QUESTION 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0)The nervous system in humans is made of the brain and spinal cord, along with the
primary sense organs and all the nerves associated with these organs. The brain and the spinal
cord form the central nervous system (CNS). All other neuronal tissue is brought under the
umbrella of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Therefore, the PNS includes neurons
within sense organs, other sensory nerves, and all motor nerves that deliver messages to
different parts of the body. compilation of nerves and specialized cells known as neurons that
transmit signals between dissimilar parts of the body. It is essentially the body's electrical
wiring. All living organisms are able to detect changes within themselves and in
their environments. Changes in the external environment include those
of light, temperature, sound, motion, and odour, while changes in the internal environment
include those in the position of the head and limbs as well as in the internal organs. Once
detected, these internal and external changes must be analyzed and acted upon in order to
survive. As life on Earth evolved and the environment became more complex, the survival of
organisms depended upon how well they could respond to changes in their surroundings.

NERVOUS SYSTEM ( DIAGRAM 1)

1.1) Function of nervous system

A)Sensory.

The sensory function of the nervous system involves collecting information from sensory
receptors that monitor the body’s internal and external conditions. These signals are then
passed on to the central nervous system (CNS) for further processing by afferent neurons
(and nerves).

B)Integration.

The process of integration is the processing of the many sensory signals that are passed into
the CNS at any given time. These signals are evaluated, compared, used for decision making,
discarded or committed to memory as deemed appropriate. Integration takes place in the gray
matter of the brain and spinal cord and is performed by interneurons. Many interneurons
work together to form complex networks that provide this processing power.

C)Motor.

Once the networks of interneurons in the CNS evaluate sensory information and decide on
an action, they stimulate efferent neurons. Efferent neurons (also called motor neurons) carry
signals from the gray matter of the CNS through the nerves of the peripheral nervous system
to effector cells. The effector may be smooth, cardiac, or skeletal muscle tissue or glandular
tissue. The effector then releases a hormone or moves a part of the body to respond to the
stimulus.

1.2)Central nervos system(CNS)

The CNS ontains the brain and spinal cord. Together with the peripheral nervous system, it
has a fundamental role in the control of behavior. The central nervous system has been
thoroughly studied by anatomists and physiologists, but it still holds many secrets; it controls
our thoughts, movements, emotions, and desires. It also controls our breathing, heart rate, the
release of some hormones, body temperature, and much more.

A)BRAIN
The brain is the most complex organ in the human body; the cerebral cortex (the outermost
part of the brain and the largest part by volume) contains an estimated 15–33 billion neurons,
each of which is connected to thousands of other neurons. in humans, the brain weighs about
three pounds and consumes a stunning 20-25% of all the body’s energy! The brain is
primarily made up of neurons, which send nerve impulses and store information, and various
support cells which nurture, insulate, and protect neurons so they can do their jobs reliably.In
total, around 100 billion neurons and 1,000 billion glial (support) cells make up the human
brain. Our brain uses around 20 percent of our body's total energy.

(DIAGRAM 2)
DIAGRAM OF HUMAN BRAIN

B)SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord, running almost the full length of the back, carries information between the
brain and body, but also carries out other tasks.From the brainstem, where the spinal cord
meets the brain, 31 spinal nerves enter the cord.Along its length, it connects with the nerves
of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that run in from the skin, muscles, and joints.
(DIAGRAM 3)

DIAGRAM OF SPINAL CORD

1.3. Peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system, or PNS, consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the
brain and the spinal cord. The main function of the PNS is to connect the central nervous
system (CNS) to the limbs and organs. The peripheral nerves include the 12 cranial nerves,
the spinal nerves and roots, and what are called the autonomic nerves. The autonomic nerves
are concerned with automatic functions of the body. Specifically, autonomic nerves are
involved with the regulation of the heart muscle, the tiny muscles lining the walls of blood
vessels, and glands.

QUESTION 2

2.0The pituitary gland is a tiny organ, the size of a pea, found at the base of the brain. As the
“master gland” of the body, it produces many hormones that travel throughout the body,
directing certain processes or stimulating other glands to produce other hormones. The
pituitary gland is called the 'master gland' as the hormones it produces control so many
different processes in the body. It senses the body's needs and sends signals to different
organs and glands throughout the body to regulate their function and maintain an appropriate
environment. It secretes a variety of hormones into the bloodstream which act as messengers
to transmit information from the pituitary gland to distant cells, regulating their activity. For
example, the pituitary gland produces prolactin, which acts on the breasts to induce milk
production.The hypothalamus is a small region of the brain. It’s located at the base of the
brain, near the pituitary gland.While it’s very small, the hypothalamus plays a crucial role in
many important functions, including:

 releasing hormones
 regulating body temperature
 maintaining daily physiological cycles
 controlling appetite
 managing of sexual behavior
 regulating emotional responses

(DIAGRAM 4)
DIAGRAM OF PITUITARY GLAND

I. The POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND is actually more a part of the

hypothalamus, being a landing point for the axons or nerve fibers extending from
nerve cells there. It stores hormones made by these nerve cells.

These include:

A)Oxytocin, which is a hormone which causes the uterus to contract during labor,
expelling the baby. It also causes the breasts to expel milk by making the
myoepithelial cells surrounding the milk ducts contract, squeezing the milk out of the
ducts. Its levels are high in laboring and nursing women. It is given to women who
 need to go into labor but whose labor pains are not beginning, or to women with weak
labor pains who need to have more forceful contractions, as an intravenous drip.

B)Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which regulates the salt and water
balance in the body by acting upon the kidney and the blood vessels to reduce the
amount of water that is excreted and to push up the blood pressure. Its secretion goes
up when the blood osmolality (solute concentration) drops, or the blood pressure is
low.

II. The ANTERIOR PITUITARY secretes seven hormones that regulate several
physiological processes, including stress, growth, and reproduction. Its regulatory
functions are achieved through the secretion of various peptide hormones that act on
target organs including the adrenal gland, liver, bone, thyroid gland, and gonads. The
anterior pituitary itself is regulated by the hypothalamus and by negative feedback
from these target organs. Its regulatory functions are achieved through the secretion of
various peptide hormones that act on target organs including the adrenal gland, liver,
bone, thyroid gland, and gonads. The anterior pituitary itself is regulated by the
hypothalamus and by negative feedback from these target organs. The anterior lobe is
the larger part of the gland, making up about 75% of its tissue. It secretes some
hormones which regulate other glands, namely:

A)Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) causes the thyroid gland to produce and
release thyroid hormones. Thyroid hormone controls the basal metabolic rate and
plays an important role in growth and maturation. Thyroid hormones affect almost
every organ in the body.

B)Growth Hormone (GH) regulates growth and metabolism. It does this in a

number of ways, including stimulating cells to grow and divide, increasing bone and
muscle growth, and increasing protein synthesis. As you might have guessed, growth
hormone is vital for normal physical growth in children; its level rises throughout
childhood and peaks during puberty when the pre-teen hits his or her growth spurt.

C)Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) triggers the adrenals to release the

hormone cortisol, which regulates carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism and
blood pressure. The adrenal glands sit above the kidneys and are also responsible for
the body's fight or flight response.
 D)Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) control the
production of sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone) and sperm and egg maturation
and release.

E)Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH) regulates the production of melanin, a

dark pigment, by melanocytes in the skin. Increased melanin production produces
pigmentation or tanning of the skin; in certain conditions excessive production of
melanocyte-stimulating hormone can cause darkening of the skin.

F)Prolactin (PRL) stimulates production of breast milk and is necessary for normal
milk production during breast feeding.

QUESTION 3

3.0 Circulatory System

The circulatory system is a vast network of organs and vessels that is responsible for the
flow of blood, nutrients, hormones, oxygen and other gases to and from cells. Without the
circulatory system, the body would not be able to fight disease or maintain a stable internal
environment — such as proper temperature and pH — known as homeostasis.

3.1 How The Circulatory Work

The blood circulatory system (cardiovascular system) delivers nutrients and oxygen to all
cells in the body. It consists of the heart and the blood vessels running through the entire
body. The arteries carry blood away from the heart; the veins carry it back to the heart. The
system of blood vessels resembles a tree: The “trunk,” the main artery (aorta), branches into
large arteries, which lead to smaller and smaller vessels. The smallest arteries end in a
network of tiny vessels, the capillary network.
(DIAGRAM 5)
Diagram Of Blood Circulatory System

3.2 Description of the circulatory system

While many view the circulatory system, also known as the cardiovascular system, as simply
a highway for blood, it is made up of three independent systems that work together: the heart
(cardiovascular); lungs (pulmonary); and arteries, veins, coronary and portal vessels
(systemic).

(DIAGRAM 6)

DIAGRAM OF HUMAN BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

3.3 The circulatory system consists of four major components:

 The Heart: About the size of two adult hands held together, the heart rests near the center
of the chest. Thanks to consistent pumping, the heart keeps the circulatory system working
at all times.

 Arteries: Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart and where it needs to go.

 Veins: Veins carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs where they receive oxygen.

 Blood: Blood is the transport media of nearly everything within the body. It transports
hormones, nutrients, oxygen, antibodies, and other important things needed to keep the
body healthy.

Oxygen enters the bloodstream through tiny membranes in the lungs that absorb oxygen as it
is inhaled. As the body uses the oxygen and processes nutrients, it creates carbon dioxide,
which your lungs expel as you exhale. A similar process occurs with the digestive system to
transport nutrients, as well as hormones in the endocrine system. These hormones are taken
from where they are produced to the organs they affect.

3.4 Distribution of blood vesssels

The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system, and microcirculation, that
transports blood throughout the human body. These vessels are designed to transport
nutrients and oxygen to the tissues of the body. They also take waste and carbon dioxide and
carry them away from the tissues and back to the heart. Blood vessels are needed to sustain
life as all of the body’s tissues rely on their functionality.This vast system of blood vessels --
arteries, veins, and capillaries -- is over 60,000 miles long. That's long enough to go around the
world more than twice!

Blood flows continuously through your body's blood vessels. Your heart is the pump that makes it
all possible.

 Arteries. Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart to all of the body's tissues.
They branch several times, becoming smaller and smaller as they carry blood farther from
the heart and into organs.
  Capillaries. These are small, thin blood vessels that connect the arteries and the veins.
Their thin walls allow oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide, and other waste products to pass
to and from cells.
 Veins. These are blood vessels that take blood back to the heart; this blood contains less
oxygen and is rich in waste products that are to be excreted or removed from the body.
Veins become larger as they get closer to the heart. The superior vena cava is the large vein
that brings blood from the head and arms to the heart, and the inferior vena cava brings
blood from the abdomen and legs into the heart.

(DIAGRAM 7)
Diagram Of Blood Vessels

(DIAGRAM 8) DIAGRAM OF BLOOD CIRCULATION

3.5 PERIPHERAL CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The blood vessels of the body are functionally divided into two distinctive circuits:
pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit. The pump for the pulmonary circuit, which circulates
blood through the lungs, is the right ventricle. The left ventricle is the pump for the systemic
circuit, which provides the blood supply for the tissue cells of the body.

3.5.1 Pulmonary Circuit

Pulmonary circulation transports oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle to the lungs,
where blood picks up a new blood supply. Then it returns the oxygen-rich blood to the left
atrium.

(DIAGRAM 9)
DIAGRAM OF PULMONARY CIRCUIT

3.5.2 Systemic Circuit

The systemic circulation provides the functional blood supply to all body tissue. It carries
oxygen and nutrients to the cells and picks up carbon dioxide and waste products. Systemic
circulation carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle, through the arteries, to the
capillaries in the tissues of the body. From the tissue capillaries, the deoxygenated blood
returns through a system of veins to the right atrium of the heart.
 (DIAGRAM 10)

DIAGRAM OF SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT

QUESTION 4

PART A

4.0 Introduction of enzymes that involve in digestion of carbohydrate.

The macronutrient carbohydrate consists of simple and complex forms that are your main
source of energy. Your body can readily absorb simple carbohydrates, called
monosaccharides, for metabolism. However, disaccharides and polysaccharides, complex
carbohydrates composed of two or more sugar molecules, require additional processing
before your body can absorb and use them. Several enzymes assist with this extra step to
break down complex carbohydrates into usable monosaccharides. Enzymes are not living
things. They are just special proteins that can break large molecules into small molecules.
Different types of enzymes can break down different nutrients:

 amylase and other carbohydrase enzymes break down starchinto sugar

 protease enzymes break down proteins into amino acids

 lipase enzymes break down lipids (fats and oils) into fatty acids and glycerol.
4.1 Type of enzymes that involve in digestion of carbohydrate.

A)Salivary Amylase
Salivary amylase initiates the digestion of starches, one of the more complex forms of
carbohydrate. Secreted in the saliva, salivary amylase breaks down long-chain and branched
carbohydrates, known as amylose and amylopectin, into two- and three-molecule sugars
called maltose. The individual subunits that make up maltose are glucose, your body’s
primary fuel source.
B)Pancreatic Amylase
Amylase secreted from the pancreas enters the small intestine through the common bile duct
with other digestive enzymes and compounds. Once it enters the duodenum, the first portion
of the small intestine, pancreatic amylase converts to its active form. It then functions in the
same capacity as salivary amylase on any starches that were not cleaved into maltose
molecules in the mouth.

C)Intestinal Maltase, Sucrase and Lactase

The lining of your small intestine secretes three enzymes that aid in hydrolyzing
polysaccharides and disaccharides into monosaccharides. Maltase cleaves the aforementioned
maltose into individual glucose molecules; sucrase divides sucrose, more commonly known
as table sugar, into its glucose and fructose components; lactase breaks down lactose, or milk
sugar, into glucose and galactose. The small intestine then absorbs these individual sugars
and transports them to the liver for processing.
PART B
5.0 DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATE.
5.1 INTRODUCTION

Carbohydrates give the body energy to go about your day’s mental and physical tasks.
Digesting or metabolizing carbohydrates breaks foods down into sugars, which are also
called saccharides. These molecules begin digesting in the mouth and continue through the
body to be used for anything from normal cell functioning to cell growth and repair.
Carbohydrates should make up 45 to 65 percent of your daily calorie intake according to
American dietary guidelines.For a person eating a standard 2,000 calories a day, this means
that carbohydrates might make up 900 to 1,300 of those calories. This figures out to around
225 to 325 grams each day. However, your carb intake will vary based on your individual
needs.

5.2 STEP OF DIGESTION.

The main function of carbohydrates is to provide your body with energy to support muscular
work, brain activity, breathing and other important activities. Carbohydrates are made up of
sugars known as saccharides. Most carbohydrate foods contain many saccharides linked
together, which are known as polysaccharides.

5.3THE FOLLOWING STEP OF DIGESTION.

A)In the Mouth
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth. The salivary glands in the mouth secrete saliva,
which helps to moisten the food. The food is then chewed while the salivary glands also
release the enzyme salivary amylase, which begins the process of breaking down the
polysaccharides in the carbohydrate food.

B)In the Stomach

After the carbohydrate food is chewed into smaller pieces and mixed with salivary amylase
and other salivary juices, it is swallowed and passed through the esophagus. The mixture
enters the stomach where it is known as chyme. There is no further digestion of chyme, as the
stomach produces acid which destroys bacteria in the food and stops the action of the salivary
amylase.
C)In the Pancreas and Small Intestine
After being in the stomach, the chyme enters the beginning portion of the small intestine, or
the duodenum. In response to chyme being in the duodenum, the pancreas releases the
enzyme pancreatic amylase, which breaks the polysaccharide down into a disaccharide, a
chain of of only two sugars linked together..
D)In the Large Intestine (Colon)
Carbohydrates that were not digested and absorbed by the small intestine reach the colon
where they are partly broken down by intestinal bacteria. Fiber, which cannot be digested like
other carbohydrates, is excreted with feces or partly digested by the intestinal bacteria.

5.4 Carbohydrates Types, Digested, Absorbed & Eliminated

Carbohydrates, one of the four major macronutrients, provide a significant amount of fuel to
the human body.

A)Types of Carbohydrates
There are three main types of carbohydrates: starches, sugars and dietary fiber. Starches and
sugars are considered the energy-yielding carbohydrates because they are fully digestible and,
once absorbed, they provide the body with 4 calories of energy per gram of carbohydrate.
Alternatively, fiber is a type of carbohydrate which is not fully digestible because humans
lack the enzymes to break down fibers. As such, fiber is the main carbohydrate which is
eliminated through excretion.

B)Carbohdyrate Digestion
The two digestible carbohydrates are starches and sugars, and both of these carbohydrates are
digested, or broken down into their most elementary form, along the gastrointestinal tract.
Amylase, an enzyme which breaks apart starches, is found in the mouth and in the small
intestine. Similarly, the three major enzymes which break apart sugars -- sucrase, maltase and
lactase -- are also found in the mouth and in the small intestine. Once these digested starches
and sugars begin to move through the small intestine, they are able to be absorbed.

C)Carbohydrate Absorption
Once carbohydrates are broken down into their simplest forms, they are quickly absorbed
along the upper and lower parts of the small intestine. Small, finger-like projections, called
villi, absorb the carbohydrates, then they are transferred to the blood stream and carried to
muscles and the liver.
D)Carbohydrate Elimination
When carbohydrates are not fully digested or absorbed, they are eliminated from the body.
Dietary fiber is one of the carbohydrates which humans cannot digest, thus dietary fiber is the
most commonly excreted type of carbohydrate. In addition, lactose, a type of sugar, can also
be excreted if an individual lacks the proper enzymes to digest this carbohydrate. All
undigested carbohydrates move from the small intestine, where absorption would normally
occur, to the large intestine and the colon, where elimination finally occurs.