Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100827

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Indoor air temperatures, CO2 concentrations and ventilation rates: Long- T

term measurements in newly built low-energy schools in Sweden
Branko Simanica,c,∗, Birgitta Nordquista, Hans Baggeb, Dennis Johanssona
a
Building Services, Faculty of Engineering LTH, Lund University, Sweden
b
Building Physics, Faculty of Engineering LTH, Lund University, Sweden
c
Skanska Sverige AB, Sweden

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Within a period of ten years a large number of schools need to be built in Sweden and these new schools need to
Low-energy schools be nearly zero energy buildings. School classrooms are required to provide healthy learning environments to
Long-term measurements help children perceive and process information. This means that classrooms must provide adequate levels of
CO2 indoor air quality and thermal comfort. This article investigates CO2 concentration levels and indoor air tem-
Indoor air temperatures
peratures in several recently built, low-energy schools in Sweden, and compares them with design criteria sti-
Ventilation rates
pulated in specific international standards and Swedish regulations to provide feedback to the building con-
struction industry. Field measurements of CO2 concentrations, indoor air temperatures and ventilation rates in
seven low-energy schools, with a total of 145 classrooms, taken during several months spanning both summer
and winter periods, are analysed in this article. All the schools in the study have mechanical supply and exhaust
ventilation systems with demand control devices in the classrooms.
The study shows that all the classrooms, in general, comply with the design criteria regarding indoor air
temperatures and CO2 concentrations in EN15251, ASHRAE 62.1 and the Swedish national regulations and
recommendations. Median values of indoor air temperatures were between 19 and 23.5 °C in all classrooms
during school hours. The 90-percentile levels of CO2 concentrations were below 1000 ppm in 60 of 61 classrooms
in which these measurements could take place. It is concluded that during this long-term measurements in the
studied seven low-energy schools, modern HVAC systems with demand control and heat recovery, in general,
provided satisfactory indoor climates in terms of CO2 levels and indoor air temperatures.

1. Introduction the Swedish Work Environment Authority (Arbetsmiljöverket) and the

By 2024, it is estimated that the population in Sweden will have
increased from 10 to 11 million [1]. Due to this large population growth
and continued urbanisation there will be a demand for about 1000
elementary schools to be built in the coming ten years [2], counting
from 2016. The Swedish Ministry of Finance assumes that there is a
need for about 700 schools to be built [3] over a similar period,
counting from 2018. It must also be kept in mind that the Swedish
national building codes and recommendations stipulate low-energy
performance in new building construction projects [4], in line with the
N-ZEB directive [5], which is to be implemented by 2021. In these
projects, professionals will be engaged to design HVAC systems and
apply design criteria given in standards and recommendations for
thermal comfort and indoor climate. These standards include ISO 7730
(2006), EN 15251 (2007), ASHRAE 55 and ASHRAE 62.1. In Sweden,
Public Health Agency of Sweden (Folkhälsomydigheten) issue regula-
tions and recommendations. In addition, another document, R1, issued
by the Swedish Energy and Environment Technology Association shows
optional Swedish design recommendations. Table 1 shows a number of
international standards and Swedish recommendations regarding op-
erative temperatures in classrooms.
Classrooms can be ventilated naturally, mechanically or using a
combination of natural and mechanical ventilation (MV). There are two
types of MV, based on method of control: constant air volume (CAV)
and variable air volume. The latter can also include demand controlled
ventilation (DCV). Table 2 shows design recommendations for venti-
lation rate (VR) and CO2 concentration levels when people are present.
Where applicable, Categories I to III denote recommendations cor-
responding to different levels of comfort and perceived occupant dis-
satisfaction. For example: 10 l/(s person) corresponds to 15%

∗
Corresponding author. Building Services, Faculty of Engineering LTH, Lund University, Sweden.
E-mail address: branko.simanic@skanska.se (B. Simanic).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100827
Received 1 March 2019; Received in revised form 1 June 2019
Available online 08 June 2019
2352-7102/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B. Simanic, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100827

Nomenclature DCV Demand control ventilation

HVAC Heating ventilation and air conditioning
Atemp Refers to floor area (m2) in rooms/spaces heated to 10 °C MV Mechanical ventilation
or above NV Night-time ventilation
AHU Air handling unit ppm Parts per million
BAS Building automation system Um Overall thermal transmittance [W/(m2 K)]
CAV Constant air volume ventilation VR Ventilation rate

Table 1
Design limits for operative temperatures in classrooms.
Operative temperature Operative temperature
Heating season (°C) Cooling season (°C)

Swedish Work Environment Authority [6] 22 ± 2 23 ± 3

Public Health Agency of Sweden [7] 21.5 ± 1.5 23 ± 3
R1 [8] 22 ± 2 24.5 ± 1.5
EN 15251 [9]/ISO 7730 [10] 22 ± 1 (Category I) 24.5 ± 1 (Category I)
22 ± 2 (Category II) 24.5 ± 1.5 (Category II)
22 ± 3 (Category III) 24.5 ± 2.5 (Category III)

Table 2
Recommendations for VRs and CO2 concentration levels in classrooms.
VR per person [l/(s person)] Additional VR for building materials emissions [l/ CO2 concentrations above outdoor levels (ppm)
(s m2)]

EN 15251 [9] 10 (Category I) +0.2 to 0.5 (for very low polluting buildings) 350 (Category I)
7 (Category II) 500 (Category II)
4 (Category III) 800 (Category III)
ASHRAE 62.1 [11] 5 +0.6 –
Swedish Work Environment Authority [6] 7 +0.35 < 1000 (including outdoor concentration)
R1 [8] – – 400 (Class A)
600 (Class B)
Minimum design criteria in Sweden [12] 7 +0.35

dissatisfied occupants (Category I), 7 l/(s person) to 20% dissatisfied
(Category II), 4 l/(s person) to 30% dissatisfied (Category III) according
to EN 15251 [9]. In addition, there is a ventilation rate per m2 floor
area to allow for ventilation of emissions from building materials and
furniture, see Table 2, that should be added to the VRs for occupants to
attain the total required VRs.
Being able to maintain a suitable indoor climate is of great im-
portance as people now spend roughly 90% of their time indoors. One
of the locations in which children spend a lot of time is schools. In such
spaces, children's health and their ability to perceive and process in-
formation is very important [13]. A satisfactory indoor environment is
thus important for children's well-being as the physical environment, in
terms of air flows, temperatures and air quality, has been shown to have
a significant impact on the performance of the children in classrooms.
Learning performance has been shown to be affected by low ventilation
rates, VRs [14,15] and high indoor air temperatures [16]. Seppänen
and Fisk show that the increase in human work performance, created by
increasing VRs from 6.5 l/(s person) up to 15 l/(s person), is statistically
significant [17], implying that work performance, important in class-
rooms, is higher for a VR of 15 l/(s person) than for 6.5 l/(s person).
Gupta et al. [18] show that negative effects on work performance are
caused by high temperatures, above 26 °C during the non-heating
season, and high CO2 concentrations, particularly when above
1000 ppm. Thermal comfort, along with CO2 levels, is therefore an
essential factor to consider.
When addressing the challenges of saving energy, some new schools
have been built with the main goal of achieving a low energy demand
and, in many cases, one that is lower than the levels set by national
building regulations [19,20]. Several energy-efficiency measures have
been implemented in these buildings, such as the use of energy-efficient
ventilation systems as well as systems with heat recovery and demand
control ventilation (DCV). DCV systems are intended to provide suffi-
cient ventilation rates (VRs) based on room occupancy, i.e. increased
VRs when pupils are present and reduced VRs in empty classrooms.
Other measures, such as airtight building envelopes and well-insulated
façade walls, have also been implemented in these schools. The N-ZEB
energy goals [5] will require all new schools to meet very strict low
energy demands. Collecting facts about indoor climates in these newly
built low-energy schools and providing feedback to the industry was
therefore of the utmost importance. Thanks to technical developments
and digitalisation, monitoring and sampling of data for long-term per-
iods has also become more available and feasible.
There are numerous international studies on naturally ventilated
classrooms, but not many on mechanically ventilated classrooms
[13,14,21–24], in which the indoor air temperatures and/or CO2 con-
centrations have been studied. Furthermore, of the studies carried out,
only a few were based on continuous measurements and fewer schools
and classrooms were studied than in this study over longer time periods
covering both heating and non-heating seasons [15,24]. Most studies
show problems with high CO2 concentration levels and low VRs in
classrooms, resulting in reduced respiratory health and increased ab-
sence due to sickness [15,24]. The majority of the studies, in which 20
or more classrooms were included, show that the average and median
values were between 1000 and 2000 ppm during the studied time
periods [24]. Studies in which CO2 levels and temperature measure-
ments were taken over shorter periods of time are unlikely to render

2
B. Simanic, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100827

information about all the different conditions that classrooms can ex- Table 4
perience. For example, indoor conditions will vary according to the Density of occupants per school calculated per floor area m2 Atemp (floor area in
number of pupils present, seasonal outdoor conditions with varying rooms/spaces heated above 10 °C), pupils and full-time employees enrolled for
outdoor temperatures, and solar radiation. Seasonal changes may also the 2017/2018 school year, school B for 2016/2017 [26], grades of pupils and
additional facilities included in M.
lead to operational differences in the ventilation systems, e.g. when
heating the outdoor air during the winter months and cooling it during School S N K B Vi Ve St
the summer months. Long-term measurements covering different op- 2
(Occupants/m Atemp) 0.052 0.054 0.05 0.062 0.132 0.067 0.063
erating conditions are therefore necessary in order to come to valid
Atemp (m2) 4764 8125 11222 8051 1725 3233 6695
conclusions about indoor environments in terms of thermal conditions Year 0–6 7–9 0–6 0–6 0–6 0–3 0–3
and air quality. Sports hall Yes No Yes Yes No No Yes
This study investigates whether modern energy saving technology, Kitchen/dining facilities Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
i.e. the use of DCV systems, applied in low-energy schools can provide
suitable indoor air temperatures and CO2 concentrations in classrooms
in compliance with international standards and Swedish national reg- Sweden (Latitude 55° North) to Stockholm (Latitude 59° North). Si-
ulations and recommendations. Indoor air temperatures, CO2 con- manic et al. [25] explain in more detail the technical properties and
centration levels and VRs in seven newly built low-energy schools in energy performance levels of the chosen schools.
Sweden have, therefore, been studied. All the schools had mechanical Some of the technical properties of the schools are shown in Table 3.
ventilation with DCV and centralized air handling units (AHUs). Data None of the schools had active cooling systems installed. However,
for indoor air temperatures, CO2 concentration levels, VRs and presence schools S, N and B made use of night-time ventilation (NV) as a source
of people was collected over a period of several months, under both of free cooling during the summer months. Indoor air temperatures,
winter and summer conditions, and then analysed. The results were CO2 concentrations, and presence sensors controlled the DCV systems,
then compared with the stipulations in international standards and using one or a combination of two or all three parameters, see Table 3.
Swedish regulations and recommendations. Findings presented in this Each classroom was a separate balanced ventilation zone with dedi-
article are intended to be used as benchmarks when designing new low- cated demand control. The schools presented in this study are coded as
energy schools. shown in Table 3.
Schools S and Vi had two set points for temperatures and CO2 levels.
2. Method The first set points (20 °C and 800 ppm) were for unoccupied class-
rooms. The second (21 °C and 1000 ppm) were for occupied classrooms,
Measurements of physical parameters were performed in real in which the presence sensors indicated occupation. The zone sensors
classrooms and compared with those in the regulations mentioned and their set points controlled the VRs needed for each classroom,
above. This also means that when conclusions about the indoor climate which varied between minimum and maximum rates. The areas used
later are to be made, a satisfying indoor climate is defined according to for short visits or passages such as corridors, communal areas, toilets,
the presented regulations. were ventilated at constant VRs (CAV).
Table 4 shows the number of enrolled pupils and registered full-time
2.1. Description of the studied schools employees, grade years of pupils, and other facilities such as sports
halls, kitchens and dining facilities.
Six newly built, low-energy elementary schools in Sweden were Compulsory elementary school in Sweden starts when children are
monitored during the school year 2017/2018, and one school was six years old, year 0, and finishes after year 9.
monitored during the 2016/2017 year. The schools had an average
calculated energy performance of 43 kWh/(m2 Atemp y) [25], i.e about 2.2. Data collection
half of the Swedish energy requirement. The calculated energy per-
formance includes energy for space heating, domestic hot water and The DCV sensors continuously collected measurement data, which
building property electricity. In building property electricity is included was then stored in the DVC control systems. The measurement data was
energy to run ventilation, pumps, elevators, building automation saved on a memory card, stored locally in the DCV control system or
system, lighting in technical areas etc. The oldest school had been in exported to a building automation system (BAS). The data was then
operation since 2014 with the others coming into operation since then. available for retrieval either from the memory cards or from the BAS via
The schools were situated in locations ranging from the very south of data export. The data in a text format was then imported to Excel for

Table 3
Technical characteristics of studied schools.
Schools
S N K B Vi Ve St
Location Country-side Small town Country-side Country-side Country-side Town Large town
Um (W/(m2 K)) 0.23 0.45 0.18 0.2 0.21 0.21 0.29
Ventilation system All seven schools are equipped with balanced mechanical ventilation with DCV, with centralized AHUs with rotary heat recovery.
Active cooling system No (NV - free No (NV - free No No (NV - free No No No
cooling) cooling) cooling)
DCV zone control sensors CO2, air temp., CO2, air temp. Air temp. Air temp. CO2, air temp., CO2, air temp., Presence
presence indicator presence indicator presence indicator indicator
Zone Set points: 20–21 21 21 21 20–21 20.5 21
Heating (°C) CO2 (ppm) 800–1000 800 – 800–1000 800 –
1000 1000

Position of temperature/CO2 Inside main Inside main By entrance door By entrance door Inside main Inside main Local heaters
sensor in zone control exhaust vent. duct exhaust vent. (inside classroom) (inside classroom) exhaust vent. duct exhaust vent. duct (radiator)
duct
Position of presence sensor in Ceiling Ceiling Ceiling Ceiling
zone

3
B. Simanic, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100827

Table 5
Measuring instruments installed in the schools’ DCV systems.
Classrooms in N and Ve schools
Classrooms in S, B and Vi schools
Classrooms in K school
GTQD air temperature and CO2 sensors where
Temperature: 0–10 V signal within a 12–43 °C range, accuracy ± 0.5 K CO2 concentration: 2–10 V signal within a 400–2000 ppm range,
accuracy ± 70 ppm plus 3%. RCX zone airflow sensor with a range of 0.5–6 m/s with an accuracy of ± 5%.
NTC thermistors for air temperature with a 0–10 V signal within a 10–30 °C range, accuracy ± 0.5%.
A-Sense-D CO2 sensors with 2–10 V signal within a 0–2000 ppm range, accuracy of ± 5%.
HCLA pressure sensor for zone airflows using differential pressure measurement within a range of ± 25 mbar with an accuracy of ± 2%. The
differential pressures were multiplied by a correction factor in order to obtain the air flows.
STRZ-05 temperature sensor, within a −30 to 70 °C range, accuracy ± 0.305 K.

analysis. The DCVs used in these seven schools came from three dif- Table 7
ferent manufacturers. Table 5 shows measuring instruments' type, VR measurements recorded by the BAS units.
ranges and accuracy, which are part of the schools’ DCV systems. School Exceptions regarding VRs for entire Measurement periods and
Calibration of the measurement sensors was not carried out during schools frequency
the data collection period. However, sensor failure and/or other DCV
system malfunctions were assumed to have been reported by occupants S Kitchen ventilation VR not included. 1 Apr 2017–1 Apr 2018
1-h readings
when complaining about problems with the indoor climate to the N Kitchen ventilation VR not included. 13 May 2017–15 Apr 2018
property owners. Such incident reports would have been generally sent 10-min readings
on to the building contractor in question without delay. The schools K Forced kitchen VRs not included. (The 1 Jun 2017–27 March 2018
were all newly built and any kind of technical problems were normally basic VR for kitchen was included) 5-min readings
B Forced kitchen VRs not included. (The 10 Oct 2016–18 Oct 2017
covered by the contractor's building guarantee, which is valid for 5
basic VR for kitchen was included) 10-min readings
years [27] in these cases. Quick incident reporting and fast response Vi Kitchen ventilation VR not included. 1 May 2017–31 March 2018
times could be assumed to have contributed to efficient DCV operation 10-min readings
and to have helped maintain qualitative measurement data and data Ve Kitchen ventilation VR not included. 1 May 2017–31 March 2018
exports. Table 6 shows the number of classrooms per school and the 10-min readings
St Kitchen ventilation VR not included. 11 Aug 2017–14 Feb 2018
parameters that were available for measurement.
5-min readings
This article focuses on the classroom environment, which is why
spaces such as offices, communal areas, dining areas, sports halls etc.
are not included with regard to temperatures and CO2 levels. However, 2.3. Data evaluation
these spaces are included in the VR measurements in this article, as the
VRs were measured in the centralized ventilation units, which supplied Indoor air temperatures and CO2 concentration levels for the
the entire schools. The VR measurements recorded are described in heating and cooling seasons are shown separately. The heating season is
Table 7. In schools N, K, Vi and Ve, the VRs were calculated from defined as lasting from October to April with the cooling season span-
measurements recorded in the centralized ventilation units. The air ning over the remaining months in the southern part of Sweden. The
pressure differences were measured across the ventilation fans and then measured levels were arranged according to median values in order to
multiplied by a correction factor given by the manufacturers. The ac- be able to compare the classrooms with similar mean values. The 1, 10,
curacy of this method is about ± 5 to 10%, according to the manu- 25, 50 (median), 75, 90 and 99 percentile values are presented for
facturers. For schools S, B and St, the calculations of the VRs were based every classroom. This provides us with an understanding of the dis-
on a percentage of the signal to the frequency convertors. In these cases, tributions of temperatures and CO2 levels over time during the data
a linear relationship between the frequency/speed and the VR was as- collection period, see Table 6. This method was chosen in order to be
sumed, as they had a constant air pressure as a set point to control the able to compare the measurements for every classroom with the design
fan power. In both cases, the VR measurements represent the total rates limits given in the different standards, see Tables 1 and 2 The data
for the studied schools. presented is from periods when pupils were present in the schools, i.e.
As seen in Table 7, the kitchen ventilation was excluded as this weekdays between 07:30 and 16:00. School holidays are also included
equipment was defined as process equipment. It is therefore not relevant in the presented data. Excel was used to sort the measurement data.
with regard to the building energy performance requirements according to CO2 data from a randomly chosen classroom on a random weekday is
Swedish national building codes and recommendations [4]. shown in order to illustrate CO2 levels when pupils are present in their

Table 6
Indoor climate measurements recorded by the DCV.
School and number of classrooms (equivalent to zones) Available parameters per classroom Measurement period and frequency

S – 31 zones Air temperature, CO2 concentrations, VR and presence indication 26 Jun 2017–28 Mars 2018
5-min readings
N – 14 Zones Air temperature and CO2 concentrations 13 May 2017 to 21 Jan 2018
10-min readings.
K – 51 zones Air temperature 1 Jun 2017–28 Nov 2018
10-min readings
B – 30 zones Air temperature and presence indication 16 July 2017–7 Feb 2018
5-min readings
Vi – 7 zones Air temperature, CO2 concentrations, VR and presence indication 1 Jan 2017 to 9 Feb 2018
5-min readings
Ve −11 zones Air temperature, CO2 concentrations and VR June 2017 to mars 2018
10-min readings.
St – 38 zones Presence indication 11 Aug 2017–14 Feb 2018
5-min readings

4
B. Simanic, et al.
Fig. 1. Temperature differences between actual and normal monthly outdoor
temperatures for each location where the schools were situated. The values
were provided by the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute
(SMHI) [28].
classroom and for an entire school day. Calculating a total median value
for the whole measurement period will result in too low CO2 con-
centration levels. For this reason, only values during weekdays and
working hours are shown in this paper. In two schools the CO2 levels
are shown based on the periods where presence is indicated by presence
sensors.
The design criteria in Table 1 refers to the operative temperatures,
which is not the same as the measured air temperatures. The schools in
this study were very well insulated with low thermal transmittance Um,
see Table 3. They also had airtight building envelopes and energy-ef-
ficient glazing with active sun shading. For these reasons, the operative
temperatures can reasonably be assumed to be relatively close to the
measured air temperatures. Measuring operative temperatures in a re-
liable way requires an advanced measurement system, which would not
have been economically or practically viable if used in the 145 class-
rooms in all the six schools over a long period of time.
In order to be able to generalise findings in this study, an important
aspect to consider is whether the actual outdoor climates deviated from
the normal climates and therefore affected the indoor air temperatures,
especially during summer time. None of the studied schools had active
cooling systems installed, so colder or warmer than normal outdoor
conditions could have influenced the indoor air temperatures. Fig. 1
shows the calculated difference between the actual and normal monthly
outdoor temperatures for each school. Between May and October 2017,
the temperatures appear to be quite similar to those of a normal year,
deviating by only 1 °C. The indoor air temperatures during the cooling
season were mainly subject to normal outdoor conditions, so the find-
ings can be generalised. The schools’ heating systems were configured
for an outdoor design temperature and this normally occurs during
January or February. As March is a warmer month than January and
February [28], a colder March should not have affected the indoor air
temperatures.
Actual VR measurements in the classrooms were only available for
three of the studied schools, see Table 7. Alternative methods, using
tracer gas or manual measurements, were deemed unviable for the
number of schools and classrooms in the study over such long periods.
The VRs were, however, measured in the centralized AHUs and the VRs
are therefore shown for entire schools. The results shown indicate the
assumed levels of the VRs in classrooms. The design VR (l/s person) are
similar in all areas where pupils are normally present and perform the
same kind of work, 7 l/(s person) in classrooms and 9 l/(s person) in
5
Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100827
Table 8
Calculated average and median presence times in the classrooms based on data
recorded by presence sensors in the DCV. The period indicates the number of
presence hours, although the actual number of occupants is unknown.
Measurements recorded as shown in Table 6.
School Average presence (h/ Median presence (h/ Standard deviation (h/
year) year) year)
B 1776 1820 400
S 1205 1163 480
Vi 1500 1368 416
St 1518 1466 795
dining areas. Areas with intensive activities, such as sports halls, re-
quire 17.5 l/(s person). Areas for passage and short visits, such as cor-
ridors, require 0.35 l/(s m2) and in these areas the VRs are constant. As
all the schools had DCV units and as the numbers of pupils were con-
stant during the day, the total VRs for an entire school were relatively
constant. The measured VRs for each school are shown for the 10, 50
and 90 percentiles for each hour of a school day, see Table 7, in order to
provide information about the VRs during different hours and the dis-
tribution of the rates for each hour of a day. The VR values were
compared with the design limits in EN 15251, see Table 2.
One important aspect to consider when studying indoor climate is
the number of occupants in relation to floor area. The numbers of en-
rolled pupils and registered full-time employees were used to calculate
occupant density as real time data for occupancy was not available.
Teacher-reported occupancy data was not viable to consider for so
many schools with so many classrooms and for such long periods while
maintaining a reasonable time resolution [23,29].
Presence times in four of the schools was recorded by using signals
from presence sensors in the DCV systems, see Tables 3 and 6 Un-
fortunately, presence sensors only detect movement and not the actual
number of occupants at a given time. Presence sensors send binary
signals where “0” indicates no presence and “1” indicates presence. The
total presence time was calculated by counting the number of “1” sig-
nals for each classroom and from this the average presence time per
school was calculated.
3. Results
3.1. Presence time
Calculated presence time per school are shown in Table 8.
Schools in Sweden usually open around 07:30 to accommodate
pupils arriving early. School hours normally run from between
08:00–08:30 to 14:00–15:30. The days often end with free activities for
primary school pupils. School hours from 7:30 to 16:00 on weekdays
only, 52 weeks per year, equates to roughly 1920 h/year, while 7:30 to
16:00 on weekdays excluding 5 weeks per year (summer holiday) is
about 1760 h/year. Johansson [30] shows presence time of 1300 h per
year in 12 Swedish year 7–9 (lower secondary) classrooms. During
short school holidays (winter and autumn, as well as Christmas), some
parts of the schools were open, providing free activities for grade 0–6
pupils.
3.2. Measured indoor air temperatures in 145 classrooms
Figs. 2 and 3 show the measured indoor air temperatures for each
classroom, in a total of 145 classrooms in 6 schools. Fig. 2 shows
temperatures during the heating season (October to April) and Fig. 3
during the cooling season (May to September).
B. Simanic, et al.
To fulfil the Swedish recommendations and Categories I and II, the
temperature should be above 20 °C. The 10 percentile in 13 classrooms
were between 18 and 19 °C, which corresponds to about 90 h over the
course of the measurement period, which indicates significant dis-
comfort. Swedish building codes and recommendations stipulate a
minimum operative temperature of 18 °C [4].
The Swedish recommendations are 23 ± 3 °C, see Table 1, and
most of the measured temperatures were within this range. The ma-
jority of the classrooms had temperatures below 25.5 °C, i.e. within
Category I in EN 15251. The highest 99 percentile of temperatures re-
corded was just above 27 °C in one classroom.
3.3. Measured CO2 concentrations in 61 classrooms
Figs. 4 and 5 show the measured CO2 concentration levels in 61
classrooms in 4 schools, during the heating and cooling seasons
6
Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100827
Fig. 2. Measured indoor air temperatures in 145 classrooms
in 6 schools between 07:30 and 16:00 weekdays only,
during the heating season (1 October to 30 April). The
horizontal axis represents the 145 classrooms.
Measurements recorded as shown in Table 6. The horizontal
lines represent the temperature ranges according to the
different categories in EN 15251.
Fig. 3. Measured indoor air temperatures in 145 classrooms
in 6 schools between 07:30 and 16:00 workdays during the
cooling season (1 May to 30 September). The horizontal axis
represents the 145 classrooms. Measurements recorded as
shown in Table 6. Horizontal lines represent temperature
ranges according to the different categories in EN 15251.
respectively.
The 50 percentile line in Fig. 4 is higher than in Fig. 5 and has a
maximum value of 750 ppm, while in Fig. 5 it is lower with a maximum
median value of 600 ppm. CO2 levels were higher during the heating
season, but even so the 90 percentile values are within Category II
limits. The 99 percentile values are above 1000 ppm in about 45 of the
61 classrooms during the heating season and in about 30 of the 61
classrooms during the cooling season. The 1 percentile represents about
9 h during the heating season and 8 h during cooling season during the
data collection period as shown in Table 6. The Swedish guideline limit
of 1000 ppm, including the outdoor concentration, is fulfilled in 60 of
the 61 classrooms for the 90 percentile. The Swedish guidelines allow
CO2 concentrations above 1000 ppm for short periods.
In schools Vi and S, with a total of 24 classrooms, there were both
presence indication sensors and CO2 sensors. This allowed comparisons
to be made between the CO2 levels for whole weekdays including
B. Simanic, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100827

Fig. 4. Measured CO2 (ppm) concentrations in 61 classrooms in 4 schools, 7:30 to 16:00 h weekdays only during the heating season (1 October to 30 April). The
horizontal axis represents the 61 classrooms. Measurements recorded as shown in Table 6. Horizontal lines represent CO2 limits according to the different categories
in EN 15251, based on an assumed value of 400 ppm in the outdoor air.

Fig. 5. Measured CO2 (ppm) concentrations in 61 classrooms in 4 schools, between 7:30 and 16:00 weekdays only, during the cooling season (1 May to 30
September). The horizontal axis represents the 61 classrooms. Measurements recorded as shown in Table 6. The horizontal lines represent CO2 limits according to the
different categories in EN 15251, based on an assumed value of 400 ppm in the outdoor air.

breaks and activities outside the classrooms, Fig. 7, and periods with
presence registered by the sensors, Fig. 6, in the same classrooms. The
results shown in Fig. 6 provide more valid to the period of relevance
than those shown in Fig. 7. The median values are about 100 ppm
higher in Fig. 6 than in Fig. 7. The 90 percentile is up to 950 ppm in
Figure 6 and 800 ppm in Fig. 7. The 99 percentile was as high as
1900 ppm in Figs. 6 and 1 300 ppm in Fig. 7. The values above
1300 ppm cannot be identified in Fig. 7 as they can in Fig. 6. However,
the 90 percentile values are not above 930 ppm and all classrooms
comply with Category II limits according to EN 15251 and the Swedish
guideline limit of 1000 ppm. The same findings can also be seen in
Figs. 4 and 5.
Fig. 8 shows a distribution of the CO2 concentrations in a randomly
chosen classroom during a typical school day. The school day starts at
the outdoor concentration level and increases during the first lesson to
about 720 ppm. Then there is a short break with a drop in CO2 level, as
there is no one present to exhale CO2. The level then increases up to
almost 900 ppm. After the peak, the CO2 concentration gradually de-
creases, which can be due to an increase in VR or/and a gradual de-
crease in occupancy. After 13:00 h there is either a very low occupancy
or, which is most probably the case, an empty classroom as the con-
centrations are at the same levels as at the beginning of the day.

7
B. Simanic, et al.
Fig. 6. Measured CO2 concentrations in 24 classrooms in schools Vi and S
during presence indication. The horizontal axis represents 24 classrooms.
Measurements recorded as shown in Table 6.
Fig. 7. Measured CO2 concentrations in the same classrooms in schools Vi and S
as in Fig. 6, during the whole of the 7:30 to 16:00 weekdays only. The hor-
izontal axis represents 24 classrooms. Measurements recorded as shown in
Table 6.
3.4. Measured ventilation rates in the schools
Figs. 9 and 10 show measured VRs for each school. Fig. 9 shows VRs
in l/(s m2 Atemp) and Fig. 10 shows VRs in l/(s person). Atemp refers to
floor area (m2) in rooms/spaces heated to 10 °C or above. Design cri-
teria for VRs, according to EN15251 in Table 2, presented in Figs. 9 and
10, were used to calculate the VRs for each school. The standards sti-
pulate minimum levels for both airflows per person and airflows per m2
floor area. The calculations were based on 10 l/(s person) for Category I
criteria and 7 l/(s person) for Category II criteria, and the number of
occupants are given in Table 4. This is not entirely correct as the sports
halls, with an assumed design value of 17,5 l/s, are also included in the
measured values. In addition to the VR per person, there is a VR per m2
floor area, assumed to be 0.35 l/(s m2 Atemp), to allow for the ventila-
tion of emissions from building materials and furniture. The design
criteria vary for each school due to the different occupancy densities.
The median VRs shown in Figs. 9 and 10 comply with EN15251, with
Category I criteria in five of the schools and Category II criteria in one
of them. EN 15251 recommends 10 l/(s person) for classrooms in order
to achieve a maximum of 15% of dissatisfied occupants and acceptable
levels of CO2 and pollutants. With regard to thermal comfort, the pro-
portion of dissatisfied people aimed was 10% [8]. If the same propor-
tion of dissatisfied people is expressed in terms of a VR, then this should
be 15 l/(s person) [31] plus the VR for building emissions ventilation.
This is also in line with creating an increase in work performance,
obtained by having a VR of 15 l/(s person) [17]. If a maximum of 10%
of the occupants are allowed to be dissatisfied, the VRs should be
around 16 l/(s person), which four of the schools achieve, see Fig. 10.
Schools Vi and St shut down their ventilation systems at night. The
10 and 50 percentile lines in schools S and B are almost at zero level,
while the 90 percentile is 2 l/(s m2 Atemp) in school S and 1 l/(s m2
Atemp) in school B at night. This indicates that they had night-time
ventilation running to achieve free cooling during the summer.
Swedish VR design criteria stipulate 17.5 l/(s person) for sports halls
and 9.05 l/(s person) for dining rooms [12], which creates high overall
8
Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100827
Fig. 8. Measured CO2 (ppm) concentrations in one randomly chosen classroom
during a typical school day, 5-min interval values.
VRs for the schools with these facilities. Corridors need only 0.35 l/(s
m2).
4. Discussion and conclusions
4.1. Indoor air temperature and CO2 concentration
During the heating season (October to April), the majority of the
measured indoor air temperatures were within the Category II limits of
EN 15251, which corresponds to a maximum of 10% of the occupants
being dissatisfied. At the lower end of the indoor air temperature scale,
the measured values were within the Category III limits of EN 15251,
corresponding to a maximum of 15% dissatisfied occupants. If a good
thermal climate is aimed for, a maximum of 10% dissatisfied occupants
should be aimed for. Based on this a somewhat cold thermal climate
could be identified in 25 of the 145 classrooms for half of the time, with
temperatures less than 20 °C. The 90 percentile values above 23 °C
occur in only four of the 145 classrooms. This indicates optimised
heating systems as the set points were between 20 and 21 °C. In the
classrooms exhibiting colder conditions, the balancing and control of
the heating and ventilation systems should be checked and possibly
improved in order to achieve the desired set points. The risk of having
too low indoor air temperatures should, however, be considered when
low-energy buildings are designed and operated with the aim of ful-
filling the thermal comfort requirements.
During the cooling season (May to September), the 90 percentile
values are below 26 °C. The majority of the measured values were
below the temperature ranges stipulated in EN 15251. The results are
similar to those presented by Teli et al. [16] for one modern school in
UK. The majority of the temperatures are within the 23 ± 3 °C range,
recommended by the Swedish Work Environment Authority and the
Swedish Public Health Agency. A somewhat cooler thermal climate can,
as previously mentioned, be beneficial in terms of work performance.
The highest indoor air temperatures were caused by high outdoor
temperatures, as none of the schools in the study had active cooling
systems. We also observed that the actual outdoor temperatures during
the cooling season were close to the normal year outdoor temperatures,
so the findings do reflect representative values.
The CO2 concentrations during the heating season were slightly
higher than during the cooling season, as lower VRs were expected due
to temperature set points. The 90 percentile values measured in 60 of
the 61 classrooms, during both the heating and cooling seasons, were
below 1000 ppm, which fulfilled the recommendations of the Swedish
Work Environment Authority and Category II limits in EN 15251, which
means having fewer than 20% dissatisfied occupants. For CO2 con-
centrations of 1000 ppm and above, the literature shows that a decrease
in task performance can be expected [18]. A similar long-term mea-
surements study, on 102 mechanically ventilated classrooms in USA
B. Simanic, et al.
Fig. 9. Calculated VRs l/(s m2 Atemp) for each school during workdays. Measurements recorded as shown in Table 7. The VR design criteria for each school according
to EN 15251 is plotted as a straight horizontal line. Floor area presented refers to Atemp.
[15], presented CO2 concentrations 50 percentile 1080 ppm and 95
percentile 2230 ppm, which are higher than the concentrations pre-
sented in this study.
The CO2 levels when pupils were not present were not relevant for
comparison with guideline values, although they are included in the
measurements, which reduces the median values. If a total median
value for the whole measurement period is calculated this will result in
too low CO2 concentrations. The median values will be lower and the
peak values will not be discernible if a whole workday is studied. This
fact should be taken into consideration. As seen in Fig. 8, during about
half of the day there were no occupants and the CO2 concentrations
were the same as the outdoor levels. This also means that the median
values presented in the figures cannot be used when drawing conclu-
sions about the median levels and their distributions during the valid
periods. This shows that one must be very careful when analysing CO2
levels. It was, as mentioned, however, not possible to attain only valid
periods, i.e. with people present, for all the schools. However, as the
valid periods, i.e. lessons with pupils present, are a subset of the total,
information about levels occurring during this period can be attained.
As only a few of the measured CO2 levels exceeded 1000 ppm, sufficient
air quality in terms of CO2 levels seems to have existed during the
lessons as well.
9
Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100827
Both presence indications and CO2 concentration measurements
were only possible in two of the seven schools, in a total of 24 class-
rooms. The 90 percentile was up to 950 ppm in the classrooms with
presence indication but only 800 ppm in the same classrooms when
measured during the entire school day. In five of the 24 classrooms the
99 percentile values were around 1800 ppm. Such high CO2 levels
during short intervals can depend on factors such as response times in
the ventilation system to compensate the VR demands and higher oc-
cupancy rates than the ventilation system was designed for. Swedish
recommendations allow higher CO2 concentrations than 1000 ppm but
only for short periods.
It should be mentioned that the CO2 concentrations do not account
for all aspects of air quality nor all the different pollutants in the air.
The CO2 concentration is used as a parameter, as it is assumed to be
proportional to other pollutants in the air. It is an adequate indicator in
premises with high densities of people, such as classrooms. If the ven-
tilation systems are able to remove the CO2, it is assumed that other
pollutants, more difficult to measure and possibly not yet identified as
pollutants, will also be removed. It is, however, not possible to ascertain
that no pollutants exist at irritating levels even if a CO2 level is within
guideline limits. As CO2 is one of the parameters included in both in-
ternational and national regulations, it is a relevant and valid
B. Simanic, et al.
Fig. 10. Calculated VR l/(s person) for each school during workdays. Measurements recorded as shown in Table 7. The number of occupants is a fixed number per
school as shown in Table 4. For each school, the VR design criteria according to EN 15251 is plotted as a straight horizontal line.
parameter to examine when studying air quality, remembering that
accounting for all pollutants in the air is not possible with this factor
alone.
Golshan et al. [32] and Wargocki and Wyon [20] shows difficulties
and concerns to achieve low-energy usage and at the same time high
indoor air quality in schools. Despite being low-energy buildings, the
schools in this study managed to maintain satisfactory overall indoor
climates.
4.2. Ventilation rates
The European standard EN 15251 requires classrooms to have a VR
of at least 10 l/(s person) to meet Category I criteria or 7 l/(s person) to
meet Category II criteria plus 0.2–0.5 l/(s m2) for ventilation of building
emissions. The Swedish Work Environment Authority recommends 7 l/
(s person) plus 0.35 l/(s m2) for building emissions ventilation. The
median VRs in five of the schools during working hours for an entire
school met the recommended Category I criteria. The measured median
VRs during workhours in this study are greater than the median VRs
7.5 l/(s person) from a similar long-term measurements study in 102
mechanically ventilated classrooms in USA [15]. If we want to achieve
only 10% dissatisfied occupants in terms of VR, the VR should be
around 16 l/(s person). Four of studied schools achieved this level.
During night-time and at weekends, the VRs were very low or even zero
10
Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100827
in five of the six schools. However, the VRs reverted to the normal
operation levels roughly one to 2 h prior to the schools being occupied.
The Swedish Work Environment Authority (Arbetsmiljöverket) stipu-
lates at least one air exchange prior to occupancy in buildings with
variable air volume ventilation, except during the first year of operation
when constant VRs are required due to the emissions of pollutants from
building materials and furniture.
This study confirms that in six long-term monitored schools the CO2
concentration levels and air temperatures complied with the European
standards EN 15251/ISO 7730 and the regulations and recommenda-
tions from the Swedish Work Environment Authority and Public Health
Agency of Sweden regarding suitable thermal comfort and indoor cli-
mates in non-residential buildings. The DCV systems in the studied
schools achieved EN 15251 Category I or Category II design require-
ments. The majority of previous international studies in schools in-
dicated VRs below the minimum rates in relation to specific standards,
thus implying decreased student performance and an increased risk of
respiratory health problems due to low VRs. Higher VRs are desirable,
as an increase in human work performance is statistically significant
when VRs are increased from 6.5 l/(s person) to 15 l/(s person) [17].
Modern ventilation systems with demand control provided good
indoor climate in the studied low-energy schools. This study confirms
direct relation between indoor air quality and VR in school classrooms,
which is also underlined in a review article by Singh et al. [19]. A
B. Simanic, et al.
drawback of having a DCV system is the need for high capital invest-
ments. These systems also need maintenance programmes to ensure
periodic replacement of air filters and to check VRs. Maintenance
programmes will also ensure that satisfactory indoor climates are
achieved.
4.3. Limitations
In three of the seven schools, the DCV used only the indoor air
temperatures to control the VRs. In these schools, it was not possible to
evaluate the CO2 concentrations. On the other hand, the median VRs
were about 20 l/(s person) in two of these three schools, which indicate
that they would probably provide satisfactory CO2 concentration levels
during working hours. The median VRs were about 10 l/(s person) in
one of the schools, B, which is just below the EN 15251 Category I
recommendation.
It should be clarified that the VRs possible to attain are the total VRs
passing through the centralized ventilation units, which supplied entire
school. Conclusions about the VRs in the individual classroom is
therefore not possible to make. The measured VRs gives however an
indication on the magnitude of the VRs in classrooms.
Given the nature of presence sensors, exact occupancy levels were
not attainable. Instead, the number of occupants in a given school was
based on the number of enrolled pupils and full-time employees during
the actual school year. This number, in practice, indicated a maximum
number of people per m2 of floor area. The average density of occupants
was probably below this number. The highest density of occupants
occurred in school Vi because it had the smallest proportion of common
areas of all the schools. School Vi had neither dining facilities nor sports
halls. The other schools had occupancy densities between 0.05 and
0.067 person/m2 Atemp. The average measured presence time in the
four school with sensors were between 1200 and 1700 h per year.
Earlier study in Swedish elementary school classrooms showed typical
presence times of 1300 h per year [30].
The outdoor CO2 concentrations were assumed to have a constant
level of 400 ppm when comparing levels to those stipulated in the
standards, which are defined as concentrations above the outdoor le-
vels. This introduces an uncertainty factor as the real outdoor con-
centrations may have fluctuated to some degree, depending on location.
For example, if the school was located in the countryside or in the
middle of a town and whether there were rush hour effects or not. The
outdoor concentrations can, however, be assumed to be reasonably
stable and it was assumed that they would not influence the results in
any significant way.
The studied parameters, i.e. the CO2 concentrations and the air
temperatures, despite being relevant indoor climate factors, do not
entirely guarantee acceptable indoor climates. For example, draughts or
short circuiting between air supply and exhaust devices can create
unsuitable indoor climates. These parameters were not included in this
study.
The positions of the DCV control sensors could have influenced the
results. If there was a short circuit between the supply air and the ex-
haust air devices, for example, due to excessively high supply air
temperatures, then the sensors located in the exhaust ducts will have
underestimated the CO2 levels in the occupied spaces. The supply air
temperatures were not recorded in the study, thus introducing an un-
certainty factor. The thermal conditions in the classrooms with accep-
table and, sometimes, even cool conditions indicated that this was not a
large influencing factor.
Only physical parameters were measured in this study. The occu-
pants' perceptions and experiences of the indoor climate were not
known. There was no register of complaints/reports about indoor cli-
mates nor surveys regarding the occupants' perceptions of the indoor
climates. Questionnaire studies could be a useful complementary
method to investigate the occupants' perceptions of the indoor en-
vironments. On the other hand, different categories in the standards
11
Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100827
presented in Tables 1 and 2 take into account a statistical number of
dissatisfied occupants. By comparing measured indoor air temperatures
and CO2 concentrations in the classrooms with the different categories
in the standards, it is possible to make indirect estimations of the oc-
cupants’ dissatisfaction levels regarding the indoor climate.
There was no data to provide insight into how the opening of
windows influenced the air exchange rates or the CO2 concentrations.
5. Conclusions
This study shows that the studied seven low-energy schools
achieved satisfactory indoor climates in terms of CO2 levels, indoor air
temperatures and VRs during a vast majority of the studied periods.
The indoor air temperatures in most of the studied classrooms
showed compliance with the design guidelines of EN 15251/ISO 7730
and Swedish regulations issued by the Swedish Work Environment
Authority and the Public Health Agency of Sweden.
The 90 percentile levels of the CO2 concentrations in 60 of 61
classrooms in four of the studied schools complied with EN 15251
Categories I and II and the design guidelines issued by the Swedish
Work Environment Authority.
When analysing long-term CO2 measurements in spaces with
varying occupancy levels care must be taken. Measuring the CO2 con-
centrations and calculating median values in classrooms over long
measurement periods will result in misleadingly low CO2 concentra-
tions.
In the near future, this study will be expanded with an analysis of
measured energy performance, which is a critical aspect in the studied
low-energy schools.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Skanska Sverige AB and SBUF
(Swedish building industry's organisation for research and develop-
ment) for funding this research project (SBUF 13290). The authors
would also like to thank the local municipalities that have provided
access to and information about the studied schools, and last, but not
least, the Building Services and Building Physics divisions at the Faculty
of Engineering LTH at Lund University for their academic support.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100827.
References
[1] Statistics Sweden, The Future Population of Sweden 2016-2060 Article No
BE18SM1601 (In Swedish), (2016).
[2] A.B. Skanska Sverige, 1000 Skolor På 10 År, Skanska Sverige AB, 2016.
[3] Aftonblandet, Stora Behov Av Nya Föskolor Och Skolor Närmaste Åren, (2018)
https://www.aftonbladet.se/nyheter/samhalle/a/m6wnyp/stora-behov-av-nya-
forskolor-och-skolor-narmaste-aren , Accessed date: 27 May 2019.
[4] Boverket, BFS 2011:6 Med Ändringar till Och Med BFS 2018:4; BBR 25, Boverket,
(2017).
[5] European Parliament and the Council, DIRECTIVE 2010/31/EU of the EUROPEAN
PARLIAMENT and of the COUNCIL, Official Journal of the European Union, (2010).
[6] Arbetsmiljöverket, Arbetsplatsens utformning AFS vol. 2, Arbetsmiljöverket, 2009
2013.
[7] Folkhälsomyndigheten, Folkhälsomyndighetens Allmäna Råd Om Temperatur
Inomhus FoHMFS 2014 vol. 17, Folkhälsomyndighet, 2014.
[8] Energi och Miljötekniska Föreningen, R1 Riktlinjer För Specifikation Av
Inneklimatkrav, EMTF Förlag, 2013.
[9] Swedish Standards Institute, SS-EN 15251:2007 Utgåva 1, SIS Förlag, 2007.
[10] Swedish Standards Institute, SS-EN ISO 7730 : 2005 Utgåva 2, SIS Förlag, 2006.
[11] ASHRAE, ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2007, American Society of Heating Refrigerating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers Inc, 2007.
[12] H. Enberg, Minimikrav På Luftväxling Utgåva 10 2015, H. Enberg
Ventilationskonsult AB, 2015.
[13] D. Teli, J.-O. Dalenbäck, L. Ekberg, Winter thermal comfort and indoor air quality
in Swedish grade school classrooms, as assessed by the children, Proc. 14th Int.
B. Simanic, et al.
Conf. Indoor Air Qual. Clim. Ghent, Belgium, 2016 http://publications.lib.
chalmers.se/records/fulltext/239307/local_239307.pdf.
[14] Z. Bakó-Biró, D.J. Clements-Croome, N. Kochhar, H.B. Awbi, M.J. Williams,
Ventilation rates in schools and pupils' performance, Build. Environ. 48 (2012)
215–223, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.08.018.
[15] A.M.G. Mendell, E.A. Eliseeva, M.M. Davies, M. Spears, A. Lobscheid, W.J. Fisk,
Association of classroom ventilation with reduced illness absence: a prospective
study in California, Indoor Air 2013 (2013) 515–528, https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.
12042.
[16] D. Teli, L. Bourikas, P.A.B. James, A.S. Bahaj, Thermal performance evaluation of
school buildings using a children-based adaptive comfort model, Procedia Environ.
Sci. 38 (2017) 844–851, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2017.03.170.
[17] O. Seppanen, W.J. Fisk, Q.H. Lei, Ventilation and performance in office work,
Indoor Air 16 (2006) 28–36, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2005.00394.x.
[18] C.T. Gupta Rajat, O'Brien John, Alastair Howard, Improving Productivity in the
Workplace. Lessons Learnt and Insights from the Whole Life Performance Plus
Project, (2018).
[19] M.K. Singh, R. Ooka, H.B. Rijal, S. Kumar, A. Kumar, Progress in Thermal Comfort
Studies in Classrooms over Last 50 Years and Way Forward, Energy Build, 2019, pp.
149–174 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.01.051.
[20] P. Wargocki, D.P. Wyon, Providing better thermal and air quality conditions in
school classrooms would be cost-effective, Build. Environ. 59 (2013) 581–589,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.10.007.
[21] M. Dias, H. Bernardo, J. Ramos, M. Egido, Indoor environment and energy effi-
ciency in school buildings - part 1: indoor Air Quality, Proc. 2011 3rd Int. Youth
Conf. Energy (2011) 1–7 https://doi-org.ludwig.lub.lu.se/10.1016/j.buildenv.
2011.08.018.
[22] D. Mumovic, J. Palmer, M. Davies, M. Orme, I. Ridley, T. Oreszczyn, C. Judd,
R. Critchlow, H.A. Medina, G. Pilmoor, C. Pearson, P. Way, Winter indoor air
12
Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100827
quality, thermal comfort and acoustic performance of newly built secondary schools
in England, Build. Environ. 44 (2009) 1466–1477, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
buildenv.2008.06.014.
[23] S. Batterman, F.C. Su, A. Wald, F. Watkins, C. Godwin, G. Thun, Ventilation rates in
recently constructed U.S. school classrooms, Indoor Air 27 (2017) 880–890,
https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12384.
[24] W.J. Fisk, The ventilation problem in schools: literature review, Indoor Air 27
(2017) 1039–1051, https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12403.
[25] B. Simanic, D. Johansson, B. Nordquist, H. Bagge, User Related Input Data for
Energy Usage Calculations the Case of Low Energy Schools in Sweden, Springer
Proc. Energy, CCHVAC Kiruna, 2018, pp. 747–758 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-
030-00662-4_63.
[26] SIRIS Skolverket, https://www.skolverket.se/skolutveckling/statistik/sok-statistik-
om-forskola-skola-och-vuxenutbildning?sok=SokA, (2018) , Accessed date: 27 May
2019.
[27] Svensk Byggtjänst, Allmänna Bestämmelser Och Andra Standardkontrakt För
Byggsektorn, Svensk Byggtjänst, 2014.
[28] SMHI, Swedish Meteoroligical and Hydrological Institute, (2019) https://www.
smhi.se/en , Accessed date: 27 May 2019.
[29] A.D. Beisteiner, A. Coley, Carbon dioxide levels and summertime ventilation rates
in UK schools, Int. J. Vent. 1 (2016) 181–187 https://www-tandfonline-com.
ludwig.lub.lu.se/doi/abs/10.1080/14733315.2003.11683633.
[30] D. Johansson, Measured occupancy levels in Swedish classrooms, 9th Int. Conf. Air
Distrib. Rooms, Roomvent. (2004), https://www.tib.eu/en/search/id/BLCP
%3ACN061742462/Measured-occupancy-levels-in-Swedish-offices/.
[31] B. Hansen, H.E. Kjerulf-Jensen, O. Stampe, Verme Og Klimateknik, second ed.,
Danvak ApS, 1997.
[32] M. Golshan, H. Thoen, W. Zeiler, Dutch sustainable schools towards energy positive,
J. Build. Eng. 19 (2018) 161–171 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.05.002.