5

AC Null Measurements

5.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we examine measurement techniques that make use of sensing an ac
null. These include, but are not limited to, ac operation of (resistive) Wheatstone bridges,
various types of ac bridges used to measure capacitance, capacitor dissipation factor
(D), inductance, inductor quality factor (Q), mutual inductance and the small signal
transconductance (gm) of bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and field effect transistors. As
in the case of dc null methods, ac methods are used to obtain accurate measurements
of component values based on the accuracy of the bridge components.
It should be noted that in the real world of circuit components, there is no such thing
as a pure or ideal resistor, capacitor or inductor. All real world devices have parasitic
parameters associated with them. In some cases, these parasitic components may be
treated as lumped parameter circuits, while in other situations, they are best described as
distributed parameter networks, similar to transmission lines. For example, depending
on the frequency of the ac voltage across a resistor, the resistor may appear to have a
pure inductance in series with a resistor in parallel with a capacitor, and distributed
capacitance to ground along its length. The resistance of a resistor has a value which is
an increasing function of frequency due to skin effect at VHF – UHF. The presence of
parasitic components at high frequencies makes the operation of bridges and null circuits
at high frequencies more prone to errors. To minimize the effects of parasitic components,
most simple ac bridges operate at 1 kHz.

5.2 Inductor Equivalent Circuits

Most practical inductors are made from one or more turns of a conductor, wound as
a solenoid, either on an air core, or a ferromagnetic core, made of ferrite ceramic or
laminated iron. If the coil is wound around a ferromagnetic ring or ‘doughnut’, it is called
a toroidal inductor. The use of ferromagnetic cores concentrates the magnetic flux and
produces a higher inductance than would be attainable with an air core and the same coil
geometry. Since the conductor used to wind an inductor has a finite resistance, the
simplest, low frequency equivalent circuit of a practical inductor is a resistor in series
with a pure inductance. At very high frequencies, the small, stray capacitance between
adjacent turns of the inductor coil produces a complex, distributed parameter, RLC
circuit. If the coil is wound with several layers of turns, capacitance between the layers,
as well as between adjacent turns and inner turns to the core, produces a complex
equivalent circuit of the inductor at very high frequencies.

191
192 Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurement

IL RL L

C
VL

FIGURE 5.1 −
High frequency, lumped parameter model for an
inductor.

One compromise to the problem of representing an inductor realistically at high

frequencies is shown in Figure 5.1. Here, the distributed capacitance between windings
is modelled by a single, equivalent, lumped capacitor in parallel with the series R-L
circuit. This model is probably reasonably valid in the low audio frequency range where
most ac inductance bridges operate. To characterize and measure inductors at radio
frequencies where the lumped model is not valid, we generally use a Q meter, which is
discussed below.
The quality factor, or Q, of an inductor is defined at a given frequency as the ratio of the
inductor’s inductive reactance to the real part of its impedance. The higher the Q, the
‘purer’ the inductor and the lower are its losses. High Q inductors allow us to build more
sharply tuned RLC frequency selective circuits as compared to low Q inductors of the
same inductance. For a given inductance, high Q inductors are generally more expensive.
Note that Q is a dimensionless function of frequency. For a simple series R-L circuit, the
Q is given by:
XL !L
Q
¼ ð5:1Þ
RL RL

The Q of the RLC inductor model of Figure 5.1 may be found by finding its impedance:



 j!L þ R
ZL j! ¼
2
1 þ j!RC þ j! LC



R !L 1  !2 LC  CR2 =L
¼ þj ð5:2Þ
ð1  !2 LCÞ þ ð!RCÞ2 ð1  !2 LCÞ þ ð!RCÞ2

From the basic definition of Q given in equation 5.1 and the impedance given by
equation 5.2, the Q of the series model inductor can be written as:


!L½ 1  !2 LC  ðCR2 =LÞ
Qs ð!Þ ¼ ð5:3Þ
R

pffiffiffi
Interestingly, Qs ð!Þ rises to a maximum at ! ¼ ! 3 =3 and then drops to zero at !s,
the resonance
frequency
 of the lumped RLC model of the inductor at the resonance
frequency, ZL j! ¼ Real. From equation 5.2, this is seen to occur when:

1 R2
!s ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi  2 r=s ð5:4Þ
LC L

Although the lumped RLC model for the inductor is crude, its behavior does mimic that
observed in real inductors at high frequencies. Their Q does increase to a maximum and
AC Null Measurements 193

then decreases to zero as the frequency is further increased. Some practical inductors
exhibit multiple peaks in their Q curves at high frequencies due to the distributed nature
of the stray capacitance. At 1 kHz, the frequency used in most ac bridges used to measure
inductors, we are operating well to the left of the peak of the Qð!Þ curve and capacitive
effects are generally second order.

5.3 Capacitor Equivalent Circuits

There are many physical types of capacitors having a wide variety of geometries and
using many different types of dielectrics, all depending on the selected application. The
basic capacitor consists of a pair of parallel metal plates, separated by a dielectric
(insulating substance), which can be vacuum, air, sulfur hexafluoride, oil, oil impreg-
nated paper, glass, mica, metal oxides, or various plastics or ceramics.
Each dielectric has its own unique properties of dc leakage, dielectric constant, losses
at high frequencies, temperature coefficient, etc. At high frequencies, capacitors can
be modelled by a pure capacitance surrounded by parasitic inductors due to leads,
and resistances modelling dielectric power loss and ohmic leakage. Figure 5.2 illustrates a
general, lumped parameter, high frequency equivalent circuit for a non-polarized (non-
electrolytic) capacitor. As in the case of the inductor’s equivalent circuit, we may write an
expression for the impedance of the model as:



 RP 1=j!C
ZC j! ¼ Rs þ j!L þ
 ð5:5Þ
RP þ 1=j!C


ZC j! may be put into the form, ZC ¼ Re þ jIm, using complex algebra:

 

 RP ð!L  !R2P C þ !3 R2P LC2 Þ
ZC j! ¼ Rs þ þ j ð5:6Þ
1 þ ð!RP CÞ2 1 þ ð!RP CÞ2

This relation implies that the complex RLC circuit model for the capacitor at high
frequencies can be reduced to a simple, equivalent model with a resistor given by the
real term of equation 5.6 being in series, with a reactance given by the second term in
equation 5.6. It is possible to find an expression for the equivalent series capacitance,
Cs(EQ). From the second term in equation 5.6:


1 ! L  R2P C þ !3 R2P C2 L
Xc ¼ ¼ ð5:7Þ
!CSðEQÞ 1 þ ð!RP CÞ2

IC L RS

+
C
VC RP
FIGURE 5.2
High frequency, lumped parameter model for a
capacitor. Note that a capacitor exhibits inductance −
at high frequencies and an inductance exhibits
capacitance between its windings.
194 Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurement

from which it is easy to find:

1 þ ð!RP CÞ2
CSðEQÞ ¼ 
  ð5:8Þ
!2 R2P C  L  !2 R2P C2 L

At low frequencies, where L is negligible, the capacitive reactance reduces to 1=!C.

Note that the series high frequency capacitor model exhibits resonance at a frequency
where the reactance magnitude goes to zero. The resonant frequency of the capacitor is
easily found to be
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
!o ¼ 1=LC  1=ðRP CÞ2 r=s ð5:9Þ

Thus, the reactance of the equivalent circuit appears as 1=!C at low frequencies. The
reactance magnitude decreases with !, until it reaches zero at !o and then, at !  !o ,
appears inductive, as þ!L.
Most laboratory bridges do not measure capacitive reactance, rather they are calibrated
in capacitance units and dissipation factor, D. DS is defined as the ratio of the series
equivalent resistance to the capacitive reactance. In algebraic terms,

RSðEQÞ
Ds ¼ ¼ !CSðEQÞ RSðEQÞ ð5:10Þ
XSðEQÞ

Note that at any fixed frequency, a series R-C circuit, such as we have been discussing
above, has an equivalent parallel R-C circuit which has the same impedance. We may also
define a dissipation factor for the parallel equivalent circuit the ratio of the capacitive
reactance to the equivalent parallel resistance. In algebraic terms,

XPðEQÞ

DP
¼ 1= ! CPðEQÞ RPðEQÞ ð5:11Þ
RPðEQÞ

By equating the impedances or conductances of the series and parallel R-C models, it is
possible to derive relations relating one circuit to the other as given below:
 2
Ds þ 1
RPðEQÞ ¼ RSðEQÞ ð5:12Þ
D2s


CPðEQÞ ¼ CSðEQÞ = 1 þ D2s ð5:13Þ


D2P
RSðEQÞ ¼ RPðEQÞ 2
ð5:14Þ
DP þ 1


CSðEQÞ ¼ CPðEQÞ 1 þ D2P ð5:15Þ

As you will see, certain capacitance bridge configurations make the assumption that
the capacitance under measurement is represented by the series equivalent circuit
AC Null Measurements 195

model, while others use the parallel equivalent circuit. At a given frequency, since
the impedances of the two circuits are equal, the reason for using one model or the
other lies in the practical derivation of the bridge balance equations in a form that
allows two bridge elements to be uniquely calibrated in CS and DS, or in Cp and Dp.

5.4 AC Operation of Wheatstone Bridges

In this mode of operation, a low frequency ac excitation signal is used, usually ranging
100–1000 Hz. The bridge arms are resistors and the effects of stray capacitance to ground
and inductance are generally negligible. Balance conditions are usually the same as for a
dc Wheatstone bridge. However, one advantage of the ac excitation is that an electronic
null detector with a lower uncertainty voltage,
Vo , can be used. This is probably not
important, because bridge accuracy in measuring the unknown resistor, X, is largely due
to the accuracy to which the arms M, N and P are known, as we demonstrated in the
previous chapter. However, when the bridge is used in the voltage output mode, as with
strain gauges, greater threshold sensitivity in measuring small changes in X are realized
because the amplification of Vo can be done with a low noise, narrow band, ac amplifier
working above the 1/f noise region.
Following amplification, the ac output voltage is generally converted into a dc signal
proportional to
X through the use of a phase sensitive rectifier (PSR, discussed in detail
in Section 2.7).
Another application for ac Wheatstone bridge operation is where the passage of
dc through X will alter the magnitude of X. An example of this phenomenon is the
measurement of the resistance of electrochemical electrodes (such as used in electro-
cardiography) attached to the body. The passage of direct current causes polarization
of the electrodes due to ion migration in the dc electric field. Polarization increases
electrode impedance. The use of ac generally avoids this phenomenon.

5.5 AC Bridges
The design, analysis and application of ac bridges is a large field, with rich, old literature.
Most of the texts dealing in detail with this topic were written over 50 years ago.
Great emphasis was placed on how an ac bridge approached its null. Vector (circle)
diagrams were used to illustrate how the complex Vo behaves due to the interaction of
the two variable bridge elements when reaching a null. In the following sections, we
do not consider the details of how nulls are approached. Rather, we summarize the
conditions at null and the applications of each type of bridge. Note that most modern
ac bridges are designed to work at 1 kHz, although other frequencies may be used
for special applications.
Figure 5.3 illustrates a general ac bridge, in which the arms are impedances, having real
and imaginary parts. In general, the ac bridge output voltage can be written as a complex
(vector) equation:
 
ZX ZN
Vo ¼ Vs  ð5:16Þ
ZX þ ZP ZN þ ZM
196 Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurement

VS

ZM ZP

V2 V1

Det.

ZN ZX
FIGURE 5.3
General configuration for an ac bridge. Det. is the
null detector; it is a sensitive ac voltmeter assumed to
have infinite input resitance.

From equation 5.16, we find that at null, where Vo ¼ 0, we can write the vector equation as:

ZX ZM ¼ ZN ZP ð5:17Þ

which leads to the vector equation for ZX in polar form, assuming bridge null:

ZN ZP

ZX ¼ jZX j ff
x ¼

ff ð
N þ
P 
M Þ ð5:18Þ
ZM

Thus, finding unique expressions for the unknown L and Q, or C and D, requires solving
vector equations of the form above. Generally, this is done by independently equating the
real and imaginary terms on both sides of equation 5.17.
It can be shown for all conventional, four-arm ac bridges that the same conditions for
null exist if the null detector is exchanged for the ac source and equation 5.17 still applies.
Presented below is a summary of bridge designs used to measure capacitance, inductance
and mutual inductance using the null method.

5.5.1 Bridges Used to Measure Capacitance

In this section, we examine the designs of bridges useful for the measurement of
capacitance. Capacitance measuring bridges can be subdivided into those designs
suitable for low loss (low D) capacitors and those giving best results for lossy (high D)
capacitors.

5.5.1.1 The Resistance Ratio Bridge

The resistance ratio bridge is shown in Figure 5.4. It is best used to measure capacitors
with low D and it uses the series equivalent capacitor model. It is used in the venerable,
General Radio Model 1650A bridge. At null, Vo ¼ 0 and we may write:



R3 RXS þ 1=j!CXS ¼ R2 R4 þ 1=j!C4 ð5:19Þ
AC Null Measurements 197

Vs

RXS
R2

CXS
0
V2 V1
C4 Det.

R3
R4

FIGURE 5.4
A resistance ratio bridge, used to measure capacitors
with low DS.

Equating the real terms, we find

RXS ¼ R2 R4 =R3 ð5:20Þ

Equating the imaginary terms, we obtain

CXS ¼ R3 C4 =R2 ð5:21Þ

The dissipation factor for the series capacitor model was shown to be DS ¼ !CXS RXS .
If we substitute the relations for CXS and RXS into DS, then:

DS ¼ !C4 R4 ð5:22Þ

Thus, we see that R4 can be uniquely calibrated in low DS and R3 should be calibrated in
CXS units.

5.5.1.2 The Schering Bridge

The Schering bridge is useful for measuring capacitors with high losses (high Ds). In
finding the balance conditions for this bridge, it is expedient to use the parallel R-C
equivalent circuit, as shown in Figure 5.5. At null, we can write, as before, a relation

CXP
C2
GXP

Vs V2 V1

C3
R4
R3
FIGURE 5.5
A Schering bridge, used to measure capacitors with
high DP.
198 Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurement

similar to equation 5.17:

ZX Z3 ¼ Z2 Z4 ð5:23Þ
or
Z3 Y2 ¼ YX Z4 ð5:24Þ
Thus



R3 þ 1=j!C3 j!C2 ¼ GXP þ j!CXP R4 ð5:25Þ

Now by equating real terms and imaginary terms, the conditions at balance are
obtained as:
CXP ¼ R3 C2 =R4 ð5:26Þ

RXP ¼ R4 C3 =C2 ð5:27Þ

DP ¼ 1=ð! CXP RXP Þ ¼ !C3 R3 ð5:28Þ

Notice that to obtain uniqueness in finding CXP and DP, C3 can be calibrated in DP and
R4 can be calibrated in CXP . The other components are fixed for a given range of CXP .

5.5.1.3 The Parallel C Bridge

This bridge design, shown in Figure 5.6, is also used in the GR 1650A bridge to measure
high D (lossy) capacitors (0.15DP550). At null, we can write R2Z4 ¼R3ZX. This leads to:



R2 GXP þ j!CXP ¼ R3 G4 þ j!C4 ð5:29Þ

from which the following relation can be we can easily find:

CXP ¼ C4 R3 =R2 ð5:30Þ

RXP ¼ R2 R4 =R3 ð5:31Þ

DP ¼ 1=ð! CXP RXP Þ ¼ 1=ð! C4 R4 Þ ð5:32Þ

CXP
R2
GXP

Vs V2 V1

R4
R3
C4

FIGURE 5.6
A parallel C bridge used to measure capacitors with
0.15DP550.
AC Null Measurements 199

From the above equations, it is easy to see that R4 should be calibrated in DP and R3
or R2 can give CXP.

5.5.1.4 The De Sauty Bridge

The De Sauty bridge, shown in Figure 5.7, is a deceptively simple bridge which is often
used to produce an output voltage that is proportional to a small change, C, in one of
the capacitors, rather than to measure capacitance. The C may be caused by a variety of
physical phenomena, such as the deflection of a diaphragm due to a pressure difference
across it, a change in capacitor plate separation due to a change in material thickness
or an applied force, and so on.
Since the output voltage is a nonlinear function of large capacitance changes, the
De Sauty bridge is usually operated such that C=Co  1 and the is linearly proportional
to the QUM. Also, the resistors R1 and R2 are made equal to R and null is achieved
by setting C4 ¼ C3 ¼ C. Now, the output of the bridge can be expressed as a function of
R, C, ! and C as:

j!RCðC=CÞ
Vo ¼ Vb ¼

 ð5:33Þ
1 þ j!RC 1 þ j!RðC þ CÞ

From equation 5.33, we see that three approximate relations for Vo can be written,
depending on the operating frequency. First, let !  1=RC. The transfer function
reduces to:


Vo =Vb ¼ ðC=CÞ 1=j!RC ½1  ðC=CÞ ð5:34Þ

Generally, the second order term can be neglected. However, a square law nonlinear
distortion will occur for C=C ! 0:1.
Second, we let the bridge be excited at a low frequency so that !  1=RC. Under this
condition, we observe that:


Vo =Vb ¼ ðC=CÞ j!RC ð5:35Þ

Third, if ! ¼ 1=RC (tuned bridge condition), the output can be written as:

Vo =Vb ¼ C=2C ðRealÞ ð5:36Þ

R1 R2

Vs V2 V1

C4 C3
FIGURE 5.7
A De Sauty bridge, used to measure small
changes in capacitance. C4 ¼ C, C3 ¼ C þ
C,
R1 ¼ R2 ¼ R, and ! ¼ 1=RC.
200 Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurement

Maximum sensitivity generally occurs for the third case, when ! ¼ 1=RC. In this case, the
C, which is just detectable, can be estimated by using the series expansion as follows:

@Vo

Vo ¼ C ¼ Vb C=ð2CÞ ð5:37Þ
@C

For example, the just detectable C is found by assuming the bridge detector ac voltmeter
resolution to be
Vo ¼ 0:1 mV and the bridge excitation, Vb, to be 5 V. If we let C ¼ 100 pF,
then CMIN is given by:


CMIN ¼ 0:1  106  2  100  1012 =5 ¼ 4  106 pF ¼ 4aF ð5:38Þ

This is an incredible theoretical sensitivity, which is not reachable in practice because of

stray capacitances associated with the bridge arms, detector noise, etc.

5.5.1.5 The Wien Bridge

The Wien bridge, illustrated in Figure 5.8, is generally not used to measure capacitors
because of the complexity of its solution at null. The Wien bridge is a frequency
dependent null network and as such, finds application in the design of tuned band-
pass and band-reject (notch) filters, as also oscillators. Using Figure 5.8, the general form
of the bridge balance equation at null is expressed as:
Z1 Z3 ¼ Z2 ZX ð5:39Þ
This can be modified as:



Z1 YX ¼ Z2 Y3 or R1 =1=j!C1 GX þ j!CX ¼ R2 G3 ð5:40Þ

To find the null conditions, we must solve the simultaneous equations derived from
equation 5.40 must be solved by separately equating the real and imaginary terms:

GX R1 þ CX =C1 ¼ R2 G3 ð5:41Þ

GX =!C1 þ !CX R1 ¼ 0 ð5:42Þ

R1
R2
C1

Vs V2 V1

GXP
R3
CXP

FIGURE 5.8
The Wien bridge is frequency dependent. Here,
it is used to measure capacitance with DP  0.1.
R2 can be calibrated in CX; R1 in DPX.
AC Null Measurements 201

Their solution leads to:

ðR2 =R3 ÞC1 ðR =R ÞC

CX ¼
2 2
 ¼
22 3 1 ! ðR2 =R3 ÞC1 ð5:43Þ
2
! C1 R1 þ 1 D1S þ 1


ð!R1 R2 =R3 Þ !C21
GX ¼
 ð5:44Þ
!2 C21 R21 þ 1

DXP ¼ 1=ð!CX RX Þ ¼ !R1 C1 ¼ D1S ð5:45Þ

Provided DXP ¼ D1S  0:1, R2 can be uniquely calibrated in CX units and R1 in DXP units.
The use of the Wien bridge as a frequency sensitive null network can be demonstrated by
writing its transfer function:


1= GX þ j!CX R3
Vo =Vb ¼
  ð5:46Þ
1= GX þ j!CX þ R1 þ 1=j!C1 R3 þ R2

which reduces to:

j!C1 RX R3
Vo =Vb ¼ 2
 ð5:47Þ
1 þ j!ðC1 RX þ C1 R1 þ CX RX Þ þ j! C1 R1 CX RX R3 þ R2

Now, if we tune the source frequency to

! ¼ !o ¼ ð1=C1 R1 CX RX Þ r=s ð5:48Þ

then the transfer function becomes:

C1 RX R3
Vo =Vb ¼  ð5:49Þ
C1 RX þ C1 R1 þ CX RX R3 þ R2

This real transfer function goes to zero at ! ¼ !o if:

R1 ¼ RX ¼ R ð5:50Þ

C1 ¼ CX ¼ C ð5:51Þ

R2 ¼ 2R3 ¼ R ð5:52Þ

then we have:

Vo =Vb ¼ 1=3  1=3 ¼ 0 ð5:53Þ

As mentioned above, the frequency dependent null of the Wien bridge can be exploited
to create tuned filters and oscillators that are useful in instrumentation systems.
202 Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurement

Low-Pass
DA Filter
D'Arsonval
Meter

VS R2
V2
T
a
Clock
b VC
R1

CX
FIGURE 5.9 R4
A commutated capacitor bridge. Un- R3
like other ac bridges, the detector is a
dc null meter which responds to V1
the average voltage.

5.5.1.6 The Commutated Capacitor Bridge

A commutated capacitor bridge is shown in Figure 5.9. Unlike a conventional ac bridge,
this bridge uses a dc Vs. Such bridges do not allow measurement of the capacitor D.
However, they are often used for high accuracy, low frequency applications. A MOS
switch is driven by a square wave clock with period T. For T/2 seconds, the capacitor
is connected to node a and charges toward Vs through R2. For an alternate T/2 seconds,

A VC

VST/2R2CX

b a b a t
0
0 T/2 T 3T/2

B V2

VS

VST/2R2CX

FIGURE 5.10
A. Voltage waveform across CX, vC( t). b a b a t
Note RCX  R2CX. B. Voltage wave- 0
form, v2( t). 0 T/2 T 3T/2
AC Null Measurements 203

CX is allowed to discharge through R4 to ground. The waveforms at nodes a and Vc

are shown in Figures 5.10A and 5.10B, respectively. We assume that the clock period
and resistors R2 and R4 are chosen so that R4 CX  T=2 and R2 CX  T=2. We also assume
that the null detector responds to the average of (V2V1). Hence at null, we find that:

Vs R3 =ðR1 þ R3 Þ ¼ ðVs =2Þ½1 þ ðT=4R2 CX Þ ð5:54Þ

From which we can solve for CX:

TðR3 þ R1 Þ
CX ¼ ð5:55Þ
4R2 ðR3  R1 Þ

where obviously, R34R1. R3 or R2 can be varied to obtain null and for a given
range setting (fixed values of T, R2 and R1), can be calibrated according to equation 5.55
above.

5.5.2 Bridges Used to Measure Inductance and Mutual Inductance

As in the case of bridges used for measuring capacitance, the inductance bridges can be
subdivided into bridges that are optimal in terms of reaching null, for measuring high Q
inductors and those best suited for the measurement of low Q inductors. In addition,
we describe below the design of two specialized bridges used to measure the mutual
inductance of power and audio frequency transformers.

5.5.2.1 The Maxwell Bridge

As the name implies, this is a well-known bridge which is used to measure low Q
inductors having Qs in the range of 0.02–10. The Maxwell bridge is used in the General
Radio model 1650A multi-purpose bridge; its circuit is shown in Figure 5.11. At null:
ZX ¼ Z2 Y3 Z4 ð5:56Þ
or



RX þ j!LX ¼ R2 G3 þ j!C3 R4 ð5:57Þ

Vs

LX
R2
RX

V2 V1

R3
R4
C3

FIGURE 5.11
The Maxwell bridge for low Q inductors
(0.025Q510).
204 Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurement

From equation 5.54, we easily find:

LX ¼ C3 R2 R4 ð5:58Þ

RX ¼ R2 R4 =R3 ð5:59Þ

QX ¼ !LX =RX ¼ !C3 R3 ð5:60Þ

Thus R4 is calibrated in inductance units and the R3 scale reads Q. In the GR 1650A
bridge, R4 can be varied in the range 0–11.7 k
and R3 can be set at 0–16 k
.

5.5.2.2 Parallel Inductance Bridge

This bridge, shown in Figure 5.12, is also used in the GR 1650A bridge to measure high Q
inductors ð15QP 51Þ. It is somewhat unusual in that it uses a parallel equivalent circuit
for the inductor. At a given frequency, any series R-L circuit can be made to be equal
in impedance to a parallel R-L circuit. We describe these equivalences below. At balance,
we can write:

 j!LX RX
R2 R4 ¼ R3 þ 1=j!C3 ð5:61Þ
RX þ j!LX
From which we obtain:

j!LX R2 R4 þ RX R2 R4 ¼ j!LX RX R3 þ LX RX =C3 ð5:62Þ

Equating the real and imaginary terms in equation 5.62 independently, we finally obtain
the expressions for LXP, RXP and QP as follows:
LXP ¼ C3 R2 R4 ð5:63Þ

RXP ¼ R2 R4 =R3 ð5:64Þ

QP ¼ RX =!LX ¼ 1=!C3 R3 ð5:65Þ

Thus, it is expedient to make R4 the L dial and R3 the high Q dial on this bridge.

LX

R2
RX

Vs V2 V1

C3
R4
FIGURE 5.12 R3
The General Radio parallel inductance model
bridge for high Q inductors ð15Q51Þ. R3 is
calibrated in QP, R4 in LPX.
AC Null Measurements 205

RX
R2
LX

Vs V2 V1

C3
R4
FIGURE 5.13 R3
The Hay bridge is used to measure high Q
inductors. R3 is calibrated in QS, and R4 in
inductance units.

5.5.2.3 The Hay Bridge

The Hay bridge, shown in Figure 5.13, uses the series R-L model for an inductor to
measure the inductance and Q of high Q coils. Assuming null, we find:



j!LX þ RX R3 þ 1=j!C3 ¼ R2 R4 ð5:66Þ

The balance equation, equation 5.66, can be broken down to two simultaneous equations:

LX =C3 þ RX R3 ¼ R2 R4 ð5:67Þ

!LX R3  RX =!C3 ¼ 0 ð5:68Þ

Their solution yields:

R4 R2 C3 R R C
LX ¼
 ¼ 42 2 3 ð5:69Þ
!2 R23 C23 þ 1 ðQ þ 1Þ


!R3 R2 R4 !C23
RX ¼
2 2 2  ð5:70Þ
! R3 C3 þ 1

QS ¼ !LX =RX ¼ 1=!C3 R3 ð5:71Þ

Here, R3 may be calibrated in QS and R4 in inductance units. Inductance calibration is

substantially independent of QS(R3) as long as QS410.

5.5.2.4 The Owen Bridge

The Owen bridge, shown in Figure 5.14, uses the conventional series inductance model
and is best used on large, low Q inductors. This bridge is somewhat unique in that the
null may be obtained by varying both elements in the 4-arm, R4 and C4. At null we have:



j!LX þ RX =j!C1 ¼ R2 R4 þ 1=j!C4 ð5:72Þ

By equating the real and imaginary terms in equation 5.72 separately, it is easy to find that
206 Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurement

Vs

C1 R2

V2 V1
LXS
C4

R4
FIGURE 5.14 RXS
The Owen bridge is best used to measure large, low
Q inductors. R4 can be calibrated in inductance and
C4 in series equivalent resistance, RXS.

RX ¼ R2 C1 =C4 ð5:73Þ

LX ¼ R2 C1 R4 ð5:74Þ

Hence, R4 may be uniquely calibrated in inductance and C4 in resistance (nonlinear scale).

The major disadvantages of the Owen bridge are that it requires a precisely calibrated
variable capacitor (C4) and that for high Q, low inductance coils, impractically large C4
values may be required.

5.5.2.5 The Anderson Bridge

The Anderson bridge is illustrated in Figure 5.15. According to Stout (1950), the
Anderson bridge gives the best convergence to nulls for low Q coils. To analyze this
bridge, we note that at null, Vo ¼ V1V2 ¼ 0 and the voltage divider relations can be used
to find V1 and V2. Thus we have:

Vo R5 R3
¼  ð5:75Þ
Vs R5 þ RX þ j!LX R3 þ R2 þ j!C½R3 R4 þ R3 R2 þ R4 R2 

Setting Vo ¼ 0, we find:
RX ¼ R2 R5 =R3 ð5:76Þ

Vs
R2
LXS

RXS
R4

V1 V2 R3

R5 C3
FIGURE 5.15
The Anderson bridge works best with low Q
coils. It has relatively complex balance equa-
tions.
AC Null Measurements 207

LX ¼ CR5 ½R4 þ R2 þ ðR4 R2 =R3 Þ ð5:77Þ

QX ¼ !CR3 ½1 þ R4 =R2 þ R4 =R3  ð5:78Þ

It is easily seen that the price we pay in using this bridge, which is easily balanced with
low Q inductors, is a relatively complex set of balance equations. R5 can be calibrated for
LX and R3 used to read QX.

5.5.2.6 The Heaviside Mutual Inductance Bridge

Before discussing the circuit and balance conditions for the Heaviside mutual inductance
bridge, we should review the meaning of mutual inductance of a transformer or a pair
of magnetically coupled coils. Figure 5.16 illustrates a simple equivalent circuit for a
transformer operating at low frequencies. Under ac steady state conditions, we may write
the loop equations:



V1 ¼ I1 R1 þ j!L1 þ I2 j!M ð5:79Þ



V2 ¼ I1 j!M þ I2 R2 þ j!L2 ð5:80Þ

where M is the mutual inductance in H, given a positive sign for the dot convention
shown in Figure 5.16.
Figure 5.17 illustrates the circuit of a Heaviside bridge. At null, Vo ¼ V1  V2 ¼ 0, hence
we can write:

I1 R1 ¼ I2 R2 ð5:81Þ

I1 R1 R2 I2
M

FIGURE 5.16 + +
Circuit model for a transformer with mutual V1 V2
inductance at low frequencies. L1 and L2 are L1 L2
the self-inductances of the primary and sec-
ondary windings, respectively.

I1 + I2 V3

L3
M
L4
R3
R4
Vs V2 V1

R2 R1
I2 I1

FIGURE 5.17
The Heaviside mutual inductance bridge.
208 Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurement

and also,



V3 ¼ I1 R1 þ R3 þ j!L3 ¼ I2 R2 þ R4 þ j!L4 þ j!MðI1 þ I2 Þ ð5:82Þ

If we solve for I1 in equation 5.81, and substitute it into equation 5.82, and then equate
the real and then imaginary terms, we find that at null:

R4 ¼ R2 R3 =R1 ð5:83Þ

R2 L3  R1 L4
M¼ ð5:84Þ
R1 þ R2

Note that M may have either sign, depending on the dots. The transformer’s primary self-
inductance, L4, must be measured with the secondary open circuited. There is no need to
know the secondary self-inductance, or the primary resistance when using the Heaviside
mutual inductance bridge.

5.5.2.7 The Heydweiller Mutual Inductance Bridge

The Heydweiller means of measuring transformer mutual inductance uses a ‘bridge’
in which one arm is a short circuit (Figure 5.18). Thus the conventional method of
examining Z1Z3 ¼ Z2Z4 will not work with this bridge! Instead, it is seen that at null,
V2 ¼ V1 ! 0, thus by use of KVL:


V2 ¼ 0 ¼ I1 R3 þ j!L3  j!MðI1 þ I2 Þ ð5:85Þ

and also,


I2 ¼ I1 R1 þ 1=j!C1 =R2 ð5:86Þ
If equation 5.86 is substituted into equation 5.85 and the sum of the real terms is set equal
to zero, we find:

M ¼ C1 R2 R3 ð5:87Þ

FIGURE 5.18 V3
I1
The Heydweiller mutual inductance null I2
circuit. C1
R2
R1

Vs V2 V1 = 0

R3

L3
M
I1 + I2
AC Null Measurements 209

Equating the sum of the imaginary terms to zero leads to:

L3 ¼ C1 R3 ðR1 þ R2 Þ ð5:88Þ

Note that R3 must be known, as it appears in both the expression for M and the primary
self-inductance, L3. R1 and R2 are manipulated to obtain the null.

5.5.3 Null Method of Measuring Transistor Small Signal Transconductance and

Feedback Capacitance
The null circuits discussed below are used to measure BJT or FET small signal trans-
conductance at a given dc quiescent operating point. An audio frequency ac signal,
usually 1 kHz, is used. Measurement of small signal transconductance is important to
verify if transistors are good and to match pairs for like characteristics when building
a discrete differential amplifier.
First, we illustrate the small signal, modified hybrid pi model for a BJT operating in
its linear region (i.e., neither cut-off or saturated). This model, shown in Figure 5.19, is
generally accepted to be valid for frequencies up to the BJT’s fT/3. The small signal
transconductance, gm, is defined as:

@ic
gm
, vce ¼ 0 ð5:89Þ
@vb0 e
The BJT’s gm may be approximated by:

gm  hfe =r ¼ ICQ =VT ð5:90Þ

The capacitance C is the dc voltage variable capacitance of the reverse biased, collector
base junction evaluated at the dc operating point of the BJT. C is the capacitance of
the forward biased base emitter junction, measured at the operating point, which is
also a function of the dc voltage across the junction. r is the small signal base input
resistance. It is approximately equal to VT =IBQ . The base input spreading resistance, rx,
is generally less than 100
and we set it equal to zero to simplify analysis. The output
conductance, go, is generally very small, but its exact value is not important in
determining gm.
Figure 5.20 illustrates the complete circuit of the transconductance bridge. Resistors
RB and RC and dc source VCC are used to set up the dc quiescent operating (Q) point of
the BJT. A is a milliammeter to read ICQ and V is a dc voltmeter to read VCEQ. A small,
audio frequency, sinusoidal signal, v1, is applied to the transistor’s base through a large
dc blocking capacitor, C1. Simultaneously, the inverted ac signal, v1, is applied to the
BJT’s collector. Capacitor CN and resistor R1 are adjusted to get a null or minimum ac

rx
FIGURE 5.19
B B′ Vb′e Cm C
Simplified, hybrid pi, high frequency, small
signal circuit model for BJTs. + +
Vbe Cp gmVb′e go Vce
rp

E E
210 Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurement

OA
R

• R2 R3
R1

IBQ vc
ICQ
RB A RC

+ V
VCEQ VCC
v1
• −

R
CN
+ OA
v1 −v1

FIGURE 5.20
Circuit of null system used to measure the small signal transconductance of BJTs. OAs are op-amps. Capacitors
marked 1 are large and have negligible reactance at the operating frequency. A is a dc milliameter used to
measure ICQ. V is a dc voltmeter used to measure VCEQ. The null is sensed acoustically with a loudspeaker or
headphones.

R1

B Cm vc CN

+
v1 RB rp Cp GC

gmVb′e

E E
+
v1
FIGURE 5.21
Small signal, equivalent circuit of the gm
measuring circuit of Figure 5.20.

signal at the vc node. A node equation for vc can be written for the small signal equivalent
circuit of Figure 5.21. Note that vbe ffi v1 . At null:


0 ¼ Vc ½G1 þ Gc þ j!ðC þ CN Þ  V1 j!C þ G1  j!CN ðV1 Þ þ gm V1 ð5:91Þ
for Vc ! 0, it is evident that:
gm ¼ G 1 ð5:92Þ
AC Null Measurements 211

and
C ¼ CN ð5:93Þ
A similar gm null circuit can be used to measure the small signal transconductance of
various types of FETs (see the figure in the problems at the end of the chapter). Note that
FET gm at the dc operating point can be shown to be given by:

@id pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
gm ¼ ¼ gm0 IDQ =IDSS ¼ gm0 ð1  VGS =VP Þ ð5:94Þ
@vgs vds ! 0

where gm0 is the small signal transconductance evaluated for VGS ¼ 0, VP is the pinch-off
voltage (for JFETs) and IDSS is the JFET’s dc drain current measured for VGS ¼ 0 and
VDS  VGS þ VP .

5.6 Chapter Summary

In this chapter, we reviewed the more important audio frequency ac bridges and null
systems used for making precision measurements of capacitance, capacitor dissipation
factor (D), inductance, inductor (Q), mutual inductance and transistor small signal
transconductance. General conditions for bridge null were derived, and the conditions
at null for each circuit presented. No attempt has been made to discuss the effects of
stray capacitances between bridge elements and the capacitance to ground offered by
the two detector terminals. These are generally not significant sources of measurement
error for most ac bridges operating at 1 kHz. A common means of compensating for
detector capacitance to ground is by the Wagner Earth circuit (Stout (1950), Sec. 9–11).
Measurement of circuit parameters at high frequencies (including video and radio
frequencies) requires special apparatus such as the Q-Meter, or instruments such as the
Hewlett-Packard model 4191A RF Impedance Analyzer.

Problems
5.1 The bridged T circuit provides an alternate means to four-arm bridges for the
measurement of circuit element parameters. Figure P5.1 illustrates a bridged T circuit
used to measure the parallel model for an inductor. A null at the Vo node is obtained
by varying the two capacitors together with ! of the sinusoidal source and R. Assume
Vo ¼ 0. Find expressions for !, Lp, Rp and Qp in terms of R and C. The expressions for
R

C C
vo

VS at w
Lp Gp

FIGURE P5.1