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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Now a day’s computers are becoming smaller and smaller and in near future this technology
will be replaced by the Quantum computer technologies and moreover this quantum computing is
more charming and is set on the high speed co-processors. The basic detail concept of the quantum
computer is the single bit. The advantages of the quantum computers are the storage capabilities
and the operation function of the process system can be executed all at the same time. To solve
such problems specific algorithms are made to make it work successfully.

Quantum computers are developed for the use of the computer technology to make updates from
one system like the physical state to other state. The development of the quantum computers was
started in early 1982 and later came into existence in 1985.

Some of the desirable features of the Ideal quantum computer are scalable physical system which
aims at the updates that happens within the single strength of the existing system. Initialize a
simple state has the same features like that o the classic systems. Decoherence in which not a single
memory of the quantum computer is totally free.

1.1 What is quantum computer?

A quantum computer is any device for computation that makes direct use of distinctively
quantum mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations
on data. In a classical (or conventional) computer, information is stored as bits; in a quantum
computer, it is stored as qubit (quantum bits).

The basic principle of quantum computation is that the quantum properties can be used to represent
and structure data and that quantum mechanisms can be devised and built to perform operations
with this data. Although quantum computing is still in its infancy, experiments have been carried
out in which quantum computational operations were executed on a very small number of qubits.

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Research in both theoretical and practical areas continues at a frantic pace, and many national
government and military funding agencies support quantum computing research to develop
quantum computers for both civilian and national security purposes, such as cryptanalysis.

If large-scale quantum computers can be built, they will be able to solve certain problems
exponentially faster than any of our current classical computers (for example Shor's algorithm).
Quantum computers are different from other computers such as DNA computers and traditional
computers based on transistors. Some computing architectures such as optical computers may use
classical superposition of electromagnetic waves, but without some specifically quantum
mechanical resources such as entanglement, they have less potential for computational speed-up
than quantum computers.

The power of quantum computers Integer factorization is believed to be computationally

infeasible with an ordinary computer for large integers that are the product of only a few prime
numbers (e.g., products of two 300-digit primes). By comparison, a quantum computer could solve
this problem more efficiently than a classical computer using Shor's algorithm to find its factors.
This ability would allow a quantum computer to "break" many of the cryptographic systems in use
today, in the sense that there would be a polynomial time (in the number of bits of the integer)
algorithm for solving the problem. In particular, most of the popular public key ciphers are based
on the difficulty of factoring integers, including forms of RSA.
It seems plausible that it will always be possible to build classical computers that have more bits
than the number of qubits in the largest quantum computer.

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CHAPTER 2
HISTORY

The field of quantum computation is largely a body of theoretical promises for some
impressively fast algorithms which could be executed on quantum computers. However, since the
first significant algorithm was proposed in 1994 experimental progress has been rapid with several
schemes yielding two and three quantum-bit manipulations.

2.1 Evolution

Quantum computers were first discussed by Paul Benioff in the context of simulating
classical Turing machines (very elementary conventional computers) with quantum unitary
evolution. Feynman considered the converse question of how well classical computers can simulate
quantum systems. He concluded that classical computers can invariably super from an exponential
slow-down in trying to simulate quantum systems. But those quantum systems could, in principle,
simulate each other without this slowdown. It was Deutsch, however, who first suggested that
quantum superposition might allow quantum evolution to perform many classical computations in
parallel.

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CHAPTER 3
WORKING PRINCIPLES

3.1 What quantum computers can do?

The biggest success so far -- and the event which ignited the current explosive growth of the
field of quantum computing -- was Peter Shor’s 1994 discovery of an efficient quantum algorithm
for finding the prime factors of large integers.
By making clever use of superposition’s , interference, quantum parallelism and some classical
number theory, Shor’s algorithm finds a factor of a number N in time roughly the square of length
of the input. In contrast, every known classical algorithm requires exponential time to factor. Since
factoring is one of the most elementary aspects of number theory, the oldest mathematical
discipline, and centuries of efforts by the greatest mathematicians have not yielded better methods,
it is widely believed that such better methods either donot exist or are prohibitively difficult to find.
In fact, this belief underlies most of the current public key cryptography, notably the RSA
system, ubiquitously used on the Internet and in the financial word,such crypto-systems can be
broken if one can factor large number fast. Accordingly, the advent of quantum computing
comprises all such systems; if a quantum computer can be built, then most of current cryptography
becomes totally insecure and for example, electronic money can be forged.
What quantum computing takes away with one hand, it gives back it another form with the other.
In 1984, Brassard found a scheme which allowed two distant parties to obtain a secret key via
quantum mechanical communication. Their scheme was always believed to be fully secure against
any type of spy or eavesdropper, and recently this has indeed been formally proven. On the other
hand, some other parts of electronic transactions, like unforgivable signatures, appear to be beyond
the power of quantum methods.
A third application is Grover’s 1996 algorithm for searching databases. Consider finding
some specific record in a large unordered database of N items. Classically, there is no smarter
method than just to go through all the records sequentially, which will requires expected N/2 time
steps for a record in general position Grove’s algorithm , however, uses quantum’s superposition’s
to examine all records at the same time and finds the desired record in roughly lesser steps.
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A fourth application was initially conceived and primarily developed in collaboration with the CWI
(Centrum voor Wiskundeen Informatics, University of Amsterdam) group. It deals with the setting
where two separated parties, Alice and Bob, want to compute some function f(x,y) depending on x
and y.
A simple scheme would be for Alice to send her x to Bob and then let Bob do all the work
by himself, but this may take a lot of bits of communication and often there are much more clever
schemes requiring less communication. The field of communication complexity examines the
optimal number of bits that have to be communicated in order to compute the function at hand.
What happens if we generalize the setting to the quantum world allows Alice and Bob the use of
Quantum computers and qubit-communication?
It turns out that some tasks can be solved with significantly less communication, but
allowing Alice and Bob the use of pre-established entangled qubits. Both approaches beat the limits
provable for just classical communication.
The above developments suggested the vision that all computation can be enormously
speeded up by quantum computers,. But not so! CWI’S researchers obtained strong and general
limitations of quantum computers as well. Grover’s algorithm is quadratically faster than classical
search algorithms. It was already known that such a quadratic speed-up is the best quantum
computers can achieve for searching a database, so exponentially speed-ups cannot be obtained for
this algorithm.
CWI- Researchers recently showed that the same holds for all problems in the database-setting of
Grover’s algorithm: for all such problems, quantum computers can be at most polynomially faster
than classical computers.
Limiting results like the above, of course, do not preclude exponential speed-ups in
different settings, like Shor’s, or a clever future setting as yet unknown. Exploring this potential of
quantum computation remains an exciting and important task for computer scientists and physicists
alike.

3.2 How Quantum computers can do it?

The above results are very promising but so far mostly theory. How about actually building
quantum computers which can run the fast algorithms like Shor’s, Grover’s, or CWI’s? To date
only very small quantum algorithms, but the physical realization of quantum computers is still in
its infancy.
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The main problem is that quantum super positions are extremely vulnerable and any
interactions with its environment will quickly cause errors, which degrade the performance of the
computer. Quantum versions of error-correcting codes have been developed recently which to a
large extent solve this problem in theory, but not yet in the brittle practice of the physical lab.
This is related to development of quantum information Theory -- the quantum extension of
classical information theory. CWI’s group has contributed to this research and to related notions of
the information in individual quantum states.
Building large quantum computers formidable problems to experimental physicists
reminiscent of the initial barriers to classical computing: unreliable components, physically large
components, memory, organizations, communication, and programming. The theory of quantum
mechanics is currently extended, partially by CWI research, in particular with respect to the
algebraic analysis of quantum entanglement -- a vital notion in many quantum algorithms,
apparently not yet thoroughly investigated in quantum theory.

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CHAPTER 4
FEATURES

The basic element of quantum computing includes the qubits, the quantum gates, the quantum
circuits and quantum algorithms.

4.1 The Qubit

The qubit is the quantum analogue of the bit, the classical fundamental unit of information.
It is a mathematical object with specific properties that can be realized in an actual physical system
in many different ways. Just as the classical bit has a state (either 0 or 1), a qubit also has a state.
Yet contrary to the classical bit0 and 1 are but two possible states of the qubit, and any linear
combination (superposition) thereof is also physically possible. In general, thus, the physical state
of a qubit is the superposition ψ=α0+β1 (where α and β are complex numbers). The state of a qubit
can be described as a vector in a two-dimensional Hilbert space, a complex vector space. The
special states 0 and 1 are known as the computational basis states, and form an orthonormal basis
for this vector space. According to quantum theory, when we try to measure the qubit in this basis
in order to determine its state, we get 0 with probability |α|2 or 1 with probability |β|2.
Since |α|2+|β|2=1(i.e., the qubit is a unit vector in the aforementioned two-dimensional Hilbert
space), we may (ignoring the overall phase factor) effectively write its state
as ψ= cos(θ)0+|e|iϕsin(θ)1, where the numbers θ and ϕ define a point on the unit three-dimensional
sphere, as shown here. This sphere is often called the Bloch sphere, and it provides a useful means
to visualise the state of a single qubit.

Theoretically a single qubit is capable of storing an infinite amount of information. When

measured, however, it yields only the classical result (0 or 1) with certain probabilities specified by
the quantum state. If the qubit is not measured, however, the amount of “hidden” information it
“stores” is conserved under its dynamical evolution. This feature of quantum mechanics allows one
to manipulate the information stored in unmeasured qubits with quantum gates, and is one of the
sources for the putative power of quantum computers.

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Fig.4.1 The Block Sphere

To see why, let us suppose we have two qubits with us. If these were classical bits, then
they could be in four possible states (00, 01, 10, 11). Correspondingly, a pair of qubits has
four computational basis states (00, 01, 10, 11). But while a single classical two-bit register can
store these numbers only one at a time, a pair of qubits can also exist in a superposition of these
four basis states, each with its own complex coefficient (whose mod square, being interpreted as a
probability, is normalized). As long as the quantum computer evolves unitarily and is unmeasured,
all possible states are simultaneously “stored” in a two qubit quantum register. The difficult task is
to retrieve the information efficiently.

4.2 Quantum Gates

Classical computational gates are Boolean logic gates that manipulate information stored in
bits. In quantum computing such gates are represented by matrices, and can be visualized as
rotations over the Bloch sphere. This visualization represents the fact that quantum gates are
unitary operators, i.e., they preserve the norm of the quantum state (if U is a matrix describing a
single qubit gate, then U†U=I, where U† is the ad joint of U, obtained by transposing and then
complex-conjugating U). In classical computing some gates are “universal”. For example
the NAND gate is a gate that evaluates the function “not both A and B” over its two inputs. By
stringing together a number of NAND gates it is possible to compute any computable function.
Another universal gate is the NOR gate, which evaluates the function “not (A or B)”. One general
feature of quantum gates that distinguishes them from classical gates is that they are always
reversible: the inverse of a unitary matrix is also a unitary matrix, and thus a quantum gate can
always be inverted by another quantum gate.

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Fig.4.2 The CNOT Gate

Unitary gates manipulate information stored in the “quantum register”—a quantum
system—and in this sense ordinary (unitary) quantum evolution can be regarded as a computation.
In order to read the result of this computation, however, the quantum register must be measured.
The measurement gate is a non-unitary gate that “collapses” the quantum superposition in the
register onto one of its terms with a probability corresponding to its complex coefficient. Usually
this measurement is done in the computational basis, but since quantum mechanics allows one to
express an arbitrary state as a linear combination of basis states, provided that the states are
orthonormal (a condition that ensures normalization) one can in principle measure the register in
any arbitrary orthonormal basis. This, however, doesn’t mean that measurements in different bases
are equivalent complexity-wise. Indeed, one of the difficulties in constructing efficient quantum
algorithms stems exactly from the fact that measurement collapses the state, and some
measurements are much more complicated than others.

4.3 Quantum Circuits

Quantum circuits are similar to classical computer circuits in that they consist
of wires and logical gates. The wires are used to carry the information, while the gates manipulate
it (note that the wires are abstract and do not necessarily correspond to physical wires; they may
correspond to a physical particle, e.g. a photon, moving from one location to another in space, or
even to time-evolution). Conventionally, the input of the quantum circuit is assumed to be a
number of qubits each initialized to a computational basis state (typically 0). The output state of the
circuit is then measured in the computational basis, or in any other arbitrary orthonormal basis. The
first quantum algorithms (i.e. Deutsch-Jozsa, Simon, Shor and Grover) were constructed in this
paradigm. Additional paradigms for quantum computing exist today that differ from the quantum
circuit model in many interesting ways. So far, however, they all have been demonstrated to be
computationally equivalent to the circuit model, in the sense that any computational problem that

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can be solved by the circuit model can be solved by these new models with only a polynomial
overhead in computational resources.
4.4 Important Properties of Quantum Circuits
Quantum circuits have the following constraints which make them different from classical
circuits.
• They are acyclic (no loops).
• No FANIN
• No FANOUT

Quantum Algorithms

Algorithm design is a highly complicated task, and in quantum computing, delicately

leveraging the features of quantum mechanics in order to make our algorithms more efficient
makes the task even more complicated. But before discussing this aspect of quantum algorithm
design, let us first convince ourselves that quantum computers can be harnessed to perform
standard, classical, computation without any computational speed-up. In some sense this is
obvious, given the belief in the universal character of quantum mechanics, and the observation that
any quantum computation that is diagonal in the computational basis, i.e., that involves no
interference between the qubits, is effectively classical. Yet the demonstration that quantum
circuits can be used to simulate classical circuits is not straightforward (recall that the former are
always reversible while the latter use gates which are in general irreversible). Indeed, quantum
circuits cannot be used directly to simulate classical computation, but the latter can still be
simulated on a quantum computer using an intermediate gate, namely the Toffoli gate. This
universal classical gate has three input bits and three output bits. Two of the input bits are control
bits, unaffected by the action of the gate. The third input bit is a target bit that is flipped if both
control bits are set to 1, and otherwise is left alone. This gate is reversible (its inverse is itself), and
by stringing a number of such gates together one can simulate any classical irreversible circuit.

Consequently, using the quantum version of the Toffoli gate (which by definition permutes the
computational basis states similarly to the classical Toffoli gate) one can simulate, although rather
tediously, irreversible classical logic gates with quantum reversible ones. Quantum computers are
thus capable of performing any computation which a classical deterministic computer can do.

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What about probabilistic computation? Not surprisingly, a quantum computer can also
simulate this type of computation by using another famous quantum gate, namely the Hadamard
gate, a single-qubit gate which receives as input the state 0 and produces the state (0+1)/√2.
Measuring this output state yields 0 or 1 with 50/50 probability, which can be used to simulate a
fair coin toss.

FIG. 4.3 THE HADAMARD GATE

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CHAPTER 5
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

5.1 Advantages

❖ Cloud process massive amount of complex data.

❖ Ability to solve scientific and commercial problems.
❖ Process data in a much faster speed.
❖ Capability to convey more accurate answers
❖ More can be computed in less time.
❖ These are used to protect secure Web pages, encrypted email, and many other types of data.

5.2 Disadvantages

There are a number of technical challenges in building a large-scale quantum computer. David
DiVincenzo listed the following requirements for a practical quantum computer:

❖ scalable physically to increase the number of qubits;

❖ qubits that can be initialized to arbitrary values;
❖ quantum gates that are faster than decoherence time;
❖ universal gate set;
❖ qubits that can be read easily.

Sourcing parts for quantum computers is very difficult: Quantum computers need Helium-3, a
nuclear research byproduct, and special cables that are only made by a single company in Japan.

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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION

The field of quantum computing is growing rapidly as many of today's leading computing
groups, universities, colleges, and all the leading IT vendors are researching the topic. This pace is
expected to increase as more research is turned into practical applications. Although practical
machines lie years in the future, this formerly fanciful idea is gaining plausibility.

The current challenge is not to build a full quantum computer right away; instead to move
away from the experiments in which we merely observe quantum phenomena to experiments in
which we can control these phenomena. Systems in which information obeys the laws of quantum
mechanics could far exceed the performance of any conventional computer. Therein lies the
opportunity and the reward. No one can predict when we will build the first quantum computer; it
could be this year, perhaps in the next 10 years, or centuries from now. Obviously, this mind-
boggling level of computing power has enormous commercial, industrial, and scientific
applications, but there are some significant technological and conceptual issue to resolve first.

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CHAPTER 7

FUTURE WORK

7.1 Scope of Future Application

Due to its precise and accurate calculations, the demand of quantum computers has progressively
increased. Many enterprises have started investing in quantum computers insteead of conventional
Super Computers. One such company that has been dedicated to working on the concept of
quantum computing is “D-wave”. They have successfully developed a 512 qubit chipset.
Dimensionally, the chipset is as big as a bedroom. This is required in order to maintain the required
superconducting conditions. It is believed this chipset will shrink to the size of a desktop CPU in
the near future.
The major reason for the success of quantum computers over super computers is the flawless
security provided by the quantum computers. Many governments have already installed quantum
computers for military and medical security.

7.2 Scope of Improvement

Quantum computers will disrupt current techniques and solve previously unapproachable
problems, creating valuable solutions for industry.

Consider a few more industries that could benefit:

• Distribution centers wanting the best way to maneuver robotics around a warehouse.
• Airlines seeking the optimal way to store spare parts at airports.
• Oil and gas companies calculating how atoms and molecules can be configured to protect
equipment from corrosion.

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REFERENCES

1. Michael Nielson, Issac Chuang, “Quantum computation and Quantum Information”,

Cambridge University Press (2000).
2. Peter Shor, “Algorithms for Quantum Computation: discrete logarithms and Factoring”
3. Proceedigs of the 35th Annual Symposium on Foundations of a Computer Science 124-
134(1994)
4. R.Feynman Simulating physics with computers, Internet. J.Theoret.Phys., 21, pp. 467-
488(1992)
5. http://www.cse.iitd.ernet.in/~suban/quantum/lectures/lecture1.pdf
6. http://www.Qubit.org/library/intros/comp/comp.html
7. http://www.sra.itc.it/people/serafini/quantum-computing/20001006.ps
sshttp://www.cs.ualberta.ca/~bulitko/qc/schedule/qcss-notes.pdf

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