Selected exercises from Abstract Algebra by Dummit

and Foote (3rd edition).

Bryan Félix
Abril 12, 2017

Section 8.1
Exercise 2 (a). Show that 13 is relatively prime to 20 and determine the inverse of 13 mod 20.
Solution. We use the wonderful Euclidean algorithm. See that

20 = (1)13 + 7
13 = (1)7 + 6
7 = (1)6 + 1
6 = (6)1 + 0.

Since 1 is the last non zero reminder we conclude that the gcd(13, 20) = 1 as desired. To find
the inverse of 13 modulo 20 we trace back the algorithm.

1=7−6
= 7 − (13 − 7)
= 7 − (13 − (20 − 13))
= (20 − 13) − (13 − (20 − 13))
= (2)20 − (3)13.

Taking the modulo of the last expression we see that the inverse of 13 is −3 or, equivalently,
17.
Exercise 3. Let R be a Euclidean domain. Let m be the minimum integer in the set of norms
of nonzero elements of R. Prove that every nonzero element of R of norm m is a unit. Deduce
that a nonzero element of norm zero (if such an element exist) is a unit.
Proof. Let u have minimal norm among the elements in R as described in the problem. Then,
since R is an Euclidean domain, we can write 1 as qu + r. Where N (u) > N (r) ≥ 0. By
construction, N (r) = 0 as u has minimal norm. Hence 1 = qu, and u is a unit. The second
part of the problem follows from the fact that any element of norm zero has minimal norm.
Exercise 5 (a). Determine all integer solutions of 2x + 4y = 5.
Solutions. Note that gcd(2, 4) = 2 and that 2 does not divide 5. Therefore, no solutions
exist.
√
Exercise 9. Prove that the ring of integers O in the quadratic integer ring Q( 2) is a Euclidean
√
domain with respect to the norm given by the absolute value of the field norm N (a + b 2) =
a2 − 2b2 .

1
 √ √
Proof. Let α = a1 + a2 2 and β = b1 + b2 2 be any two elements in O. Then, note that
√
α a1 + a2 2
= √
β b1 + b2 2
√ √
(a1 + a2 2)(b1 − b2 2)
=
b21 − 2b22
a2 b 1 − a1 b 2 √
   
a1 b1 − 2a2 b2
= + 2
b1 − 2b22 b21 − 2b22
√
= d1 + d2 2.

Since the above components may not be elements in Z, we use the closest integer to each (let
them be c1 and c2 so that
α √  √ 
= λ +  = (c1 + c2 2) + (d1 − c1 ) + (d2 − c2 ) 2
β
where α, β, and λ are elements in the ring.
From the previous argument, let β = α−λβ so that β is an element of the ring and furthermore

α = λβ + (α − λβ) = λβ + β.

It is left to show that N (β) > N (β). To that end, we show that N () < 1. Note that

N () = |(d1 − c1 )2 − 2(d2 − c2 )2 |

≤ |(d1 − c1 )2 | + 2|(d2 − c2 )2 | by the triangle inequality
 2  2
1 1
≤ +2 by construction of λ
2 2
3
≤
4
as desired.

Section 8.2
√ √
integer ring Z[ −5]. Define the ideals I2 = (2, 1 + −5),
Exercise 5.√Let R be the quadratic √
I3 = (3, 2 + −5), and I30 = (3, 2 − −5).
(a) Prove that I2 , I3 , and I30 are non-principal ideals in R.

Proof. We inspect the cases separately.

√
i) The ideal I2 = (2, 1 + −5) is not principal. √ √
We proceed by contradiction and assume that I2 = (2, √ 1 + −5) = (a + b −5) for
some a, b ∈ Z. Furthermore, there exist α and β in Z[ −5] such that
√ √ √
α(a + b −5) = 2 and β(a + b −5) = 1 + −5.

Taking the ring norm N we get

N (α)(a2 + 5b2 ) = 4 and N (β)(a2 + 5b2 ) = 6.

Then, since all the factors above are members of Z, it must be true that a2 +5b2 divides
both 4 and 6. Therefore a2 + 5b2 is equal to 1 or 2. Note that there are no integers

2
 solutions to a2 + 5b2 = 2 and therefore a2 + 5b2 is forced
√ to be equal to 1. The latter
forces a to be ±1 and b to be 0. It follows that (2, 1 + −5) = (1) is the entire ring.
In particular there exist α and β such that
√
α(2) + β(1 + −5) = 1.
√
Equivalently, multiplying by (1 − −5),
√ √
α(2)(1 − −5) + β(6) = (1 − −5).

Observe that the left hand side has a factor of 2 and if we take the norm N we have,
√ √
N (2)N (α(1 − −5) + β(3)) = N (1 − −5).
√
Therefore N (2) = 4 divides N (1 − −5) = 6, a contradiction.
√
ii) The ideal I2 = (3, 2 + −5) is not principal.
Analogous to the previous case, let a, b, α, β be as in i). Then, the following must hold

N (α)(a2 + 5b2 ) = 9 and N (β)(a2 + 5b2 ) = 9.

Therefore a2 + 5b2 is equal to either 1, 3 or 9. Note that it can not be equal to 3 as

a2 + 5b2 = 3 has no solutions in the integers. If a2 + 5b2 = 1 then, analogous to part
i), the ideal is equal to the entire ring, and there must exist α and β such that,
√
α(2) + β(2 + −5) = 1.
√
If we multiply the above by (2 − −5) we get
√ √
α(3)(2 − −5) + β(9) = (2 − −5).

Then, by taking the norm we have

N (α)(9)(9) + N (β)(9)(9) = 9.

Rearranging,
9(N (α) + N (β)) = 1,
a contradiction since the norm is an integer valued function. It must be the case that
a2 + 5b2 = 9 and either a2 = 9 and b2 = 0, or a2 = 4 and√b2 = 1. In the former √ we
have that the ideal is generated by (±3). Furthermore
√ 2 + −5 = (±3) · (z1 + c2 −5)
is a contradiction, since 3 does not divide 2 + −5. Then, it must be the case that
a2 = 4 and√b2 = 1. Let the ideal be generated by this choice of a and b. Then
3 = (±a ± −5)(z), where z is an element of the ring. By taking the norm we get
9 = 9 · N (z). Then N (z) = 1 and z = ±1, a clear contradiction. We conclude that the
ideal is not principal.
√
iii) The ideal I2 = (3, 2 + −5) is not principal.
Analogous to the previous case, let a, b, α, β be as in i). Then, the following must hold

N (α)(a2 + 5b2 ) = 9 and N (β)(a2 + 5b2 ) = 9.

Therefore a2 + 5b2 is equal to either 1, 3 or 9. Here the argument is identical to the

one in ii).

3
(b) Prove that the product of two non-principal ideals can be principal by showing that I22 is the
principal ideal generated by 2, i.e., I22 = (2).
√ √
Proof. Observe that I22 is the ideal (4, 2 + 2 −5, −4 + 2 −5). Furthermore,
√ √
2 = (2 + 2 −5) − (−4 + 2 −5) − 4,

hence (2) ⊂ I22 . The inclusion I22 ⊂ (2) follows form factoring out 2 from each of the
generators in the ideal.
√ √
(c) Prove similarly that I2 I3 = (1 − −5) and I2 I30 = (1 + −5) are principal. Conclude that
the principal ideal (6) is the product of 4 ideals: (6) = I22 I3 I30 .
√ √
Proof.
√ Similar to part (b), observe that the ideal I2 I3 is equal to (6, 4+2 −5, 3+3 −5, −3+
3 −5). Furthermore, since
√ √ √
1 − 5 = (4 + 2 −5) − (3 + 3 −5),
√
we have
√ the inclusion (1 − −5) ⊂ I2 I3 . The reverse inclusion comes from the fact that
1 − −5 is a factor to all the generators; i.e.
√ √
6 = (1 − −5) · (1 + −5)
√ √ √
(4 + 2 −5) = (1 − −5) · (−1 + −5)
√ √ √
(3 + 3 −5) = (1 − −5) · (−2 + −5)
√ √
(−3 + 3 −5) = (1 − −5) · (−3).
√ √ √
Analogously, I2 I30 is generated by (6, 4 − 2 −5, 3 + 3 −5, 7 + −5); we have
√ √ √
1 + −5 = (4 − 2 −5) + (3 + 3 −5) − 6;

and
√ √
−5) · (1 − −5)
6 = (1 +
√ √ √
(4 − 2 −5) = (1 + −5) · (−1 − −5)
√ √
(3 + 3 −5) = (1 + −5) · (3)
√ √ √
(7 + −5) = (1 + −5) · (2 − −5).
√
Therefore I2 I30 = (1+ −5). Furthermore I2 I3 I2 I30 = (6), and since the ring is commutative
we have I22 I3 I30 = (6) as desired.

Section 8.3
√
Exercise 5. Let R = Z[ −n] where n is a squarefree integer greater than 3.
√ √
(a) Prove that 2, −n and 1 + −n are irreducibles in R.

Proof. We look at each case individually.

4
 (a) 2 is irreducible.
We proceed by contradiction and assume √ that 2 is reducible. √Then 2 = a · b for two
non unit elements a and b. Let a = a1 +a2 −n and b = b1 +b2 −n where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2
are integers. We compute the norm to see that

4 = (a21 + na22 )(b21 + nb22 ).

Therefore (a21 + na22 ) divides 4 so it is either 1, 2, 4. If it is equal to 1 then the

only solution for a is ±1, a contradiction since a is not a unit. If a21 + na22 = 4,
then b21 + nb22 = 1, and analogous to the previous statement b = ±1 is a unit (a
contradiction). The last case is a21 + 5a22 = 2, but this has no solution for a1 , a2 ∈ Z
as n > 3. We conclude that 2 is irreducible.
√
(b) −n is irreducible. √ √
We proceed by contradiction and assume that −n√is reducible. Then √−n = a · b
for two non unit elements a and b. Let a = a1 + a2 −n and b = b1 + b2 −n where
a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 are integers. We compute the norm to see that

n = (a21 + na22 )(b21 + nb22 ).

Therefore (a21 + na22 ) divides n, Furthermore a2 cannot be greater than 1 otherwise

(a21 + na22 ) > n and neither can a2 be equal to 1, otherwise a1 = 0 and b is forced to
be a unit. Then, it must be the case that a2 = 0 and n = a21 , but since n is square
free this is a contradiction.
√
(c) 1 + −n is irreducible. √ √
We proceed by contradiction and assume that 1 + −n is reducible.
√ Then 1 + −n
√ =
a · b for two non unit elements a and b. Let a = a1 + a2 −n and b = b1 + b2 −n
where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 are integers. We compute the norm to see that

1 + n = (a21 + na22 )(b21 + nb22 ).

Therefore (a21 + na22 ) divides 1 + n, Furthermore a2 cannot be greater than 1 otherwise

(a21 + na22 ) > 1 + n and neither can a2 be equal to 1, otherwise a1 = 1 and b is
forced to be a unit. Then, it must be the case that a2 = 0 and 1 + n = (a21 )(b21 +
nb22 ) = (a1 b1 )2 + n(a1 b2 )2 . As before |(a1 b2 )| can not be greater than 1 otherwise
(a1 b1 )2 + n(a1 b2 )2 > 1 + n. If |(a1 b2 )| = 1, then a1 = 1 and a is a unit.
√ Finally, if
|(a1 b2 )| = 0 then
√ b2 is forced to be 0, furthermore a = a1 , b = b1 and 1 + −n = a1 b1 .
Equivalently, −n = a1 b1 − 1, a contradiction since n is square free.

(b) Prove that R is not a U.F.D. Conclude that the quadratic integer ring O is not a U.F.D.
√ D ≡ 2, 3 √mod 4, D < −3 (so also not Euclidean and not a P.I.D.). [Show that either
for
−n or 1 + −n is not prime]
(c) Give an explicit ideal in R that
√ is not principal.
√ [Using (b) consider a maximal ideal
containing the nonprime ideal ( −n) or (1 + −n).]

√
Exercise
√ 8 a). Let
√ R be the quadratic integer
√ ring Z[ −5] and define ideals I2 = (2, 1 +
0
−5), I3 = (3, 2 + √−5), and I3 =√(3, 1 − −5).
Prove that 2, 3, 1 + −5 √ and 1 − −5 √ are irreducibles in R, no two of which are associate in
R, and that 6 = 2 · 3 = (1 −5) · (1 − −5) are two distinct factorizations of 6 into irreducibles
in R.

5
Proof. We inspect each element separately.

1. 2 is irreducible.
We proceed by contradiction and assume√ that 2 is reducible. √Then 2 = a · b for two non
unit elements a and b. Let a = a1 + a2 −5 and b = b1 + b2 −5 where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 are
integers. We compute the norm to see that

4 = (a21 + 5a22 )(b21 + 5b22 ).

Therefore (a21 + 5a22 ) divides 4 so it is either 1, 2, 4. If it is equal to 1 then the only solution
for a is ±1, a contradiction since a is not a unit. If a21 + 5a22 = 4, then b21 + 5b22 = 1, and
analogous to the previous statement b = ±1 is a unit (a contradiction). The last case is
a21 + 5a22 = 2, but this has no solution for a1 , a2 ∈ Z. We conclude that 2 is irreducible.

2. 3 is irreducible
We proceed by contradiction and assume√ that 3 is reducible. √Then 3 = a · b for two non
unit elements a and b. Let a = a1 + a2 −5 and b = b1 + b2 −5 where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 are
integers. We compute the norm to see that

9 = (a21 + 5a22 )(b21 + 5b22 ).

Therefore (a21 + 5a22 ) divides 9 so it is either 1, 3, 9. If it is equal to 1 then the only solution
for a is a = ±1, a contradiction since a is not a unit. If a21 + 5a22 = 9, then b21 + 5b22 = 1,
and analogous to the previous statement b = ±1 is a unit (a contradiction). The last case
is a21 + 5a22 = 3, but this has no solution for a1 , a2 ∈ Z. We conclude that 3 is irreducible.
√
3. 1 + −5 is irreducible √ √
We proceed by contradiction and assume that 1 + −5 √ is reducible. Then 1 +√ −5 = a · b
for two non unit elements a and b. Let a = a1 + a2 −5 and b = b1 + b2 −5 where
a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 are integers. We compute the norm to see that

6 = (a21 + 5a22 )(b21 + 5b22 ).

Therefore (a21 + 5a22 ) divides 6 so it is either 1, 2, 3, 6. If it is equal to 1 then the only

solution for a is a = ±1, a contradiction since a is not a unit. If a21 + 5a22 = 6, then
b21 + 5b22 = 1, and analogous to the previous statement b = ±1 is a unit (a contradiction).
The last two cases are√a21 + 5a22 equals 2 or 3, but these have no solution for a1 , a2 ∈ Z.
We conclude that 1 + −5 is irreducible.
√
4. 1 − −5 is irreducible √ √
We proceed by contradiction and assume that 1 − −5 √ is reducible. Then 1 −√ −5 = a · b
for two non unit elements a and b. Let a = a1 + a2 −5 and b = b1 + b2 −5 where
a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 are integers. We compute the norm to see that

6 = (a21 + 5a22 )(b21 + 5b22 ).

Therefore (a21 + 5a22 ) divides 6 so it is either 1,

√2, 3, 6. Here, we have the same hypothesis
as in part 3., therefore we conclude that 1 − −5 is irreducible.
√ √
Therefore 6 = 2 · 3 = (1 −5) · (1 − −5) are two distinct factorizations of 6 into irreducibles
in R.