CHAPTER 5 READING QUESTIONS FROM WEEK 2 LECTURES

DON’T FORGET CHAPTER 3 AND THE LITTLE BIT FROM CHAPTER 2

These reading questions are designed to help you focus your reading on the most important
points in the chapter. They are arranged using chapter section headers so that the file can be
easily edited to reflect the material covered in class.

Homeostasis Does Not Mean Equilibrium

1. What is osmotic equilibrium?

• Osmotic equilibrium
o when fluid concentrations are equal on both sides of the membrane
▪ comes from water having free movement from the extracellular and
Intracellular compartments
o the state that the body Is In
o Since water can move freely across the membrane, there are equal amounts of
solute per volume of fluid on either side of the membrane (ICF & ECF).
2.What is chemical disequilibrium? Give some examples of specific solutes that exist in a state

of chemical disequilibrium in our body. (Fig. 5.1d)

• distribution of major solutes among the body fluid compartments Is uneven

o requires energy to maintain
o examples In the body
▪ sodium, chloride y bicarbonate Ions
• more concentrated In ECF than ICF
▪ potassium Ions
• more concentrated Inside the cell
▪ calcium
• more concentrated In the ECF that In the cytosol
o though many cells store Ca 2+ Inside organelles
▪ organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum
and mitochondria

3.How does chemical disequilibrium in the body give rise to electrical disequilibrium? What is

the result of electrical disequilibrium?

• electrical disequilibrium
o Ions not distributed evenly between the ICF and the ECF
 ▪ Few extra anions In ICF
• give It a net negative charge
▪ matching cations are In the ECF giving It a net positive charge
o changes In disequilibrium
▪ create electrical signals
• chemical disequilibrium --> electrical disequilibrium
o Ionic Imbalance of more anions In the ICF and more cations In the ECF
results In electric disequilibrium
▪ Though body as whole Is electrically neutral

5.1 OSMOSIS AND TONICITY

The Body Is Mostly Water

4. What is the physiological significance of the “70-kg man”? What is his total body water

volume?

• 70 kg - man
o 60% of his total body weight In the from of water
▪ 42 kg, 92.4 lb, of water
• Each kilogram of water has a volume of 1 Liter

5. How does a woman’s total body water content compare to a man’s? (Tbl. 5.1)

• Adult women have less water per kilogram of body mass than men
o Because women have more adipose tissue
▪ Fat tissue

6.Describe the distribution of water among the body compartments. (Fig. 5.1b, c)

• ICF
o 67%, 2/3
• 33% ,1/3
o Interstitial fluid
▪ Contains about 75% of extracellular water
o plasma
▪ contains about 25% of the extra cellular water
The Body Is in Osmotic Equilibrium

7. Define and describe osmosis. (Fig. 5.2)

• osmosis
o the movement of water across membrane In response to a solute concentration
gradient
▪ water moves
• to dilute the more concentrated solution
o once concentrations are equal
▪ net movement of water stops

8.What is osmotic pressure? (Fig. 5.2)

• osmotic pressure
o Force caused by a solution passing through a semi permeable surface by osmosis
▪ Force required to resist the solution from passing back through the surface
o pressure on the piston that exactly opposes the osmotic movement of water Into
compartment B
o units
▪ atm
▪ mm Hg
Osmolarity Describes the Number of Particles in Solution

9. How does osmolarity differ from molarity? What equation converts molarity to osmolarity?

Osmolarity Molarity
• used for biological solutions to • Number of moles dissolved in
express concentration of solute per liter of solution
osmotically active particles (not the
number of molecules) per liter of
solution
o Cause some molecules
dissociate into ions when
they dissolve in a solution
o So number of particles in
solution is not always the
same as the number of
molecules
• Osmol/L
• OsM
• MOsM

• Convert between molarity y osmolarity

o Molarity (mol/L) x particles/ molecule (osmol/mol) = osmolarity (osmol/L)

10. Contrast osmolarity and osmolality.

Osmolarity Osmolality

• used for biological solutions to • Concentration expressed as osmoles

express concentration of of solute per kilogram of water
 osmotically active particles (not the
number of molecules) per liter of
solution
o Cause some molecules
dissociate into ions when
they dissolve in a solution
o So number of particles in
solution is not always the
same as the number of
molecules
• Osmol/L
• OsM
• MOsM
• Used in clinical situations because it
is easy to estimate peoples body
water content by weighing them
o Estimate weight loss to fluid
loss
o 1L of pure water weighs 1kg
(2.2lbs), equivalent to the
loss of 1 L of body fluid
o quick estimate of how much
fluid needs to be replaced

• Used interchangeably
o Because biological solutions are dilute and little of their weight comes from solute

Comparing Osmolarities of Two Solutions

11. Distinguish between the terms isosmotic, hypoosmotic, and hyperosmotic.

Isosmotic Hypoosmotic Hyperosmotic

• Two solutions contain • Solution with fewer • Higher osmolarity, more

the same number of solute osmoles per unit volume particles per unit volume,
particles per unit of more concentrated
volume
12. If solution A has more particles per liter than solution B, then solution A is said to be

_______hyper_________ osmotic to solution B, while solution B is said to be

________hypo________ osmotic to solution A. (Tbl. 5.2)

Tonicity Describes the Volume Change of a Cell

13. Contrast osmolarity and tonicity.

Osmolarity Tonicity

• Describes the number of solute • Describe solution y how solution

particles dissolved in a volume of
solution
• Units osmoles/liter
• Can be used to compare any two
solutions
would affect cell volume if cell
were placed in that solution and
allowed to come to equilibrium
• No units, comparative term
• Compares a solution to a cell so it i

14. Distinguish between the terms isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic. (Tbl. 5.3)

Isotonic Hypotonic Hypertonic

 • Cell in the solution • Cell placed in • Cell placed in
does not change solution gains solution loses
size at equilibrium water at water and shrinks
equilibrium and at equilibrium
swells

15. Contrast penetrating solutes and nonpenetrating solutes. What does it mean when a solute is

considered “functionally nonpenetrating”?

Penetrating solutes Nonpenetrating solutes

• Solute particles (ions or molecules) • Solute particles that cannot pass the
can enter the cell cell membrane
• Ex. NaCl
• Tonicity depends on nonpenetrating
solutes only

16. What are the rules for predicting tonicity? (Tbl. 5.4)

• Water will always move until the concentrations of nonpenetrating solutes in the cell
and the solution are equal.
• A hypoosmotic solution is always hypotonic, no matter what its composition. The cell
will always have a higher concentration of nonpenetrating solutes than the solution, and
water will move into the cell
• Rules

o If the cell has a higher concentration of nonpenetrating solutes than the solution,
there will be net movement of water into the cell. The cell swells, and the
solution is hypotonic.

o If the cell has a lower concentration of nonpenetrating solutes than the solution,
there will be net movement of water out of the cell. The cell shrinks, and the
solution is hypertonic.
o If the concentrations of nonpenetrating solutes are the same in the cell and the
solution, there will be no net movement of water at equilibrium. The solution is
isotonic to the cell.

o 1. Assume that all intracellular solutes are nonpenetrating.

o 2. Compare osmolarities before the cell is exposed to the solution. (At

equilibrium, the cell and solution are always isosmotic.)

o 3. Tonicity of a solution describes the volume change of a cell at equilibrium.

o Rules for Osmolarity and Tonicity

o 4. Determine tonicity by comparing nonpenetrating solute concentrations in the

cell and the solution. Net water movement is into the compartment with the
higher concentration of nonpenetrating solutes.

o 5. Hypoosmotic solutions are always hypotonic.

17. How can a solution be isosmotic and hypotonic? (Fig. 5.3)

• As you can see in, an isosmotic solution may be isotonic or hypotonic. It can never be
hypertonic because it can never have a higher concentration of nonpenetrating solutes
than the cell. If all solutes in the isosmotic solution are non- penetrating, then the
solution is also isotonic. If there are any penetrating solutes in the isosmotic solution,
the solution will be hypotonic.
5.2 TRANSPORT PROCESSES

18. What is bulk flow? Give some examples of bulk flow in the body.

• Bulk flow
o general form of biological transport
▪ bulk flow of fluids within a compartment
o pressure gradient that causes liquids to flow
▪ from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure
o example
▪ blood moving through the circulatory system
• heart acts as a pump that creates region of high pressure
o pushing plasma with its dissolved solutes and the
suspended blood cells through the blood vessels.
▪ air flow In the lungs

Cell Membranes Are Selectively Permeable

19. What properties of a cell membrane contribute to its permeability? Give examples of

substances that typically are permeable and impermeable to human cell membranes.

• properties of cell membrane that contribute to Its permeability

o membrane permeability varies and can be changed by altering the proteins or
lipids of the membrane
o membrane proteins to assist transport
o vesicles
• permeable substances
o small lipid soluble
o ex.
▪ oxygen, carbon dioxide, lipids
• Impermeable substances
o large less lipid soluble
o ex.
 ▪ Ions, most polar molecules, very large molecules (like proteins)

20. What two properties of a molecule determine whether it can diffuse across a membrane?

• properties of molecules that Influence Its permeability

o size
o lipid solubility

21. What is the difference between active transport and passive transport?

Passive transport Active transport

• No input of energy required • Requires input of energy from an
• Uses the potential energy involved in a outside source
concentration gradient • high energy phosphate bond of ATP

22. What are the different ways a molecule can move across a membrane? (Fig. 5.5)

• Vesicular Transport (AT)

• Primary Active Transport
• Secondary Active Transport
• Facilitated Diffusion
• Ion Channel
• Aquaporin Channel
• Simple Diffusion
5.3 DIFFUSION

23. Define diffusion. (Fig. 5.6)

• Diffusion
o movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration of the molecules to
an area of lower concentration of the molecules.

24. List seven properties of diffusion. (Tbl. 5.6)

1. diffusion uses kinetic energy of molecular movement

a. does not require an outside energy source
 2. molecules diffuse from area of high concentration -> to area of low
concentration
3. diffusion continues until
a. concentration comes to equilibrium
b. however,
i. molecular movement continues after equilibrium has been
reached
4. diffusion Is faster when
a. It Is along higher concentration gradients
b. Over shorter distances
c. At higher temperatures
d. For smaller molecules
5. Can take place
a. In an open system or
b. Across a partition that separates two systems
6. The rate of diffusion through a membrane Is faster If
a. The membrane surface area Is large
b. The membrane Is thinner
c. The concentration gradient Is larger
d. The membrane Is more permeable to the molecule
7. Membrane permeability to a molecule depends on
a. The molecules lipid solubility
b. The molecule's size
c. The lipid composition of the membrane

Lipophilic Molecules Cross Membranes by Simple Diffusion

25. Describe seven general properties of diffusion. (Tbl. 5.6)

8. diffusion uses kinetic energy of molecular movement

a. does not require an outside energy source
 9. molecules diffuse from area of high concentration -> to area of low
concentration
10. diffusion continues until
a. concentration comes to equilibrium
b. however,
i. molecular movement continues after equilibrium has been
reached
11. diffusion Is faster when
a. It Is along higher concentration gradients
b. Over shorter distances
c. At higher temperatures
d. For smaller molecules
12. Can take place
a. In an open system or
b. Across a partition that separates two systems
13. The rate of diffusion through a membrane Is faster If
a. The membrane surface area Is large
b. The membrane Is thinner
c. The concentration gradient Is larger
d. The membrane Is more permeable to the molecule
14. Membrane permeability to a molecule depends on
a. The molecules lipid solubility
b. The molecule's size
c. The lipid composition of the membrane

26. Fick’s law of diffusion describes simple diffusion across a membrane. (Fig. 5.7) Using

words, state Fick’s law.

• Fick's Law
o Diffusion rate Increases with an Increase In
▪ Surface area
 ▪ The concentration gradient
▪ Membrane permeability

27. What factors influence membrane permeability?

• Factors that Influence membrane permeability

o The size (and shape for large molecules) of the diffusing molecule
▪ As molecular size Increases, membrane permeability decreases
o The lipid solubility of the molecule
▪ As Lipid solubility of the diffusing molecule Increases
• Membrane permeability to the molecule Increases
o The composition of the lipid bilayer across which It Is diffusing
▪ Alterations In lipid concentrations of the membrane
• Change how easily diffusing molecules can slip between the
Individual phospholipids
• Ex.
 o cholesterol molecules in membranes pack themselves into
the spaces between the fatty acids tails and retard passage
of molecules through those spaces making the membrane
less permeable.

5.4 PROTEIN-MEDIATED TRANSPORT

28. Why is simple diffusion not an option for most molecules in our body?

• Simple diffusion Is not an option for most molecules in our body because
o It I limited to lipophilic molecules
▪ And the majority of molecules in the body are
• lipophobic or electrically charged
o and therefore, cannot cross a membrane by simple
diffusion

29. Differentiate between protein-mediated transport, facilitated diffusion, and active transport.

Mediated transport Facilitated diffusion Active transport

• passive • when net transport • Requires energy from

• Moves molecules stops when ATP or another
down their concentrations are outside source
concentration equal on both sides • Moves substance
gradient of the membrane against its
concentration
gradient

Use of membrane proteins Is a thing with all three of these methods, all three methods are

forms of protein mediated transport

Membrane Proteins Have Four Major Functions Structural Proteins

30. What are the three major roles of structural proteins? (Fig. 5.8)

• Three major roles of structural proteins

1. help create cell junctions that hold tissues together
a. such as tight junctions and gap junctions
2. connect membrane to the cytoskeleton to maintain the shape of the cell
a. ex.
i. microvilli of transporting epithelia are on example of
membrane shaping by the cytoskeleton
3. attach cells to the Intracellular matrix
a. by linking cytoskeleton fibers to extracellular collagen and other
protein fibers
Enzymes

31. What are membrane enzymes? How are they different in function from intracellular

enzymes?

• membrane enzymes
o catalyze chemical reactions that take place either on the cell's external surface
or just Inside the cell
o ex.
▪ enzymes on the external surface of cells lining the small Intestine are
responsible for digesting peptides y carbohydrates
• Intracellular enzymes
o play Important role In transferring signals from the extracellular environment
to the cytoplasm
Receptors

32. What is the role of membrane receptor proteins? (Fig. 5.9)

• membrane receptor proteins

o part of body’s chemical signaling system
o role
▪ bind extracellular ligands
• biding of a receptor with It's ligand usually triggers another
event at the membrane
Transport Proteins
33. Compare channel proteins and carrier proteins.
Channel proteins
• create water filled passageways that
directly link the intracellular and
extracellular compartments
• Open to both sides of the membrane at
the same time
• Both are transport proteins that move molecules across membranes
Carrier proteins
• Transporters, bind to substrate that
they carry but never from a direct
connection between intracellular
fluid y extracellular fluid
• Open to one side of the membrane or
the other
Channel Proteins Form Open, Water-Filled Passageways

34. Describe a typical channel protein. What types of molecules pass through channel proteins?

(Figs. 5.10a, 5.11)

• Typical channel protein

o Made of membrane spanning subunits that create a cluster of cylinders with a
tunnel or pore through the center
o Named according to the substances that they allow to pass
o They are like narrow doorways In to the cell
o Selectivity of channel determined by
▪ Diameter of Its central pore
▪ Electrical charge of the amino acids that line the channel
35. Distinguish between an open channel and a gated channel. (Fig. 5.10a)
36. List three types of gated channels.

• gated channels spend most of their time In a closed state

o this allows the channels to regulate the movement of Ions through them
• Three types of gated channels
1. Chemically gated channels
a. gating controlled by Intracellular messenger molecules or extracellular
ligands that bind to channel protein
2. Voltage-gated channels
a. Open and close when the electrical state of the cell changes
3. Mechanically gated channels
a. Respond to physical forces
 i. Such as Increased temperature or pressure that puts tension on
the membrane and pops the channel open

Carrier Proteins Change Conformation to Move Molecules

37. Define the following terms: uniport carriers, cotransporter, symport carriers, and antiport

carriers. (Fig. 5.10b)

• Uniport carriers
o Carrier proteins that move only one kind of molecule
• Cotransporter
o Carrier that moves more than one kind of molecule at one time
• Symport carriers
o Molecules being transported are moving In the same direction whether Into or
out of the cell
o Sometimes the word cotransport Is used In place of symport
• Antiport carriers
o Molecules are carried in opposite directions
o Also called exchangers
38. Diagram the general mechanism by which carrier proteins move molecules across a

membrane. (Fig. 5.12)

Facilitated Diffusions Uses Carrier Proteins

39. Compare and contrast facilitated diffusion and simple diffusion.

Facilitated diffusion Simple diffusion

• Uses carrier proteins
• Carriers always transport molecules down
their concentration gradient
• Aid of specific carriers
• Ex. GLUT transporters, move glucose y
related hexose sugars across membranes
• sugars, amino acids enter y leave the cell
using facilitated diffusion
• Molecules can pass only in the
direction of the concentration
gradient
• permits passage of only small and
nonpolar molecules across the
plasma membrane
40. Give examples of molecules that might cross a membrane by facilitated diffusion.

• molecules that might cross using facilitated diffusion

o sugars
o amino acids

Active Transport Moves Substances against Their Concentration Gradient

41. What is active transport? Why does it require the input of energy?

• active transport
o process that moves molecules against their concentration gradient
▪ from lower concentration to areas of higher concentration
o creates disequilibrium by making concentration differences more pronounced
o requires Input of energy
▪ because moving molecules against their concentration gradient
requires Input of energy
 42. Distinguish between primary (direct) active transport and secondary (indirect) active

transport.

Primary, direct, active transport Both Secondary, indirect, active transport

• energy comes directly
from the high energy
phosphate bond of ATP
• Both use energy to push
molecules against their
concentration gradient
• Uses potential energy stored in
the concentration gradient of
one molecule to push other
molecules against their
concentration gradient
• Depends on primary transport,
because the concentration
gradients that drive secondary
transport are created using
energy from ATP

Primary Active Transport

43. Diagram the structure and mechanism of the Na+-K+-ATPase as an example of primary

active transport. (Figs. 5.14, 5.15; Tbl. 5.7)

Secondary Active Transport

44. How is the relatively high extracellular [Na+] used to drive transport of other molecules

against their concentration gradient across a membrane? Give some specific examples. (Tbl.

5.8)

• sodium concentration gradient

o High concentration of Na+ In the ECF and low Inside the cell
▪ Source of potential energy that the cell can harness for other
functions
• Ex.
o Nerve cells
▪ Use sodium gradient to transmit electrical
signals
o Epithelial cells
▪ use sodium gradient to drive the uptake of
nutrients, Ions, and water
45. Describe the action of the Na+-glucose secondary active transporter (SGLT) as a

representative example of secondary active transport. How does an SGLT transporter

compare with a GLUT transporter? (Fig. 5.16)

• Na+ - glucose secondary active transporter, SGLT

o Both Na+ and glucose bind to the SGLT protein on the extracellular fluid
side
▪ Sodium binds first and causes a conformational change In the
protein that creates high affinity binding site for glucose

SGLT transporter Both GLUT transporter

• Can only move glucose • Needed to move • Reversible

into the cells because glucose from one • Can move glucose into
glucose must follow side of an or out of cells,
the Na+ gradient epithelium to the depending on the
other concentration gradient
Carrier-Mediated Transport Exhibits Specificity, Competition, and Saturation Specificity

46. Give examples of how specificity applies to carrier-mediated transport. (Fig. 5.17a, b)

• Carrier-mediated proteins and specificity

o Ex.
▪ GLUT family of transporters
• Move 6-carbon sugars (hexoses)
o Like glucose, mannose, and fructose across cell
membranes

Competition

47. How does competition relate to specificity?

• Relation of competition to specificity

o Specificity preference based on binding affinity of transporter gives the
substrate It "prefers" an advantage over other substrates It competes against
o Transporter may move several members of a related group of substrates, but
those substrates compete with one another for binding sites on the transporter
Saturation

48. Describe how the principle of saturation applies to carrier-mediated transport. Include a

description of transport maximum. (Fig. 5.17c)

• principle of saturation application to carrier mediated transport

o carrier reaching saturation Is the point which all carrier binding sites are filled
with substrate
▪ carriers working at maximum rate
• further Increase In substrate concentration has no effect
o transport maximum
▪ maximum transport rate

49. How can cells increase their transport capacity and avoid saturation?

• cells can Increase their transport capacity and avoid saturation by

o Increase number of carriers In the membrane

5.5 VESICULAR TRANSPORT

Phagocytosis Creates Vesicles Using the Cytoskeleton

50. Describe the process of phagocytosis. What is a phagosome? (Fig. 5.18)

• phagocytosis
o actin-mediated process, cell engulfs a bacterium or other particle Into a large
membrane bound vessel
o requires energy from ATP
▪ for movement of the cytoskeleton
▪ and for Intracellular transport of the vesicles
o phagosome
▪ large membrane bound vessel
▪ pinches off from the cell membrane and moves to the Interior of the
cell where It fuses with a lysosome
• digestive enzymes of lysosome destroy the bacterium
Endocytosis Creates Smaller Vesicles

51. How does endocytosis differ from phagocytosis?

Endocytosis Phagocytosis

• process which large molecules or • Membrane surface pushes out

particles move into cells • large vesicles form
• Membrane surface indents
• Small vesicles form

52. What is pinocytosis?

• Pinocytosis
o Allowing of extracellular fluid to enter the cell

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

53. Diagram the process of receptor-mediated endocytosis. What role does clathrin play? What

is an endosome? (Fig. 5.19)

• Clathrin
o Most common protein found In coated pit
▪ Coated pit are areas of high concentration of protein where receptor-
mediated endocytosis takes place
• Endosomes
o Moves to a lysosome If the ligand Is to be destroyed
54. What is membrane recycling?

• Membrane recycling
o process where ligands membrane bound receptors may be reused
o process
▪ vesicle with the receptors moves Into the cell membrane and fuses
with It
▪ vesicle membrane then Is Incorporated back Into the cell membrane by
exocytosis
 Caveolae

55. Describe caveolae and list their functions

• . caveolae
o Small flask-shaped Indentations used by some endocytosis
o little caves, alternative to Clathrin- coated pits
o functions
▪ concentrate and Internalize small molecules
▪ help in transfer of macromolecules across the capillary endothelium
▪ participate In signaling

Exocytosis Releases Molecules Too Large for Transport Proteins

56. How is exocytosis related to endocytosis? Is exocytosis active or passive? Is exocytosis

constitutive or intermittent? (Fig. 5.19)

Exocytosis Endocytosis
• intracellular vesicles move too cell membrane, fuse • Requires energy in the from ATP
with it and then release their contents into ECF
• Used to export large lipophobic molecules, such as
proteins, synthesized in the cell
• Also sed to get rid of waste left in lysosomes from
intracellular digestion
• Requires energy in the from of ATP
• Takes place continuously in some cells, so it is a
constitutive
• It is also intermittent in some cells and is initiated by a
signal

57. Give examples of molecules exported by exocytosis.

• Examples of molecules exported by exocytosis

o Mucus, collagen
5.6 EPITHELIAL TRANSPORT

58. Compare and contrast the apical membrane and the basolateral membrane of a transporting

epithelial cell. What is the physiological significance of transporting epithelial cell

polarization? (Fig. 5.20)

Apical membrane Basolateral membrane

• Surface of epithelial cell that faces
the lumen of an organ
• Also called mucosal membrane
• Na+ -glucose, SGLT
• Three surfaces of the cell that face
extracellular fluid below the tight
junctions
• Also called serosal membrane
• Na+-K+ ATPase

• physiological significance of transporting epithelial cell polarization

o they are polarized because
▪ apical and basolateral membranes have very different properties
Epithelial Transport May Be Paracellular or Transcellular

59. Contrast paracellular transport and transcellular transport. (Fig. 5.20)

Paracellular transport Transcellular transport

• epithelial transport that takes place • Epithelial transport that takes places
through the junctions of adjacent through the junctions between
cells adjacent cells

Transcellular Transport of Glucose Uses Membrane Proteins

60. Diagram the movement of glucose across a transporting epithelial cell. Include all

membrane proteins, ions, and directionality of transport. (Fig. 5.21)

Transcytosis Uses Vesicles to Cross an Epithelium

61. Describe the process of transcytosis. (Fig. 5.22) When is it used? What role does the

cytoskeleton play in transcytosis?

• Transcytosis
o Combination of endocytosis, vesicular transport across the cell, and
exocytosis
o Used for molecules like proteins that re too large to cross epithelia on
membrane transporters
o Cytoskeleton helps the vesicles cross the cell
5.7 THE RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

Electricity Review

62. List four electrical principles important to the understanding of physiological electricity.

• Four electrical principles Important for physiological electricity understanding

1. law of conservation of electrical charge
2. opposite charges attract
3. It requires energy to separate positive charges from negative charges
4. Conductor Is when separated positive and negative charges move freely
towards each other, Insulator Is when separated charges cannot move through
the material that separated them

The Cell Membrane Enables Separation of Electrical Charge in the Body

63. Explain what is meant by an electrochemical gradient. (Figs. 5.23, 5.24)

• Electrochemical gradient
o Combination of electrical and concentration gradients
▪ Electrical gradient
• Difference In the net charge between two regions
All Living Cells Have a Membrane Potential

64. Explain the term resting membrane potential difference.

• Resting membrane potential difference

o Also called membrane potential
o Electrical disequilibrium or electric gradient between the extracellular fluid
and the Intracellular fluid
o Explanation of the parts of the name
▪ Resting
• Electrical gradient Is seen In all cells even those that appear to
be without electrical activity
▪ potential
• electrical gradient that Is created by active transport of Ions
across the cell membrane Is a form of stored potential energy
▪ difference
 • membrane potential represents a difference In the amount of
electrical charge Inside and outside the cell

The Resting Membrane Potential Is Due Mostly to Potassium

65. What is the equilibrium of a single ion?

• equilibrium potential of an Ion

o membrane potential where the net flow through any open channels Is 0

66. Most cells are about _____40_____ times more permeable to K+ than to Na+. A typical

resting membrane potential is about _______-90____ mV. (Fig. 5.25)

Changes in Ion Permeability Change the Membrane Potential

67. What two factors influence a cell’s membrane potential?

• Two factors that Influence a cell's membrane potential

1. concentration of gradients of different Ions across the membrane
2. permeability of the membrane to those Ions

68. Compare and contrast the terms depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization using

a graph of resting membrane potential over time. (Fig. 5.26)

69. Which four ions contribute the most to changes in membrane potential? In which fluid

compartment is each ion most concentrated?

• Four Ions that contribute the most to changes In membrane potential

o Na+
o Ca 2+
o Cl-
o K+

5.8 INTEGRATED MEMBRANE PROCESSES: INSULIN SECRETION

70. Diagram the process of insulin secretion in pancreatic beta cells as a key example of

integrated membrane function. (Fig. 5.26)