value of NR, as calculated above. This co-ordinate is followed until its intersection with
the dk curve drawn, to intersect the required “f” value co-ordinate.
Alternatively:
Values of f = 0.0190 to f = 0.0160 generally may be adopted for the estimation of Hf, for
values of NR from 4000 upwards.
The accuracy of estimating f and Hf by either of the above methods is generally fairly
low. Accurate values should be obtained by pipeline testwork if it is absolutely necessary
to design for flow outside the Laminar regime. This may be indicated in the case of long-
distance pumping of a mixture consisting of a Bingham-type slurry and particles coarser
WKDQ P

SLURRY: V (m/s) 1.0 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0
'9 m = 498V 498 996 1245 1494 1743 1992 2490
τ o ⋅ D 1.0055 1.0055 0.5028 0.4022 0.3352 0.2873 0.2514 0.2011

2) =
6V V
0.0163 0.0163 0.0163 0.0163 0.0163 0.0163 0.0163
4) η +
τo ⋅D 1.0218 0.5191 0.4185 0.3515 0.3036 0.2677 0.2174
6V
NR =
(1) 487 1918 2974 4250 5741 7441 11453
(4)
Flow Regime Laminar Laminar Laminar Turbulent Turbulent Turbulent Turbulent
64 0.1314 0.0334 0.0215 - - - -

f =
NR
f (Assumed Values) - - - 0.0148 0.0147 0.0145 0.0143
Hf = 150.87f(V2) 19.82 20.16 20.27 20.10 27.17 35.00 53.94
Clear Water: V (m/s) 1.0 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0
NR = 300 000 V 300000 600000 750000 900000 1050000 1200000 1500000
f, from Fig. 4.4 0.0162 0.0151 0.0149 0.0148 0.0147 0.0145 0.0143
Hf = 150.87fV2 2.47 9.11 14.05 20.10 27.17 35.00 53.94
The above calculated head loss data are represented, graphically in Figure 9.8.
In this example, the required flowrate was not given. However, it is apparent that the
maximum velocity for economical pumping would be less than 2.9 m/s in 0.300 m
diameter pipe. In general, given a required flowrate, Q, it would be necessary to
calculate the value of D required such that the actual value of V at the required flowrate,
Q, would be approaching, but preferably less than, the value of Vc for the particular
diameter, D.

EXAMPLE, PART (2)

Given the Raw Portland Cement Slurry: Solids and Water Details as in Part (1) of this
example. (But excluding Piping details) and the following additional Duty Data as
illustrated in Figure 9.9 and following text.
Altitude = 500 m above Sea Level.

Slurry Temperature = 30ºC maximum
Flowrate: Q = 120 litres/second
Zs = 2.50 m: Maximum available Zd = 11.5 m
ds = To be recommended dd = To be recommended
Las = 1.50 m Lad = 637 m
Bends = 1 × 135º, Long Radius Bends = 7 × 90º Long Radius
Entrance = Flush Connector at Hopper Valves = 1 × “Tech-Taylor” valve

Piping = Commercial Steel Piping = Commercial Steel

It is first necessary to determine the optimum internal diameter of discharge pipe, Dd, for
the application. This must be done on a “trial and error” basis:
1RWH m = Sm × w = 1.66 × 1000 = 1660 kg/m3
Vc occurs at NR = 4000 for this slurry.

For d = 300 mm, Vc = 2.91 m/s (from Part (1))
For d = 250 mm (D = 0.250 m):
2000 × 0.0163  20.11 × 1660 × (0.250 ) 

2
Vc = × 1+ 1+ 
0.250 × 1660  6000 × (0.0163) 
2
 
= 2.92 m/s
For d = 200 mm (D = 0.200 m):
2000 × 0.016  20.11 × 1660 × (0.200) 

2
Vc = × 1+ 1+ 
0.250 × 1660  6000 × (0.0163) 
2
 
= 2.94 m/s
1273Q
As V =
d2
d 300 mm 250 mm 200 mm
V at 120 L/s 1.70 m/s 2.44 m/s 3.82 m/s
Vc 2.91 m/s 2.92 m/s 2.94 m/s
At 120 L/s in 200 mm pipe, as V is greater than Vc, 200 mm is not suitable.
At 120 L/s in 250 mm pipe, as V is a little less than Vc, 250 mm is possibly suitable.

At 120 L/s in 300 mm pipe, as V is less than Vc, 300 mm appears suitable.
Friction Head calculations for 250 mm and 300 mm will be carried out for preliminary
comparison: Note that Ld is assumed to equal to Lad for this purpose.
CALCULATIONS
d 300 mm 250 mm
SLURRY
'9 m 0.300 × 1660 V = 498 V 0.250 × 1660 V = 215 V
τo ⋅ D 20.11 × 0.300 1.0055 20.11 × 0.250 0.8379

= =
6V 6V V 6V V
Q, at Vc =
d 2Vc (300)2 × 2.91 = 205.7 L/s (250)2 × 2.92 = 143.4 L/s
1273 1273 1273
SLURRY OR WATER
fLV 2 f × 637 × V 2 f × 637 × V 2

Hf = = 108.2 fV 2 = 129.9 fV 2
2 gD 2 × 9.81 × 0.300 2 × 9.81 × 0.250
Q=
d 2V (300)2 V = 70.70V L/s
(250)2 V = 49.10V L/s
1273 1273 1273

V (m/s) 1.0 2.0 2.5 3.5

For d = 300 mm: Q = 70.7 (L/s) 70.7 141.4 176.2 247.4
SLURRY
'9 m = 498V 498 996 1245 1743
τ o ⋅ D 1.0055
2) = 1.0055 0.5028 0.4022 0.2873
6V V
0.0163 0.0163 0.0163 0.0163
τo ⋅ D
4) η + 1.0218 0.5191 0.4185 0.3036
6V
NR =
(1)
487 1919 2975 5741
(4 )
Flow Regime (check) Laminar Laminar Laminar Turbulent
64
f = 0.1313 0.0333 0.0215 -
NR
Hf = 108.2 fV2 14.21 14.41 14.54 -
WATER
(From Fig. 4.4) f 0.0162 0.0151 0.0149 0.0147
Hf = 108.2 fV2 1.75 6.54 10.08 19.48
For d = 250 mm: Q = 49.1V 49.1 98.2 122.7 171.8
SLURRY
'9 m = 415V 415 830 1037.5 1452.5
τ o ⋅ D 0.8379
2) = 0.8379 0.4190 0.3352 0.2394
6V V
0.0163 0.0163 0.0163 0.0163
τo ⋅ D
4) η + 0.8542 0.4353 0.3515 0.2557
6V
NR =
(1)
485.8 1907 2952 5680
(4 )
Flow Regime (check) Laminar Laminar Laminar Turbulent
64
f = 0.1317 0.0336 0.0217 -
NR
Hf = 129.9 fV2 17.11 17.46 17.62 -
WATER
(From Fig. 4.4) f 0.0170 0.0160 0.0157 0.0155
Hf = 129.9 fV2 2.21 8.31 12.75 24.67
The values of Hf versus Q for Slurry, and for Water, are plotted on a graph (Figure 9.10).
At Q = 120 L/s, Hf for d = 250 mm (17.6 m) is about 24% higher than that for d = 300
mm. In addition, the difference between 120 L/s and 143.4 L/s (Q for Vc) is not great,

leaving little margin for error or any possible future increase in flowrate required by the
end-user.
However for d = 300 mm (Hf = 14.3 m) the margin is considerable, and, in view of the
lower value of Hf, indicates that d = 300 mm is the better selection.
An approximate value for Total Head is obtained:
H = Zd + Hfd
= 11.5 + 14.3
= 25.8 m, say 30 m
For Q = 120 L/s and H = 30 m, the 8/6 F-AH pump will probably be suitable.
The nominal suction and discharge diameters of this pump are 200 mm and 150 mm,
respectively, indicating that a 300 mm × 200 mm reducer is required at the pump suction
flange and a 150 mm × 300 mm conical enlarger is required at the pump discharge
flange.

CALCULATIONS
Total Equivalent Lengths of Pipe (ds = dd = 300 mm)
SUCTION SYSTEM DISCHARGE SYSTEM
Bends (From Fig. 5.3.1) 50% × 6.10 = 3.05 m 7 × 6.10 = 42.70 m
Valves (None) - 1 × 0.76 = 0.76
Total Lfs 3.05 m Lfd 43.46 m

Las 1.50 m Lad 637.00 m
Ls 4.55 m *Ld 680.46 m
*Note that due to the number of bends in this discharge pipe, the value of Ld is 7% greater
than Lad.

SLURRY WATER
Suction System (ds = 300 mm): Vs 1.0 m/s 2.0 m/s 2.5 m/s ZERO 1.0 m/s 2.0 m/s 2.5 m/s 3.5 m/s
Velocity Head = Hvs = V2/2g = Vs2/2×9.81 0.051 m 0.204 m 0.319 m 0m 0.051 m 0.204 m 0.319 m 0.624 m
Entrance Loss = Hi = 0.5 Hvs (Fig. 5.3.2) 0.026 0.102 0.160 0 0.026 0.102 0.160 0.312
SLURRY PUMPING MANUAL

For Ls = 4.55 m: Hfs = 4.55/637 × (Hf for Ld = 637) 0.101 0.103 0.104 0 0.012 0.047 0.072 0.139
Head Loss due to Contraction * = 0.22 Hvs 0.011 0.045 0.070 0 0.011 0.045 0.070 0.137
Total Losses = Hi + Hfs + H contraction 0.138 0.250 0.334 0 0.049 0.194 0.302 0.588
Suction Static Head = Zs 2.500 2.500 2.500 2.500 2.500 2.500 2.500 2.500
Hs = Zs – Total Losses 2.36 m 2.25 m 2.17 m 2.50 m 2.45 m 2.31 m 2.20 m 1.912 m
Copyright
Discharge System (dd = 300 mm): Vd = Vs 1.0 m/s 2.0 m/s 2.5 m/s ZERO 1.0 m/s 2.0 m/s 2.0 m/s 3.5 m/s
©
Zd 11.50 m 11.50 m 11.50 m 11.50 m 11.50 m 11.50 m 11.50 m 11.50 m

WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LTD
+
Head Loss due to conical enlargment = 1.26 Hvd 0.06 0.26 0.40 0 0.06 0.26 0.40 0.79
Hfd (for Ld = 680.46 m) = 680.46/637 × (Hf for Ld = 637 m) 15.18 15.39 15.53 0 1.87 6.99 10.77 20.81
Exit Velocity Head = Hve = Hvd 0.05 0.20 0.32 0 0.05 0.20 0.32 0.62
Total Discharge Head, Hd = Zd + Hfd + Hve 26.79 27.35 27.75 11.50 13.48 18.95 22.99 33.72
Total Suction Head, Hs 2.36 2.25 2.17 2.50 2.45 2.31 2.20 1.91
System Total Head: H = Hd + Hs 24.43 m 25.10 m 25.58 m 9.00 m 11.03 m 16.64 20.79 m 31.81 m
Q for Vs or Vd (L/s) 70.7 141.4 176.2 ZERO 70.7 141.4 176.2 247.4
*Note: This “Head Loss of Contraction” allows for an offset reducer to connect 300 mm suction piping to the 200 mm pump suction. Factor: Kc = 0.22 is obtained from
Section 9 Page 25
Figure 5.3.2, Group 3 which, although allowing for sudden contraction, provides a conservative but acceptable factor for an offset reducer.
+
Note: Head Loss due to conical enlargement allows for the recommended 6º included angle of the cone. This yields a head loss = Ke (V – V1)2/2g (See Fig. 5.3.2 Group 2)
For enlargement from 150 mm to 300 mm: V (in 150 mm) = 4 × V1 (in 300 mm)
Ke(V – V1)2/2g = 0.14 (4V1 – V1)2/2g = 1.26 V12/2g = 1.26 Hvd
Values for H versus Q for both slurry and water are plotted on a graph, figure 9.11.
The Slurry Duty Point is Q = 120 L/s and H = 24.9 m.
From the incomplete solids particle sizing given in Part (1), the d50 cannot be determined.
However the sizing data can be conservatively extrapolated to d50 P

From Figure 2.5 for:

d50 = 0.04 mm
Cw = 64%
S = 2.65
HR and ER = 0.94
Allowing Hm(worn) = 0.90 × Hm(new)
and em(worn) = 0.90 × em(new)
H m (worn ) 24.9
Hw = = = 29.4 m (for the pump in worn condition)
HR × 0.90 0.94 × 0.90
At Q = 120 L/s, Hw = 29.4 m, the 8/6 F-AH pump, (see Performance Curve:
WPA86A01B), requires a speed of 800 r/min. The Hw/Q curve for 800 r/min is plotted
on the graph, Figure 9.11.
Values of Hw are multiplied by 0.94 to obtain values of Hm(new) (for the same values of
Q) which are also plotted.
Values of Hm(new) are multiplied by 0.90 to obtain values of Hm(worn) and are plotted.
This curve intersects the System Resistance Curve at the Duty Point.
NPSH Check
Slurries with high values of Sm, should always be checked regarding NPSHa (See Section
6).
V (m/s) 1.0 2.0 2.5
Q (L/s) 70.7 141.4 176.2
9.74m 5.87 m 5.87 m 5.87 m

Hatm* =
1.66
0.43m 0.26 m 0.26 m 0.26 m

Hvap* =
1.66
NPSHr = Hatm – Hvap + (Hs) 7.97 m 7.86 m 7.78 m
NPSHr (from Performance Curve 5m 6.6 m 7.80 m
at 800 r/min)
Reserve NPSHa 2.97 m 1.26 m Negative
* Notes: See Section 6. Figures 6.3 and 6.4

NPSHr data from WPA86A01B at 800 r/min are:
NPSHr 5m 7m 8m
Q : L/s 108 154 184

NPSHa and NPSHr values are also plotted on the graph. The Intersection of the NPSHa
and NPSHr curves occurs at QNPSH, Q = 176 L/s, well in excess of the duty flowrate: Q =
120 L/s.
At the duty flowrate, reserve NPSHa appears to be adequate, i.e.
Reserve NPSHa = NPSHa – NPSHr = 7.9 m – 5.6 = 2.3 m
FIXED SPEED
New Condition
With the pump operating at a fixed speed of 800 r/min and with the pump in new
condition, the Hm(new) performance curve prevails. When 120 L/s only of the slurry is
supplied to the pump hopper, the pump will attempt to develop a head, Hm = 27.6 m.
However, as the system (with Zs = 2.50 m) demands 24.9 m only, the pump will attempt
to reduce Zs by the value of the surplus, i.e. by the value 27.6 – 24.9 = 2.7 m. This is not
possible as Zs is 2.5 m only and cannot be a negative value in this gravity-fed installation.
Accordingly, the pump will reduce Zs to nearly ZERO resulting in the probable
entrainment of some air, with the slurry.
At the same time, as Zs = ZERO, the value of H is increased by 2.50 m i.e. the whole
SLURRY S.R. Curve is raised by 2.50 m and the NPSHa will be reduced, due to the
reduction in Zs, i.e. at 120 L/s, 800 r/min, new, NPSHa = 7.9 m – 2.5 m = 5.4 m.
However, NPSHr = 5.6 m.

The deficiency: 5.6 m – 5.4 m = 0.2 m: is, for practical purposes, negligible: as any
tendency for aeration or cavitation to cause the flowrate to fall below 120 L/s will be
offset by the rise in slurry level in the hopper (Zs), of approximately 0.2 m, (to Zs = 0.2
m) to yield NPSHa = 5.6 m.
The net result most likely is a combination of some entrained air and Zs increased at
approximately Zs = 0.2 m with the pump operating at (or marginally beyond) the limit of
its cavitation-free capability on this system.
NPSHa could possibly be increased by increasing the maximum available value of Zs (i.e.
to greater than 2.50 m) thereby reducing H and pump speed.
Worn Conditions
With the pump operating at a fixed speed of 800 r/min and in worn condition, the
Hm(worn) curve prevails.
The performance of the pump at the extremes of new and worn is summarised:
FIXED SPEED: (Zs varied naturally)

Hm at 800 r/min 27.6 m 24.9 m

ew 65% -
em(new) = ew × ER = ew × 0.94 61% -
em(worn) = em(new) × 0.90 - 55%

NEW:
Q × H m × Sm 120 × 27.6 × 1.66 *88.3 kW approx. -

=
1.02 × em (new) 1.02 × 61
Q × H m × Sm 120 × 24.9 × 1.66 - 88.4 kW

=
1.02 × em (worn ) 1.02 × 55
* The power consumed by the pump when inducing some air and operating marginally
beyond its cavitation-free limit would be slightly in excess of this value.
VARIABLE SPEED
With the pump in new condition with Zs = 2.50 m, a lower speed may be estimated for
the duty:
H m (new) 24.9m
Hw = = = 26.5 m
HR 0.94
From WPA86A01B, speed required = 770 r/min
ew = 65;
NPSHr = 5.1 m
From Figure 9.11 NPSHa = 7.9 m
Reserve NPSHa 2.8 m
em(new) = ew × ER = 65% × 0.94 = 61;
120 × 24.9 × 1.66

Power consumed at Pump Shaft =
1.02 × 61
= 79.7 kW
i.e. The main effects of maintaining Zs = 2.50 m with the reduced speed for the pump
in new condition are to reduce NPSHr, Hm and the power consumed, as well as to
increase NPSHa.
Both speed required and power consumed would increase progressively as the pump
condition progresses from new to worn as summarised.

VARIABLE SPEED: (Constant Zs = 2.50 m)
Pump Speed 770 r/min 800 r/min

Power consumed at pump shaft 79.7 kW 88.4 kW

Section 10 WARMAN PUMP SELECTION

INDEX
10.0 Abstract 2
10.1 Selection of Pump Size and Type 3
10.2 Impeller Balancing Specifications 5
10.3 Wearing Parts: Selection of Materials of Construction 6

Elastomers 6
Hard Alloys 12
Special-Purpose Alloys 12

10.0 Abstract
SELECTION OF PUMP SIZE AND TYPE
The selection of a pump size and type from the Warman pump range must allow for the
following considerations:
1. Maximum Particle Size of solids required to be handled by the pump.
2. Maximum Speed and Power Consumption should be within rated maxima for the
pump.
3. NPSHa must exceed the NPSHr.
4. Wearing Parts (Impeller, Liners etc.,) should be available in suitable materials of

construction.
5. Pressure Rating of pump must be adequate for the proposed duty.
6. Pump Efficiency should be reasonably high.
7. Pump Speed should be reasonably low for the total head required.
Capital Cost is not a justifiable limitation where a long-term heavy duty indicates a more
expensive, heavy-duty pump would provide long-term economic advantages.
Reserve Capacity, Head or lower NPSHr for future requirements may represent an
overriding factor in selection.
IMPELLER BALANCING SPECIFICATIONS
No practical advantages are gained from dynamically balancing Warman pump impellers.
WEARING PARTS: SELECTION OF MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Pre-Commissioning Fitups
Alloy wearing parts are recommended to avoid damage from construction waste.
Elastomer wearing parts may be adopted for subsequent replacements.
ELASTOMERS
Elastomer wearing parts are light and relatively easy to transport and handle.
Natural Rubber is the most commonly used elastomer and is the most economic material
for many corrosive liquids and most abrasive slurries where maximum particle sizes do
not exceed 3 mm to 12 mm, depending on pump size and sharpness of particles. Natural
rubber is limited to a maximum temperature of 77ºC. Impellers are limited to maximum
peripheral speeds of around 25 m/s.
Synthetic Rubbers are generally required for temperatures over 77ºC and for use with
hydrocarbons and corrosives which cannot be handled by Natural Rubber.

Polyurethane is of greater mechanical strength than Natural Rubber and bridges the ideal
ranges of application for Elastomers and Hard Alloys.
HARD ALLOYS
Hard Alloys are applied for abrasive duties where elastomers are not suited. Regular
Warman Hard Alloys include Ni-Hard Type 1, suitable for coarse sharp particles and
Chromium Alloy, generally more economic on fine sharp particles and mildly corrosive
duties.
SPECIAL-PURPOSE WARMAN ALLOYS
Many other special-purpose Warman alloys are available for duties requiring high tensile
strength, higher impact-resistance or higher corrosion-resistance than provided by the
regular Warman Hard Alloys.
10.1 Selection of Pump Size and Type

A wide variety of Warman Pumps is available to cover a number of categories of slurry
pumping duties, certain requirements must be satisfied before any Warman Pump can be
firmly recommended for a given duty. These requirements are:
Maximum Solids Particle Size – The maximum particle size which can pass from the
pump suction flange, through the impeller, past the cutwater and out of the pump
discharge flange is dependent upon the internal geometry of each pump. The maximum
particle size capability is stated on each performance curve. The pump selected must
have a maximum particle size capability equal to or greater than that specified in the duty
details given. In some cases, where practical, the suction system can be protected from
tramp oversize by the use of a screen with apertures smaller than the pump maximum
particle size capability.
In some instances, particularly on low-head pumping duties, a certain size of pump may
be selected essentially for its maximum particle size capacity, e.g. pumping raw
unstrained cane sugar juice, containing long slivers of cane fibre, where an 8/6 pump may
be otherwise suitable for the duty but a 10/8 pump is selected for larger particle size
capacity.
Maximum Speed and Maximum Power Consumption – The Normal Maximum Speed,
r/min, and Maximum Power Consumption, kW, are stated on each performance curve.
These maxima take into account the rated load capacities and standard service lives of the
pump shaft and bearings. Although these design ratings are conservative, any proposal to
exceed these stated limits must be subject to approval by Head Office.
NPSH Required – The NPSH available from the Suction System must always exceed the
NPSH required by the pump, as described in Section 6. Generally, for a given nominal
size of pump and a given duty point, (e.g. 10/8), the NPSH required by the higher head
models (e.g. 10/8 G-AH) is less than for the lower head models (e.g. 10/8 F-M). The
higher head model may be necessary for a duty featuring low NPSH available.

Wearing Parts: Materials of Construction – The pump recommended should be available

with wearing parts in suitable materials of construction, e.g. Moulded Rubber, Moulded
Polyurethane or Ni-Hard.
Pressure Ratings – The pump should be suitable for the maximum proposed service
pressure. Pressure Ratings of Standard Models and High Pressure Models are available
in Group 2 of the Warman Data Book.
High Pressure Models are fitted with high-strength casings of special materials and
design. However, these casings are designed to accept standard wearing parts to
minimise the usage of the higher-cost wearing materials and to minimise wearing parts
inventories.
Given that two or more Warman Pumps satisfy all of the above requirements, the
selection of the most suitable will be determined by:
a) Efficiency at the Duty Point.
b) Speed Required at the Duty Point.
c) Capital Cost.
d) Reserve capacity, head, or lower NPSH requirement for any possible future duty.
Efficiency – The pump exhibiting the highest efficiency at the Duty Point will usually be
preferred for a given duty as the capital cost of the prime mover and drive as well as the
power consumption costs will be lowest.
It is important to note the flowrate, Q, is not the sole guide to selection of pump size. The
Duty Point represents the plot of H and Q on a pump performance curve.
Pump Size Efficiency %
e.g. at 45 L/s, H = 9.0 m 6/4 E-AH 60%
at 45 L/s, H = 9.0 m 4/3 D-AH 47% (Estim)
i.e. the 6/4 E-AH is the better selection at this low head.
at 45 L/s, H = 42.0 m 6/4 E-AH 54%
at 45 L/s, H = 42.0 m 4/3 D-AH 62% (Estim)
i.e. the 4/3 D-AH is the better selection at this high head.
Speed – Generally, the pump exhibiting a combination of comparatively high efficiency

and lowest speed will be the most suitable for a given duty as the rate or wear of the
impeller, liners and other wearing parts will be lowest.
This combination provides the lowest overall operating costs, power consumed and the
supply and fitting of replacement wearing parts. This is particularly significant in highly-

abrasive, heavy duties such as pumping grinding mill discharge or high-head pumping of
coarse tailings or gravels.
Capital Cost – Generally capital cost is not a justifiable limitation unless the duty is of a
strictly short-term nature or if the abrasiveness of the slurry does not justify a heavy-duty
slurry pump (e.g. Thickener Overflow pumping).
The relatively higher capital costs of efficient, low-speed, heavy-duty slurry pumps is
justified on duties where the lower overall maintenance and other operating costs provide
long-term economic advantages.
Reserve Capacity, Head or lower NPSH Requirement – In some cases, the overriding
factor in the selection of the most suitable pump may be these reserves which would be
called upon for future duties.
10.2 Impeller Balancing Specifications

Warman Pump impellers are statically balanced during manufacture, in accordance with
good slurry pump production practice, to minimise out-of-balance forces and any
consequent vibration.
Purchasers should be strongly advised to accept this standard Warman impeller

balancing. Any attempts to achieve near-perfect static balance and dynamic balance are
of no practical benefit, but simply introduce unnecessary additional balancing costs to the
purchaser, as:
a) Any slurry pump impeller with near-perfect static and dynamic balance,
regardless of make, type of material of construction, will very rarely wear
uniformly such as to preserve near-perfect balance throughout its whole service
life.
b) The Warman Pump shafts and bearings are generously proportioned to

accommodate the out-of-balance forces normally encountered during the service
lives of Warman Pump impellers.
This contrasts markedly with the static and dynamic balancing requirements for
conventional clear-liquid pumps, where the impeller service lives are much longer and
the shafts and bearing are not designed to accommodate such relatively large out-of-
balance forces.
This also contrasts with the need for static and dynamic balancing required in rotating
elements with a greater ratio of “length to diameter” than in the case of Warman Pump
impellers. Examples of rotating elements with these greater ratios include:
Electric Motor Rotors

Long Pulleys (Sheaves)
Long Shafts

10.3 Wearing Parts: Selection of Materials of Construction

Warman Pumps are available with interchangeable wearing parts (impellers, liners etc.)
in a wide range of materials of construction, enabling most abrasive and
corrosive/abrasive slurry duties to be handled economically.
Pre-Commissioning Fitups
Elastomer (e.g. Natural Rubber, “Neoprene” etc.) wearing parts are prone to sudden
irreparable mechanical damage by tramp oversize entering the pump. Consequently,
elastomers are employed only when the pump suction system is protected for tramp
oversize (coarse ore, tools, timber, bolts, welding rod, etc.) by means of suitable screens
upstream of the pump. This is not normally adequate protection at the commissioning of
a new plant as construction waste may have accumulated already in the suction system.
It is a normally-recommended practice to install pumps fitted with Hard Alloy wearing
parts prior to commissioning and to replace these parts, when worn to “throw away”
condition, with the selected elastomer parts, if selected for post-commissioning operation.
Post-Commissioning Fitups
In many cases, one material is clearly the best selected for a given duty. However in
some cases different materials may be suitable for different wearing parts in the same
pump, e.g.:
Impeller: Hard Alloy
Liners: Elastomer
The selection of the most suitable materials of construction is based essentially on

experience. Factors to be considered include:
Solids sizing, shape and hardness.
Concentration of solids (Cw).
Nature and concentration of corrosives.
Pump speed and power consumption.
Elastomers
Elastomers have the advantages of relatively low weight and softness, yielding lower
transportation costs and greater ease and safety in handling.
Natural Rubber
Natural Rubber is the most widely used elastomer.
Natural Rubber deflects resiliently under the impact of abrasive particles, providing high
abrasion-resistance. In many instances, the wearing life of a Natural rubber pump part
may be up to 10 times that of a hard alloy part.

Natural rubber is generally limited, however, to handling slurries with particle sizes of
less than about 3 mm, although in the larger pump sizes, particle sizes of up to 12 mm
may be handled if the particles are relatively smooth (i.e. not sharp-edged, such as some
coarse crushed rock particles).
The larger particle sizes are more satisfactorily handled in the larger sizes of rubber-lined
pumps where the running clearances between the impeller and liners are larger, where
slurry flow passage ways are larger, and there the rubber thicknesses may be greater,
enabling the impacts to be absorbed with less damage.
In view of the limited mechanical strength of Natural Rubber, impellers in this material
are limited to 25 m/s maximum peripheral speed as well as to maximum power input and
to maximum particle size of solids pumped.
Natural Rubber liners are prone to localised premature failure when the impeller
peripheral speed, regardless of impeller material, exceeds approximately 30 m/s. This
failure, known as “thermal breakdown” follows overheating of the rubber liners adjacent
to the impeller periphery. The overheating is cause by pulsations generated by the
impeller blades and is exacerbated by the low thermal conductivity of the rubber.
Natural Rubber is limited to a service temperature generally not exceeding 77ºC. It is

suitable for use with a broad range of corrosives.
Synthetic Rubbers
Generally, Synthetic Rubbers are not as resistant to abrasion as Natural Rubber.

However, they are required for use where service temperatures exceed 77ºC or where the
presence of certain hydrocarbons or certain corrosives precludes the use of Natural
Rubber. Synthetic rubbers in regular production include Nordel, Neoprene, Butyl,
Nitrile, Viton and Hypalon. These synthetic rubbers are described later in this section.
Polyurethane
Polyurethane possesses greater mechanical strength than most of the Natural and
Synthetic Rubbers and is generally suitable for Warman pump impellers when the
peripheral speeds exceed 25 m/s. Polyurethane appears to resist sliding-type abrasion
more effectively than impact-type abrasion and is often a suitable substitute for Natural
Rubber liners when necessary to avoid thermal breakdown.
Otherwise, Polyurethane is not superior on abrasive slurry duties where Natural Rubber is
well suited.
However, Polyurethane may be considered as being probably best suited for the zone of
applications between those zones clearly best served by Natural Rubber and Hard Alloys,
respectively.

WARMAN STANDARD ELASTOMERS
IDENTIFICATION AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
WARMAN MATERIAL COLOUR CODE APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM

CODE HARDNESS OPERATING
SHORE ‘A’ TEMPERATURE
R05 NATURAL GREEN 45º ± 5º 77ºC
R26 NATURAL WHITE 43º ± 5º 77ºC
R08 NATURAL WHITE 58º ± 5º 77ºC
R49 HARD BLUE/BLACK (to 98º

NATURAL replace ebonite)
S42 NEOPRENE RED 50º ± 3º 95ºC
S21 BUTYL BLUE 60º ± 5º 140ºC
S31 HYPALON YELLOW 70º ± 5º 149ºC
S51 VITON SILVER 74º ± 2º 250ºC
S12 NITRILE LILAC 45º ± 3º 121ºC
S01 E.P.D.M. BROWN 55º ± 5º 80ºC
S02 E.P.D.M. BROWN 45º ± 3º 80ºC
U01 URETHANE YELLOW 80º 80ºC`
U02 URETHANE RED 90º (43º SHORE 80ºC

‘D’)
U03 URETHANE LT. GREEN 95º (48º SHORE 80ºC

‘D’)
U14 URETHANE RED/BROWN 55º 80ºC

WARMAN ELASTOMERS
Application Guide
This guide is a general reference only. Each proposed application must be examined to
ensure that the correct elastomer is selected. Where doubt exists it is advisable to check
the effect of corrosive, or otherwise potentially aggressive fluid at the proposed
temperature on a test sample of the elastomer, measuring the volume of swell and noting
any other physical changes to the elastomer sample. Further enquiries may be directed to
Head Office where other test work may be carried out or special formulations offered if
advantageous.
Colour Coding
Some Warman elastomers are compounded to yield a product of a distinctive colour e.g.:
green, yellow or red, which is taken as the code colour for identification. Where the
product colour is not distinctive, e.g. many products are compounded to yield a black
product; a distinctively coloured spot e.g. white, silver, or red, is taken as the code colour.
RIGID ELASTOMERS
Some elastomers, particularly those with high values of hardness and of tensile strength
such as R49 and U01 are adopted as the most economic materials for the manufacture of
certain components such as impellers and expellers, principally for corrosive duties. As
these elastomers are too rigid for application as components such as cover plate liners or
joint rings, where flexibility is necessary, other materials of construction, i.e. alloys
and/or soft elastomers are adopted for the remaining wetted pump components.
AVAILABILITY OF ELASTOMER COMPONENTS FOR WARMAN PUMPS
A list of pump components, indicating all elastomers (rigid and flexible) which are
available for each pump component, is available from Head Office. This list is subject to
regular revision as manufacturing capabilities are extended to allow more components to
be manufactured in elastomers, as new elastomers are added to the Warman range and as
new elastomers are substituted for others.
NATURAL RUBBER
Natural Rubber is generally suitable for many abrasive slurries and for most weak acid
and alkaline solutions. It is generally unsuitable for strong acids or for oils, aliphatic and
aromatic solvents or for temperatures in excess of 77ºC.
Warman Codes R05 and R26 have been developed principally for abrasion-resistance, on
slurry pumping duties, both employing justifiably expensive, high-quality raw materials.
Warman Code R05. Green, soft natural rubbers: excellent wet abrasion resistance and
principally used for Cover Plate Liners and Frame Plate Liners.
Warman Code R26. Black soft natural rubber: similar to R05 and used for the same
applications, principally in the larger sizes of pump liners where the slightly higher
hardness facilitates assembly and accurate alignment with adjacent components.

Warman Code R08. Black soft natural rubber: used for components, such as impellers,
requiring a higher tensile strength and wet abrasion resistance.
Warman Code R49. A special blend of natural rubber and methyl methacrylate: yielding
very high hardness and tensile strength. Generally resistant to strong acids and used
mainly for impellers and expellers.
NEOPRENE (CHLOROPRENE)
Neoprene is generally inferior to soft natural rubbers in abrasion resistance. However, it

can withstand higher operating temperatures and is suitable for use with a wide range of
chemicals, oil, fats, grease and a number of hydrocarbons and solvents. It is affected or
attacked by strong oxidising acids, acetic acid, ketones, esters and chlorinated-and nitro-
hydrocarbons.
Warman Code S42. Black soft Neoprene with a hardness of approximately 52º Shore A.
Other Warman Neoprenes. Specially-formulated Neoprene compounds may be produced

to provide specific physical properties for specified duties.
BUTYL (IIR: ISOBUTENE-ISOPRENE RUBBER)
Butyl provides general resistance to animal and vegetable fats and oils, greases, ozone,
strong and oxidising acids or chemicals.
It is affected by, petroleum, coal tar solvents, and aromatic hydrocarbons.
Warman Cod S21. As S21 is slightly conductive, any field-testing with a high voltage
spark-tester must be conducted with care, using the lowest voltage setting. This material
has a tendency to bloom but its performance is not affected by this characteristic.
HYPALON (CSM: CHLOROSULFONATED POLYETHYLENE)
Hypalon provides general resistance to many corrosive chemicals, ozone, alkaline

solutions, Freons, hydrogen, alcohols, and aliphatic hydrocarbons.
It is affected by strong oxidising acids, esters, ketones, chlorinated-and nitro-

hydrocarbons, skydrol and aromatic solvents.
Warman Code S31. S31 is specially formulated to provide maximum acid resistance. As
for Butyl, care must be taken if using a spark-tester.
VITON (FPM: FLUOROCARBON RUBBER)
Viton provides outstanding resistance to many chemicals, most hydrocarbons, mineral

acids, esters and ethers. It is affected by ketones, amines, low molecular weight esters
and amides.
Warman Code S51. S51 is specially formulated to provide maximum resistance to strong
acids. It is limited to use on small components for Warman pumps e.g. C2017 cover
plate liners or smaller.

NITRILE (NBR: ACRYLONITRILE-BUTADIENE RUBBER)
This material was once known as “Buna N”. Nitrile provides general resistance to many
hydrocarbons, fats, oils, grease and hydraulic fluids.
It is affected by ozone, ketones and esters, aldehydes, chlorinated-and nitro-

hydrocarbons.
Bloom is common in some nitriles but performance is not affected by this characteristic.
Warman Code S12. A soft elastomer, developed specifically for use in the Palm Oil
Industry.
Warman Code S13. S13 has been specially formulated to resist swelling when constantly
immersed in water. Its main application is for cutless bearings used in axial and mixed
flow water pumps.
Warman Code S14. S14 is a more rigid elastomer used for components such as impeller
which require a higher tensile strength.
E.P.D.M. (NORDEL: ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE TERPOLYMER)
E.P.D.M., also known as Nordel, provides general resistance to most moderate corrosive
chemicals, alcohol, ozone, and organic acids.
It is affects by strong acids, solvents, most hydrocarbons, chloroform and aromatic

solvents.
E.P.D.M. Provides resistance to a broader range of chemicals, than provided by natural

rubber or neoprene and can be operated at higher temperatures.
It has been selected as the Warman standard, i.e. stock, material for seals, joint rings and
similar components. (Other materials are available for specific applications not suited to
E.P.D.M.).
Warman Code S01. Suitable for temperatures up to 121ºC.
Warman Code S02. Softer, but suitable for temperatures to 80ºC only.
POLYURETHANE (P.U.R.)
P.U.R. provides general resistance to ozone, some hydrocarbons, moderate chemicals,

fats, oils and greases. Its main physical advantage is its resistance to abrasion, in
particular sliding-type abrasion.
It is affected by concentrated acids and alkalies, ketones, esters, chlorinated-and nitro-

hydrocarbons.
NOTE: In some Warman pump components tables, polyurethane components bear the
suffix “PUR” only. However, specific selection and specification of U01, U02, U03 or
U14 is necessary according to the duty proposed for the component.

Warman Code U01. Colour Yellow, Durometer 80ºA.
Warman Code U02. Colour Red, 90ºA, 40ºD.
Warman Code U03. Colour Green, 95ºA, 50ºD.
U01, U02 and U03 are all relatively rigid elastomers and of sufficient tensile strength for
the manufacture of impellers, expellers and expeller rings.
Warman Code U14. Colour reddish-brown, 55ºA. U14 is a relatively soft elastomer,
suitable for Cover Plate Liners and Frame Plate Liners.
Hard Alloys
Hard Cast Alloy Irons are used for impellers and liners where conditions are not suited to
Elastomers. Their overall hardness, typically 500 to 650 H.B., provides their abrasion-
resistance, while the selection of the most suitable alloy depends on service conditions.
The relative economics of application of the various Hard Alloys may vary in different
parts of the world and from time-to-time as Nickel, Chromium and other base metal costs
fluctuate.
Ni-Hard Type 1 (Warman Alloy Type AC3)
This alloy is the most commonly-used for wearing parts, providing an economic
combination of relatively low cost and long wearing life. It is particularly suited for
handling coarse, sharp particles due to the presence of an extremely hard carbide network
in the martensitic matrix.
Chromium Alloy (Warman Alloy Type AC5)
The 27% Chromium Alloy is slightly more costly than Type 1 Ni-Hard. However, it is
more resistant to mild corrosives, and usually provides longer wearing lives than Type 1
Ni-Hard on mild-corrosive/abrasive duties such as slurries of solids in seawater.
It can be the most economic selection for some alumina plant slurry duties.
The micro-structure of this alloy is much finer than the Type 1 Ni-Hard, resulting in
superior wear-resistance to very fine, sharp solids which tend to preferentially erode the
matrix of the Type 1 Ni-Hard.
Special-Purpose Alloys
Although the above two standard Warman Alloys (Type 1 Ni-Hard and 27% Chromium
Alloy) economically satisfy virtually all common slurry-pumping duties, other more
costly alloys are available for abrasive and/or corrosive duties. These include:
Warman Alloy Type AS5
This is a tough, Ni-Cr-Mo Cast Alloy Steel with high tensile strength and high resistance
to impact. Although of lower hardness (approximately 300 H.B.) than the standard
Warman Hard Alloys, it has limited weldability, enabling some refacing of worn surfaces

to be effected. This alloy is used for very large gravel and dredge pump bowls, doors and
back liners where a compromise must be made between the ideal properties of maximum
abrasion resistance and maximum impact resistance.
Ni-Hard Type 4 (Warman Alloy Type AC6)
The high Nickel and Chromium contents of this alloy results in a higher cost. While its
abrasion-resistance is not appreciably superior to Type 1, its high strength and greater
impact-resistance render it more suitable for handling very large particles such as gravel
and stones encountered in certain dredging and hydraulic mining duties.
Chrome-Molybdenum Alloys
Applications similar to 27% Cr, but with increased corrosion-resistance, particularly

where severe oxygen-impingement is unavoidable.
Stainless Steels
Generally applied on the more corrosive duties where Standard Warman Alloys or
Elastomers are unsuitable.
Nickel-Base Alloys (e.g. Monel, Hastelloys)
Generally applied on the very corrosive duties, despite the very high costs, where all
other Alloys and Elastomers are unsuitable or uneconomic.

Section 11 OPERATIONAL FAULT FINDING

INDEX
11.0 Abstract 2
11.1 Operational Fault-Finding 2
11.2 Possible Problems 3
11.3 Probable Faults 4

11.0 Abstract
Common operational problems experienced in slurry pumping are tabulated and cross-
referenced to the probably faults.
The availability of reliable instrumentation is an advantage in the diagnosing of problems

as well as in providing an early warning for certain types of impending problems.
11.1 Operational Fault-Finding

Common pumping problems and probable faults, tabulated below, are accompanied by
the corresponding usual indications from simple instrumentation.
“VAC” represents the vacuum gauge reading (e.g. in mm of Mercury) at the pump
suction flange for duties where Hs is usually negative (-ve) e.g. suction-lift
duties
“PRES” represents the pressure gauge reading (e.g. in kPa) at the pump discharge
flange.
“AMP” represents the power consumption reading (e.g. in amperes) of the drive
motor.
“N” represents a reading about NORMAL.
“HI” represents a reading HIGHER than normal.
“LO” represents a reading LOWER than normal.
The absence of “N”, “HI” or “LO” indications against some problems allows for certain
faults where the indication may not positively assist in clearly diagnosing the fault.
The availability of instrumentation e.g. a vacuum gauge or a compound gauge at the

pump suction flange, a pressure gauge at the pump discharge flange and an ammeter to
indicate power consumption, is an advantage. This instrumentation allows operators to
become familiar with the range of reading expected with normal pump operation
(allowing also for variations due to performance changes from new to worn condition) on
a given duty. Suitable instrumentation can often provide an early warning of an
impending operating problem. In addition, the instrumentation aids in diagnosing many
faults. In the following tables, the term liquid may be taken to mean liquid or mixture.

11.2 Possible Problems

USUAL INDICATIONS PROBABLE FAULTS
SYMPTOMS VAC PRES AMP INDICATED
Pump fails to discharge any LO LO LO A1, A2, A4, A5, A6, A7,
liquid A8, A11, B1, B3, B5, B9
LO LO HI B4
HI LO - A4, A9
LO HI LO B10
Pump discharges liquid but at LO LO LO A2, A4, A5, A6, A7, A8,
reduced flowrate and reduced A11. B1, B3, B5, B8, B9
discharge head
HI LO - A3, A10
- N HI B2
Pump discharges liquid but at LO HI LO B6, B15
reduced flowrate and
increase discharge head.
Pump loses prime i.e. pump LO LO LO A2, A3, A5, A6, A7, A8,
becomes air-locked. A9, A11, A12
Pump feed hopper overflows - LO LO A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6,
A7, A8, A9, A10, A11, A12.
B1, B2, B3, B5, B8, B9.
- - HI B4, B11, B12.
- HI LO B6, B11, B15
Pump power consumption is - - HI B2, B3, B4, B7, B11. C1,
excessive C3, C4, C8, C9, C12.
Excessive leakage from C1, C3, C6, C7, C8, C9,
Stuffing Box. C10, C13.
Packing rings have short life. C1, C3, C5, C6, C7, C8, C9,
C10, C12, C13, C23.
Excessive leakage from B13, B16, C14
Expeller Ring while running.
Pump vibrates or is noisy. A2, A3, A4, A9, A10, A11,
B14.
Bearing assembly C15, C16.
contaminated with water.
Bearings have short life. C1, C3, C4, C5, C6, C10,
C15, C16, C17, C18, C19,
C20, C21, C22.
Pump overheats or seizes. A4, B14, C1, C4, C5, C6,
C10, C17, C18, C19.

11.3 Probable Faults

USUAL INDICATIONS
A: SUCTION SYSTEM FAULTS VAC PRES AMP
A1 Pump not primed LO LO LO
A2 Suction pipe not completely filled with liquid LO LO LO
A3 NPSHa less than NPSHr due to high suction HI LO LO

system resistance
A4 NPSHa less than NPSHr due to low value of - LO -

Hatm – Hvap
A5 Excessive amount of froth, air or gas entrained or LO LO LO

dissolved in the liquid
A6 Air pocket in suction line LO LO LO
A7 Air leaking into suction line LO LO LO
A8 Air leaking into pump through stuffing box LO LO LO
A9 * Suction strainer or suction pipe blocked HI LO LO
A10 * Suction strainer or suction pipe partially HI LO LO

blocked
A 11 Inlet of suction pipe insufficiently submerged LO LO LO
A12 * Air leaking into pump through centrifugal seal LO LO LO
* See notes at end of this sub-section

USUAL INDICATIONS
B: PUMP AND SYSTEM FAULTS VAC PRES AMP
B1 Pump Speed too low LO LO LO
B2 * Pump Speed too high - N HI
B3 * Incorrect direction of pump rotation - LO -
B4 Pump casing bogged i.e. filled with settled solids LO LO HI
B5 * Impeller blocked or partially blocked with LO LO LO

foreign object
B6 System resistance greater than originally HI HI LO

specified
LO HI LO
HI LO LO
B7 System resistance less than originally specified HI HI HI
B8 Impeller requires adjustment towards suction side LO LO LO
B9 Impeller worn, requiring replacement LO LO LO
B 10 Discharge pipeline blocked LO HI LO
B 11 Sm greater than originally specified - - HI
B 12 Viscosity of suspending liquid greater than - - HI

originally specified
B 13 Hs
Ratio is too high
Hd
B 14 Flowrate discharged by pump is greatly below LO LO LO

normal
B15 Discharge pipeline partially blocked LO HI LO
B 16 Impeller requires adjustment towards shaft side
* See Notes at end of this section.

C: MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE AND SERVICE FAULTS

C1 Misalignment of drive shaft and couplings.
C2 Pump foundation not sufficiently rigid.
C3 Pump shaft bent.
C4 Rotating component rubbing on a stationary component.
C5 Bearings worn.
C6 Impeller excessively unbalanced due to wear, damage or foreign object
caught in impeller.
C7 Shaft sleeve worn or scored.
C8 Packing rings improperly fitted.
C9 Incorrect type of packing ring material for the specific service condition.
C 10 Pump shaft running off-centre due to worn bearings or misalignment of shaft
in stuffing box.
C 11 Drive belts excessively tight.
C 12 Gland excessively tightened against packing rings.
C 13 Abrasive solids present in gland-sealing water.
C 14 Expeller worn or blocked.
C 15 Aspiration of water originating from excessive leakage from stuffing box or
spillage, hosing, or rain or condensation of moist air, particularly on cooling
of bearing assembly after shut-down.
C 16 Ingress of G.S.W. or liquid pumped along shaft into bearing assembly due to
damage ‘O’ rings or impeller returning to fastened position after loosening.
C 17 Excessive grease content in bearing housing causing excessive grease
temperature and increased wear on bearing cage.
C 18 Insufficient lubrication.
C 19 Incorrect procedure followed in fitting bearings.
C 20 Dirt entering bearings due to lack of care in assembly, maintenance or
lubrication.
C 21 Rusting of bearings due to water aspiration or ingress.
C 22 Incorrect grade of grease used or incompatible grades mixed within bearing
assembly.
C 23 Gland-sealing water flowrate or pressure too high.
C 24 Gland-sealing water flowrate or pressure too low.

NOTES:
A9, A10, B5: When the pump is stopped to permit inspection of the intake screen,
suction pipework or impeller eye, the run-back of liquid could dislodge the object causing
the blockage and flush it some distance away. The object accordingly would not be
present at the point of blockage during the inspection but could be drawn back, after the
pump is restarted, resulting in a recurrence of the blockage. This effect often frustrates
attempts to locate the object to confirm and remove the cause of the fault. Examples
include:
a) Timber or similar tramp material which may, by chance, spear through an intake
screen (or be left in the suction pipework during construction) and cause a partial
blockage in the impeller eye or in a portion of the suction pipework. This tramp
material may not chance again to pass through the intake screen during run-back.
b) Rocks, bricks, valve bonnets or other debris which could, cause a blockage in the
impeller eye and which could be flushed back through the intake screen into the
sump or pit on run-back.
A12: Leakage of atmospheric air into the pump via the centrifugal seal can occur when:
The suction head (Hs) is reduced by increased suction system resistance e.g. due to
blockage or partial blockage in the suction pipe such as caused by a badly-fitted flange
gasket partly blocking the suction pipe. This reduces the values of Hs and consequently
Hd, while the sealing head, Hx, remains reasonably constant.
B2: Pump speed may be too high on some gravity-feed duties. In consequence, the
sealing head, Hx, is well in excess of Hd and air is induced into the pump, via the expeller
ring or stuffing box, mixes with the liquid in the casing and centripedes to the eye of the
impeller to create an air lock to reduce or interrupt the liquid flowrate. This effect is
particularly apparent with Bingham-type slurries or with mixtures of high solids
concentration. The imposition of additional discharge head (e.g. by throttling the
discharge to increase Hd to prevent any air induction) may be effected to assist in
diagnosis. An increase in pump flowrate while Hd is increased confirms that the pump
speed is too high. Subsequently, flowrate may be increased by a reduction in speed.
B3: This incorrect direction of rotation normally results in serious damage to pumps.
However, it is possible for some small pump impellers or impellers which have been in
service for a long time to remain securely fastened to the shaft despite an incorrect
direction of rotation. See Section 7.5.

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SLURRY PUMPING MANUAL Introduction Page 1

THIS ON-LINE VERSION OF THE SLURRY PUMPING MANUAL IS A

COPYRIGHT: THE REPRODUCTION OR LOAN OF THIS MANUAL, IN WHOLE

The Company’s earlier publication, “A Guide to Centrifugal Pump Engineering”

It is believed that sufficient information is now contained in this publication to enable

The assemblage of this manual permits convenient replacement or addition of pages. A

PUBLISHED 1981 BY: WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LIMITED

ACCURACIES OF PUBLISHED CURVES AND ESTIMATIONS

Published Performance Curves:

Copyright © WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LTD

It should be noted that it is not necessary or economically practical to performance test

Definition of “Value”, “Values”:

" e m (worn )"

As in most complex and developing technical disciplines, no single slurry pump

Copyright © WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LTD

Section 0 GLOSSARY OF SYMBOLS USED

Copyright © WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LTD

Copyright © WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LTD

Copyright © WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LTD

Copyright © WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LTD

The SI pumping units shown are in accordance with AS1686-1974.

For ease of reference physical quantities are listed in alphabetical order.

Copyright © WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LTD

PHYSICAL VARIOUS UNITS SI PUMPING UNITS CONVERSION

Kinematic centistoke cSt square millimetre per mm2/s 1.000

Copyright © WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LTD

Section 1 SLURRY PUMP PERFORMANCE AND DUTY DATA

1.1 Slurry Pump Duty Data 2

1.2 Determination of Slurry Flowrates 3

1.3 Basic Formulae for Mixtures of Liquids and Solids 3

1.4 Basic Formula for Slurry Mixture Flowrate 4

1.5 Derivation of Flowrates in Process Circuits 5

1.6 Methods of Slurry Flowrate Measurement 18

1.7 Effects of In-Line Flow Measurement Devices on Flowrate 28

Copyright © WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LTD

Mixtures of Liquids and Solids: Formulae

Other formulae utilise values of Cw or Cg in lieu of Cv.

Mixture flowrate: Formulae

DERIVATION OF MIXTURE FLOWRATES

METHODS OF SLURRY FLOWRATE MEASUREMENT

1.0 Slurry Pump Duty Data

Copyright © WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LTD

1.1 Determination of Slurry Flowrates

Such methods include:

1. Direct Measurement of Slurry Flowrate in existing operations by one or more of

Derivation of Slurry Flowrates

1.2 Basic Formulae for Mixtures of Liquids and Solids

Nbr. 3. 100 − C v Nbr. 7. 100(S m − S l )

Copyright © WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LTD

Note* Aqueous slurries encountered in slurry pumping most commonly consist of

Typical Sl values greater that 1.0 are:

1.3 Basic Formula for Slurry Mixture Flowrate

Mass Fraction of Solids in Mixture

SG of Slurry Mixture (t/m3 = kg/L)

Slurry Flowrate (m3/s)

Dry Solids Flowrate (t/h)

where M = Mass Flowrate of Dry Solids (t/h)

Sm = Specific Gravity of mixture

Cw = Concentration of Dry Solids in mixture by weight (percent)

For example: given that M = 200 t/h

Copyright © WARMAN INTERNATIONAL LTD

In many cases, Sm may not be given, in which cases it must be calculated.

where Sl = Specific Gravity of Liquid (for fresh water: Sl = 1.0)