58 • General Themes

and address many of the problems listed above in case of PVTGs. The inadequate facilities
for health and education, the unwillingness to serve in tribal areas by the government
officials, the lack of cultural sensitivity of the officials are also important impediments in
regard to the development of PVTGs.

21. Summary
The tribes suffer from a range of problems from poverty, health and education to new
technology even today. Their problems are compounded due to policies under globalization
and liberalization. The nature of problems changed in some cases like exploitation to high
degree of dependency on the non-tribes. While the money lenders and traders cheated
them in different forms earlier, today their dependence on others in every field of life is
resulting in exploitation in a different form. The earlier forms of exploitation by money
lenders are replaced by the exploitation of those who provide them different services
including those who provide health services. Not only the law and order problem due to
Naxalites’ taking shelter but also the apathy of the government agencies is adding to
problems of tribes today.

22. Recapitulation
• What problems are the tribals facing today in regard to improving their economic
status?
• List out the reasons for low educational performance of tribal children in schools.
• What are the major health problems of tribals and what are the causes for the same?
• How is poverty of tribals resulting in other problems?
• Elucidate the specific problems faced by the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal groups
today?

23. Key Terms

Health, Education, Land Alienation, Exploitation, Poverty, Technology

24. Activity
• Find out what are the most important problems faced by the tribals of two different
communities depending on different natural resources.
• Find out how many tribal children are present in KGBVs who are living with single
parents/guardians/step parent. Find out the educational problems of such children.
• Find out the extent of land alienation in a tribal village affected by a development
project and find out the nature of problems for different families.

25. References
Government of India. 2011. TB India 2011: Revised National TB Control Programme Annual Status
Report.:
 Contemporary Tribal Challenges • 59

Government of India. 2014. Report of the High Level Committee on Socioeconomic, Health and
Educational Status of Tribal Communities of India. New Delhi: Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
Government of India. 2017.Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme National Strategic
Plan for Tuberculosis Elimination 2017–2025. New Delhi: Ministry of Health with Family Welfare.
Retrieved from: https://tbcindia.gov.in/WriteReadData/NSP%20Draft% 2020.02.2017 % 201.pdf.
Palla, Trinadha Rao. 2014. Tribal and Land Alienation in Andhra Pradesh. Journal of Rural
Development. Vol. 33, No. 3.
Ramachandraiah C., A. Venkateswarlu. 2011. Dispossessing Tribals and the Poor from Lands: Land
Laws and Administration in Andhra Pradesh, India. Hyderabad: CESS
Thomas, V. 2000. Traditional Occupations of Indigenous Tribal Peoples: Emerging Trends. Geneva:
ILO. Retrieved from http:// planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/health/RNTCP_2011.pdf

Weblinks
http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_And_You/scheduled_castes_and_sceduled_tribes.aspx
https://tribal.nic.in/ST/StatisticalProfileofSTs2013.pdf
https://tbcindia.gov.in/showfile.php?lid=3164
http://www.ncert.nic.in/departments/nie/esd/pdf/NAS_Class3.pdf
http://www.ninindia.org
http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/Tribal%20Committee%20Report,%20 May-
June%202014.pdf Retrieved on: 3:55pm, 23-01-18.
http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/loans-a-major-factor-for-tribal-
landalienation- study/article4665603.ece. Retrieved on: 3:42pm, 23-01-2018.
 5
60 • General Themes

Approaches to Tribal Poicy and

Tribal Development

Sixteen people in isolated Andhra tribal village die after food, water poisoning
It was reported that sixteen people in a remote tribal village died during a span of 3-4
months. The reasons for these deaths were variedly reported.
The deaths took place in Chaparai hamlet, a region in the East Godavari district hills that
is not connected either by roads or telephone communications. The information on the
deaths, infact has come to light quite late due to remoteness of the village.
It has been observed that these tribal people prefer to live in their traditional habitats in
spite of lack of all sorts of communication facilities.

 What could be the reason the tribals of the Chaparai hamlet remained in isolation?
Do you think that the villagers of Chaparal should necessarily choose to live in isolation
in order to preserve their cultural identity?

Contents

1. Introduction
2. Learning objectives
3. Understanding Approaches to Tribal Policy and Tribal Development
3.1. Tribal livelihoods during pre-colonial period
3.2. Tribal livelihoods and forest policies during colonial period
3.3. British policy of exclusion of tribal areas
3.4. The isolationist and assimilationist debate
3.5. The integrationist approach of independent India
3.6. Protective and Mobilizational Rights
3.7. Tribal development through the five-year plans
4. Summary
5. Recapitulation
6. Glossary
7. Activity
8. References
 Approaches to Tribal Poicy and Tribal Development • 61

1. Introduction

T he discourse on tribal policy and development can be traced to colonial era. During
this time, the category of tribe got consolidated in opposition to caste. Further tribal
groups were thought to be most primitive under the unilinear evolutionary scheme of
human societies. However, the approach for tribal policy has never been stagnant. Both in
the colonial era and in independent India the policy has been framed in the midst of
contradicting suggestions. The three key approaches suggested and followed at varying
degrees from the colonial to independent India include isolation, assimilation and
integration. It is important to understand the contexts of how these approaches get
translated in specific tribal policy in the different administrations of the colonial and
post-colonial eras.

2. Learning Objectives
Keeping the above in view, the unit expects the learners to know about:
1) Tribal livelihoods during pre-colonial period;
2) Tribal livelihoods and forest policies during colonial period;
3) The isolationist and assimilationist debate;
4) The significance of the integrationist approach of independent India;
5) The Nehruvian Panchsheel; and
6) Tribal development through the five-year plans.

3. Understanding Approaches to Tribal Policy and Tribal

Development
3.1. Tribal livelihoods during pre-colonial period
During the pre-colonial period, the livelihoods of tribals were associated with the forest
and its resources. The forests provided them everything for their survival and subsistence.
Their subsistence was drawn from the collection of forest produce and traditional
cultivation. Their livelihoods were maintained at the minimum subsistence level without
much need and scope for exchange. The needs of tribals were very limited and there was no
exploitation of the forest resources for commercial purposes. They had vast tracts of
forestlands at their disposal as common property resources. There was no restriction on
forest lands. Individual ownership of land was absent and communities managed land
collectively. The density of tribal populations in the hilly areas was very low and sparsely
distributed. Large extents of hilly areas were left unoccupied until the colonial intervention.
Most of them were isolated from mainstream society and the tribals had only a minimal
interaction with others for their essential commodities. The “closed subsistence economy”
of the tribal livelihoods had no serious impact on the forests.

3.2. Tribal livelihoods and forest policies during colonial period

In the late eighteenth century the British intruded into tribal areas for appropriating the
tribal-controlled forest resources for various commercial purposes, and imposed several
restrictions on the tribals regarding use of the forest resources. Such restrictions began
62 • General Themes

with the appointment of first Conservator of Forest for Malabar-Travancore in 1806.

Conservator of Forests for Madras was appointed in 1856. First Forest legislation was
brought in 1865. It was not only exploitative but also aimed at establishing a monopoly
over forest resources. The Act for Reserved & Protected Forests in all areas except Madras
came in 1878, and such Act for Madras came in 1882. The British not only brought a large
extent of forest areas into control as reserve forest prior to these Acts in order to ensure
future commercial supply, but also imposed a whole range of restrictions on the tribals
through these Acts. A sizeable amount of revenue from the forests was extracted through
either selling forest resources directly or leasing out the rights of collection of forest
products in different parts of South India. The tribals were earlier classified as cultivators
under occupation in 1836. Their occupational status deteriorated later due to the
intervention of the British settlers and with the introduction of coffee plantations and
reserve forests. For example, in Madras Presidency about 12,021 (35%) of tribals in the five
major hills were classified as workers, of which 2,503 (21%) were classified as agricultural
labourers. The above evidences suggest that the tribal-managed forest resources were
appropriated for commercial purposes, which resulted in the alienation of tribal lands
and deterioration of the tribal livelihoods.
Thus the British forest policies restricted tribals from access to the forest and shifting
cultivation not only to bring forests under State control in order to generate more revenue
but also to facilitate the commercialization of forests. The impact of British policies was
tragic for the tribals, for their livelihood and sustenance, and way of life. Therefore, the
tribals repeatedly revolted against the British and local exploiters who took away their
forests and lands. During the period between the passing of the first Indian Forest Act in
1865 and the Indian Forest Act in 1927, there were numerous tribal uprisings, such as the
Rampa rebellion of 1879–80 and the rebellion of 1922–24 in the Rampa Agency area.

3.3. British policy of exclusion of tribal areas

To pacify the rebellious tribals and avoid troubles from tribals, the British Government
adopted a policy of pacification through exclusion of tribal areas and started treating the
tribals differently from the rest of the country. It is with the creation of “scheduled districts”
through enactment of Scheduled Districts Act of 1874, later called the “backward tracts”
by the Montague-Chelmsford reforms of 1919, “wholly excluded areas” and “areas of
modified exclusion” by the Government of India Act 1919, and finally as the “excluded and
partially excluded areas” by the Government of India Act 1935. Though the initiation of
such special measures were for law and order purpose, later an element of protection to
the tribals was also included. This protective exclusionary law is referred to as the colonial
isolationist approach.

3.4. The isolationist and assimilationist debate

The 1930s was an important time in the nationalist movement when mobilization and
inclusion of all categories of people of India was considered necessary for the success of the
nationalist movement and preparation for free India. It is in this context that attention to
tribal societies was given by the Nationalist. Verrier Elwin, a missionary turned
anthropologist, who spent his first years in India in close association with the nationalists
in the Sabarmati ashram, stood for the tribal cause. Elwin, in early 1930s had moved to the
tribal villages of central India and lived and worked among many of the tribal populations