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Retaining Walls (All Types) PDF
Retaining Walls (All Types) PDF
Part A
General Requirements and Materials walls rely on structural components of the wall partially
embedded in foundation material to mobilize passive
resistance to resist lateral loads. Anchored walls derive
5.1 GENERAL their capacity to resist lateral loads by their structural
components being restrained by tension elements con
Retaining walls shall be designed to withstand lateral nected to anchors and possibly additionally by partial
earth and water pressures, the effects of surcharge loads, embedment of their structural components into founda
the self-weight of the wall and in special cases, earth tion material. The anchors may be ground anchors
quake loads in accordance with the general principles (tiebacks), passive concrete anchors, passive pile an
specified in this section. chors, or pile group anchors. The ground anchors are
connected directly to the wall structural components
Retaining walls shall be designed for a service life whereas the other type anchors are connected to the wall
based on consideration of the potential long-term effects structural components through tie rods. Within the wall
of material deterioration on each of the material compo types above, many of the retaining wall systems available
nents comprising the wall. Permanent retaining walls are proprietary. Their use requires appropriate contrac
should be designed for a minimum service life of 50 years. tual requirements. See Figures 5.2-1 through 5.2-4 for
Temporary retaining walls should be designed for a examples.
minimum service life of 5 years.
Face
Panels
Soil Reinforcement
heights.
Walls
Waler
Tie rod
Steel Sheet
Piles Pile anchor
System
Waler
Ground anchor
( Tieback anchor )
Soldier pile
with timber
lagging
tie rods from construction damage due to fill placement Anchored walls may be used to stabilize unstable sites.
and fill settlement. Provided adequate foundation material exists at the site
for the anchors, economical wall heights up to 80 feet are
The vertical wall elements should extend below po feasible.
tential failure planes associated with the retained soil or
rock mass. Where competent and stable foundation ma
terial is located at the base of the wall face, only minimal 5.2.1.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth
embedment of the wall may be required (soldier pileless Walls
design).
Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls use either
The long-term creep characteristics of the anchors metallic (inextensible) or geosynthetic (extensible) soil
should be considered in design. Anchors should not be reinforcement in the soil mass, and vertical or near verti
located in soft clay or silt. cal facing elements. MSE walls behave as a gravity wall,
deriving their lateral resistance through the dead weight the soil reinforcement and adequate control of surface
of the reinforced soil mass behind the facing. runoff is provided.
MSE walls are typically used where conventional Where high concentrated loads must be supported at
reinforced concrete retaining walls are considered, and the wall face, such as those from highway sign founda
are particularly well suited for sites where substantial tions, a section of conventionally reinforced concrete
total and differential settlements are anticipated. The wall may be constructed within the length of the MSE
allowable differential settlement is limited by the wall. This section of wall should be designed to retain
deformability of the wall facing elements within the both the lateral earth pressures and the concentrated
plane of the wall face. In the case of precast concrete loads.
facing elements (panels), deformablitiy is dependent on
the panel size and shape and the width of the joints Various aesthetic treatments can be incorporated in
between panels. This type wall can be used in both cut the precast concrete face panels.
and fill applications. Because their base width is greater
than that of conventional reinforced concrete walls they
are most cost effective in fill applications. The practical 5.2.1.5 Prefabricated Modular Walls
height of MSE walls is limited by the competence of the
foundation material at a given site. Prefabricated modular walls use stacked or intercon
nected structural elements, some of which utilize soil or
MSE walls shall not be used where utilities or highway rock fill, to resist earth pressures by acting as gravity
drainage must be located within the reinforced mass retaining walls. Structural elements consisting of treated
except that highway drainage may be placed within the timber, or precast reinforced concrete are used to from a
reinforced soil mass if it runs vertically or perpendicular cellular system which is filled with soil to construct a crib
to the wall face. wall, also steel modules are bolted together to form a
similar system to construct a bin wall. Rock filled wire
MSE walls shall not be used where floodplain erosion gabion baskets are used to construct a gabion wall. Solid
or scour may undermine the reinforced soil mass unless precast concrete units or segmental concrete masonry
the wall is founded at sufficient depth or adequate scour units are stacked to form a gravity block wall.
protection is provided to prevent the erosion or scour.
Prefabricated modular walls may be used where con
MSE walls shall not be used to support bridge abut ventional reinforced concrete walls are considered.
ments with shallow foundations nor pile supported bridge
abutments where seismic displacements of the abutment Steel modular systems shall not be used where aggres
would impose large forces on the wall face panels and the sive industrial pollutants or other environmental condi
soil reinforcement to face panel connections. MSE walls tions such as use of deicing salts or cathodic protection
may be used in front of pile supported bridge abutments of nearby pipelines are present at a given site.
where the seismic forces from the bridge superstructure
are limited by elastomeric bearing pads supporting the Traffic barriers shall not be placed at the face of this
bridge superstructure. These limited seismic forces shall type wall but shall be placed in fill above the top of the
be considered in the design of the MSE wall. The design wall.
service life shall be increased to 75 years for MSE walls
in front of pile supported bridge abutments. The aesthetic appearance of some of these type walls
is governed by the nature of the structural elements used.
MSE walls shall not be used where aggressive environ Those elements consisting of precast concrete may incor
mental conditions exist unless environment specific stud porate various aesthetic treatments.
ies of the long-term corrosion or degradation of the soil
reinforcement are conducted. This type wall is most economical for low to medium
height walls.
MSE walls with metallic soil reinforcement may be
used where deicing salts are used provided an imperme
able cap is constructed at or near the ground surface above
5.2.2 Wall Capacity excess pore water pressures may develop during a seismic
event.
Retaining walls shall be designed to provide adequate
structural capacity with acceptable movements, adequate Seismic forces applied to the mass of the slope shall be
foundation bearing capacity with acceptable settlements, based on a horizontal seismic acceleration coefficient, kh,
and acceptable overall stability of slopes adjacent to equal to one-third of, A, the expected peak acceleration
walls. The tolerable level of lateral and vertical deforma produced by the Maximum Credible Earthquake on
tions is controlled by the type and location of the wall bedrock at the site as defined in the Caltrans Seismic
structure and surrounding facilities. Hazard Map. Generally the vertical seismic coefficient,
kv, is considered to equal zero.
5.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity For seismic loads, if it is determined that the factor of
safety for the slope is less than 1.0 using one-third of the
The bearing capacity of wall foundation support sys peak bedrock acceleration, procedures for estimating
tems shall be estimated using procedures described in earthquake induced deformations such as the Newmarks’
Articles 4.4 – Spread Footings, 4.5 – Driven Piles, or 4.6 Method may be used provided that the retaining wall and
– Drilled Shafts, or other generally accepted theories. any supported structure can tolerate the resulting defor
Such theories are based on soil and rock parameters mations.
measured by in-situ and /or laboratory tests.
with multiple precast concrete face panels cannot tolerate 5.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND
as much vertical deformations as flexible welded wire or TESTING PROGRAMS
geosynthetic facings because of potential damage to the
precast face panels and unsightly face panel separation. The elements of the subsurface exploration and testing
programs shall be based on the specific requirements of
Horizontal movements resulting from outward rota the project and prior experience with the local geological
tion of the wall or resulting from the development of conditions.
internal equilibrium between the loads applied to the
wall and the internal structure of the wall must be limited
to prevent overstress of the structural wall facing and to 5.3.1 General Requirements
prevent the wall face batter from becoming negative. In
general, if vertical deformations are properly controlled, As a minimum, the subsurface exploration and testing
horizontal deformations will likely be within acceptable programs shall define the following, where applicable:
limits. For MSE walls with extensible reinforcements,
reinforcement serviceability criteria, the wall face batter, • Soil strata:
and the facing type selected (i.e. the flexibility of the - Depth, thickness, and variability
facing) will influence the horizontal deformation criteria - Identification and classification
required. - Relevant engineering properties (i.e., natural
moisture content, Atterberg limits, shear
Vertical wall movements shall be estimated using strength, compressibility, stiffness, perme
conventional settlement computational methods (see ability, expansion or collapse potential, and
Articles 4.4, 4.5, and 4.6). For gravity and semi-gravity frost susceptibility)
walls, lateral movement results from a combination of - Relevant soil chemistry, including pH, resis
differential vertical settlement between the heel and the tivity, cloride, sulfate, and sulfide content
toe of the wall and the rotation necessary to develop
active earth pressure conditions (see Table C5.5.1-1). If • Rock strata:
the wall is designed for at-rest earth pressure conditions, - Depth to rock
the deflections in Table C5.5.1-1 do not need to be - Identification and classification
considered. - Quality (i.e., soundness, hardness, jointing
and presence of joint filling, resistance to
Where a wall is used to support a structure, tolerable weathering, if exposed, and solutioning)
movement criteria shall be established in accordance - Compressive strength (i.e., uniaxial com
with Articles 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6. Where a wall supports soil pression, point load index)
on which an adjacent structure is founded, the effects of - Expansion potential
wall movements and associated backfill settlement on
the adjacent structure shall be evaluated. • Ground water elevation, including seasonal
variations, chemical composition, and pH
(especially important for anchored, non-gravity
5.2.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem cantilevered, modular, and MSE walls)
Conditions where corrosion potential is an important con
sideration
Geologic and environmental conditions can influ
ence the performance of retaining walls and their founda • Ground surface topography
tions, and may require special consideration during de
sign. To the extent possible, the presence and influence • Local conditions requiring special consider
of such conditions shall be evaluated as part of the ation (i.e., presence of stray electrical currents)
subsurface exploration program. A representative, but
not exclusive, listing of problem conditions requiring Exploration logs shall include soil and rock strata
special consideration is presented in Table 4.2.3A for descriptions, penetration resistance for soils (i.e., SPT or
general guidance. qc), and sample recovery and RQD for rock strata. The
drilling equipment and method, use of drilling mud, type
of SPT hammer (i.e., safety, donut, hydraulic) or cone should be applied when establishing project design val
penetrometer (i.e., mechanical or electrical), and any ues based on laboratory and field tests.
unusual subsurface conditions such as artesian pressures,
boulders or other obstructions, or voids shall also be
noted on the exploration logs. 5.3.5 Scour
b = length of the long side of a rectangular cell CRCR = long-term connection strength reduction
(FT); 5.10.4 factor to account for reduced ultimate
b´ = effective width of embedded portion of ver strength resulting from connection (DIM);
tical wall elements (FT); 5.5.5.6, 5.7.6 5.9.3.5.2
b´ = effective width of concrete anchor (FT); d = depth of potential base failure surface below
5.8.6.2.1 the design grade in front of wall (FT);
5.5.5.7.2b
b´ = effective width of anchor pile (FT); 5.8.6.2.2
d = distance from center of width, bf , to back of
bc = indicator of batter of compression piles
wall or pressure surface (FT); 5.5.5.10
(DIM); 5.8.6.2.3
d = depth of concrete anchor cover (FT) ; 5.8.6.2.1
bf = width of footing overwhich horizontal force,
PH , is distributed (FT); 5.5.5.10 d = distance from finished grade to top of anchor
pile (FT) ;5.8.6.2.2
bt = indicator of batter of tension piles (DIM);
5.8.6.2.3 d = diameter of ground anchor drill hole (FT);
5.8.6.3
bt = width of tributary area, At (FT); 5.9.3
dbnet = net diameter of transverse grid element after
B = notional slope of backfill (DEG) ; 5.5.5.5
consideration for corrosion loss (FT); 5.9.3
B = width of footing (FT); 5.5.5.10
D = depth of embedment of concrete anchor (FT);
B = width of wall footing (FT); 5.6.4 5.8.6.2.1
B = wall base width (FT); 5.9.1 D = embedment from finished grade to be used
B = width of soil reinforcement (FT); 5.9.3 for anchor pile (FT); 5.8.6.2.2
B = length of transverse grid elements of soil D = depth of embedment of vertical wall ele
reinforcement (FT);5.9.3 ments for non-gravity cantilevered walls
B´ = width of wall footing actually in compres (FT); 5.7.1
sion (B´= B-2e) (FT); 5.6.4 D = depth of embedment of vertical wall ele
B´ = effective base width (FT); 5.9.2 ments for anchored walls (FT); 5.8.6.3
Be = width of excavation in front of wall (FT); Dk = depth of wall footing key (FT); 5.6.4
5.5.5.7.2b Do = calculated embedment depth of vertical wall
Bk = distance from back face of footing key to the elements (FT); 5.5.5.6, 5.7.1, 5.7.6
back face or heel of wall footing (FT); Do = embedment of vertical wall elements that
5.6.3,5.6.4 provides a factor of safety equal to 1.0 against
Bn = base width of nth tier of tiered wall with the rotation about level of tie rod of an anchored
bottom tier being the first tier ( n=1) (FT); wall (DIM); 5.8.6.2
5.10.1 Do = calculated embedment from finished grade
B1 = distance from toe of footing to front face of of anchor pile (FT); 5.8.6.2.2
footing key (FT )5.6.4 D1 = effective width for determining vertical stress
c = unit cohesion (KSF); 5.5.5.4 at any depth due to applied vertical load
(FT); 5.5.5.10
c = cohesion of foundation soil (KSF); 5.6.4
e = eccentricity of resultant force acting on foot
ca = adhesion between wall footing and founda
ing base from center of footing (FT); 5.6.4
tion soil or rock (KSF); 5.6.4
e = eccentricity of resultant force (DIM); 5.9.2
C = overall soil reinforcement surface area ge
ometry factor(DIM); 5.9.3 e = base of natural logarithms (DIM); 5.10.4
Cp = axial force in compression pile (KIPS); e´ = eccentricity of vertical load on footing (FT);
5.8.6.2.3 5.5.5.10
Cph = horizontal component of axial force in a emax = maximum allowable eccentricity of the re
battered compression pile (KIPS); 5.8.6.2.3 sultant force acting on the base of the wall
(FT); 5.9.2
F = force at tip of embedded vertical wall ele Hn = vertical distance between, nth level, and, (n
ments required to provide equilibruim of 1 )th level of ground anchors (FT); 5.8.6.3
horizontal forces (KIPS); 5.5.5.6 Hn+1 = distance from design grade at bottom of wall
F = total force acting on anchor pile at depth, to lowermost level of anchors (FT); 5.5.5.7
Do, required to provide equilibrium of hori H1 = distance from ground surface at top of wall
zontal forces acting on the anchor pile (KIPS); to uppermost level of anchors (FT); 5.5.5.7
5.8.6.2.2
H1 = distance from finished grade to level at which,
Fa = allowable tensile stress for steel soil rein Tult , acts on anchor pile (FT); 5.8.6.2.2
forcement (KSI); 5.9.3
H1 = distance from finished grade to level at which,
FAC = pullout anchorage factor of soil reinforce Tult , acts on pile anchor (FT); 5.8.6.2.3
ment (DIM); 5.9.3 H1 = distance from finished grade at top of wall to
Fy = yield strength of steel (KSI); 5.9.3 top level of ground anchors (FT); 5.8.6.3
F* = pullout resistance factor for soil reinforce H1 = vertical distance from bottom of wall to
ment (DIM); 5.9.3 point of intersection of finished grade be
FS = factor of safety (DIM); 5.6.4 hind wall face and failure surface for deter
FS = global safety factor (DIM); 5.9.3.4.2.1 mining internal stability for walls with
inextensible soil reinforcement (FT); 5.9.3
FSpo = factor of safety against pullout of wall mod
ules above the level under consideration k = coefficient of lateral earth pressure (DIM);
(DIM); 5.10.3 5.5.5.1
FSpo = factor of safety against pullout for level of k = ratio of lateral to vertical pressure in wall cell
soil reinforcement under consideration fill (DIM);5.10.4
(DIM); 5.9.3 ka = coefficient of active lateral earth pressure
FSOT = factor of safety against overturning (DIM); (DIM); 5.5.5.3
5.7.6 kh = horizontal seismic acceleration coefficient
FSR = factor of safety against rotation about level (DIM); 5.2.2.3
of tie rod of an anchored wall (DIM); 5.8.6.2 ko = coefficient of at-rest lateral earth pressure
FSSL = factor of safety against sliding (DIM); 5.6.4 (DIM); 5.5.5.2
FST = factor of safety against translation (DIM); kp = coefficient of passive lateral earth pressure
5.8.6.3 (DIM); 5.5.5.4
h = height of pressure surface at back of wall kr = lateral earth pressure coefficient of rein
(FT); 5.5.5.8,5.6.4 forced soil mass (DIM); 5.9.1
h = actual height of concrete anchor(FT); ks = coefficient of lateral earth pressure due to
5.5.6.2.1 surcharge (DIM); 5.5.5.10
h = height of pressure surface (FT); C5.5.5.5.1 kv = vertical seismic acceleration coefficient
(DIM); 5.2.2.3
h´ = height from intersection of active and pas
sive failure surfaces to ground surface (FT); L = length of soil reinforcement (FT); 5.5.5.8,
5.8.6.2.1 5.9.1
heg = equivalent height of soil for vehicular load L = length of footing (FT); 5.5.5.10
(FT); 5.5.5.10 La = distance from back of wall facing to failure
hn = height of nth tier of tiered wall with the surface for internal stability analysis(FT);
bottom tier being the first tier ( n=1) ( FT); 5.9.1
5.10.1 Lb = ground anchor bond length (FT); 5.8.6.3
ht = height of tributary area, At (FT); 5.9.3 Le = distance from failure surface for internal
H = design height of wall (FT); C5.5.1, 5.7.1 stability analysis to rearmost end of soil
reinforcement (FT); 5.9.1
H = wall design height (FT); 5.6.4
Mn = nominal moment strength of reinforced con above the level under consideration (KIPS);
crete crib wall member (KIP-FT); 5.10.4 5.10.3
Mp = plastic moment strength of reinforced con Pa´ = total lateral active earth pressure acting on
crete crib wall member (KIP-FT); 5.10.4 height, h , per foot width of anchor or anchor
MARV = minimum average roll value for, Tult (KIPS/ pile (KIPS/FT); 5.8.6.2.1, 5.8.6.2.2
FT); 5.9.3 Pah = horizontal component of, Pa (KIPS/FT);
N = number of transverse grid elements of soil 5.6.4
reinforcement within length,Le (DIM); 5.9.3 Pav = vertical component of , P a (KIPS/FT); 5,6,4
NS = stability number (DIM); 5.5.5.6 Ph = horizontal component of ,Pa (KIPS); 5.5.5.8
OCR = overconsolidation ratio (DIM); 5.5.5.2 PH = horizontal force at base of continuous foot
p = lateral pressure in wall cell fill at depth, y ing per unit length of footing (KIPS/FT);
(KSF); 5.10.4 5.5.5.10
p = basic lateral earth pressure (KSF); 5.5.5.1 Pmax = maximum resisting force between wall foot-
ing base and foundation soil or rock against
p = load intensity of strip load parallel to wall
sliding failure (KIPS); 5.6.4
(KSF); 5.5.5.10
PN = normal component of passive lateral earth
pa = maximum ordinate of lateral earth pressure
pressure resultant per unit width of wall
diagram (KSF); 5.5.5.7
(KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.4
pa = lateral pressure in wall cell fill next to the
Po = at-rest lateral earth pressure resultant per
short side of a rectangular cell at depth, y
unit width of wall acting on the toe of the
(KSF); 5.10.4
wall footing (KIPS/FT); 5.6.4
pb = lateral pressure in wall cell fill next to the
Pp = passive lateral earth pressure resultant per
long side of a rectangular cell at depth, y
unit width of wall (KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.4
(KSF); 5.10.4
Pp = passive lateral earth pressure, not to exceed
pp = passive lateral earth pressure (KSF); 5.5.5.4
50 percent of the available passive lateral
P = horizontal earth pressure resultant acting on earth pressure (KIPS); 5.6.4
the pressure surface at back of wall (KIPS)/
Pp = total lateral passive earth pressure acting on
FT); 5.5.5.10
height, D, per foot width of anchor (KIPS/
P = vertical point load (KIPS); 5.5.5.10 FT); 5.8.6.2.1
P = tangential component of force on wall foot Pp = total lateral passive earth pressure acting on
ing (KIPS); 5.6.4 an anchor pile over height, Do , and effective
Pa = active lateral earth pressure resultant per pile width, b´ (KIPS); 5.8.6.2.2
unit width of wall (KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.3 Pp´ = total lateral passive earth pressure acting on
Pa = active lateral earth pressure resultant per height, h , per foot width of anchor or anchor
length of wall under consideration deter pile (KIPS/FT); 5.8.6.2.1, 5.8.6.2.2
mined by Rankine theory (KIPS); 5.5.5.8 Pr = resultant force of unifomly distributed lat
Pa = lateral earth pressure resultant per unit width eral resisting pressure per unit width of wall
of wall acting on pressure surface at back of acting over the depth of footing key required
wall (KIPS/FT); 5.6.4 to provide equilibrium to force, P (KIPS/
Pa = total lateral active earth pressure acting on FT); 5.6.4
an anchor pile over height, Do , and effective Pr = design lateral pressure from retained fill
pile width, b´ (KIPS); 5.8.6.2.2 (KSF); 5.10.4
Pa = total lateral active earth pressure acting on PT = tangential component of passive lateral earth
height, D , per foot width of anchor (KIPS/ pressure resultant per unit width of wall
FT); 5.8.6.2.1 (KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.4
Pa = design lateral pressure acting on the tribu PTotal = total lateral load per foot of wall required to
tary area of the face of the wall modules be applied to the wall face to provide a factor
of safety equal to 1.3 for the retained soil Ra = hydraulic radius for determining pressures
mass when stability is analyzed using an next to short side of rectangular wall cell
appropriate limiting equilibrium method of (FT); 5.10.4
analysis (KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.7 Rb = hydraulic radius for determining pressures
Pv = vertical component of, Pa (KIPS) ; 5.5.5.8 next to long side of rectangular wall cell
Pv = vertical load per unit length of continuous (FT); 5.10.4
footing or strip load (KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.10 Rpo = pullout resistance of soil reinforcement for
Pv´ = vertical load on isolated rectangular footing level of soil reinforcement under consider
or point load (KIPS); 5.5.5.10 ation (KIPS); 5.9.3
q = vertical pressure in wall cell fill at depth , y Rpo = pullout resistance of wall modules above the
(KSF); 5.10.4 level under consideration (KIPS); 5.10.3
qa = vertical pressure in wall cell fill next to short RF = combined strength reduction factor to ac
side of rectangular cell (KSF); 5.10.4 count for potential long-term degradation
(DIM); 5.9.3
qb = vertical pressure in wall cell fill next to long
side of rectangular cell (KSF); 5.10.4 RFCR = strength reduction factor to prevent long
-term creep rupture of soil reinforcement
qc = cone penetration resistance (KSF); 5.3.1
(DIM); 5.9.3
qs = uniform surcharge applied to the wall back
RFD = strength reduction factor to prevent rupture
fill surface within the limits of the active
of soil reinforcement due to chemical and
failure wedge (KSF); 5.5.5.10
biological degradation (DIM); 5.9.3
Q = normal component of force on wall footing
RFID = strength reduction factor to account for po
(KIPS); 5.6.4
tential degradation due to installation dam
Qa = allowable ground anchor pullout resistance age (DIM); 5.9.3
(KIPS); 5.8.6.3
RQD = Rock Quality Designation (DIM); 5.3.1
Q1 = normal component of force on wall footing
s = horizontal spacing of tie rods (FT); 5.8.6.2.1
within distance, B1 (KIPS); 5.6.4
sc = spacing of compression piles (FT); 5.8.6.2.3
Q2 = normal component of force on wall footing
within distance,( B-B1) (KIPS); 5.6.4 sm = shear strength of rock mass (KSF); 5.5.5.6,
5.7.5
r = ( x² +y² ) 0.5 (FT); 5.5.5.10
st = spacing of tension piles (FT); 5.8.6.2.3
R = reduction factor for determination, of Pp ,
using Figures 5.5.5.4-1 and 5.5.5.4-2 (DIM); Su = undrained shear strength of soil (KSF); 5.5.5.6
5.5.5.4 Sub = undrained shear strength of soil below de-
R = earth pressure resultant per unit width of wall sign grade in front of wall (KSF); 5.5.5.7.2b
acting on failure surface of failure wedge SPT = Standard Penetration Test (DIM); 5.3.1
(KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.5 T = design force of structural anchor or ground
R = design reaction force at bottom of wall to be anchor (KIPS); 5.8.6.1
resisted by embedded portion of wall (KIPS)/ Ta = long term allowable strength of soil rein
FT); 5.5.5.7 forcement associated with tributary area, At
R = radial distance from point of load applica (KIPS); 5.9.3
tion to the point on the back of the wall at Tac = long-term allowable reinforcement / facing
which,Dph, is being determined (FT);5.5.5.10 connection design strength per width , b, of
R = reaction at assumed point of zero moment in soil reinforcement (KIPS); 5.9.3.5.2
verticalwall elements at or near bottom of Tal = long-term tensile strength required to pre-
anchored wall (KIPS);5.8.6.3 vent rupture of the soil reinforcement (KIPS/
R = hydraulic radius of wall cell (FT); 5.10.4 FT); 5.9.3
Tf = wall footing thickness (FT); 5.6.4
Th = horizontal component of ground anchor de Vp = vertical shear force associated with develop
sign force (KIPS); 5.8.6.3 ment of plastic moments in reinforced con
Thi = horizontal component of design force in crete crib wall member (KIPS); 5.10.4
anchor at level i (KIPS/FT); 5.5.5.7 W = resultant weight of failure wedge per unit
Thn = horizontal component of ground anchor de- width of wall (KIPS/FT) ; 5.5.5.5
sign force at, nth , level (KIPS); 5.8.6.3 W = resultant weight of wall including any foot
Tk = width of wall footing key (FT); 5.6.4 ing key, the backfill above the footing, and
any surcharge loads acting above the foot
Tmax = maximum soil reinforcement load (KIPS);
ing width per unit width of wall (KIPS/FT);
5.9.3
5.6.4
Tn = design force of ground anchor at, nth, level
W = weight of pile cap and pile cap cover for pile
(KIPS); 5.8.6.3
anchor (KIPS/FT); 5.8.6.2.3
To = tie rod force that provides equilibrium of
Wc = total weight of wall fill in cell over depth, y
horizontal forces acting on the wall over the
(KIPS); 5.10.4
height, H+Do (KIPS); 5.8.6.2
Wu = segmental facing block unit width from front
To = maximum soil reinforcement tensile load at
to back (IN); 5,9.3.6.3
the wall face (KIPS); 5.9.3
x = horizontal distance from point of load appli
Tp = axial force in tension pile (KIPS); 5.8.6.2.3
cation to the back of the wall (FT); 5.5.5.10
Tph = horizontal component of axial force in a
xw = horizontal distance from toe of footing to
battered tension pile(KIPS); 5.8.6.2.3
location at which, W , acts (FT); 5.6.4
TT = applied test load at failure applied to soil
y = height above base of wall to location of
reinforcement connection (KIPS/FT);
point of application of, Pa (FT); 5.5.5.8
5.9.3.5.1
y = horizontal distance from the point on the
Tult = ultimate capacity of a structural anchor
back of the wall at which, Dph , is being
(KIPS); 5.8.6.2
determined to a plane which is perpendicu
Tult = ultimate capacity of an anchor pile (KIPS); lar to the wall and which passes through the
5.8.6.2.2 point of load application measured along
Tult = ultimate capacity per tie rod of a continuous the back of wall (FT); 5.5.5.10
pile anchor with tie rods at a spacing, s , or y = indicator of batter of wall (DIM); 5.10.1
ultimate capacity of an individual pile an
y = depth below top of wall cell fill at which
chor (KIPS); 5.8.6.2.3
pressures are being determined (FT); 5.10.4
Tult = ultimate tensile strength of soil reinforce-
ment determined from wide width tensile y = vertical distance from bottom of footing to
tests for geotextiles and geogrids or rib ten level of application of, Pa (FT); 5.6.4
sile test for geogrid (KIPS/FT); 5.9.3
ya = vertical distance from the bottom of embed
V = total vertical frictional force per unit width ment, Do , to the level at which, Pa , acts on
of wall cell perimeter over depth, y (KIPS/ an anchor pile (FT); 5.8.6.2.2
FT); 5.10.4
yo = vertical distance from bottom of wall foot
Va = total vertical frictional force per unit width ing to the level of application of, Po (FT);
of short side of rectangular cell over depth, 5.6.4
y (KIPS/FT); 5.10.4
yp = vertical distance from the bottom of embed
Vb = total vertical frictional force per unit width ment, Do , to the level at which, Pp , acts on
of long side of rectangular cell over depth,y an anchor pile (FT) ; 5.8.6.2.2
(KIPS/FT); 5.10.4
z = depth below the surface of earth at pressure
Vn = nominal shear strength of reinforced con surface (FT); 5.5.5.1
crete crib wall member (KIPS); 5.10.4
z = vertical distance from the wall backfill sur D = movement of top of wall required to reach
face to the level at which , Dph , is being minimum active or maximum passive earth
determined (FT); 5.5.5.10 pressure by tilting or lateral translation (FT);
z = vertical distance from bottom of footing C 5.5.1
elevation or level of applied vertical stress to Dsh = horizontal stress at depth, z , due to horizon
level at which, D sv , is being determined tal force at base of continuous footing (KSF);
(FT); 5.5.5.10 5.5.5.10
z = vertical distance from finished grade to the Dshmax = maximum value for, Ds h , which occurs at the
mid-point of , Le , at the level of soil rein bottom of footing elevation (KSF); 5.5.5.10
forcement under consideration (FT); 5.9.3 Dsv = additional surcharge (KSF); 5.5.5.6
z = vertical distance from bottom of footing Dsv = vertical soil stress at level of soil reinforce
elevation or level of applied horizontal force ment under consideration due to concen
to level at which, D s H , is being determined trated vertical surcharge loads (KSF); 5.9.3
(FT); 5.5.5.10
Dsv = vertical stress at depth, z , due to applied
z2 = depth at which inclined plane for determina vertical stress (KSF); 5.5.5.10
tion of effective width, D1, intersects the
Dp = constant horizontal earth pressure due to
back of wall or pressure surface (FT); 5.5.5.10
uniform surcharge (KSF); 5.5.5.10
z3 = depth of back of wall or pressure surface
Dph = horizontal earth pressure on the pressure
overwhich horizontal stress, DsH , from the
surface at back of wall at a distance, z , from
applied horizontal force is distributed (FT);
the wall backfill surface (KSF); 5.5.5.10
5.5.5.10
D Pp = force required for equilibrium of soil mass
Z = vertical distance from the wall backfill sur between structural anchor and anchored wall
face to the level at which the horizontal earth (KIPS); 5.8.6.2
pressure resultant is applied (FT); 5.5.5.10 D Pp = reduction in lateral passive earth pressure
a = angle between bottom of wall footing and a acting on an anchor pile (KIPS); 5.8.6.2.2
plane passing through the lower front corner D Tult = ultimate capacity reduction for a concrete
of the footing and the lower front corner of anchor (KIPS); 5.8.6.2.1
the footing key (DEG); 5.6.4 D Wc = weight of wall fill in cell over depth, y, not
a = inclination from horizontal of ground an supported by vertical frictional force at cell
chor (DEG); 5.8.6.3 perimeter over depth, y (KIPS); 5.10.4
a = scale effect correction factor (DIM); 5.9.3 e = angle used in calculating, a i , and, a o , of
ai = angle between vertical plane and inner Rankine failure wedge (DEG); 5.5.5.3
failure surface of Rankine failure wedge n = Poisson’s ratio (DIM); 5.5.5.10
(DEG); 5.5.5.3 savg = average vertical soil stress at level of soil
ao = angle between vertical plane and outer fail reinforcement under consideration due to
ure surface of Rankine failure wedge (DEG); weight of soil overburden and distributed
5.5.5.3 vertical surcharge loads above at level of
b = slope angle of backfill surface behind retain soil reinforcement (KSF); 5.9.3
ing wall (DEG); 5.5.5.2 sh = horizontal soil stress at level of soil rein
b´ = slope angle of slope in front of retaining wall forcement (KSF);5.9.3
(DEG); 5.5.5.6 sm = vertical soil stress at level of soil reinforce
d = friction angle between backfill material and ment under consideration using the
back of wall (DEG); 5.5.5.3 Meyerhof procedure (KSF);5.9.3
d = angle of friction between wall footing and sp = passive lateral earth pressure at depth H
foundation soil or rock (for footings on soil, (KSF); 5.5.5.4
d , may be taken as, 2/3 ø´f ) (DEG); 5.6.4 sv = applied vertical stress (KSF); 5.5.5.10
–grained soils should be avoided as backfill and in no temporarily. If there is no further movement, acitve
case should highly plastic clays be used. pressures will increase with time, approaching the at-rest
pressure, and passive pressures will decrease with time,
approaching values on the order of 40% of the maximum
Values of DD /H short-term value. The at-rest pressure should be based on
Type of Backfill the residual strength of the soil.
Active Passive
Dense Sand 0.001 0.01
5.5.2 Compaction
Medium Dense Sand 0.002 0.02
For non-yielding walls where activity by mechanical
Loose Sand 0.004 0.04
compaction equipment is anticipated within a distance of
Compacted Silt 0.002 0.02 one-half the height of the wall, the effect of additional
earth pressure that may be induced by compaction shall
Compacted Lean Clay 0.010 0.05 be taken into account.
Compacted Fat Clay 0.010 0.05
C5.5.2
Earth Total
Pressure Pressure
Water Water
Pressure = Table
Depth Below Water
Total
Pressure
Depth
Depth
Table
Earth Water
Pressure Earth Water
Pressure Pressures
In cases where water is expected to pond behind a wall, ation should be given to address the possibility of excess
the wall shall be designed to withstand the hydrostatic pore pressures or soil liquefaction.
water pressure plus the earth pressure.
Submerged unit weights of the soil shall be used to 5.5.5 Earth Pressure
determine the lateral earth pressure below the groundwa
ter table.
If the groundwater levels differ on opposite sides of the 5.5.5.1 Basic Lateral Earth Pressure
wall, the effects of seepage on wall stability and the
potential for piping shall be considered. Pore water Basic lateral earth pressure shall be assumed to be
pressures shall be added to the effective horizontal stresses linearly proportional to the depth of earth and taken as:
in determining total lateral earth pressures on the wall.
P = kγ s z (5.5.5.1-1)
C5.5.3 where:
The development of hydrostatic water pressure on p = basic lateral earth pressure (KSF)
walls should be eliminated through use of crushed rock,
pipe drains, gravel drains, perforated drains or geosynthetic k = coefficient of lateral earth pressure taken as,
drains. ko ,for walls that do not deflect or move, or, ka,
for walls that deflect or move sufficiently to
Pore water pressures behind the wall may be approxi reach minimum active conditions.
mated by flow net procedures or various analytical meth
ods such as the line-of-creep method as presented in the γ s = unit weight of soil (KCF)
US Army Corps of Engineers, EM 1110-2-2502.
z = depth below the surface of earth at pressure
surface (FT)
5.5.4 Effect of Earthquake
The resultant lateral earth load due to the weight of the
The effects of earthquake may be considered in the backfill shall be assumed to act at a height of h3 above
design of retaining walls which support bridge abut the base of the wall, where h is the height of the pressure
ments, buildings, soundwalls, critical utilities, or other surface, measured from the surface of the ground to the
installations for which there is a low tolerance for failure. base of the wall.
The effects of wall inertia and probable amplification of
active earth pressure and/or mobilization of passive earth C5.5.5.1
masses by earthquake may be considered.
The location of the resultant lateral earth load on the
pressure surface at h3 above the base of the pressure
C5.5.4 surface is applicable when the backfill surface is planar
and the backfill is completely above or completely below
The Mononobe-Okabe method for determining the ground water table.
equivalent static seismic loads may be used for gravity
and semi-gravity retaining walls. For those situations where the backfill surface is non-
planar and/or the ground water table is located within the
The Mononobe-Okabe analysis is based, in part, on the backfill, a trial wedge method of analysis may be used for
assumption that the backfill soils are unsaturated and the determination of the resultant lateral earth load in
thus, not susceptible to liquefaction. which case the location of the resultant lateral earth load
may be determined by the intersection of a line that is
Where soils are subject to both saturation and seismic parallel to the failure surface of the wedge projected from
or other cyclic/instantaneous loads, special consider
the centroid of the weight of the failure wedge to the plane C5.5.5.2
of the wall pressure surface. If the projected line is above
the top of the pressure surface, the resultant lateral earth The evaluation of the stress induced by cohesive soils
load may be assumed to act at the top of the pressure is highly uncertain due to their sensitivity to shrinkage-
surface. swell, wet-dry and degree of saturation. Tension cracks
can form, which considerably alter the assumptions for
the estimation of stress. Extreme caution is advised in the
5.5.5.2 At-Rest Lateral Earth Pressure determination of lateral earth pressures by assuming the
Coefficient, ko most unfavorable conditions.
ka =
b = slope angle of backfill surface behind retain G غ sin 2 Q sin( Q - d ) øß
ing wall (DEG)
( 5.5.5.3-1)
For overconsolidated soils, level backfill, and a verti
cal wall, the coefficient of at-rest lateral earth pressure 2
Œ Ł sin(q - d )sin(q + b ) ł œß
taken as: º
sinf ´ f ( 5.5.5.3-2)
ko = (1 - sin f´ f )(OCR) where:
(5.5.5.2-2)
h = height of pressure surface at back of wall
where: (FT)
Pa = active lateral earth pressure resultant per
OCR = overconsolidation ratio unit width of wall (KIP/FT)
Silt and lean clay shall not be used for backfill unless d = friction angle between backfill material and
suitable design procedures are followed and construction back of wall (DEG)
control measures are incorporated in the construction b = angle from backfill surface to the horizontal
documents to account for their presence. Consideration (DEG)
-
O = angle from the back face of wall to the
must be given for the development of pore water pressure
within the soil mass. Appropriate drainage provisions horizontal as shown in Figure 5.5.5.3-1 (DEG)
shall be provided to prevent hydrostatic and seepage ø'f = effective friction angle of soil (DEG)
forces from developing behind the wall. In no case shall ka = coefficient of active lateral earth pressure
highly plastic clay be used for backfill. (DIM)
Backfill
Slope
Level
Lateral earth
pressure
Gravity
distribution
Wall
h
Pa
h/3
Backfill slope
β
Inner failure surface
Level
Wedge of backfill
soil slides along
Pa back of wall
δ
Gravity wall
Surface of sliding
restricted by
Outer failure
a β Inner
surface by
failure
Rankine's surface
Level
theory
restricted
by wall
Pa
δ
Determine lateral
earth pressure on
vertical plane at
b heel of footing
φ'f to 2 φ'f
δ=
3 3
___ but not greater than β
a b = vertical plane
Semi-gravity wall with short footing heel
Backfill slope
β
Inner failure surface
Level
Wedge of backfill
soil slides along
Pa back of wall
δ
Gravity wall
Surface of sliding
restricted by
Outer failure
a β Inner
surface by
failure
Rankine's surface
Level
theory
restricted
by wall
Pa
δ
Determine lateral
earth pressure on
vertical plane at
b heel of footing
φ'f to 2 φ'f
δ=
3 3
___ but not greater than β
a b = vertical plane
Semi-gravity wall with short footing heel
Backfill
slope
Level
Shear zone uninterupted β
by stem of wall
(failure wedge) a
αo
Outer αi
failure
surface Pa
Inner failure
surface
b
semi-gravity wall with long footing heel
where:
Pa = lateral earth pressure rsultant per unit width of
___ wall determined by Rankine theory (KIP/FT)
a b = vertical plane
α i = ½(90-φ'f)+½(ε-β) (DEG)
α o = ½(90-φ'f)-½(ε-β) (DEG)
sin β
sin ε = ___
sin φ'f
Figure 5.5.5.3-3 Application of Rankine Lateral Earth Pressure Theories with Notation
5.5.5.4
Passive Lateral Earth Pressure sloping backfill. For conditions that deviate from those
Coefficient, kp described in Figures 5.5.5.4-1 and 5.5.5.4-2, the passive
pressure may be calculated by using a trial procedure
based on wedge theory or a logarithmic spiral method.
For non-cohesive soils, values of the passive lateral When wedge theory or logarithmic spiral method are
earth pressure may be taken from Figure 5.5.5.4-1 for the used, the limiting value of the wall friction angle should
case of a sloping or vertical wall with a horizontal backfill not be taken larger than one-half the effective angle of
or from Figure 5.5.5.4-2 for the case of a vertical wall and internal friction, ø´f .
120
-δ/φ 12
φ f -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0
θ=
110
10 .978 .962 .946 .929 .912 .898 .881 .864 11
θ=
100
15 .961 .934 .907 .881 .854 .830 .803 .775
θ=
90
20 .939 .901 .862 .824 .787 .752 .716 .678 10
θ=
25 .912 .860 .808 .759 .711 .666 .620 .574
80
30 .878 .811 .746 .686 .627 .574 .520 .467 9
θ=
35 .836 .752 .674 .603 .536 .475 .417 .362
70
40 .783 .682 .592 .512 .439 .375 .316 .262 8
θ=
45 .718 .600 .500 .414 .339 .276 .221 .174
7.0
60
θ
45˚- φf /2
θ=
45˚- φf /2
6.0
FAILURE
SURFACE
5.0 PP
PT
H
-δ
PN
COEFFICIENT OF PASSIVE PRESSURE, K p
H/3
4.0
LOGARITHMIC
50
σp = k p γs H
SPIRAL θ=
PASSIVE PRESSURE
γ
PP = k p s H ;
2
PT = PP SIN δ
3.0 2 PN = PP cos δ
2.0
1.0
.8
.6
.5
0 10 20 30 40 45
ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION, φf , DEGREES
Figure 5.5.5.4-1 Coefficient of Passive Lateral Earth Pressure for Vertical and Sloping Walls with
Horizontal Backfill ( Caquot and Kerisel Analysis ), Modified after U.S. Department of Navy (1971)
20.0
COEFFICIENT OF PASSIVE PRESSURE, Kp
β/φf = -0.2
+β
FAILURE
SURFACE
90 − φf
o
H
PP
10.0 PT −δ LOGARITHMIC
PN β/φf = -0.4
9.0 SPIRAL
H/3
8.0
7.0
σP = KPγs H
6.0
PASSIVE PRESSURE β/φf = -0.6
5.0
KPγs H ;
2
PT = PP sin δ ;
PP =
2 PN = PP cos δ ;
4.0
NOTE: CURVES SHOWN ARE
FOR -δ/φf = -1
3.0
β/φf = -0.8
2.0
β/φf = -0.9
PASSIVE
ZONE
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0 10 20 30 40 45
ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION, φf , DEGREES
Figure 5.5.5.4-2 Coefficient of Passive Lateral Earth Pressure for Vertical Walls with Sloping Backfill
( Caquot and Kerisel Analysis ), Modified after U.S. Department of Navy (1971)
5.5.5.5
Trial Wedge Method of soil. This movement causes a failure surface to form. It is
Analysis for the Determination assumed that this surface is a plane AM. The wedge of soil
of the Resultant Lateral Earth BAM moves downward a small amount along the failure
Pressure surface and along the pressure surface. This wedge, whose
weight is,W, is held in equilibrium by the resultant active
The trial wedge method of analysis is a procedure by pressure, Pa , acting on the surface, AB, and the resultant
means of which the resultant active and passive lateral force, R, acting on the failure surface, AM. Since the
earth pressures may be determined using either Coulomb’s wedge moves downward along, AB, the force, Pa , acts
or Rankine’s theories. The only limitation in this method with an assumed obliquity,d , below the normal to oppose
is that the inner failure surface must be plane or so nearly this movement. Similarly, the force, R, acts with an
plane that assuming a plane surface does not introduce obliquity, ø´f , below the normal because failure is occur
significant errors. This condition is satisfied when deter ring along this surface. For any assumed direction of the
mining active pressures but may not be satisfied when failure surface, AM, as defined by angle, y , from the
determining passive pressures when large values of wall horizontal, the magnitude of, W, can be determined and
friction and are used. In addition to the conditions shown with the directions of ,W, R, and, Pa , known or assumed,
in Figures 5.5.5.5. -1 through 5.5.5.5-6 this method can the magnitude of, Pa , can be determined. With the trial
be applied for conditions where the ground water table is wedge method of analysis, the direction of the failure
located within the failure wedge, when seismic accelera surface, AM, is varied until the determined magnitude of,
tions are applied to the mass of the failure wedge and Pa , is a maximum.
where soils are cohesive.
Figure 5.5.5.5-2 shows the assumptions used in the
Figure 5.5.5.5-1 shows the assumptions used in the determination of the resultant active pressure for a slop
determination of the resultant active pressure for a slop ping ground condition applying Rankine's theory.
ing ground condition applying Coulomb's theory. The
pressure surface AB yields by rotating in a counterclock Figure 5.5.5.5-3 shows the application of Coulomb’s
wise direction about A and may also yield to the left theory for a broken back slope condition for the determi
sufficiently to create an active state of stress in the backfill nation of the resultant active pressure.
β
M
Failure wedge
B
Wall
Failure surface
� c.g.
Pressure
Surface
w
δ
ψ φ'f
P
Level
R
A
Figure 5.5.5.5-4 shows the application of Rankine’s In Figures 5.5.5.5-1 through 5.5.5.5-4 the point of
theory for a broken back slope condition for the determi application of the resultant active pressure on the pres
nation of the resultant active pressure. The direction of sure surface is determined by passing a line through the
the resultant active pressure is assumed to be parallel to center of gravity (c.g.) of the weight of the failure wedge
a line passing through points, V, and, M. which is parallel to the failure surface, AM. The point at
β
M
Failure wedge
V
Pressure
Surface Inner failure
surface
Wall
� c.g.
Outer w
failure
surface
β
Pa
ψ R φ'f
Level
A
Failure wedge
B Failure
surface
Pressure � c.g.
Surface
w
Wall
δ ψ
P φ'f Level
A R
Figure 5.5.5.5-3 Trial Wedge Method-Broken Back Slope-Active Pressure, Coulomb's Theory
which this line intersects the pressure surface, AB, or, AV, pressure surface. The determination of,W, R, and, Pa1, is
is the point of application of the resultant active pressure. similar to the determination of, W, R, and, Pa , shown in
figure 5.5.5.5-3. In the determination of, Pa2, failure
Figure 5.5.5.5-5 shows the application of Coulomb’s wedge 2 has the forces,Pa2 ,W2 , and,R2 , acting on it plus
theory for a broken back slope condition and a broken the force, R1 , from failure wedge 1.
Failure wedge B
M
Pressure
surface V
c.g.
Outer failure Inner Failure
surface w Surface
B
Pa
Wall φ'f
Level
ψ R
Figure 5.5.5.5-4 Trial Wedge Method-Broken Back Slope-Active Pressure, Rankine's Theory
Failure wedge 1
M1 M2
Pressure
Surfaces
Failure
B c.g. φ'f R 1 wedge 2
Failure
surface
w1 ψ wedge 1
1
c.g. Failure
R 1 φ' Level
f w2 surface
δ1 B' wedge 2
Pa1
Wall
δ2
R 2 φ'
Pa2 ψ f
2 Level
A
Figure 5.5.5.5-5 Trial Wedge Method-Broken Back Slope and Broken Pressure Surface-Active Pressure,
Coulomb's Theory
Pressure
surface
Pp
Failure wedge
c.g.
w Level
Structure A
M
ψ
φ' R
f
Failure surface
Figure 5.5.5.5-6 shows the assumptions used in the The point at which this line intersects the pressure surface,
determination of the resultant passive pressure for a AB, is the point of application of the resultant passive
broken back slope condition applying Coulomb’s theory. pressure.
The pressure surface, AB, moves toward the backfill soil
by rotating in a clockwise direction about, A, and may
also translate to the right sufficiently to create a passive 5.5.5.6 Lateral Earth Pressures For
state of stress in the backfill soil. This movement causes Non-Gravity Cantilevered
a failure surface to form. It is assumed that this surface is Walls
a plane, AM. The wedge of soil, BAM, moves downward
along the failure surface and also upward relative to the For permanent walls, the simplified lateral earth pres
pressure surface of the structure. This wedge, whose sure distributions shown in Figures 5.5.5.6-1 and 5.5.5.6
weight is, W, is held in equilibrium by the resultant 2 may be used. If walls will support or are supported by
passive pressure, Pp , acting on the surface, AB, and the cohesive soils for temporary applications, the walls may
resultant force,R , acting on the failure surface, AM. Since be designed based on total stress methods of analysis and
the wedge moves upward along, AB, the force, Pp , acts undrained shear strength parameters. For this latter case,
with an assumed obliquity,d , above the normal to oppose the simplified lateral earth pressure distributions shown
this movement. Similarly, the force, R , acts with an in Figures 5.5.5.6-3, and 5.5.5.6-4 may be used with the
obliquity, ø´f , to the normal in a direction that opposes following restrictions:
movement of the wedge along the failure surface. For any
assumed direction of the failure surface, AM, as defined • The ratio of total overburden pressure to undrained
by angle y from the horizontal, the directions of, W, R, shear strength,NS (see Article 5.5.5.7.2), must be <3
and, Pp , are known or assumed, and the magnitude of,Pp, at the design grade in front of wall.
can be determined. With the trial wedge method of
analysis, the direction of the failure surface, AM, is varied • The active lateral earth pressure acting over the wall
until the determined magnitude of,Pp , is a minimum. The height, H, shall not be less than 0.25 times the
point of application of the resultant passive pressure on effective overburden pressure at any depth, or 0.036
the pressure surface is determined by passing a line KSF/FT of wall height, which ever is greater.
through the center of gravity (c.g.) of the weight of the
failure wedge which is parallel to the failure surface, AM.
For temporary walls with vertical elements embedded The lateral earth pressure distributions in Figures
in granular soil or rock and retaining cohesive soil, 5.5.5.6-1 thru 5.5.5.6-4 shown acting on the embedded
Figures 5.5.5.6-1 and 5.5.5.6-2 may be used to determine portion of vertical wall elements shall be applied to the
the lateral earth pressure distributions on the embedded effective width, b', of discrete vertical wall elements. See
portion of the vertical elements and Figure 5.5.5.6-4 may Article 5.7.6 for effective widths of discrete vertical wall
be used to determine the lateral earth pressure distribu elements to be used.
tion due to the retained cohesive soil.
k a1 γs1
k a2 γ s1 H
1
H
Soil 1
( γs1 ,φ' f1 )
Finished Grade
Design
Grade β'
k a2 γ s2
k p2 γs2 Soil 2
( γs2 ,φ' f2 )
Do
1
1
Figure 5.5.5.6-1 Simplified Lateral Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent Non-gravity Cantilevered
Walls with Vertical Wall Elements Embedded in Granular Soil and Retaining Granular Soil
k aγs
H
Soil
1
( γs , φ'f )
Finished Grade
Design
Grade β'
D0
Rock
(s m )
where:
b = Actual width of embedded discrete vertical wall element
below design grade in plane of wall (feet)
Pp = Passive resistance of the rock acting on the actual width of the
embedded discrete vertical wall element (KIP/FT)
Figure 5.5.5.6-2 Simplified Lateral Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent Non-gravity Cantilevered
Walls with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements Embedded in Rock and Retaining Granular Soil
k aγs
Active failure
1 wedge failure
surface Granular
H
Soil
Design
( γs1, φ'f )
Grade
Cohesive
Do
Soil
( γs2 , S u )
F
2Su
Figure 5.5.5.6-3 Simplified Lateral Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Non-gravity Cantilevered
Walls with Vertical Wall Elements Embedded in Cohesive Soil and Retaining Granular Soil
∆σv
2Su1 β
1
Active failure
γs wedge failure
1
surface
H
Design
Cohesive
Grade Soil
( γs1 , Su1)
Cohesive
Soil
Do
( γs2 , Su2)
γ H+∆σ -2S
s1 v u1
Figure 5.5.5.6-4 Simplified Lateral Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Non-gravity Cantilevered
Walls with Vertical Wall Elements Embedded in Cohesive Soil and Retaining Cohesive Soil
5.5.5.7 Lateral Earth Pressures for In developing the lateral earth pressure for design of an
Anchored Walls anchored wall, consideration shall be given to wall dis
placements that may affect adjacent structures and/or
For anchored walls restrained by tie rods and structural underground utilities.
anchors, the lateral earth pressure acting on the wall may
be determined in accordance with Article 5.5.5.6.
C5.5.5.7
For anchored walls constructed from the top down and
restrained by ground anchors (tieback anchors), the lat In the development of lateral earth pressures, the
eral earth pressure acting on the wall height, H, may be method and sequence of wall construction, the rigidity of
determined in accordance with Articles 5.5.5.7.1 and the wall/anchor system, the physical characteristics and
5.5.5.7.2. stability of the ground mass to be supported/retained,
allowable wall deflections, anchor spacing and prestress
For anchored walls constructed from the bottom up and the potential for anchor yield should be considered.
and restrained by a single level of ground anchors located
not more than one third of the wall height, H, above the
bottom of the wall, the total lateral earth pressure, PTotal,
acting on the wall height, H, may be determined in
accordance with Article 5.5.5.7.1 with distribution as
sumed to be linearly proportional to depth and a maxi β
2PTotal
mum pressure equal to, H
. For anchored walls
3 1
constructed from the bottom up and restrained by mul
H
tiple levels of ground anchors, the lateral earth pressure
2
acting on the wall height, H, may be determined in H1
accordance with Article 5.5.5.7.1.
T h1
β
H2
3 1
H
H1
H
2
T h2
T h1
H
Hn
3
1
H
3 n+1
(H - H 1)
T hn
Design
2
Hn+1
Grade Design
2
3
Grade
R p
a
R p
2
Note: H1 < H a
3
a) Wall with a single level of anchors b) Wall with multiple levels of anchors
Figure 5.5.5.7.1-1 Lateral Earth Pressure Distributions for Anchored Walls Constructed from the Top Down
in Cohesionless Soils
H
4
Th1
H
Th2
3H
Th3
Design
Grade
pa
Figure 5.5.5.7.2b-1 Lateral Earth Pressure Distribution for Anchored Walls Constructed from the Top Down
in Soft to Medium Stiff Cohesive Soils
C5.5.5.7.2a pa = ka g s H
(5.5.5.7.2b-1)
In the absence of specific experience in a particular
soil deposit, pa=0.3g sH should be used for the maximum where:
pressure ordinate when the anchors are locked off at 75
percent of the design force or less. Where anchors are to pa = maximum ordinate of pressure diagram
be locked off at 100 percent of the design force or greater, (KSF)
a maximum pressure ordinate of pa=0.4g sH should be
used. ka = coefficient of active lateral earth pres
sure from Equation 5.5.5.7.2b-2
For temporary walls the lateral earth pressure distribu
tions in Figure 5.5.5.7.1-1 should only be used for exca gs = total unit weight of soil (KCF)
vations of controlled short duration, where the soil is not
fissured and where there is no available free water. H = wall design height (FT)
Reinforced Retained
soil soil
H=h
y= h
3
L Soil reinforcement
Figure 5.5.5.8-1 Lateral Earth Pressure Distribution and Resultant for MSE Wall with Level
Backfill Surface
h-H
Retained
soil
Reinforced
soil
Pa
h
Pv
H
Ph
y= h
3
Soil reinforcement
Figure 5.5.5.8-2 Lateral Earth Pressure Distribution and Resultant for MSE Wall with Sloping
Backfill Surface
Retained
soil
h-H
Failure surface
Reinforced Pv
soil Pa
h
H
B
Ph
Soil reinforcement
Figure 5.5.5.8-3 Lateral Earth Pressure Distribution and Resultant for MSE Wall with Broken Back
Backfill Surface
where:
Pa = active lateral earth pressure resultant per L = length of soil reinforcement (FT)
length of wall under consideration
determined by Rankine theory (KIP) y = height above base of wall to location of
point of application of, Pa, see Article
Ph = horizontal component of, Pa (KIP) C5.5.5.1 (FT)
}
5.5.5.9 Lateral Earth Pressures For
Prefabricated Modular Walls -
Ø . z
-
z 'ø .
Œ
º. z
2
z
2
'œ
ß.
(a + b ) + b +
The lateral active earth pressure for the design of (a + b ) b
prefabricated modular walls may be determined using
Coulomb’s theory as presented in Figures 5.5.5.3-1 and (5.5.5.10.2-1)
5.5.5.3-2c.
P=
phØarctan ( a + b ) - arctan b ø
5.5.5.10 Surcharge Loads Œ
90 º h hßœ
5.5.5.10.1 Uniform Surcharge Loads (5.5.5.10.2-2)
( )
Where a uniform surcharge is present, a constant
horizontal earth pressure shall be added to the basic (a + b ) b
-
2
h arctan arctan
lateral earth pressure. This constant earth pressure may be
( )
h h
taken as: z =
(a + b ) b
2 h arctan - arctan
h h
Dp = ksqs
(5.5.5.10.1-1)
where: (a + b )
2
(
90 - arctan
(a + b )
)
( )
h
+
Dp = constant horizontal earth pressure due to (a + b ) b
uniform surcharge (KSF) 2 h arctan - arctan
h h
k s = coefficient of lateral earth pressure due to
( )
surcharge
b
90 - arctan - 57.30 a h
2
b
qs = uniform surcharge applied to the wall
( )
h
-
backfill surface within the limits of the (a + b) b
active failure wedge (KSF) 2 h arctan - arctan
h h
For active earth pressure conditions, ks , shall be
taken as, ka, and for at-rest conditions, ks , shall be taken
as, ko. (5.5.5.10.2-3)
where:
5.5.5.10.2 Uniformly Loaded Strip Parallel
to Wall Dph = horizontal earth pressure on the pressure
surface at back of wall at a distance,z, from the
The horizontal earth pressure distribution and result wall backfill surface (KSF)
ant applied to the back of a wall due to a uniformly loaded
strip parallel to the wall may be taken as: z = vertical distance from the wall backfill sur
face to the level at which Dph is being deter
{
mined (KT)
2p p Ø z zø
D ph = arccot -arc cot
p Œ
180 º a+b b œß P = horizontal earth pressure resultant acting on
the pressure surface at back of wall (KIPS/FT)
_
z = vertical distance from the wall backfill sur 5.5.5.10.3 Point Load
face to the level at which the horizontal earth
pressure resultant is applied (FT) The horizontal earth pressure applied to the back of a
wall due to a vertical point load my be taken as:
h = height of pressure surface at back of wall (FT)
Ø 3x z (
{ x -y
} ø
2 2 2 2
p y z
p = load intensity of strip load parallel to wall D ph = - 1 - 2v ) +
(KSF) p Œ
ºR (R + z ) œß
5 2 3 2
Rr Rr
P
= vertical point load (KIP)
C5.5.5.10.2 R
= radial distance from point of load applica
tion to the point on the back of the wall at
Equations 5.5.5.10.2-1 and 5.5.5.10.2-2 are based on which, Dph , is being determined where,
the assumption that the wall does not move (i.e. walls R = ( x2 + y2 +z2 ) (FT)
0.5
b a
z
_
z
p
Back of wall
or pressure
surface
h
Design
grade
Figure 5.5.5.10.2-1 Horizontal Earth Pressure on Wall Due to Uniformly Loaded Strip Parallel to Wall
z = vertical distance from the point of load Poisson's ratio for soils varies from about 0.25 to 0.5,
application to the elevation of the point on the with lower values more typical for granular and stiff
back of the wall at which, Dph , is being cohesive soils and higher values more typical for soft
determined (FT) cohesive soils.
r = ( x2 + y2) (FT)
0.5
The horizontal earth pressure on a wall due to other
vertical load conditions may be approximated by super
v = Poisson’s ratio (DIM) imposing the effects of closely spaced point loads which
are equivalent to the actual load in magnitude and distri
bution.
x x
R
Back of Wall
or pressure
surface
z
Location
of load
application
Back of wall
h
or pressure
y
surface.
Design
grade
5.5.5.10.4 Uniformly Loaded Strip strip loads may be distributed with depth as shown in
Parallel to Wall – Flexible Figure 5.5.5.10.4-1 and horizontal forces may be distrib
Walls uted with depth as shown in Figure 5.5.5.10.4-2.
d
bf Pv or Pv'
/2
Footing, BxL
Bottom of
footing Applied vertical
elevation stress, σv
1
bf
2
Z
1
Z2
D1
2
Z
Back of wall
or pressure D1
surface
pv
For z £ z2 , D1 = b1 + z For point load, Ds v = , (b f = 0)
( D1 ) 2
b +z
For z ‡ z2 , D1 = 1 +d where:
2
For continuous footing or strip load,
D1 = effective width for determining vertical
p stress at any depth due to applied vertical load
Ds v = v
D1 (FT)
For isolated footing load,
p´ v bf = width of applied vertical stress (FT). For
Ds v =
D1 ( L + z ) concentrically loaded footings, bf =B. For
eccentrically loaded footings,bf =B-2e', where,
Figure 5.5.5.10.4-1 Distribution of Vertical Stress with Depth Due to Applied Vertical Stress ( Continued )
e' , is the eccentricity of the footing load, but Dsv = vertical stress at depth, z , due to applied
bf shall not be greater than B. vertical stress (KSF)
Pv = vertical load per unit length of continuous z2 = depth at which inclined plane for determi
footing or strip load (KIPS/FT) nation of effective width, D1, intersects the
back of wall or pressure surface (FT)
Pv' = vertical load on isolated rectangular footing
or point load (KIPS) d = distance from center of width,bf , to back of
wall or pressure surface (FT)
sv = applied vertical stress (KSF)
Figure 5.5.5.10.4-1 Distribution of Vertical Stress with Depth Due to Applied Vertical Stress ( Continued )
d
bf
Bottom of
Footing bf/
2
elevation Footing
PH
Z
2PH
Z3
Z3
45+ 'f/
2
Back of wall or
pressure surface
Figure 5.5.5.10.4-2 Distribution of Horizontal Stress with Depth Due to Applied Horizontal
Force ( Continued )
Figure 5.5.5.10.4-2 Distribution of Horizontal Stress with Depth Due to Applied Horizontal
Force ( Continued )
5.5.5.10.5 Live Load Surcharge heq = equivalent height of soil for vehicular load
(FT)
A live load surcharge shall be applied where vehicular
load is expected or possible to act on the surface of the g sheq ‡ 0.240 KSF for highway loading
backfill within a distance equal to the wall height behind
the back face of the wall or pressure surface.
If the vehicular loading is transmitted through a struc
The increase in horizontal pressure due to live load tural slab, which is also supported by means other than
surcharge may be taken as: earth, a corresponding reduction in the surcharge loads
may be permitted.
D p = k gsheq (5.5.5.10.5-1)
0.2h
0.6h
h
0.2h
k oγ s h 0.8kaγs h
where:
Pressure
Backfill
Back face
Front face
Stem
~
Buttress Counterfort
Footing
Construction
cover
joint
~
Toe Heel
Footing
Footing key
Figure 5.6.1-1 Terms Used in Design of Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Retaining Walls
5.6.3 Earth Pressure, Water Pressure and 5.6.4 Structure Dimensions and External
Surcharge Loadings Stability
In developing the total design lateral pressures, the 5.6.4.1 Sliding Stability
lateral pressure due to traffic, permanent point and line
surcharge loads, backfill compaction, or other types of In the determination of the, FSSL , the effect of passive
surcharge loads shall be added to the design lateral earth lateral earth pressure resistance in front of a wall footing
pressure. Refer to Article 5.5.5.10 for the determination or a wall footing key shall only be considered when
of design lateral pressures due to surcharge loads. competent soil or rock exists which will not be removed
or eroded during the structure life. Not more than 50
The resistance due to passive lateral earth pressure in percent of the available passive lateral earth pressure
front of the wall shall be neglected unless the wall extends shall be considered in determining the, FSSL .
well below the depth of frost penetration, scour or other
types of disturbance. Development of passive lateral Refer to Figure 5.6.4.1-1 for procedures to deter
earth pressure in the soil in front of a rigid wall requires mine the factor of safety against sliding. For wall
an outward rotation of the wall about its toe or other footings with a footing key, both horizontal and
movement of the wall into the soil. The magnitude of inclined sliding planes should be considered to
movement required to mobilize passive pressure is a determine the minimum factor of safety against
function of the soil type and condition in front of the wall sliding. For walls with sloping footings procedures
as defined in Table C5.5.1-1. similar to those shown in Figure 5.6.4.1-1 should be
used to determine the factor of safety against sliding.
The provisions of Article 5.5.3 shall apply.
Wall stem
Dk
Footing toe ~ α = arctan
Footing heel B1
B1
Pmax = (Q cos α − Pp sin α ) tan φ ´ f + c
PP ~
P ~
cos α
(Pmax + Pp cos α − Q sin α )
Tf
Pmax FS SL =
P cos α
Q
B
c. Wall footing with footing key and inclined
sliding plane
Pmax + Pp where:
FSSL =
p
P = tangential component of force on wall foot
a. Wall footing without footing key ing (KIP)
Pmax = maximum resisting force between wall foot
Wall stem ing base and foundation soil or rock against
sliding failure (KIP)
Footing toe ~
Pp = passive lateral earth pressure, not to exceed
Footing heel 50 percent of the available passive lateral
~
earth pressure (KIP)
P ~
Tf
(KIP)
Pmax Q1 = normal component of force on wall footing
Q1 Q2 Footing key within distance B1 (KIP)
Q
B1 Q2 = normal component of force on wall footing
B
within distance (B – B1) (KIP)
B = width of wall footing (FT)
Q = Q1 + Q2 B1 = distance from toe of footing to front face of
footing key (FT)
B' = width of wall footing actually in compres
Pmax + Pp sion (B´= B – 2e) (FT)
FSSL =
P Tf = wall footing thickness (FT)
Dk = depth of wall footing key (FT)
b. Wall footing with footing key and horizontal ø´ƒ = effective angle of internal friction of foun
sliding plane dation soil (DEG)
δ = angle of friction between wall footing and
Wall stem foundation soil, or rock (for footings on
2
soil, δ , may be taken as, 3 ø´ƒ) (DEG)
Footing toe ~ c = cohesion of foundation soil (KSF)
Footing heel ca = adhesion between wall footing and founda
tion soil or rock (KSF)
~ ~
Pp P α
Tf
Pressure
surface
xw Pav
h
H
Pa
W
Pah
cL Footing
y
O
P
Tf
Pp
Dk
Pmax Q
e Tk Bk
Dk < Tf
Bk > Dk , when Bk < Dk , the pressure surface of height, h , extends to bottom of footing key
QB
+ Pah y − Pav B − Wxw
e= 2
Figure 5.6.4.2-1 Procedures to Determine the Eccentricity of the Resultant Force Acting on the Wall
Footing Base ( Continued )
Pressure
surface
H
xw
h
W Pav
Pa
Pah
cL Footing
y
yo
Po P
Tf
O
Q
Pr e
Dk
Pmax
Tk Bk
Bk ≤ Dk , when Bk > Dk , the pressure surface of height, h, extends to the bottom of the footing.
QB D
2 + Pah y − PavB−Wxw − Py + Pr ( 2k )
e= o o
Q
b. Wall with deep footing key
Figure 5.6.4.2-1 Procedures to Determine the Eccentricity of the Resultant Force Acting on the Wall
y = vertical distance from bottom of footing to Pr = resultant force of uniformly distributed lat
level of application of, Pa (FT) eral resisting pressure per unit width of wall
acting over depth of footing key required to
h = height of pressure surface at back of wall (FT) provide equilibrium to force, P (KIPS/FT)
Pr=P-Po
W = resultant weight of wall, including any foot-
ing key, the backfill above the footing, and P o = at-rest lateral earth pressure resultant per unit
any surcharge loads acting above the footing with of wall acting on the toe of the wall
width per unit width of wall (KIPS/FT) footing (KIPS/FT)
xw = horizontal distance from toe of footing to y o = vertical distance from bottom of wall footing
location at which, W, acts. to the level of application of, Po (FT)
Figure 5.6.4.2-1 Procedures to Determine the Eccentricity of the Resultant Force Acting on the Wall
See Article 4.45 for procedures to determine the re The rear projection or heel of footings shall be de
quired embedment depth of wall foundations; Articles signed to support the entire weight of the superimposed
4.4.7 and 4.4.8, respectively, for procedures to design backfill, surcharge loads, and a portion of the vertical
spread footings on soil and rock; and Articles 4.5 and 4.6, component of the lateral earth pressure acting on the
respectively, for procedures to design driven pile and pressure surface located at the heel of the footing, unless
drilled shaft foundations. a more exact method is used. The footing of cantilever
walls shall be designed as cantilevers supported by the
wall stem. The footing of counterforted and buttressed
5.6.5 Structure Design walls shall be designed as fixed or continuous beams of
spans equal to the distance between counterforts or but
Structural design of individual wall elements shall be tresses.
by the service load design method except in special cases
when earthquake forces are considered in which case the The critical sections for bending moments in footings
load factor design method may be used. A wall support shall be taken at the front and back faces of the wall stem.
ing a soundwall is a special case where earthquake forces The critical sections for shear in the footing shall be taken
should be considered. at a distance, d, from the front face of the wall stem for the
toe section and at the back face of the wall stem for the heel
section (see Aritcle 8.16.6 when concentrated loads are
present).
Joints
Finished
Top of wall grade
Facing
H
Berm
Finished grade
Design grade
(Bottom of wall)
Discrete vertical
element (soldier pile)
D
D0
Concrete backfill
Drilled hole
where:
Figure 5.7.1-1 Terms used in the Design of Nongravity Cantilevered Retaining Walls
This type wall may consist of discrete vertical ele Where thin drainage panels are used behind walls,
ments, (soldier piles) which extend over the height, H, and saturated or moist soil behind the panels may be subject
embedment, D, with facing elements over the height, H, to freezing and expansion. In such cases, insulation shall
which span between the discrete vertical elements or it be provided on the walls to prevent freezing of the soil,
may consist of continuous vertical elements (sheet piles), or consideration should be given during wall design to
which extend over the height, H, and embedment, D, the pressures which may be exerted on the wall by frozen
providing both the facing and lateral support. soil.
The active lateral earth pressure distributions pro The passive lateral earth pressure distributions pro
vided in Article 5.5.5.6 may be used for design. When vided in Article 5.5.5.6 may be used for design. When
determining the value for, ka, for granular soils, the determining the value for, kp, for granular soils, the
Coulomb theory should be used with the value for the provisions of Articles 5.5.5.4 and 5.5.5.5 may be used.
wall friction angle, , equal to zero.
The embedment of vertical wall elements shall be
The lateral pressure due to traffic, permanent point and designed to support the full design lateral earth, sur
line surcharge loads, backfill compaction or other types charge and water pressures. In determining the embed
of surcharge loads shall be added to the active lateral earth ment depth to mobilize passive lateral resistance, consid
pressure. Refer to Article 5.5.5.10 for the determination eration shall be given to planes of weakness (e.g., slick
of design lateral pressures due to surcharge loads. ensides, bedding planes, and joint sets) that could reduce
the strength of the soil or rock determined by field or
laboratory tests. Embedment in intact rock including
5.7.3 Wall Movement massive to appreciably jointed rock which should not fail
through a joint surface, shall be based on the shear
The effects of wall movements on adjacent facilities strength, sm, of the rock mass.
shall be considered in the selection of the design lateral
earth pressures. Walls for which little or no movement can
be tolerated should be designed for at-rest lateral earth 5.7.6 Structure Dimensions and External
pressure. Stablility
discrete vertical elements in soil, an effective width of the Timber or steel facing elements (lagging members)
vertical elements, b´, may be used. For walls with a facing simply supported at the vertical support elements may be
that is continuous across the vertical elements the effec designed for a reduced bending moment to account for
tive width shall not exceed two times the width of the soil arching except when retaining soft cohesive soils.
vertical elements (b´<_ 2b) . For walls with a facing that is When applicable the maximum design moment may be
simply supported at each vertical element the effective taken as 0.8 times the calculated moment using the design
width shall not exceed three times the width of the vertical lateral pressures. Timber facing elements should be con
elements (b´<_ 3b). The effective width used for the verti structed from stress-grade lumber which has been pres
cal elements shall not exceed the center to center spacing sure treated with a perservative.
of the vertical elements. When determining the resultant
passive lateral pressure applied to the embedded portion
of discrete vertical elements in rock, the width of the 5.7.8 Traffic Barrier
vertical element shall be used.
When traffic barriers are placed at the top of non-
For vertical elements embedded in soil, the calculated gravity cantilevered walls they shall be constructed on a
embedment, Do, shall be increased to determine the support slab which is designed to resist the overturning
embedment to be used, D, so that, due to the design horizontal impact load applied to the
D>_ 1.1Do. For vertical elements embedded in rock, barrier. The support slab shall be designed so only
>
_
D Do may be used. horizontal and vertical forces are transmitted to the ver
tical support elements of the wall. The support slab
For nongravity cantilevered walls with embedment in shall be continuous the full length of the wall with no
soil, the design height, H, shall be established so that the expansion joints. The horizontal forces from the support
finished grade provides a berm in front of the wall face at slab applied to the vertical support elements need to be
least 4 feet wide measured from the face of the wall and considered in the design of these vertical support ele
provides a design grade at least 2 feet below finished ments. The horizontal force from the support slab shall
grade measured at the face of the wall. be applied to the top of the vertical support elements.
For discrete vertical support elements the minimum de
For nongravity cantilevered walls with embedment in sign force shall be 20 kips or 3.5 kips times the spacing
rock the design height, H, shall be established so that of the vertical support elements whichever is greater but
stable conditions will be provided considering the nature need not exceed 40 kips. For continuous vertical sup
of the rock and slope in front of the wall and the service port elements the minimum force shall be 3.5 kips per
life of the wall. foot. These design forces may be considered factored
loads. The design lateral earth pressure from the retained
soil need not be considered to act concurrently with the
5.7.7 Structure Design above design forces. The calculated embedment, Do,
shall provide a minimum factor of safety against over
Structural design of individual wall elements shall be turning equal to 1.0 ( FSOT > 1.0 ) for the above loading
by the service load design method except in special cases, using the simplified analysis method.
such as when earthquake forces are considered, in which
case the load factor design method may be used. When traffic barriers are placed at the top of non-
gravity cantilevered walls embedded in soil or rock, the
The vertical support elements shall be designed for the minimum design height, H, shall be 6 feet, and the
full contributory lateral pressures and any vertical loads minimum length of wall and barrier slab shall be 60 feet.
if they control the design.
of the wall vertical elements which extend below the ded depth, D, which may provide vertical and lateral
failure surface being evaluated may be used in the support plus either structural anchors or ground anchors,
analysis. see figures 5.8.1-1 and 5.8.1-2.
5.8.1 Design Terminology The anchors may be either structural anchors or ground
anchors. Structural anchors may consist of concrete
An anchored wall includes an exposed design height, anchors, anchor piles or a pile anchor which are located
H, over which soil is retained and generally an embed a sufficient distance behind the wall to develop lateral
Top of wall
Finished grade
Active
pressure
failure
Concrete surface
Facing
Tie rod Passive
Timber pressure Concrete
lagging failure surface anchor
H
Discrete vertical
element (soldier pile)
Berm
Concrete backfill
Finished
grade Design
grade
D
(Bottom of
wall) Drilled hole
Active pressure
failure surface
(or critical failure surface)
Passive pressure
failure surface
Figure 5.8.1-1 Terms used in the Design of Anchored Retaining Walls using Tie Rods and
Structural Anchors ( Continued )
Concrete
backfill
Drilled
Hole
Timber Tie rod
lagging facing
Active
H
Anchor pressure
Berm pile failure
Discrete vertical
Finished element (soldier pile) surface
grade
Concrete
backfill Passive
pressure
Design failure surface
grade
D
(Bottom of
wall) Drilled hole
Active pressure
failure surface
Passive pressure (or critical failure surface)
failure surface
b) Wall With Anchor Pile
Pile cap
Waler
Tie rod
H
Berm
Continuous
Finished vertical elements
grade (sheet piles)
Design Tension
piles
D
grade
Compression
piles
Active pressure
failure surface
(critical failure
surface)
Pile Anchor
Passive pressure
System
failure surface
Figure 5.8.1-1 Terms used in the Design of Anchored Retaining Walls using Tie Rods and
Structural Anchors ( Continued )
Unb
onde
d len Grout
Timber gth
lagging
facing
Bond
ed le
ngth
Berm
Finished
H
grade
Discrete vertical
element (soldier pile)
Design
grade
(Bottom of
wall) Drilled hole
Structural Concrete
backfill
D
a) Wall With Multiple Levels of Ground Anchors and Discrete Vertical Elements
Figure 5.8.1-2 Terms used in the Design of Anchored Retaining Walls using Ground
Anchors ( Tiebacks) ( Continued )
Finished grade
Top of wall
Unbonde
d length
Horizontal
shotcrete Bonded le
ngth
H
support
element
Finished
grade Drilled hole
Design
grade
Figure 5.8.1-2 Terms used in the Design of Anchored Retaining Walls using Ground
resistance beyond any critical failure surface and tie rods 5.8.4 Water Pressure and Drainage
secured to the wall and structural anchor. Ground anchors
generally consist of prestressing steel elements (tendons) The provisions of Article 5.7.4 shall apply.
placed and grouted in drilled holes.These tendons extend
from an anchorage to the wall to an anchor zone (bonded
length) located beyond any critical failure surface behind 5.8.5 Passive Resistance
the wall. The ground anchor includes an unbonded
length which permits stressing the anchor without trans The passive lateral earth pressure distributions, pro
ferring forces to the ground within this length and a vided in Article 5.5.5.6, may be used in the determination
bonded length overwhich tendon forces are transferred to of the required embedment of the vertical wall elements.
the ground. When determining the value for, kp, for granular soils, the
provisions of Articles, 5.5.5.4 and 5.5.5.5 may be used.
The vertical component of the total passive lateral earth
5.8.2 Loading pressure should not exceed the available vertical force
resistance of the wall and the wall anchors.
5.8.2.1 Walls with Structural Anchors
In determining the required embedment depth to
For the determination of active lateral earth pressure mobilize passive lateral resistance, consideration shall
distributions and additional loadings, the provisions of be given to planes of weakness (e.g. slickensides, bed
Article 5.7.2 apply. ding planes, and joint sets) that could reduce the strength
of the soil or rock determined by field or laboratory tests.
The effects of wall movements on adjacent facilities Embedment in intact rock including massive to apprecia
shall be considered in the selection of the design lateral bly jointed rock which should not fail through a joint
earth pressures. Walls that can tolerate little or no move surface, shall be based on the shear strength, sm, of the
ment should be designed for at-rest lateral earth pressure. rock mass.
For the determination of the apparent lateral earth The design of anchored walls includes the determina
pressure distributions acting on the wall height, H, the tion of the following;
provisions of Article 5.5.5.7 apply. For the determination
of the active lateral earth pressure distributions acting on • Size, spacing, and depth of embedment of the
the wall embedment depth, D, the provisions of Article vertical wall elements and facing;
5.5.5.6 apply. When determining the value for, Ka, for • Type, capacity, spacing, depth, inclination and
granular soils, the Coulomb theory should be used with corrosion protection of wall anchors; and
the value for the wall friction angle, δ, equal to zero. The • Structural capacity and stability of the wall, wall
lateral pressure due to traffic, permanent point and line foundation and surrounding soil mass for all
surcharge loads, backfill compaction or other types of intermediate and final stages of construction.
surcharge loads shall be added to the above lateral earth
pressures. Refer to Article 5.5.5.10 for the determination For anchored walls with embedment in soil, the design
of design lateral earth pressures due to surcharge loads. height, H, shall be established so that the finished grade
provides a berm in front of the wall face at least 4 feet wide
measured from the face of the wall and which provides a
5.8.3 Wall Movement design grade at least 2 feet below finished grade measured
at the face of the wall. For walls supported in or through
The effects of horizontal and vertical wall movements soft clays, the design grade shall be established suffi
on the performance of the wall and on adjacent facilities ciently below finished grade to prevent heave in front of
shall be considered in the development of the wall design. the wall.
For anchored walls with embedment in rock the design the ultimate capacity, Tult, is greater than or equal to, 2T,
height, H, shall be established so that stable conditions Tult >
_ 2T.
will be provided considering the nature of the rock and
slope in front of the wall and the service life of the wall. For design of these walls, refer to Figures 5.8.6.2-1,
5.8.6.2-2, and 5.8.6.2-3 and the following procedures;
Bearing resistance shall be determined assuming that
all vertical components of loads are transferred to the 1. Determine the active lateral earth pressure distribu
embedded portion of the vertical wall elements. The tion or at-rest lateral earth pressure distribution if
provisions of Articles 4.4.7, 4.4.8, 4.5.6 and 4.6.5 shall movements are to be restricted and any additional
apply. loadings. Determine the passive lateral earth pres
sure distribution;
Where fill is placed behind a wall, either around or 2. Determine the embedment, Do, of the vertical wall
above the tie rods or ground anchors, special designs, and elements that provides a factor of safety equal to 1.0
construction specifications shall be provided to prevent against rotation about point, O, (level of tie rod);
damage to these elements due to the backfilling opera
tions or due to settlement of subsoil. 3. Determine the tie rod force, To, that provides equi
librium of horizontal forces acting on the wall over
For walls in cut where the excavation has advanced to the height, H + Do;
the level required for the construction of the top level of
anchors, but prior to the installation of the anchors, the 4. Determine the tie rod design force, T . For walls with
wall shall be analyzed as a temporary non-gravity canti concrete anchors and anchor piles, T > _ 1.2 To, for
levered wall and the provisions of Article 5.7 shall apply. >_
walls with pile anchors, T 1.4 To.
For anchors that are to be load tested against the wall, 5. Design tie rod, tie rod connections, and anchor for
consideration of the ability of the retained soil to resist the the design force, T. the anchor shall be designed so
anchor test load without excessive deflection of the wall that, Tult , of the anchor is greater than or equal to
shall be considered in locating the top level of anchors 2 times the design force, T, of the tie rod.
and in establishing the design force, T, of the anchors.
6. For walls with a concrete anchor or anchor piles, if
Anchored walls must be internally and externally the passive wedge failure surface of the anchor
stable. Internal stability requires the wall anchors to be encroaches into the active wedge failure surface
located sufficiently behind the wall so that the anchors do behind the wall, determine the force, ∆ Pp, required
not develop load-resistance from the soil mass retained for equilibrium of the soil mass, abed, between the
by the wall unless the load-resistance is reduced by the anchor and the wall.
amount developed from the retained soil mass. A wall is
internally stable when any failure surface that passes 7. Determine the embedment, D, for the vertical wall
between the wall and the wall anchor will have an ad elements that provides a factor of safety equal to 1.5
equate factor of safety with the available anchor resis against rotation about point, O, (level of tie rod).
tance applied. External stability is satisfied when any Include the driving force, ∆ Pp, in the determination
failure surface that passes behind the wall anchors has an of , D.
adequate factor of safety. The factors of safety in Article
5.2.2.3 apply. 8. Design the vertical wall elements assuming a point
of zero moment in the vertical wall elements at
point, b.
5.8.6.2 Walls with Structural Anchors.
When the tie rods are not horizontal, the vertical
Anchored walls with structural anchors shall be di component of the tie rod design force, T, shall be consid
mensioned to ensure stability against passive failure of ered in the design of the vertical wall elements, tie rod
the embedded vertical elements such that the factor of connections, and anchors.
safety against rotation about the level of the tie rod is
greater than or equal to 1.5, FSR >
_ 1.5, and to ensure that
Concrete
Finished Grade
anchor
a d
d
H1
Tie rod
D
Pa
O
Active wedge e
Wall
failure surface Passive wedge
H
failure surface
Finished
Grade
W
Design ∆ Pp
Grade
R W
Passive wedge
φ' f
failure R
surface Pa
Forces acting on soil
Do
∆ Pp Mass, abed
D
3
Do
Assumed point
of zero moment
b in vertical wall
elements
Passive Active
pressure pressure
d
H1
Tie rod
Active wedge
Do
Pa
D
Wall failture
surface
H
Passive wedge W
∆ Pp
failure
surface
R W
Do
∆ Pp φ' f
R
Pa
D o/3
D
Passive Active
pressure pressure
Finished grade
a Pile cap
Tie rod
H1
Wall Active
H
wedge
failure
surface
Finished
grade
Design Tension
piles
grade
Compression
piles
Passive wedge
failure
surface
Do
Pile Anchor
D
Active pressure
Passive
pressure Assumed point of
zero moment in
vertical wall elements
If the wall will support soil or backfill before the D = depth of embedment of concrete anchor (FT)
anchor is effective, the wall shall be checked as a non-
gravity cantilevered wall, see Article 5.7. b' = effective width of concrete anchor (FT)
The ultimate capacity, Tult, of a concrete anchor equals b' = s for continuous anchors and
the total passive lateral earth pressure resistance minus
the total active lateral earth pressure minus any lateral h b
earth pressure due to surcharge loads acting behind the b' = b+ or b + , whichever
_ , it may be assumed 2 2
anchor, see Figure 5.8.6.2.1-1. If, d <_ D
2 is least but not to exceed, s, for
that the anchor extends to the finished grade and the individual anchors
ultimate capacity of the anchor is,
_ the ultimate capacity, T , of a concrete anchor
If, d > D
2 ult
Tult = (Pp - Pa) b' (5.8.6.2-1) may conservatively be taken as the total lateral passive
where: earth pressure acting on the anchor height, h, and effec-
tive width, b', minus the total lateral active earth pressure
Tult = ultimate capacity of the concrete anchor and any lateral earth pressure due to surcharge loads
(KIP) acting behind the anchor acting on the anchor height, h,
and effective with, b'. Alternatively, Tult, may be deter-
Pp = total lateral passive earth pressure acting on mined from representative full size tests or model tests.
height, D, per foot width of anchor (K/FT)
For the determination of the active lateral earth pres-
Pa = total lateral active earth pressure acting on sure, Pa, and the lateral earth pressures due to surcharge
height, D, per foot width of anchor (K/FT) loads, the provisions of Article 5.7.2 apply.
h = actual height of concrete anchor (FT) The passive lateral earth pressure distributions pro-
vided in Article 5.5.5.6 may be used for determining, Pp.
b = actual width of concrete anchor (FT) When determining the value for, kp, for granular soils, the
provisions of Article 5.5.5.4 and 5.5.5.5 may be used with
s
= horizontal spacing of tie rods (FT) the value for the wall friction angle, δ, assumed equal to
zero.
d
= depth of concrete anchor cover (FT)
Finished
grade
c" d c'
d
Passive wedge
failure surface Active wedge
failure surface
D
Tult Pp Pa
Active pressure
h
Tie rod
e
Passive pressure
Concrete anchor
Concrete
anchor Finished
grade
a c" c d f
P a'
h'
d
H1
P 'p
D
h
Tie rod e
Passive wedge
H
failure surface
wall Active
wedge
failure
surface
Do
φ'f
The ultimate capacity, Tult, of a concrete anchor should h' = height from intersection of failure surfaces
be reduced when the passive wedge failure surface in front to ground surface (finished grade) (FT)
of the anchor crosses the active wedge failure surface
behind the wall, see Figure 5.8.6.2.1-2. If the anchor is b' = effective width of concrete anchor (FT)
located between surfaces, bc, and, bf, in Figure 5.8.6.2.1
2, only partial resistance is available. The capacity The tie rod connection to the anchor should be located
reduction, ∆ Tult, may be determined as; at the location of the resultant lateral earth pressures
acting on the vertical faces of the anchor.
∆ Tult = (P'p - P'a) b'
∆ Tult = ultimate capacity reduction for the The ultimate capacity, Tult, of an anchor pile is a
concrete anchor (KIP) function of the moment resistance of the total passive
lateral earth pressure minus the driving moment of the
P'p = total lateral passive earth pressure acting on total active lateral earth pressure and any lateral earth
height, h', per foot width of anchor (K/FT) pressure due to surcharge loads acting on the anchor pile
embedment, Do, and anchor pile effective width, b', see
P'a = total lateral active earth pressure acting on Figure 5.8.6.2.2-1. If, d <_ b', it may be assumed that the
height, h', per foot width of anchor (K/FT) anchor pile extends to the finished grade and that the
ultimate capacity of the anchor pile is;
Anchor pile
Finished
grade
c" d c'
d
H1
Tult Active
wedge
Tie rod failure
surface
Passive wedge
Do
failure surface
D
Pp Pa
yp
ya
e F
The passive lateral earth pressure distributions pro- piles embedded in rock, the calculated embedment, Do,
vided in Article 5.5.5.6 may be used for determining, Pp. shall be increased to determine the embedment to be used,
When determining the value for, kp, for granular soils, the D, so that D >_ 1.1 Do.
provisions of Article 5.5.5.4 and 5.5.5.5 may be used with
the value for the wall friction angle, δ, assumed equal to The ultimate capacity, Tult, of an anchor pile should be
zero. reduced when the passive wedge failure surface in front
of the anchor pile crosses the active wedge failure surface
For the determination of the active lateral earth pres- behind the wall. Where this case occurs, the ultimate
sure, Pa, and the lateral earth pressures due to surcharge capacity, Tult, may be determined by considering a re-
loads, the provisions of Article 5.7.2 apply. When deter- duced value for, Pp, acting on the anchor pile. The
mining the active lateral earth pressure, the value for the reduction in, Pp, is;
wall friction angle, δ, shall be assumed equal to zero.
∆ Pp = (P'p - P'a) b' (5.8.6.2.2-2)
When determining the effective width, b', of an anchor
pile, the provisions of Article 5.7.6 apply. where:
For anchor piles embedded in soil, the calculated ∆ Pp = reduction in lateral passive earth pressure
embedment, Do, shall be increased to determine the acting on the anchor pile (KIP)
embedment to be used, D, so that D >_ 1.2 Do. For anchor
Finished grade
W
H1
Pile cap
Tult
Tie rod
1 1
bc bt
Tension
piles
Compression
piles
CP TP
P'p = total lateral passive earth pressure acting st = spacing of tension piles (FT)
on height, h', per foot width of anchor pile
(K/FT) H1 = distance from finished grade to level at
which, Tult , acts on pile anchor (FT)
P'a = total lateral active pressure acting on
height, h', per foot width of anchor pile W = weight of pile cap and pile cap cover (KIP/
(K/FT) FT)
h' = height from intersection of failure surfaces b c = indicator of batter of compression piles
to ground surface (finished grade) (FT) (DIM)
b' = effective width of anchor pile (FT) b t = indicator of batter of tension piles (DIM)
and the ultimate capacity of an individual pile anchor 5.8.6.3 Walls with Ground Anchors
is;
Anchored walls with ground anchors shall be dimen
T ult = � C ph + � Tp h (5.8.6.2.3.2) sioned to ensure that the total lateral load,PTotal, plus any
additional horizontal loads are resisted by the horizontal
component of the anchor design force,T, of all the anchors
where:
and the reaction,R, at or below the bottom of the wall. The
embedded vertical elements shall ensure stability against
Tult = ultimate capacity of a continuous pile
passive failure such that the factor of safety against
anchor with tie rods at spacing, s (KIP)
translation is greater than or equal to 1.5, FSt > _ 1.5. In
or ultimate capacity of an individual pile
determining the stability of the embedded vertical ele
anchor (KIP)
ments, only the passive resistance below the critical
failure surface or point, o, in Figures 5.8.6.3-1 thru 5.8.6.3
Cph = horizontal component of axial force in a
5 whichever is lowest, shall be considered in resisting the
battered compression pile (KIP)
reaction, R, and the active lateral earth pressure below the
critical failure surface or point,o, in Figures 5.8.6.3-1 thru
Tph = horizontal component of axial force in a
5.8.6.3-5 whichever is lowest.
battered tension pile (KIP)
When the critical failure surface of the limiting equi
s = spacing of tie rods (FT)
librium analysis associated with the determination of,
PTotal, in Aticle 5.5.5.7 passes a significant distance
sc = spacing of compression piles (FT)
below the design grade at the bottom of the wall, then the
ground anchors should be designed to resist the total
pa Finished grade
H1
2
3
H1
H
3
1
Th1
H
α
Ground
Unb anchor
on
leng ded
Finished th
grade bon
Design ded
grade leng
th
Assumed point of zero moment
O
in vertical wall elements
R
Passive Active
pressure pressure
Figure 5.8.6.3-1 Anchored Wall with Single Level of Ground Anchors, Critical Failure Surface
pa Finished grade
Design lateral
earth pressure Critical failure surface
H1
Wall is the failure surface
2
3
associated with the
H1
3 H
1
Th1
Finished
H
grade
α
2
1
Design Unb
ond Ground
grade ed l
eng anchor
th
O bon
ded
leng
R th
D
Figure 5.8.6.3-2 Anchored Wall with Single Level of Ground Anchors, Critical Failure Surface
H 2
Near Bottom of Wall, and < H1 , ≤ H
2 3
Finished grade
Critical failure
surface
2 Ptotal
H2
Note:
The critical failture surface
is the failure surface
associate with the
H1
determination
1 of, P total .
H
Finished
grade
Design lateral
Th1 earth pressure
Design
grade
H
2
1
Un
bo
nd
ed Ground Anchor
Assumed point of len
gth
zero moment in
vertical wall elements
O
R Bo
nd
Active ed
D
len
pressure gth
Passive pressure
Figure 5.8.6.3-3 Anchored Wall with Single Level of Ground Anchors, Critical Failure Surface
2
Finished grade
pa
Design lateral
earth pressure
Critical failure surface
H1
Wall Note: The critical failure surface
H1
2
3
is the failure surface
associated with the
Th1 determination of, PTotal .
H2
Unb α
ond Ground
H
ed l
eng anchor
th
Th2
Finished bon
ded
grade leng
th
H3
Design
H3
grade Ground
anchor
2
3
O
R
Passive
pressure
Figure 5.8.6.3-4 Anchored Wall with Multiple Levels of Ground Anchors and Critical Failure
p
a
Finished grade
Design lateral
Critical failure
earth pressure
surface
H1
Note:
Wall
H1
Unb α
H
ond Ground
ed anchor
leng
th
Th2
bon
Finished ded
H3
leng
grade th
H3
Ground
2
3
O anchor
Design R
grade
Assumed point of zero
moment in vertical wall elements
where: R = zero
D
Figure 5.8.6.3-5 Anchored Wall with Multiple Levels of Ground Anchors and Critical Failure Surface a
Significant Distance Below the Bottom of Wall
force, PTotal, and the vertical elements of the wall should 7. Use the greater of the two embedments, D, in pro
be designed as a cantilever from the lowest anchor level cedures 5 and 6 above;
to the bottom of the wall.
8. Design the vertical wall elements for all horizontal
For design of these walls, refer to Figures 5.8.6.3-1 thru and vertical loads. Horizontal supports may be
5.8.6.3-3 for walls with a single level of anchors and assumed at each level of ground anchors and at
Figures 5.8.6.3-4 and 5.8.6.3-5 for walls with multiple point, O;
levels of anchors and the following procedures;
9. Design the ground anchors.
1. Determine the design lateral earth pressure and any
additional horizontal loading acting on the wall Ground anchors shall be designed to resist pullout of
over the design height, H; the bonded length in soil or rock. The allowable pullout
resistance of a straight shaft anchor in soil or rock, Qa , is
2. Determine the passive and active lateral earth pres computed as;
sures acting on the embedded vertical wall ele
ments below the point, O, or the critical failure π d τ a Lb
surface whichever is the lowest; Qa =
FS
3. Determine the horizontal component of ground
anchor design force, Th, and reaction, R, that pro where :
vides equilibrium of horizontal forces above point,
O. For walls with a single level of anchors, take Qa
= allowable anchor pullout resistance (KIP)
moments about point, O, to determine, Th1, where d = diameter of anchor drill hole (FT)
_, point, O,
for walls with, H1, less than or equal to, 2H τa = ultimate anchor bond stress (KSF)
is located at the bottom of wall (design grade) and Lb = anchor bond length (FT)
where for walls with, H1, greater than, 2H _ , point, O, FS = factor of safety applied to ultimate anchor
H_
is located, 2 , below the level of the anchors. For bond stress (DIM)
walls with multiple levels of anchors a number of
suitable methods for the determination of, Th, at For preliminary design the resistance of anchors may
each level are in common use. Sabatini, et. al. either be based on the results of anchor pullout load tests;
(1999) provides two methods which can be used : estimated based on a review of geologic and boring data,
the Tributary Area Method, and the Hinge Method. soil and rock samples, laboratory testing, and previous
To determine, R, equate horizontal forces above experience; or estimated using published ultimate soil
point, O, equal to zero; and rock to grout bond stresses. Typical values for the
factor of safety, FS, applied to ultimate anchor bond stress
4. Determine the design force, T, for the anchors at values are 2.0 to 2.5 for soil and 2.5 to 3.0 for rock. Final
T
each level, where, T = coshα , and ,α , equals the incli design of the bonded length is generally the responsibil
nation from horizontal of the anchor; ity of the contractor and is verified by load testing each
ground anchor.
5. Determine the embedment, D, of the vertical wall
elements required to ensure stability against pas The anchor bonded length shall be located beyond the
sive failure; critical failure surface in the retained soil mass.
A minimum distance between the front of the bonded
6. Determine the embedment, D, of the vertical wall zone of the anchor and the critical failure surface behind
elements required to resist all vertical components the wall of 5 feet or _
H is needed to ensure that no load from
5
of loads. Only the portion of the vertical wall the bonded zone of the ground anchor is transferred to the
elements below the critical failure surface should retained soil mass by the grout column.
be considered in determining the resistance to
vertical loads; Determination of the anchor unbonded length, incli
nation from horizontal and overburden cover shall con
sider:
• the location of the critical failure surface in the re 5.8.10.2 Ground Anchors
tained soil mass behind the wall,
• the minimum length required to ensure minimal Ground anchors should be protected from corrosion by
loss of anchor prestress due to long-term ground complete full-length encapsulation. Encapsulation con
movement, but not less than 15 feet, tinuity shall be maintained at transitions in type of
• the depth to adequate anchoring strata, encapsulation including at the wall anchorage.
• the method of anchor installation and grouting,
• the seismic performance of the wall and anchors.
5.8.10.3 Wall Members
The minimum spacing between ground anchor bonded
lengths should be the larger of three times the diameter of The provisions of Article 5.7.10 apply,
the bonded length, or 5 feet. If smaller spacings are
required to develop the required anchor design force,
consideration may be given to differing the anchor incli 5.8.11 Load Testing and Lock Off
nations between alternating anchors.
Structural design of individual wall and anchor ele Consideration should be given to load testing repre
ments may be performed by service load or load factor sentative structural anchors when unusual conditions are
design methods in conformance with Article 3.22. The encountered to verify the safety with respect to the tie rod
provisions of Article 5.7.7 apply. design force.
5.9 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED as the soil mechanics which govern MSE wall behavior.
EARTH WALL Structural design of the wall facing may also be required.
MSE walls shall be designed for external stability of The design provisions provided herein for MSE walls
the wall system as well as internal stability of the rein do not apply to geometrically complex MSE wall sys
forced soil mass behind the facing. MSE wall system tems such as tiered walls (walls stacked on top of one
design requires knowledge of short and long-term prop another with various offset distances of the front face) or
erties of the materials used as soil reinforcement as well walls with varying soil reinforcement length over the
height of the wall.
Finished
grade β
Pressure surface
for external
stability
units
Failure surface
for external
stability
Berm
Width
Finished
grade
Wall facing
connection
ψ
Embedment
Leveling pad
Depth
Limits of wall
Soil Reinforcement Length, L for design
MSE wall element dimensions needed for design are The length of soil reinforcement for MSE walls shall
shown in figure 5.9.1-1 be determined to ensure stability against failure modes by
satisfying the following stability criteria:
MSE walls shall be dimensioned to ensure that the
minimum factors of safety required for sliding and over • Sliding – Factor of safety, FSSL ‡ 1.5
turning stability are satisfied as well as the eccentricity of
the base reaction not exceeding the maximum allowed. In • Overturning – factor of safety,FSOT ‡ 2.0, and
addition, the minimum factors of safety for foundation
bearing capacity and soil reinforcement pullout resis
- Maximum eccentricity of the resultant force
tance shall be satisfied, as well as overall stability require L
ments as provided in Article 5.2.2.3. acting on the base of wall, emax £
6
The soil reinforcement length shall be calculated • Bearing capacity - factor of safety, FS ‡ 2.0.
based on external and internal stability considerations.
Soil reinforcement length, L , shall be as a minimum 70 Stability determinations shall be made assuming the
percent of the wall height,H , and not less than 8 feet. The reinforced soil mass and facing to be a coherent gravity
soil reinforcement length shall be uniform throughout mass. The design lateral earth pressure acting on the
the entire height of the wall, unless substantiating evi pressure surface at the end of the soil reinforcement shall
dence indicates that variation in length is satisfactory or be determined in accordance with Article 5.5.5.8 using
additional length is required locally to resist concen the friction angle and unit weight of the retained soil. For
trated loads. External loads such as surcharges may battered walls with an inclined pressure surface,
increase the minimum soil reinforcement length. Greater Coulomb’s theory may be used assuming the wall friction
soil reinforcement lengths may also be required for walls angle, d , equals, b , orB. For standardized wall designs
founded on soft soil sites and to satisfy global stability a friction angle equal to 34 degrees may be assumed for
requirement. the retained soil and 30 degrees for the foundation soil.
The minimum embedment depth of the bottom of the In developing the total design lateral pressures acting
reinforced soil mass shall be based on bearing capacity, on the pressure surface, the lateral pressure due to sur
settlement and stability requirements, also the effects of charge loads shall be added to the design lateral earth
frost heave, scour, proximity to slopes, erosion, and the pressure. Refer to Article 5.5.5.10 for the determination
potential future excavation in front of the wall shall be of design lateral pressures due to surcharge loads.
considered. In addition to general bearing capacity,
settlement, and stability considerations, the minimum When groundwater levels may exist within the rein
embedment required shall consider the potential for local forced soil mass and/or retained soil, they shall be consid
bearing capacity failure under the leveling pad or footing ered in stability determinations.
due to higher vertical stresses transmitted by the facing.
The minimum embedment depth shall be 2 feet or, 0.1H, The resistance due to passive lateral earth pressure in
whichever is greater. The lowest level of soil reinforce front of an MSE wall shall be neglected in sliding and
ment shall be located a minimum of 0.5 feet below the overturning stability determinations.
level of the finished grade in front of the wall.
For external stability determinations the weight and
A minimum horizontal berm 4 feet or, 0.1H, wide dimensions of the facing elements are typically ignored,
whichever is greater shall be provided in front of walls although they may be included.
founded on slopes.
For external stability determinations traffic surcharge
For walls constructed along rivers and streams, embed loads shall be considered to act beyond the end of the
ment depth shall be established at a minimum of 2 feet reinforced soil mass.
below potential scour depth as determined in accordance
with Article 5.3.5.
5.9.2.1 Sliding Stability The eccentricity of the location of the resultant force
acting on the base of the wall shall be determined and
The factor of safety against sliding , FSSL , shall be compared with the maximum allowable eccentricity.
determined by summing the horizontal resisting forces of
the wall and dividing that sum by the summation of 5.9.2.3 Bearing Capacity
driving forces acting on the wall. The horizontal resisting
forces typically only consist of the normal force acting on The provisions of Article 4.4.7 apply. Allowable bear
the base of the wall times the coefficient of sliding ing capacities for MSE walls shall be determined using a
resistance. The normal force acting on the base consists minimum factor of safety of 2.0 for Group 1 loading
of the weight of the reinforced soil mass, surcharge loads applied to the ultimate bearing capacity. The width of the
acting on the top of the reinforced soil mass, and the footing for determining the ultimate bearing capacity
vertical component of the design lateral pressure acting shall be considered to be the length of the soil reinforce
on the pressure surface. The coefficient of sliding resis ment at the foundation level.
tance used to calculate the frictional resistance at the base
of the wall shall be the minimum of the following deter Bearing pressures shall be computed using the
minations: Meyerhof distribution, which considers a uniform base
pressure distribution over an effective base width, B' =
• Tan ø at the base of the wall, where ø is the L-2e . When the value fore, is negative,B' = L . Where soft
friction angle of the reinforced soil or the foun soils are present or if on sloping ground, the difference in
dation soil, whichever is the least. bearing stress determined for the wall reinforced soil zone
relative to the local bearing stress beneath the facing
• Tan r if continuous or near continuous soil elements shall be considered when evaluating bearing
reinforcement layers are used, where, r , is the capacity. This is especially important where concrete
soil to reinforcement interface angle for the wall facings are used due to their weight. Furthermore,
bottom of the lowest soil reinforcement layer. If differential settlements between the facing elements and
site specific data for Tan r is not available, use the reinforced soil zone of the wall due to concentrated
0.67 Tan ø for the coefficient of sliding bearing stresses from the facing weight on soft soil could
resistance. create concentrated stresses at the connection between
the facing elements and the wall soil reinforcement. In
The summation of driving forces acting on the wall both cases, the leveling, pad shall be embedded ad
typically consists of the horizontal component of the equately to meet bearing capacity and settlement require
design lateral pressure acting on the pressure surface. ments or dimensioned and designed to keep bearing
stresses beneath the leveling pad and the remainder of the
wall as uniform as possible.
5.9.2.2 Overturning Stability
The factor of safety against overturning, FSOT , shall 5.9.2.4 Overall Stability
be determined by summing the resisting moments about
the toe of the wall and dividing that sum by the summa Overall stability analyses shall be performed in accor
tion of the driving moments about the toe of the wall. The dance with Article 5.2.2.3. Additionally for MSE walls
lower front corner of the reinforced soil mass is typically with complex geometrics, compound failure surfaces
assumed as the toe of the wall. The resisting moments are which pass through a portion of the reinforced soil mass
typically provided by the weight of the reinforced soil shall be analyzed, especially where the wall is located on
mass, surcharge loads acting on the top of the reinforced sloping or soft ground where overall stability is marginal.
soil mass, and the tangential component of the design Factors of safety and methods of analysis provided in
lateral pressure acting on the pressure surface. The Article 5.2.2.3 are still applicable. The long-term strength
driving moment is typically provided by the horizontal of those levels of soil reinforcement extending beyond a
component of the design lateral pressure acting on the failure surface should be considered as restoring forces in
pressure surface. the limit equilibrium slope stability analysis.
5.9.3 Internal Stability For MSE walls with inextensible soil reinforcement
(Metallic soil reinforcement),
Internal stability design is dependent on the soil
reinforcement extensibility and material type. In general,
inextensible soil reinforcement consists of metallic strips, Gradation Requirements
bar mats or welded wire mats, whereas extensible soil Sieve Size Percentage Passing California Test
reinforcement consists of geotextiles or geogrids.
Inextensible soil reinforcement reaches it’s peak strength 6" 100 202
at strains lower than the strain required for the reinforced 3" 78-100 202
soil to reach its peak strength. Extensible soil reinforce
#4 *-- 202
ment reaches its peak strength at strains greater than the
strain required for the reinforced soil to reach its peak #30 0-60 202
strength. Internal stability failure modes include soil #200 0-25 202
reinforcement rupture (ultimate limit state), soil rein
forcement pullout (ultimate limit state), and excessive
elongation under the design load (serviceability limit
state). The serviceability limit state is not evaluated in
current practice for internal stability design. Internal Property Requirements
stability is determined by equating the tensile load ap Test Requirement California Test
plied to the soil reinforcement to the allowable tension for
Sand Equivalent 12 min. 217
the soil reinforcement, the allowable tension being gov
erned by soil reinforcement rupture and pullout. Plasticity Index 10 max. 204
1500 ohm - cm
The load in the soil reinforcement is determined at two Minimum Resistivity 643
min.
critical locations, i.e. at the zone of maximum stress and
Chlorides <500ppm 422
at the connection with the wall face, to assess the internal
stability of the wall system. Potential for soil reinforce Sulfates <2000 ppm 417
ment rupture and pullout are evaluated at the zone of pH 5.5 to 10.0 643
maximum stress. The zone of maximum stress is assumed
to be located at the boundary between the active zone and
the resistant zone. Potential for soil reinforcement rup
ture and connection failure are evaluated at the connec * If 12 percent or less passes the #200 sieve and 50
tion of the soil reinforcement to the wall facing. percent or less passes the #4 sieve, the Sand Equivalent
and Plasticity Index requirements shall not apply.
For the determination of the horizontal forces and
pullout resistance within the reinforced soil mass for For MSE walls with extensible soil reinforcement
permanent or temporary MSE walls, a friction angle of (geosynthetics),
34° may be assumed for the reinforced soil mass. Backfill
for the reinforced soil mass shall consist of material free
from organic material and substantially free of shale or Gradation Requirements
other soft, poor durability particles and shall not contain Sieve Size Percentage Passing California Test
slag aggregate or recycled materials such as glass, shred 2" 100 202
ded tires, portland cement concrete rubble, asphaltic
concrete rubble or other unsuitable material, and shall #4 50-80 202
conform to the following requirements: #40 0-30 202
*Applies only for MSE walls with inextensible soil The vertical soil stress, sv , and the lateral earth
reinforcement pressure coefficient , Kr , shall be determined in accor
** Applies only for MSE walls with extensible soil dance with Articles 5.9.3.1.1. and 5.9.3.1.2, for
reinforcement inextensible and extensible soil reinforcement respec
tively.
earth pressure acting on the pressure surface and using the Reinforcement Length for
0.3 H1 *
β
L L
1 Active zone
H1
2 Resistant zone
H
1 2
Soil reinforcement
H1
2
1 Active zone
2 Resistant zone
H
1 2
Soil reinforcement
Figure 5.9.3.3.1-1 Location of Potential Failure Surface for Internal Stability Design of MSE Walls
Finished
Pullout Resistance Factor, F *
grade
Tan φ r
Potential 0 0.4 1.5
failure
0
surface
s
Smooth strips
trip
Depth Below Ground Surface, Feet
ds
z
Wall
be
face
Rib
Le
2
20
Le
Level of soil
reinforcement
under consideration
Figure 5.9.3.3.2-1 Pullout Resistance Factor for Steel Strip Soil Reinforcement
For geosynthetic soil reinforcement, The values for, F* , and, a , are product specific and
should be determined by appropriate testing. In the
Rpo = F*LeCBasv (5.9.3.3.2-2) absence of product specific values a default value of
0.67 Tan ør may be assumed for, F*, and default values
of 0.8 and 0.6 may be assumed for, a , for geogrids and
Where, F*, is the pullout resistance factor, Le , is the geotextiles respectively.
length of soil reinforcement in the resistant zone,C, is an For steel strip soil reinforcement,
overall soil reinforcement surface area geometry factor
and is equal to 2 for strip, grid, and sheet type soil Rpo = 2F* Le Bsv (5.9.3.3.2-3)
reinforcements, B , is the width of the soil reinforcement,
a , is a scale effect correction factor and is equal to one or Where, F* ,Le , and,B, are as defined for geosynthetic
less, sv , is the minimum vertical soil stress at the level of soil reinforcement and, sv , is the vertical soil stress at
soil reinforcement under consideration within the length, the mid-point of, Le , at the level of soil reinforcement
Le . under consideration.
Potential 0 10 12 16 20
failure
0
surface
Depth Below Ground Surface, Feet
z
Wall
face
Le
2
20
Le
φ r =28 o
φ r =34 o
Level of soil
reinforcement
under consideration
Figure 5.9.3.3.2-2 Pullout Anchorage Factor for Steel Grid Soil Reinforcement
The values for, F*, and, sv , are based on the depth, 5.9.3.4 Reinforcement Strength Design
z , below the ground surface (finished grade) as shown in
Figure 5.9.3.3.2-1. The strength of the soil reinforcement needed, for
internal stability, to resist the maximum load applied
For steel grid soil reinforcement, throughout the design life of the wall shall be determined
at every level within the wall height.
Rpo = FAC NB d bnetsv (5.9.3.3.2-4)
Therefore, for the maximum load at each level of
Where, FAC , is the pullout anchorage factor, Le , is reinforcement,
the length of soil reinforcement in the resistant zone , N,
is the number of transverse grid elements of the soil Tmax £ T a ( 5.9.3.4-1)
reinforcement within the length, Le , B , is the length of
the transverse grid elements, dbnet , is the net diameter
of the transverse grid elements after consideration for Where, Tmax , is determined in accordance with Article
corrosion loss, and,sv , is the vertical soil stress at the mid 5.9.3.1 and , Ta , is the long-term allowable strength of the
point of, Le , at the level of soil reinforcement under soil reinforcement associated with the tributary area , At
consideration. , used in determining, Tmax . T a , shall be determined in
accordance with Article 5.9.3.4.2.1 for steel reinforce
The values for, FAC and, sv , are based on the depth, ment and Article 5.9.3.4.2.2. for geosynthetic reinforce
z , below the ground surface (finished grade) as shown in ment.
Figure 5.9.3.3.2-2.
The difference in the environment occurring immedi
For welded wire faced walls with grid type soil rein ately behind the wall face relative to the environment
forcement with longitudinal wire spacing greater than six within the reinforced backfill zone and its effect on the
inches center to center, the values for, FAC , shall be long-term durability of the soil reinforcement/connec
determined from pull-out tests but shall not be greater tion shall be considered when determining, Ta , since, To,
than those values shown in Figure 5.9.3.3.2-2 equals, Tmax .
Requirements
0.5
2( Agross + Anet ) Soil reinforcement, including connections to the fac
d bnet = ( J (5.9.3.3.2-5)
Ł p ł ing, in MSE walls shall be designed to have a corrosion
resistance/durability to ensure a minimum design service
life. For permanent walls with steel soil reinforcement, a
Where, Agross , is the cross sectional area of the trans design service life of 50 years is a minimum. For perma
verse grid element before any sacrificial steel loss due to nent walls with geosynthetic soil reinforcement, a design
corrosion and, Anet , is the cross sectional area of the service life of 75 years is a minimum. The greater design
transverse grid element at the end of the design service service life for geosynthetic soil reinforcement is due to
life after the design sacrificial steel loss has occurred. the large influence creep has on the long-term strength of
geosynthetic soil reinforcement. For temporary walls, a
For steel grid soil reinforcement, the spacing between design service life of 5 years is a minimum.
transverse grid elements shall be uniform throughout the
length of the soil reinforcement. The transverse grid
element spacing may vary between levels of soil rein 5.9.3.4.1.1 Steel Reinforcement
forcement but the spacing shall not be less than 6 inches
nor more than 30 inches. The structural design of steel soil reinforcements and
connections shall be made on the basis of, Fy , the yield
strength of the steel, and the net cross-sectional area of the
steel at the end of the design service life.
3) Polymer Requirements: Polymers which are Guidelines for how to determine, RFID , RFCR , and,
likely to have good resistance to long-term chemical RFD , from product specific data are provided in FHWA
degradation shall be used if a single default reduction Publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 “ Mechanically Sta
factor is to be used, to minimize the risk of the occurrence bilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design
of significant long-term degrtadation. The polymer ma and Construction Guidelines”- Appendix B, and in FHWA
terial requirements provided in Table 5.9.3.4.1.2A shall Publication No. FHWA SA-96-072 “Corrosion/Degrada
therefore be met if detailed product specific data as tion of Soil Reinforcements for Mechanically Stabilized
described in FHWA Publication No.FHWA SA-96-071 Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes.” For wall appli
“Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced cations which are defined as not having severe conse
Soil Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines” – Ap quences should poor performance or failure occur having
pendix B, and in FHWA Publication No. FHWA SA-96 nonaggressive soil conditions, and if the geosyntethic
072 “ Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for product meets the minimum requirements listed in Table
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced 5.9.3.4.1.2A, the long-term tensile strength of the rein
Soil Slopes” is not obtained. Polymer materials not forcement may be determined using a default reduction
meeting the requirements in Table 5.9.3.4.1.2A could be factor for, RF , as provided in Table 5.9.3.4.1.2B in lieu
used if this detailed product specified data extrapolated of product specific test results.
to the design life intended for the structure is obtained.
TABLE 5.9.3.4.1.2A Minimum Requirements for
4) Calculation of Long-Term Reinforcement Geosynthetic Products to Allow Use of Default Reduc
Strength: for ultimate limit state conditions. tion Factor for Long-Term Degradation
Tult b
Tal = (5.9.3.4.1.2-1)
Polymer
Property Test Method
Criteria to Allow
RF Type Use of Default RF*
Min.70% strength
Polypro UV Oxidation
where, pylene Resistance
ASTM D4355 retained after 500 hrs
in weatherometer
TABLE 5.9.3.4.1.2B Default and Minimum Values for The allowable reinforcement tension, Ta , is deter
the Total Geosyntheic Ultimate Limit State Strength mined by multiplying the allowable tensile stress by the
Reduction Factor, RF net cross-sectional area of the steel soil reinforcement
after corrosion losses. Therefore,
strength is taken into account through an additional 5.9.3.5.1 Connection Strength for Steel
factor of safety, which is typically about 1.2, depending Soil Reinforcements
on the amount of creep data available, through the creep
extrapolation protocol provided in Appendix B of the Connections shall be designed using the strength
FHWA-SA-96-071, “Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls design method to resist a factored load from the soil
and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and Construction reinforcement equal to 2.0 times,Ta , of the connected soil
Guidelines.” reinforcement.
• the connection shall not rely on frictional force Connection materials shall be designed to accommo
resistance where the frictional force depends on the date losses due to corrosion in accordance with Article
constant force of gravity, 5.9.3.4.1.1. Potential differences between the environ
ment at the face relative to the environment within the
• the design of the connection shall be such that reinforcement soil mass shall be considered when assess
relative displacement between face elements due to ing potential corrosion losses.
differential settlement at the wall face does not
result in a significant reduction in the capacity of
the connection, 5.9.3.5.2 Connection Strength for
Geosynthetic Soil
Tac = long-term allowable reinforcement/ Facing elements shall be designed to resist the hori
facing connection design strength per zontal forces specified. In addition to these horizontal
width , b, of reinforcement (KIPS) forces, the facing elements shall also be designed to resist
Tult = minimum average roll value (MARV) potential compaction stresses occurring near the wall
of ultimate tensile strength of soil rein face during erection of the wall. The facing element shall
forcement (KIP/FT) be designed such that they do not deflect laterally or
bulge beyond acceptable limits.
b = width of soil reinforcement under
consideration (FT)
5.9.3.6.1 Design of Stiff or Rigid
CRCR = long-term connection strength re Concrete, Steel, and Timber
duction factor to account for reduced Facings
ultimate strength resulting from con
nection (DIM) Concrete and steel facing elements shall be structur
ally designed in accordance with Sections 8 and 10
RFD = reduction factor to prevent rupture of respectively using the strength design method provi
reinforcement due to chemical and bio sions. The basic design factored load shall be a distrib
logical degradation (DIM) uted horizontal load acting on the entire back face of the
face element the resultant of which is equal 1.8 times the
FS = global safety factor which accounts sum of the,Ta , values of the soil reinforcement connected
for uncertainties in externally applied to the face element. The location of the resultant of this
loads, the potential for local connec distributed load shall be at the location of the resultant of
tion overstress due to wall settlement the, Ta , values of the same soil reinforcement.
or load nonuniformities, and uncer
tainties in long-term connection Top of wall facing elements which support a traffic
strength. (DIM) barrier support slab shall be designed for a horizontal line
load acting at the top rear of the facing elements and equal
Values for, CRCR , and,RFD , shall be determined from to 1.9 kips per foot. This load is to be considered a factored
product specific test results. Note that the environment load, and does not need to be combined with the basic
at the wall face connection may be different than the design factored load specified above.
environment away from the wall face in the wall backfill.
This shall be considered when determining,CRCR , and, Loads from any appurtenances attached to the facing
RFD . The minimum value for, RFD , shall be 1.1, the elements shall be considered.
minimum value for, FS, shall be 2.0.
Timber facing elements shall be structurally designed
Guidelines for determining, CRCR , and, RFD , from in accordance with Section 13 using the working stress
product specific data are provided in “Corrosion/Degra design method. The basic service load shall be a distrib
dation of Soil Reinforcements for Mechanically Stabi uted horizontal load acting on the entire back face of the
lized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes”, Federal face element the resultant of which is equal to the sum of
Highway Administration, No. FHWA-NHI-00-044, 2001 the, Ta , values of the soil reinforcement connected to the
and “Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Rein face element. The location of the resultant of this distrib
forced Soil Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines”, uted load shall be at the location of the resultant of the,
Federal Highway Administration, FHWA-NHI-00-043, Ta , values of the same soil reinforcement.
2001.
Loads from any appurtenances attached to the facing
elements shall be considered. Timber facing elements
shall not be used to support a traffic barrier support slab.
In the design of concrete, steel and timber facing will be capable of performing as intended in an exposed
elements the locations of the connected soil reinforce environment.
ment are considered support locations in resisting the
basic design horizontal load. Flexible wall facings shall not be used to support a
traffic barrier support slab.
The maximum vertical spacing of soil reinforcement
connected to the facing elements equals 30 inches. The
minimum distance from the top or bottom of a facing 5.9.3.6.3 Design of Segmental Concrete
element to a level of soil reinforcement equals 5 inches. Block Facings
The minimum specified compressive strength, f´c , for
concrete facing elements equals 4000 psi. Segmental concrete block facings shall be designed
considering facing stability which shall include an evalu
ation of the maximum vertical spacing between rein
5.9.3.6.2 Design of Flexible Wall Facings forcement layers, the maximum allowable facing height
above the uppermost reinforcement layer, inter-unit shear
Welded wire, expanded metal, or similar facing panels capacity, and resistance of the facing to bulging. The
shall be designed in a manner which prevents the occur maximum vertical spacing between reinforcement layers
rence of excessive bulging as backfill behind the facing shall be limited to twice the width, WU , of the proposed
elements compresses due to compaction stresses or self segmental concrete facing unit or 30 inches, whichever is
weight of the backfill. This may be accomplished by less, the maximum facing height above the upper most
limiting the size of individual panels vertically and the reinforcement layer shall be limited to 1.5 times,WU , or
vertical spacing of the levels of soil reinforcement, and by 18 inches, whichever is less, and the maximum depth of
requiring the facing panels to have an adequate amount facing below the bottom reinforcement layer shall be
of vertical slip between adjacent panels. The top of limited to the width,WU , where,WU , is the segmental
flexible facing panels at the top of the wall shall be facing block unit width from front to back.
connected to a level of soil reinforcement to provide
stability to the top-facing panel. The maximum vertical The minimum specified compressive strength of seg
spacing of soil reinforcement connected to the facing mental concrete block facing units shall be 4000 psi. The
panels equals 20 inches for permanent walls and 30 water absorption limit of segmental concrete block fac
inches for temporary walls. The maximum horizontal ing units shall be 5 percent maximum. Blocks shall also
clear spacing between soil reinforcement elements within meet the additional requirements of ASTM C90 and
a level shall be 12 inches. For welded wire facing panels C140.
the minimum wire size shall be W8 for permanent walls
and W6 for temporary walls, the maximum center to When the segmental concrete block facing supports a
center spacing of vertical wires shall be 6 inches and of traffic barrier support slab, the provisions of Article
horizontal wires shall be 9 inches. Secondary facing 5.9.3.6.1 shall apply.
panels shall be provided when necessary to prevent loss
of backfill material through the facing panels. Steel
facing panels for permanent walls shall be galvanized 5.9.3.6.4 Corrosion Issues for MSE
MSE walls in cut areas and side-hill fills with estab Traffic loads shall be considered in accordance with
lished ground water levels should be constructed with the criteria outlined in Article 5.5.5.10.5. Traffic loads
drainage blankets in back of and beneath the reinforced should be positioned to maximize their effects.
zone. Internal drainage measures should be considered
for all structures to prevent saturation of the reinforced When traffic barriers are placed at the top of MSE walls,
backfill or to intercept any surface flows containing they shall be constructed on a support slab which is
aggressive elements such as deicing chemicals. designed to resist the overturning due to the design
horizontal impact load applied to the barrier. The support
For MSE walls utilizing metallic soil reinforcements slab shall be designed so only horizontal and vertical
supporting roadways which are chemically deiced in the forces are transmitted to the face elements of the wall. The
winter, an impervious membrane should be placed below support slab shall be continuous the full length of the wall
the pavement and just above the first level of soil with no expansion joints. The horizontal forces from the
reinforcement to intercept any flows containing deicing support slab applied to the top of the face elements of the
chemicals. The membrane should be sloped to drain away wall shall be in accordance with Article 5.9.3.6.1.
from the facing to an intercepting longitudinal drain
outletted beyond the reinforced zone. Typically, a mini As a minimum, the top level of soil reinforcement shall
mum membrane thickness of 30 mils should be used. All be designed for a tensile load at the wall face equal to 1.9
seams in the membrane shall be welded to prevent leak kips per foot of wall. This load is to be considered a
age. factored load for which the, FSpo , shall be equal to or
greater than 1.0 and the load shall be less than or equal to,
For MSE walls utilizing metallic soil reinforcement 1.33Ta , of the soil reinforcement. the minimum length of
which support a slope which supports a roadway which is the top level of soil reinforcement shall be 16 feet.
chemically deiced in the winter, provisions shall be made
to prevent runoff from reaching the soil reinforcement at When traffic barriers are placed at the top of MSE walls,
the back of the face panels at the toe of the slope. As a the minimum height wall shall be 6 feet and the minimum
minimum, an impermeable cap shall be placed on the face length of wall shall be 40 feet.
of the slope and a continuous coping/gutter which is
keyed into the slope shall be constructed at the toe of
slope/top of wall. 5.9.3.8.3 Hydrostatic Pressures
Finished
β
grade
Face of Wall
1
Tier 3
h3
y
B3
H
Tier 2
h2
Failure
Berm width surface
for external
Finished B2 stability
grade
Embedment
depth
h1
Tier 1
Wall fill, φc , γ c
ψ
B=B
1
Foundation soil, φ fn
Where: B equals base width of wall
modules) the lateral earth pressure shall be determined on outlined in Article 5.5.5.10.5. Traffic loads should be
a broken surface as shown in figures 5.5.5.5-5 and 5.10.1 positioned to maximize their effects.
1. The friction angle and unit weight of the retained soil
shall be used in determining the design lateral earth
pressure along with the wall friction angle, d . The 5.10.2.1 Sliding Stability
following wall friction angles may be used unless more
exact values are established: The factor of safety against sliding, FSSL , shall be
determined by summing the resisting forces of the wall
which act parallel to the base of the wall and dividing that
Case
Wall Friction sum by the summation of driving forces on the wall which
Angle, d act parallel to the base of the wall. The resisting forces
——————————————————————— typically consist of the normal force acting on the base of
the wall times the coefficient of sliding resistance plus the
a) Significant vibrations of
component of force due to the weight of the wall and any
backfill or modules settling 0
surcharge loads acting on the wall which is parallel to the
more than backfill
base of the wall. The normal force acting on the base of
the wall consists of the component of force due to the
weight of the wall and any surcharge loads acting on the
b) Continuous pressure surface wall which is normal to the base of the wall plus the
of pre-cast concrete (uniform 1
2 ff component of the design lateral pressure acting on the
width modules) pressure surface which is normal to the base of the wall.
The coefficient of sliding resistance used to determine the
frictional resistance at the base of the wall shall be as
c) Averaged pressure surface follows:
(backfill filled recesses within or 2
3 ff
between modules or stepped • For prefabricated modular walls with cells which
modules) are filled with wall fill which are in contact with the
foundation soil, the coefficient equals,Tan ø , at the base
of the wall, where ø is the friction angle of the wall fill or
For standardized wall designs for permanent walls, a the foundation soil whichever is lowest.
friction angle of 34 degrees and unit weight of 120
pounds per cubic foot may be assumed for the retained • For prefabricated modular walls the base of
soil, wall fill and foundation soil. Site specific designs which consists of a continuous or near continuous surface
shall be used when these values are not appropriate. of concrete, the coefficient equals,Tan 2/3 ø fn, whereøfn
is the friction angle of the foundation soil.
In developing the total design lateral pressures acting
on the pressure surface, the lateral pressure due to sur The summation of the driving forces acting on the wall
charge loads shall be added to the design lateral earth typically consists of the component of the design lateral
pressure. Refer to Article 5.5.5.10 for the determination pressure acting on the pressure surface which is parallel
of design lateral pressures due to surcharge loads. to the base of the wall.
surcharge loads acting on the top of the wall and the 5.10.2.6 Prefabricated Modular Walls
vertical component of the design lateral pressure acting with “T” Shaped Modules.
on the pressure surface. In determining the weight of walls
with cellular modules filled with wall fill and essentially In the determination of external stability for walls with
open ended at the bottom of the wall, only 80 percent of “T” shaped modules, the base width, B, of each tier shall
the weight of the wall fill shall be considered effective in be reduced to account for the cellular structure being
resisting overturning moments. The driving moment is open at the back. The reduction in base width,B, of each
typically provided by the horizontal component of the tier shall equal a length equal to 15 percent of the clear
design lateral pressure acting on the pressure surface. distance between the stems of the “T” shaped modules.
The eccentricity of the location of the resultant force A “T” shaped module may consist of a monolithic
acting on the base of the wall shall be determined and element which forms both the wall face and the stem
compared with the maximum allowable eccentricity. which extends into the wall fill, or it may consist of
separate elements one of which forms the face and another
which forms the stem which extends into the wall fill and
5.10.2.3 Tiered Walls which also supports the face element.
Overall stability analysis shall be performed in accor The design lateral earth pressure acting on the face of
dance with Article 5.2.2.3. the wall modules shall be determined using Coulomb’s
theory and the trial wedge method of analysis as de
scribed in Article 5.5.5.5 and assuming the wall friction
angle, d , equals zero.
The pullout resistance, Rpo , consists of the frictional 5.10.4 Module Design
resistance acting on the bottom of the stem of the module
at the level under consideration and the frictional resis Prefabricated modular units shall be designed for the
tance acting on the sides of the stems of all the modules design lateral pressure behind the wall and for the pres
above the level under consideration which provide an sures developed inside the cells of modular walls. Also
effective area beyond the failure surface of the failure the contact pressure at the bottom of the wall shall be
wedge acting on the face of the wall. The frictional taken into consideration in the design of modular units.
resistance acting on the bottom of the stem equals the
normal force times the coefficient of sliding resistance. Reinforced concrete modular units and steel modular
The normal force equals the weight of stems of all mod units shall be designed in conformance with Section 8
ules above the level under consideration plus any over and Section 10 respectively using Group I loading and
burden soil on the stems and any permanent surcharge the strength design method provisions. Timber modular
load acting above the stems. The coefficient of sliding units shall be deigned in conformance with Section 13
resistance depends on the interface conditions, for con using Group I loading and working stress design method.
crete on foundation soil a value equal to tan øfn may be
used, for concrete on concrete a value equal to 0.5 may be Large unreinforced concrete modular units shall be
used, when joint material between concrete surfaces is fabricated with concrete that will provide sufficient
used the coefficient to be used shall be established from strength for handling and crack resistance and that will
tests representing actual conditions. The frictional resis provide sufficient durability for the service life intended.
tance acting on the sides of the stems equals the at-rest
lateral earth pressure acting on the effective area of the Segmental concrete block units shall be fabricated
stems times the coefficient of sliding resistance. For the with concrete with a minimum specified compressive
at-rest lateral earth pressure coefficient,ko , refer to Article strength of 4000 psi. The water absorption limit of
5.5.5.2. The effective area of the stems is that portion of segmental concrete block units shall be 5 percent maxi
the sides of the stems above the level under consideration mum. The units shall also meet the additional require
which extend beyond the failure surface of the failure ments of ASTM C90 and C140.
wedge associated with the design lateral earth pressure
acting on the face of the wall. Only the stems of modules Wire gabion baskets shall be fabricated with wire mesh
whose full height extends beyond the failure surface shall with adequate strength, flexibility and durability for the
be considered. The coefficient of sliding resistance site conditions and intended service life.
depends on the configuration of the sides of the stems of
the modules, for smooth concrete a value equal to tan (2/
3) ø c may be used, for sides with recesses an increased 5.10.4.1 Crib Member Design
value may be determined. For the percentage of effective
area which consists of recesses, up to a maximum of 40 Crib members, headers and stretchers, shall be de
percent, a value equal to tan øc may be used and for the signed as beams supported at their intersections and
remaining percentage of effective area a value equal to subjected to the pressure of the wall fill within the cells
tan (2/3) øc may be used. Any shear keys between module and the pressure of the retained soil. Refer to figures
elements shall not be considered effective for internal 5.10.4.1-1 through 5.10.4.1-5 for typical loadings to be
stability determinations. considered.
The requirements for internal stability shall be satis Bearing stresses shall be checked between bottom
fied under the actual loading conditions at every module, headers and stretchers due to loading from the tributary
level and additionally for tiered walls internal stability area of base pressure.
shall be satisfied at every module level above the bottom
tier for a loading condition consisting of an unlimited 1.5 Bearing stresses shall be checked between headers and
horizontal to 1.0 vertical slope the toe of which is located stretchers at intermediate levels due to loading from the
at the front top of the wall. vertical frictional forces and deadloads acting on the
headers and stretchers.
a a
(short side) (short side)
b/2
pa
pa
pa
pa
pb pb
b (long side)
pr
Header pb pb
pa
pa
pa
pa
b/2
Where:
Figure 5.10.4.1-1 Plan View of Crib Members Showing Design Lateral Pressures ( Continued )
'
Rb = a4 for determining pressures next to long side pa = q ak
of cell and a = (a2ab
'
+ b)
next to the long side of rectangular cells
ß cells,
m¢k
ß
m¢k
Vb = (g y-0.8qb) R b
m´ = tangent of angle of internal friction of wall fill
= tanøc (DIM) Wc = total weight of wall fill in cell over depth, y
=g caby (KIPS)
k =ratio of lateral to vertical pressure in cell fill
(DIM) DWc= weight of wall fill in cell over depth, y, not
= ko =1-sinøc supported by vertical frictional force at cell
perimeter over depth,y (KIPS)
g = unit weight of wall fill = g c (KCF) = Wc –2Vaa – 2Vbb
e = base of natural logarithms, 2.71828 øc = angle of internal friction of wall fill (DEG)
p = lateral pressure in wall fill at depth y Pr = design lateral pressure from retained fill (KSF)
= qk (KSF)
Figure 5.10.4.1-1 Plan View of Crib Members Showing Design Lateral Pressures ( Continued )
The column sections of steel crib walls shall be checked loading (see figure 5.10.4.1-6). The member sections
at the base considering the loading from the tributary area shall be designed for the vertical shear force, Vp , associ
of base pressure. ated with the plastic hinge moment, Mp . where ;
Average lateral
pressure
Average vertical
Header frictional force
Front stretcher
under Center to center
consideration vertical spacing of
headers
Header
Notes:
Average lateral
pressure
Average vertical
frictional force
Intermediate stretcher
under
Notes: consideration
Average lateral
pressure from
Average lateral retained soil, pr
pressure
Average vertical
frictional force
Center to center
vertical spacing
of headers Header
δ
Rear stretcher
under consideration
Notes:
Average lateral
pressure
Average vertical
frictional force
Stretchers
Center to center
vertical spacing of
stretchers
Header
under
consideration
Front stretchers
Horizontal reaction
from front stretchers
Header under
consideration
Notes:
Stretcher
b/2
Location of
plastic hinge
in header (typ)