Introduction

Floods, considered as a part of natural ecosystems with perceived benefits are becoming
more frequent and severe, causing widespread damage to many countries and societies
at large. Its impact is increasingly devastating with increasing urbanization (Campion
et al., 2013). This is especially obvious in developing countries where population,
economic activities and housing are rising in near flood prone areas. For instance, in
2011 several flood events in Asia such as in Philippines and Thailand, claimed
significant number of lives and damage to properties (Guha-Sapir et al., 2012).
Considering that flood is part of the natural process, the communities should invest in
strengthening preparedness measures to avert the foreseen impacts of flood disaster.
Evacuation is one of the effective preparedness measures to minimize damage and
losses as a result of flooding (Na et al., 2012). Bangladesh is prone to natural disasters
such as floods, cyclones, river-bank erosion and droughts. While people living in
riverine areas are more exposed to the dangers of natural disasters, poor households
suffer more than non-poor households. Many poor are settled in high risk areas and lack
of resources to afford disaster proof housing. Water related hazards do not create impact
all sections of the community equally or uniformly. Several waters related hazards have
been identified for the study area: floods, drought, cyclones, salinity, river-bank erosion,
ground water contamination (including arsenic), surface water pollution, water logging
/ drainage congestion, reduced dry season flows, sedimentation of rivers and canals,
lack of safe drinking water, loss of biodiversity and conflicts of interest. (Mohiuddin,
2011) So, it is time to manage flood and riverbank erosion with techniques and
technology.

Objectives
By reading this study we can know about-
❖ Definition of flood and riverbank erosion
❖ Causes, types and effects of flood and riverbank erosion
❖ Flood Evacuation
❖ Management techniques of flood and riverbank erosion
❖ Integrated Management techniques of flood and riverbank erosion

Methodology
This assignment is made by using Microsoft Office Word Document 2019. This article
is mainly based on secondary data collected from several reliable sources. The sources
of secondary data are annual reports and related articles, journals, eBook etc. A

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thorough research was carried out for a period of five days when we research with
several reports and articles then finally this article is chalked. The assignment will be
helpful for the readers and researchers.

Flood
A flood is an overflow of water on land which is usually dry.

Fig: Flood

Types of Flood
There are basically 5 types of flood (Nishat, 2004). They are-

1. River/Monsoon floods:
When a river water rises and spills over the banks of the river is called river flood.

Fig: River/Monsoon floods

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 2. Flash floods:
A flash flood is a sudden flood in a low-lying area, most commonly caused by periods
of particularly heavy rainfall. Generally happens in the valleys of the hilly areas.

3. Ponding Flood:
Ponding is a type of flooding that can happen in relatively flat areas. Rain water falling
in an area is normally stored in the ground, in canals or lakes, or is drained away. When
more rain water enters a water system than can be stored, or can leave the system,
flooding occurs.

Fig: Ponding Flood

4. Coastal flood:
Simply put a costal flood is when the coast is flooded by the sea.

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 Fig: Coastal flood
5. Urban flood:
Urban flooding is specific in the fact that the cause is a lack of drainage in an urban
area. Flooding in urban areas can be caused by flash flood, or coastal flood, or river
flood.

.
Fig: Urban flood
Causes of Flood
There are so many reasons which causes flood. They are-
1. Heavy Rains
The simplest explanation for flooding is heavy rains. No matter where you live, you are
surrounded by infrastructure and systems designed to move rainwater into appropriate
basins and reservoirs. In most cases, the infrastructure does its job, and you never have
to think about where the rain goes when it runs off.
When it rains heavily, however, those systems are overwhelmed, and that water doesn’t
drain nearly as quickly as it needs to. In short, the drainage systems back up, and the
water rises — sometimes into homes. This typically happens only in cases of sustained
heavy rains over a long period.

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 Fig: Heavy rainfall causes flood
2. Overflowing Rivers
You do not necessarily need to have heavy rains to experience flooding in your area.
For example, if you live along a river and areas upstream from you experience heavy
rains, it could lead to a serious overflow where you live. Most larger rivers include a
series of dams to help manage large amounts of rainfall, and most river systems are
managed by government authorities.
Sometimes, however, those authorities have to make tough decisions about how to
operate dams. They often can manage the water and prevent flooding altogether — but
not always.
3. Broken Dams
Much of America’s infrastructure was built in the 20th century, so it is getting old.
When heavy rains come, and water levels rise, aging dams can fail and unleash torrents
of water on unsuspecting households.
This is part of what happened after Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans in 2005. Levees
failed and made the flooding far worse than it would have been otherwise. While we
have come to depend on 20th-century architecture, and much of it does its job well,
there is always a possibility that a structure will fail.
4. Urban Drainage Basins
Many of our cities are made of mostly concrete and other impermeable material. When
you have an urban drainage basin that is made of concrete, there is no ground for water
to sink into. So, when those drainage basins fill up, it is going to mean flooding for low-
lying areas.

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This is mostly the case in large urban areas — think Houston and Los Angeles. When
heavy rains strike, the basins used to drain them cannot always handle the load.
5. Storm Surges and Tsunamis
Rain is not always the culprit when it comes to flooding. Storm surges related to
hurricanes and other storms can lead to significant flooding, as can tsunamis that are
sometimes caused by underwater earthquakes.
Given modern technology, we often know about storm surges and tsunamis before they
arrive, but this is not always the case. For example, in 2004, an earthquake off the coast
of Indonesia created a tsunami that gave little warning before coming ashore.
6. Channels with Steep Sides
Flooding often occurs when there is fast runoff into lakes, rivers and other reservoirs.
This is often the case with rivers and other channels that feature steep sides. It is a
similar issue to having a lack of vegetation, which is explained in more detail below.
7. Deforestation
Vegetation can help slow runoff and prevent flooding. When there is a lack of
vegetation, however, there is little to stop water from running off. This can be a bit of a
conundrum after a drought.
While area residents likely welcome the rain, the lack of vegetation after the drought
can cause flash flooding. This does not always happen given that basins and reservoirs
are close to empty, but it can occur in cases of extreme rains following long periods of
drought.
8. Melting Snow and Ice
A winter of heavy snow and other precipitation can lead to a spring of flooding. After
all, that snow and ice have to go somewhere when they melt. Most mountainous areas
experience relatively consistent snowfall totals from year to year, but an unusually
heavy winter of precipitation can spell bad news for low-lying areas around the
mountains when spring hits.
The good news is that sustained winter precipitation provides a long lead time to prepare
for potential flooding. That is a silver lining at the very least. (“What Causes Floods?,”
2018)
9. Lakes and Coastal Flooding
Lake and Coastal flooding occur when large storms or tsunamis causes the water body
to surge inland. These overflows have destructive power since they can destroy ill-
equipped structures to withstand water’s strength such as bridges, houses, and cars. In

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the coastal areas, strong and massive winds and hurricanes drive water onto the dry
coastal lands and give rise to flooding. The situation is even worsened when the winds
blowing from the ocean carry rains in them. Sea waters from the tsunami or hurricane
can cause widespread damage. (Madaan, 2016)
10. Low general topography.
11. Heavy siltation of the river bed reduces the water carrying capacity of the
rivers/stream.
12. Blockage in the drains lead to flooding of the area.
13. Landslide blocking the flow of the stream.
14. Construction of dams.
15. Rise of mean sea level.
16. Flow tide in the Bay of Bengal.
17. Greenhouse effect
18. Increased urbanization
19. Bad farming practise

Fig: Causes of food

Impacts of Flood
1. Loss of lives and property: Immediate impacts of flooding include loss of
human life, damage to property, destruction of crops, loss of livestock, non-
functioning of infrastructure facilities and deterioration of health condition

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 owing to waterborne diseases. Flash floods, with little or no warning time, cause
more deaths than slow-rising riverine floods.
2. Loss of livelihoods: As communication links and infrastructure such as power
plants, roads and bridges are damaged and disrupted, economic activities come
to a standstill, resulting in dislocation and the dysfunction of normal life for a
period much beyond the duration of the flooding. Similarly, the direct effect on
production assets, be it in agriculture or industry, can inhibit regularly activity
and lead to loss of livelihoods.
3. Decreased purchasing and production power: Damage to infrastructure also
causes long-term impacts, such as disruptions to clean water and electricity,
transport, communication, education and health care. Loss of livelihoods,
reduction in purchasing power and loss of land value in the flood plains lead to
increased vulnerabilities of communities living in the area. The additional cost
of rehabilitation, relocation of people and removal of property from flood-
affected areas can divert the capital required for maintaining production.
4. Mass migration: Frequent flooding, resulting in loss of livelihoods, production
and other prolonged economic impacts and types of suffering can trigger mass
migration or population displacement. Migration to developed urban areas
contributes to the overcrowding in the cities. These migrants swell the ranks of
the urban poor and end up living in marginal lands in cities that are prone to
floods or other risks. Selective out-migration of the workforce sometimes creates
complex social problems.
5. Psychosocial effects: The huge psycho-social effects on flood victims and their
families can traumatize them for long periods of time. The loss of loved ones can
generate deep impacts, especially on children. Displacement from one’s home,
loss of property and livelihoods and disruption to business and social affairs can
cause continuing stress. The stress of overcoming these losses can be
overwhelming and produce lasting psychological impacts.
6. Hindering economic growth and development: The high cost of relief and
recovery may adversely impact investment in infrastructure and other
development activities in the area and in certain cases may cripple the frail
economy of the region. Recurrent flooding in a region may discourage long-term
investments by the government and private sector alike.
7. Political implications: Ineffective response to relief operations during major
flood events may lead to public discontent or loss of trust in the authorities or
the state and national governments. Lack of development in flood-prone areas
may cause social inequity and even social unrest posing threat to peace and
stability in the region. (APFM, 2013)
8. Destruction of communication system
9. Destruction of food and water supply system

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 Fig: Impacts of flood
Flood Management
Floods are natural phenomena which cannot be prevented. But we can reduce flood
damage. We found two ways to preventive and measures of flood damage. These are-

Structural Measure:

• A measure to control the physical process of flooding. It also prevents

inundation.
• Protects vulnerable areas up-to certain level of flooding.
• Clear the river and water flow channel.
• Construction culvert to save road during flood.
• Planting trees near the river bank to save from erosion.
• Sand bags and Stone are thrown at river bank to protect bank from erosion.
• Construction dam to protect town from flood by changing the way of river.
Non-Structural Measure:

• Flood forecasting.
• Early warning of flood.
• Flood insurance.
• Changes in cropping pattern.
• Know about the safe zones during flood.
• Emergency communication system during flood.

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 Fig: Flood Forecasting

Flood Management Techniques

❖ Urban flood management
The way in which flood management is approached has evolved over time.
Historically, there have been four successive approaches to flood hazard management
(Green et al., 2000):

1. Indigenous flood adaptation: communities have occupied flood-prone areas for

many generations. Local adaptations develop to make them more resilient to floods:
houses are constructed on stilts (e.g., in New Guinea, Benin, Thailand) and on higher
ground and mounds (e.g., in The Netherlands, Bangladesh) to raise them above
anticipated flood levels. In Bangladesh houses are even temporarily dismantled in
times of high water. There are numerous examples of indigenous adaptations to
floods, however, mainly due to rapid urbanization and economic growth in
conjunction with a growing faith in structural measures to protect communities from
floods, these approaches have been abandoned.
2. Flood control and defence: structural measures, such as flood embankments, dikes
and flood control dams, were developed in the 19th and most of the 20th century.
These large-scale engineering measures appeared to be very effective in controlling
rivers and preventing flood water entering communities located in flood-prone
areas. However, this second-generation approach received much criticism in the late
20th century. Provision of flood protection, either in an urban or rural environment
has led to cyclical patterns of investment - in the absence of land-use controls, the

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 population density in former flood plains has increased, property values have risen
and the pressure to provide a greater degree of flood protection has intensified.
3. Non-structural approaches: as an alternative to the engineering solutions
nonstructural approaches have received much attention in the US and Western
Europe. In this approach emphasis is laid on both the behavior of people and on
strategies which influence their behavior (moving people away from floods,
evacuating them using warning systems, etc.) and on land-use planning as a steering
instrument to design and plan communities in safe areas or to better adapt them to
the impacts of floods.
4. Living with floods: the recurrence of disastrous floods has shown that many
structural and non-structural strategies have failed to be effective. New options
emerge, in which flood-prone areas are kept free from urbanization and transformed
into "green belts", through which flood waters can pass and temporarily be stored to
prevent surrounding urbanized areas from flood damage. Simultaneously, these
open areas may serve recreational purposes.

❖ Flood Proofing
The following are examples of permanent flood-proofing techniques (Green
et al., 2000):

Fig: Flood Proofing

1. Buildings on fill and artificial mounds: buildings are constructed on fill or
artificial mounds raised above the design flood level. This method does not
require design modifications, and if the design flood water level is exceeded, the

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 depth of water over the fill will be shallow and of short duration. It is not,
however, a practical alternative for protecting existing buildings.
2. Floating and amphibious buildings: floating buildings may provide an
alternative to elevated buildings in permanently inundated areas (e.g., detention
basins). These houses can tolerate a fluctuating water level and are therefore well
protected against flood water. Floods and subsequent dike reinforcements in the
catchment basin have led to the development of amphibious houses in The
Netherlands: i.e., houses that float during floods. To enable the houses to move
with the water level, they are built on floating concrete bodies with a coupling
construction.
3. Buildings on piers, piles, columns or bearing walls: for many generations
elevated houses have been constructed in delta areas and along rivers. Elevating
structures may provide reliable protection against flood damage. This method
uses land efficiently, does not raise the flood level, and has minimal adverse
effects on flood flows. Examples of recent, high density developments using
elevated structures can be found in Japan (Tsurumi river basin) and the UK
(Thames Gate).
4. Closure and seal techniques: these techniques are typical examples of "dry
flood proofing". The walls of buildings are sealed to make them impermeable to
flood water. Flood proofing the lower levels of buildings by seal techniques
requires that they are strong enough to withstand cracking from the lateral and
uplift pressure of the water. Accordingly, careful design of drainage systems,
floor slabs, basement walls, lower windows and all entrances is essential. This
method can be used for existing structures if they are of adequate strength and
built on soils of low permeability.
5. Wet flood-proofing: as opposed to dry flood-proofing with this technique it is
accepted that the interior of the building will be flooded. Flood damage is kept
to a minimum by using special water-resistant construction materials in the lower
levels of the building. Wet flood-proofing is frequently the only method of
controlling or reducing flood damage to existing buildings in areas subject to
flooding. It is seldom advocated for new buildings because of the cost of drying
out, the delay in return to use and the clean-up required after a flood.
❖ Urban Drainage Systems
These new generation systems (Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS)) are more
sustainable than the conventional ones due to factors outlined below (CIRIA Report
C521, 2000; Maksimovic, 2001):
1. management of runoff flow rates
2. reduction of the impact of urbanization on flooding;
3. protection or enhancement of water quality;

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4. provision of a habitat for wildlife in urban watercourses;
5. encouragement of natural groundwater recharge (where appropriate).
Urban drainage systems comprise a wide spectrum of techniques, which can be
categorized in:
1. Permeable surfaces (gravel surfaces, porous blocks etc.);
2. Filter strips and swales;
3. Infiltration devices;
4. Basins and ponds.

Fig: Sustainable urban drainage system

❖ Flood Forecasting Through Monitoring Changes in Groundwater Levels
Changes in groundwater levels can be a source of flood forecasting information. It is
inferred from results obtained from hydrograph separation and water table fluctuations
methods carried out from stream flow and twenty (20) groundwater level monitoring in
Ogun River basin that regular estimation of groundwater recharges in the basin area can
assist in establishing the peaks of fluctuations, which can be a vital flood prevention
mechanism.

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 Fig: Graph showing average monthly discharge of Opeki river (m3/s) (Muritala &
Idowu, 2018)
Here, we understand flood management measures. So, the summary of it is given
below:

Fig: Summary of flood management measures (IRMA, 2002)

Flood Evacuation

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Understanding the evacuation process and models are fundamental to evacuation
planning. This serves as a basis for the implementation of evacuation plan of the
integrated model of (EMA, 2005) and (Taylor and Freeman, 2010).

(EMA, 2005 & Taylor and Freeman, 2010)

Integrated Flood Management

According to (Associated Programme on Flood Management, 2009) there are six key
elements to be addressed By a IFM plan:
1. Managing water cycle as a whole;
2. Integrating land and water management;
3. Managing risk and uncertainty;
4. Adopting the best combination of flood protection measures and options
5. Ensuring participatory approach;
6. Integrating hazard management approach
Without these there are several systems-
1. Green Infrastructure (GI)- The Centre for Neighborhood Technology (CNT,
2011, p.1) states that Green Infrastructure (GI) is a network of decentralized
stormwater management solutions such as green roofs, trees, rain gardens thus
reducing stormwater runoff and improving the health of surrounding
waterways”;
2. Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)- Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)
have gradually been designed and developed over the past 20 years in the UK to
minimise the impact of urban surface waters on new and existing developments

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 (Woods-Ballard et al., 2015) and maximize benefits (facilities and biodiversity)
from surface water management

Fig: Flood risk management (Open green space)

3. Low Impact Development (LID) - Low Impact Development (LID) is an
approach developed in North America and Canada (US EPA, 2017), similar to
GI networks, aiming to preserve, restore, and create green spaces;

4. Best Management Practice (BMP) - Best Management Practice (BMP), also

developed in North America and Canada, is mostly oriented to water pollution
control besides other benefits.

5. Water Sensitive Urban Design - Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD)

represents a holistic approach to the planning and design of urban area.

6. Low Impact Urban Design and Development - Low Impact Urban Design and
Development (LIUDD) is an approach adopted in New Zealand that combines
low impact development and water sensitive design. It is a synthesis of a number
of approaches: LID, Conservation sub-divisions (CSD); Integrated Catchment
Management (ICM); and Sustainable Building/Green Architecture (SB/GA).

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 Fig: Summary of flood management (dawson et al., 2011)

Riverbank Erosion
River Bank erosion is the wearing away of the banks of a stream or river.
Causes of Riverbank Erosion

1. Flood: Bangladesh is a riverine country. About 700 rivers including tributaries flow
through Bangladesh constituting an innocent waterway of quantity length a props
24,140 kilometers. Most of the country’s in flames is formed through silt brought

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 by the rivers. In our country, all year the people are affected by floods, especially
for the rainy gloss. This is the most crucial footnote for riverbank erosion.
2. Deforestation: Deforestation refers to the bitter all along trees and makes a reforest
non-tree-plant. Trees can money on the soil aggregates. But back the trees are graze
besides, the soil particles become pointless and for this excuse, the soil of the river
bank can be eroded gradually.
3. Heavy Rainfall: We are in monsoon climate zone. We position close rainfall in the
rainy season. This extreme rainfall is furthermore an important cause of riverbank
erosion. Where there is no capably-constructed levee of a river, the soil can be
eroded because of stuffy rainfall at that epoch.
4. Strong Current of the River: Another held held responsible factor of erosion
hermetic current of the river. The major rivers of our country are Padma, Meghna,
Jamuna etc. There are some specific zones of these rivers where the current of the
river water is utterly much high than the toting going on places. Those places are
affected by riverbank erosion atrociously.
5. Silt Deposition: Deforestation, landslide and auxiliary unintentional embankment
and destruction of hills for road construction which carried a big amount of silt in
the river beneath by the tributaries of the rivers of Bangladesh. Which upshot ensue
of silt. This produces the water holding expertise of the rivers. The processing of the
river is changed and for that excuse the bank of the rivers is eroded. (Munna, 2018)

Fig: Riverbank Erosion

Impacts of Riverbank Erosion
1. Damage of health, property, infrastructures, agricultural land, economic growth,
livestock, transportation etc.
2. Displacement of people from one place to another.
3. Affect in the occupation of the affected people

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 4. Unemployment Problems can be increased
5. Poverty in society
6. Losses crops
7. Shortage of cropland
8. Increase landless labor
9. The salinity of land increases
10. Isolation from the geographically of eroded areas
11. Affect productivity in eroded Soils
12. Division of Joint Family (Munna, 2018)

Table 1: Predicted riverbank erosion along the Jamuna, Ganges and Padma
Rivers (Aktar, 2013)
River name Erosion in 2010 Erosion by 2050 Erosion by 2100
(ha) (%increase from (%increase from
base) base)
Jamuna 2700 3,250 (20.7%) 3,450 (27.8%)
Ganges 1850 1,900 (2.7%) 1,950 (5.4%)
Padma 1500 1,700 (13.3%) 1,750 (16.7%)
Total 6050 6,850 (13.2%) 7,150 (18.2%)

Management of Riverbank Erosion

Recurrent and extreme bank erosion creates serious risks to development and has
negative impacts on lives, livelihoods and economic activity of the society. Integrated
bank erosion management plays an important role in protecting people and their socio-
economic activities in floodplains from erosion. Economic analysis helps to select not
only the optimum level of adjustment to erosion on the basis of risk-safety trade-off
decisions but also can help arrive at an optimum combination of measures comprising
both structural and non-structural.

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Fig: Schematic Frame of Economic Management (Mohiuddin, 2011)

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Integrated Riverbank Erosion Management
In response to river bank erosion and its adverse impacts on water resources
management and sustainable development, a new paradigm of river bank erosion
management has been addressed (Mohiuddin et al, 2011). The river bank erosion
management issues have been integrated by compiling the sensitive indicators of six
individual aspects, i.e. technological, social, risk, environmental, economic and
institutional aspects. An integrated framework has been developed by linking common
parameters of the six individual frames of different aspects through multi-criteria
analysis (MCA) and sensitivity analysis.
Finally, a procedure has been developed for selecting the adaptive adequate erosion
mitigation measures for:
(a) pre-erosion and post-erosion management operations and
(b) erosion emergency management operations. (Mohiuddin, 2011)
(a) Pre-erosion and post-erosion management operations
1. Sensitivity analysis of variables:
The sensitivity analysis means a technique used to determine how different values of an
independent variable will impact a particular dependent variable under a given set of
assumptions. Sensitivity analysis has been carried out by attempting three technological
aspects, i.e.
(a) actual extent of bank erosion,
(b) predicted extent of bank erosion and
(c) adopting exposure to determine the impact of actual outcome of a particular variable
that was previously evaluated.
In general, sensitivity analysis has been carried out qualitatively to investigate the
robustness of the IRBEM fulfilling the following purposes:
1. To support decision making or the development of recommendations for
decision makers (i.e. testing the robustness of survey result);
2. For enhancing communication from planners to decision-makers (i.e. by making
recommendations more credible, understandable, compelling or persuasive);
3. To increase understanding of the system (i.e. understanding relationships
between input and output variables of different aspects); (Mohiuddin, 2011)
2. Multi-criteria analysis:
Multi-criteria analysis is a balancing approach to evaluate the qualitative field survey
data/information for a planner/decision-maker. In this research it follows two-stage

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procedure, i.e. (i) identify a set of goals and its trade-offs between the goals achieving
a known strategy, (ii) identify “best” strategy by ranking weights (scores) to the various
goals. It involves judging the expected performance of each erosion management
aspects against a number of criteria. For example, (a) erosion zone may be classified as
low erosion zone, medium erosion zone and high erosion zone, (b) human exposure
may be classified as erosion prediction, preparedness, response, recovery, resettlement
and structural measures, and (c) preference of mitigation measures may be classified as
long-term preference (non-structural), short-term preference (structural & non-
structural) and immediate preference (structural). (Mohiuddin, 2011)

Fig: Integrated Riverbank Erosion Management Framework (Mohiuddin, 2011)

(B) Erosion emergency management operations
The principles of IRBEM, therefore, will include the following:
1. Adopting a vulnerable reach approach to bank erosion management;
2. Bringing interdisciplinary approach to bank erosion management;
3. Reducing vulnerability and risks due to bank erosion;
4. Enabling community participation;
5. Implementing resettlement plan for the displaced people; and
6. Institutional capacity building.

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 Fig: The conceptual framework of river bank erosion management with hazard
sequence and control stage (Mohiuddin, 2011)
Riverbank Erosion Management Techniques
1. Combining high technology and local knowledge for mapping intervention
solutions
The experts on GIS worked closely with local people to identify risk areas on the
riverbank and to identify number of houses at risk that need for intervention. The inputs
from the focus group discussion with local people helped the GIS experts to draw a
proposed intervention map at Cai Son riverbank (Fig. 10.2). Normally, in the
community-based disaster risk management (CBDRM) of Vietnam, the map was draw
manually by some old people in the village. (Dawson et al., 2011)

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 Fig: A map was made by combining high technology and local knowledge. (Dawson
et al., 2011)
2. Construction method
With experiences of years on coping with erosion and supports from experts, the local
people applied two main erosion control methods.
❖ Rudimentary works (traditional practice)
This practice includes (1) planting trees, planting grass in order to protect the
embankment, (2) setting up Melaleuca, bamboo tree poles, and (3) sandy sacks
which are tightly fastened before setting up as wall forms to prevent waves and
river flow in order to protect the embankment.
Traditional works only apply in case where there is a slow speed erosion, primarily
by shipwaves, a low depth of riverbed, none swift-flowing water, and low
landscape requirements. (Dawson et al., 2011)

Fig: Embankment protection from erosion by plants designed by local community.

(Dawson et al., 2011)

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 ❖ Semi-concrete works
This measure includes (1) stone embankment, (2) brick embankment, (3) concrete and
concrete slab. A total investment of these works is higher than that of traditional
embankment. Many enterprises, factories, or local households have the ability to
construct embankment. The durable of these constructions is rather high and depend on
the stable of the fundamentals and designs. In some areas, constructed rock
embankment creates beautiful landscapes.

Fig: Cement poles with Melaleuca poles designed by local community. (Dawson et
al., 2011)
Rock-wall concrete embankment: this type of embankment can be used and multiplied
in embankment protection locally at the places which do not require good urban
esthetics. However, some attentions should be noticed such as rain drainage designed
after the embankment, up-flow filter systems by high-density polyethylene and layer
filters with different stone sizes. The fundamental of this embankment should be
examined in the low-tide regions and installed deep for stabilization. (Cong Ng, 2013)

Fig: Rock-wall concrete embankment

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Conclusion
Risk assessment is one of the key aspects of evacuation process (EMA, 2005). Its result
should be considered in the identification of areas subject to mandatory evacuation. Its
applicability should be investigated in future researches. Moreover, risk assessment
results that are translated to spatial information through risk maps are rather poorly
accounted in traffic assignment simulation models. Thus, a careful consideration of risk
is a promising improvement in future evacuation transportation simulation exercises.
Most often than not evacuation transportation modeling exercises consider optimizing
and simulating the travel time, distance among others from a point of origin to a certain
destination. Demand for public shelters is likely to result in traffic congestion. Despite
the fact that small fraction of households stay in evacuation shelter, allocation of shelter
in a large scale evacuation will remain as a challenge. Likewise, demand in commercial
accommodations will likely rise (Lindell et al., 2011). Another hand, semi concrete
system is so much useful for manage riverbank erosion. With proper management plan
both disasters can be managed.

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References
1. Nishat, A. (2004) A Review of Flood Management in Bangladesh: A Case
study of 2004 Flood
2. Aktar, N. (2013). Impact of Climate Change on Riverbank Erosion. International
Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR), 7(1), 36–42.
3. APFM. (2013, May 19). What are the negative social impacts of flooding?
Retrieved March 17, 2019, from https://www.floodmanagement.info/what-are-
the-negative-social-impacts-of-flooding/
4. Associated Programme on Flood Management (Ed.). (2009). Integrated flood
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