CULTURE
- sum of an individual's way of life
- includes both material or non-material things that
he or she possesses or acquire
SOCIETY
- Organized group of people who share a common
territory, language. and culture
- bound by a general sense of common identity and
pride of place
POLITICS
- theory, art, and practice of government
- The institution that sets up social norms and values
as to who will possess "the monopoly of legitimate
and use of physical force within a given territory."
how the power is acquired and maintained, and
how that power is organized and exercised,
comprises the state.
- 3Gs - guns, goons, gold
GENDER
- socially constructed characteristics of being male or
female
- sex enters on biological differences
- gender is culturally learned
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
- category of persons who have more or less the
same socio-economic privileges in society
Upper Class: consist of elite families: new rich (nouveau
riche) and traditional upper class
Middle Class: small business and industry operators,
owners and managers, professionals, office workers,
farm owners and OFW's
Lower Class: skilled and unskilled artisans, service
workers, and unemployed or unemployed people
ETHNICITY
- expression of the set of cultural ideas held by a
distinct ethnic or indigenous group
- an ethnic group refers to people who collectively
and publicly identify themselves as distinct and
unique based on distinguishable cultural features
that set them apart from others, such as language,
shared ancestry, and common origin
RELIGION
- organized system of ideas about the spiritual sphere
or the supernatural along with associated
ceremonial or ritualistic practices
EXCEPTIONALITY
- People with disability
- State of being intellectually gifted or having
physically / mentally challenged conditions
NATIONALITY
- gives people a sense of identity or belongingness
- the legal relationship that binds a person and a
country
- allows the state to protect and have jurisdiction
over a person
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND CULTURAL BEHAVIOR AND
PHENOMENA
NORMS
- often in form of rules, standard or prescriptions that
are strictly followed by people who adhere on
certain conventions and perform specific roles
- indicate a society's standards of propriety, morality,
ethics, and legality
- not all legal are moral
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 A. Norms of Appropriateness / Decency
- commonly exhibited on the type of clothing a
person wears
- includes manners and behavior that show a
person's refinement and civility
B. Norms of Conventionality
- are beliefs and practices that are acceptable to
certain cultures but can be inimical to other
cultures
CONFORMITY
- every society has a form of social control, a set of
means that ensure people behave in expected and
approved ways
- defined as the state of having internalized norms as
part of the social expectation
DEVIANCE
- or nonconformity are forms of behavior that are
relatively or distinctly set away from a norm
- also seen as a form of power struggle
 Formal Deviance - actions that violates the laws
 Informal Deviance - violation to norms that are
not conflicted into law
TABOOS
- rules against doing or saying something in a
particular
SOCIAL CHANGE
- Refers to variations or modifications in the pattern
of social organization of sub-groups within a
society, or of the entire society itself.
CAUSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
A. Invention
- a new combination or new use of existing
knowledge. It produces mechanical objects, ideas
and social patterns that reshape society to varying
degrees
 Material inventions
 Social inventions
B. Discovery
- takes place when people reorganize existing
elements of the world we have not noticed before
or learned to see in a new way
- Contributes to the emergence of a new paradigm or
perspective and even reshapes and reinvent
worldviews.
C. Diffusion
- refers to the spread of culture traits from one group
to another. Through four processes:
 Enculturation - through education
 Socialization - through exposure and
experience
 Association - through establishing connection
with a culture
 Integration - total assimilation of culture
POLITICAL CHANGE
- Changes that occurs in the realm of civil and
political society and in the structure of relations
among civil society, political society, and the state.
CULTURAL CHANGE
- Refers to all alterations affecting new traits / trait
complexes and changes in a culture.
ANTHROPOLOGY
- a discipline of infinite curiosity about human beings
- Anthropos means human
Major Proponents:
- Claude Levi Strauss
- Clifford Geertz
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PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
- commonly uses fossils and artifacts
- uses natural sciences in studying its major concerns
Paleontology - seeks to answer questions on the
emergence of humans
Human variation - seeks to answer questions on why
and how various humans population vary biologically
Primatology - seeks to trace the development of human
from primates
CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Archeology - study of past cultures primarily through
natural remains
Anthropological Linguistics - the anthropological study
of languages
Ethnology - seeks to understand why and how people
today and in recent past differ in their customary ways
of thinking and acting
SOCIOLOGY
- field of study dealing with the systematic study of
patterns of human interaction
- Socius meaning companion
Henri de Saint-Simon - wrote his ideas on the science of
society based on the law of human behavior
August Comte - father of sociology, coined the word
sociology. He advocated the ideas of "positivism" of the
use of empirical investigation to understand society and
social phenomena.
FIELDS OF SOCIOLOGY
General Sociology - deals with the properties and
homogeneity common to all social and cultural
phenomena, including those characteristics fond among
groups and institutions
Special Sociology - focuses on special sociocultural
phenomenon usually selected for further study,
including socialization, interaction, conflict and
denomination.
 Rural Sociology
 Urban Sociology
 Sociology of Media
 Gender Studies
 Critical Sociology
POLITICAL SCIENCE
- the study of power and power relations in a given
unit, such as the government. It primarily tackles
practice of politics, public policies, political
institutions, and political processes.
FIELDS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
Comparative politics - comparing 2 or more countries
Policy studies - study of specific policy and how
government responds to them
Political theory - definition of different conceptions in
political science such as state, liberty, and equality
Political Economy - state the rule of bureaucracy
International Relations - the study of the relationship of
two or more countries. It can be realist or liberalist
Political Ideology - concerns the beliefs, perspectives,
and concerning political phenomena
BRANCHES IN THE GOVERNMENT
 Executive
 Legislative – 24 senate, 250–300 representative
 Judiciary – 15 w/ chief justice
NORMS -guidelines supposed to follow in their relation
with one another
 Folkways - everyday habits; customs, traditions,
and conventions that people obey
 Mores - norms that people consider vital to
their wellbeing and most cherished values
 Laws
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IDEAS, BELIEFS, VALUES

 Ideas - are non-material aspects of culture and

embody man's conception of his physical, social
and cultural world
 Beliefs - refers to a person's conviction about a
certain idea
 Values - abstract concepts of what is important
and worthwhile

MATERIAL CULTURE - refers to the concrete and

tangible objects produced and used by man to satisfy
his varied needs and wants

SYMBOLS - refers to an object, gesture, sound or color

that represents something other than itself

ETHNOCENTRISM - a feeling of one's superiority for

one's culture

XENOCENTRISM - a feeling of one's inferiority for one's

culture

CULTURE RELATIVISM - culture differ, so that a cultural

trait, act or idea has no meaning or function by itself but
has a meaning only within a cultural society

CULTURE SHOCK - disruption with an unfamiliar culture

COUNTERCULTURE - against a dominant culture, refers

to subgroups whose standards come in conflict with and
oppose the conventional standards of dominant culture

CULTURE LAG - refers to the gap between the material

and non-material culture, it can also be the gap
between the norm and the backwardness of one to
cope up with this.

 Culture is learned
 Culture socially transmitted through language
 Culture is a social product
 Culture is a source of gratification
 Culture is Adaptive
 Distinctive way of life of group of people
 Culture is material and non-material
 Culture is stable and dynamic
 Culture is established pattern of behavior

4
CULTURAL AND SOCIOPOLITICAL EVOLUTION  The domestication of animals and crop production
became a common practice in communities.
NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION

 Literally means the New Stone Age Revolution  Irrigation contributed to greater food production,
because of the polished stone tools and the ultimately destroyed many fertile lands around the
techniques that produced such tools emerged world, especially flood plains a river valleys.
during this period.
 Competition to fertile lands eventually led to
warfare, with domesticated animals like horses
 More importantly, it was the period when food utilized in combat.
production started.
 Before, humans foraged, hunted, PALEOLITHIC MESOLITHIC ERA NEOLITHIC ERA
and gathered food for survival. Food- ERA
producing habits began to change Circa 10,000 B.C. ca. 9000 B.C. –
about 10,000 years ago. Circa 70,000 B.C. – 8500 B.C. 1800 B.C.
– 12,000 B.C.
 People had also started to settle in
specific areas they called villages so ARTS AND Painted cave Made pottery Made pottery;
they can grow crops and raise CRAFTS walls; usually and cave carved objects
animals which in turn lessened painted animals paintings from wood; built
nomadic practices. shelters and
tombs
 Specialized social roles in the
community may have also started to
develop during this period. OBTAINING Hunted Animals; Hunted; Began farming in
FOOD gathered nuts, gathered plants; permanent
 The efficiency in food production berries, and Stored for later villages raised
allowed more time to develop arts grains use and herded
and sciences through specialized animals
activities geared towards the
advancement of civilization.
ADAPTING Learned to make Settled villages Built mud-brick
 More time in pursuit of arts and TO fire; Developed located near houses and
religion led to the building of SURROUNDI language; rivers and lakes; places of
elaborate temples and granaries, NGS Created simple used bows and worship; had
many of them are still standing tools and shelter arrows and other specialized jobs;
today. simple tools; created more
began taming complex tools
 Since they are now capable of animals out of copper
producing food, they have also and bronze
started to create tools using the
available resources around them,
such as wood, bamboo, and stone.

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EARLY CIVILIZATION AND THE RISE OF THE STATE
CIVILIZATION
Comes from the Latin word civis, which refers to a
person who lives in a city; and civets, which refers to
the urban community in which one dwells.
Civilization refers to societies in which large numbers of
people live in cities.
RISE OF CITIES
Four basic changes mark the transition from Neolithic
village life to life in the first urban centers: agricultural
innovation, diversification of labor, social stratification,
and central government.
AGRICULTURAL INNOVATION
The ancient Sumerians built an extensive system like
dikes, canals, and reservoirs to irrigate their farmlands.
Irrigation was an important factor that increased crop
yield. This contributed to the high population densities
of ancient civilizations.
With the development of irrigation systems, even dry
areas were able to participate in food production.
DIVERSIFICATION OF LABOR
In a Neolithic village without irrigation or plow farming,
every family member participated in the planting of
crops.
Increased population permitted a sizable number of
people to pursue nonagricultural activities on a full-time
basis.
An early Mesopotamian document from the old
Babylonian city of Lagash listed artisans, craftsmen, and
people who store crops in the temple granaries.
Other workers included were coppersmiths,
silversmiths, sculptors, merchants, potters, tanners,
engravers, butchers, carpenters, spinners, barbers,
cabinetmakers, bakers, clerks, and brewers.
In Eurasia and Africa, civilization ushered during the
Bronze Age, a period marked by the production of tools
and ornaments made of bronze.
Early civilizations also developed extensive trade
systems to procure the raw materials needed for their
technologies.
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
The rise of large, economically diversified populations
presided over by centralized governing authorities
brought with it the fourth cultural characteristic of
civilization: social stratification or the emergence of
social classes.
As time passed by, the possessions of wealth and the
influence it could buy became in itself a requisite for
high status, as it is in some contemporary cultures.
The existence of social stratification in early societies us
reflected in their laws and other written documents;
archaeological features, such as dwelling size and
location; and mortuary evidences that included burial
customs and grave goods.
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
Governments of the past ensured their cities were safe
from their enemies by constructing fortifications and
raising an army.
They levied taxes and appointed tax collectors so that
construction workers, army, and other public expenses
could be paid.
They saw to it that merchants, carpenters, and farmers
who made legal claims received justice.
They guaranteed safety for the lives and property of
ordinary people.
In addition, surplus food and public works had to be
supervised by competent, fair individuals.
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HUMAN EVOLUTION
MACROEVOLUTION
Focuses on the formation of new species (speciation)
and on the evolutionary relationship between groups of
species.
The term species is often defined as a population
capable of interbreeding---of producing viable, fertile
offspring. These species are reproductively isolated.
NATURAL SELECTION
Speciation through the process of adaptive change to
the environment as proposed in Darwin’s Origin of
Species (1859) is generally considered to occur at a slow
rate.
In this model speciation happens as organisms become
more adapted to their environment.
If a new body plan is adaptive, an organism will
maintain its new form during long periods of time
rather than promote change because of natural
selection.
Natural selection is a process through which certain
environmentally adapted biological features are
perpetuated at the expense of less adaptive features.
Hence, the long evolutionary paths of humans---similar
to mammals and primates---have set the stage for the
cultural beings that we are today.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
During the past 200 million years, the position of the
continents has shifted through continental drift. This
process resulted to the re-arrangement of adjacent land
masses as implied by the theory of plate tectonics.
According to the theory, the continents moved as edges
of underlying plates are created or destroyed.
Continental drift is important for understanding the
distribution of fossil primate groups as well as climatic
changes in the environment that affected the evolution
of primates and other living things.
PRIMATES
All primates belong to the class Mammalia and they
share all the common features of Mammals. Except for
humans, the bodies of primates are covered with dense
hair or fur which provides insulation
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMATES
Physical Features:
 Most are arboreal (tree-living)
 Omnivorous
 Prehensile
 Opposite Thumbs
 Forward-facing eyes
 Relatively large brain
 Rotating forearm
Social Features:
 Dependency
 Primates at play
 Learning from other
HOMINOIDS
The earliest primate-like mammals came into being
approximately 65 million years ago when a new, mild
climate favored the spread of dense tropical and
subtropical forests in most land areas around the world.
Approximately 40 million years ago, diurnal anthropoid
primates appeared. Then, 23 million years after, at the
start of the geological epoch known as the Miocene, the
first fossil apes or hominoids began to appear in Asia,
Africa, and Europe.
Hominoids are broad-shouldered tailless primates that
include that include all living and extinct apes and
humans.
The word hominoid comes from the Latin root words
homo and homi (human being) and the suffix oxides
(resembling).
Some of these ancient primates were relatively small;
some, however, were larger than present-day gorillas.
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During the Miocene period, the African and Eurasian
land masses made direct contact. The climatic changes
set into motion during the Miocene epoch may have
played a role in the success of the human line once it
originated.
Miocene fossil remains of apes from this time period
have been found from the caves of China, forests of
France, to Eastern Africa where the earliest fossil
remains of bipeds have been found. So varied and
ubiquitous were the fossil apes of this period that some
primatologists have labeled the Miocene period as the
“golden age of the hominoids.”
EARLY HUMANS
Humans and their ancestors are distinct among the
hominoids for bipedalism, a special form of locomotion
on two feet. Larger brains and bipedal locomotion
constitute the most striking differences between
contemporary people and our closest primate relatives.
Tracing the roots of human evolution is done by
determining whether a fossilized hominoid is bipedal.
There are several ways to determine bipedalism such as
looking at the curves of the spine, shape of the pelvis,
and shape of the foot bones, among others.
HOMO HABILIS
The earliest ancestors of humans hailed from the
australopithecines which were bipedals but had small
brain-size in proportion to their bodies. It is theorized
that from one species of Australopithecus, the Homo
habilis evolved.
Compared to the australopithecines, the Homo habilis
had smaller teeth and larger brains. This implies that
the Homo habilis most probably exercised higher
abilities to learn and were better at processing
information than the australopithecines.
HOMO ERECTUS
With an even larger brain, the Homo erectus was more
able to adapt to the environment and provide solutions
to problems of survival.
The culture of the Homo erectus is mostly perceived
through the tools they made.
PALEOLITHIC PERIOD
LOWER PALEOLITHIC PERIOD
Marked the existence of the Homo erectus which
sought efficiency and made tools for specific tasks.
During this period, the hand ax and other stone tools
were created. Tools during this period were made by
chipping off flakes from a core of rock, from different
angles.
MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD
The Homo sapiens lived during this epoch.
They made more efficient tools, allowing them to do
anatomical labor much easier, such as prying, lifting,
holding, and pulling.
Further specialization of tools was also done by creating
uniform flakes of rock and detailing each one for a
particular task.
UPPER PALEOLITHIC PERIOD
Lastly, the Homo sapiens sapiens lived during this
epoch.
The blade, longer than a flake of rock, was the most
distinct tool developed during this period. A further
increase in specialized tools was also created.
The expansion of specialized tools reflected an increase
in the population of the Homo sapiens sapiens and their
exploration of new economic activities.
8
DEMOCRACY

a system of government by the whole population or all

the eligible members of a state, typically through
elected representatives

CAPITALISM

an economic and political system in which a country

trade and industry are controlled by pride owners for
profit, rather than by the state

IMPERIALISM

a policy of extending a country's power and influence

through diplomacy or military force

HISTORY

July 4, 1776 - foundation of US

- originally 13 states

Late 1940s to 1950s - 50 states

1898 - Independence from Spain of Philippines

- Treaty of Paris (December 10)

- Estados Unidos became Imperialist

1914 - World War I

1439 - 1945 - World War II

1991 - Soviet Union dissolved

- New World Order