Mechatronics 17 (2007) 93–108

Modelling and estimation of tire–road longitudinal impact efforts

using bond graph approach
a,*
R. Merzouki , B. Ould-Bouamama a, M.A. Djeziri b, M. Bouteldja c

a
LAGIS UMR CNRS 8146, Ecole Polytechnique Universitaire de Lille, Avenue Paul Langevin, 59655 Villeneuve d’Ascq Cedex, France
b
LAGIS UMR CNRS 8146, Ecole Centrale de Lille, Cité Scientifique, 59655 Villeneuve d’Ascq Cedex, France
c
LCPC, Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chausse de Paris, 58, Boulevard Lefebvre, 75732 Paris, France

Received 1 November 2005; accepted 6 November 2006

Abstract

Tire–road interface dynamics is due to the interaction of several physical phenomena (mechanical, thermal, hydrodynamic, etc.).
Modelling of such a system needs a unified approach to represent the nonlinear behavior model in a generic and systematic way. Bond
graph modelling is well suited for this task. The developed model allows to estimate the longitudinal impact forces at tire–road contact in
interaction with its environment. A simulation model in modular and hierarchical form is developed in Symbols 2000 software and used
for model integration and validation. Finally, comparison with experimental results are presented.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Tire–road; Interaction model; Bond graph; Impact dynamics

1. Introduction applications require a pertinent description of the tire–road

Truck accidents occur for several reasons involving
components of driver–vehicle–environment system. How-
ever, these accidents have serious consequences for road
users, and incidents induce major congestions or damage
to the environment and the infrastructure.
The passive or active safety becomes more and more
important due to recent research on Intelligent Transporta-
tion Systems (ITS) technology. Several safety systems have
been developed for vehicle such as ABS (Antilock Braking
Systems) and ESP (Electronic Stability Program), which
are useful to avoid some accidental situations. To increase
the safety, it will be more interesting to allow the study of
accident causes by scenario replay [41,20] (driver error,
faults in the transportation system, etc.), the improvement
of steering performances remaining on security margin and
characterization of the controllability limit. All of these
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 328767486; fax: +33 320337189.
E-mail address: Rochdi.Merzouki@polytech-lille.fr (R. Merzouki).
interface characteristics [5–7].
The characteristics knowledge of the generated forces
between the tires and the road allows understanding the
dynamic behavior of a road vehicle. For longitudinal
movements, vehicle displacements are not perfectly in
straight line and bends are not already negotiated with con-
stant velocity. Then, a slip angle is formed between the
plane of the wheel and the tangent to the wheel’s path. It
induces friction between the tires and the road surface,
which generates a lateral or transversal centripetal effort.
Many previous models have been developed, which
describe the tire forces, generated at conditions of braking,
driving, or cornering (see [31,3,19]), as well as models
which represent the tire forces resulting from mixed condi-
tions of simultaneous braking (or driving) and cornering
[2]. Three classified tire forces models exist in literature,
some are theoretical and concern the modelling of physical
processes that generate the forces. They are generally based
on simplifying assumptions which limit their practical use
and often involve parameters which are difficult to identify.
Among these models, in [1,4], mechanical description of a

0957-4158/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mechatronics.2006.11.001
94 R. Merzouki et al. / Mechatronics 17 (2007) 93–108
Nomenclature
x_ s , xs slip velocity (m/s), slip displacement (m)
x_ L , €xL longitudinal vehicle velocity and acceleration in
(m/s) and (m/s2)
r wheel radius (m)
x_ wheel angular velocity (rad/s)
Fx longitudinal force (N)
k, KN longitudinal and normal gum stiffness (N/m)
M quarter vehicle mass (kg)
Fh hydrodynamic force (N)
g dynamic coefficient of viscosity
s0 layers surface area (m2)
x_ f layers velocity (m/s)
h water height (m)
w, Q thermal capacity of the gum (J/K), thermal
power (W)
brush model for the tire–road contact is developed respec-
tively, using ‘LuGre’ model and pressure distribution
respectively, while in [32], tire model based for comfort
analysis simulation when rolling over short-wave surface
irregularities is proposed by using a finite-element
approach. This last approach is used also in [11] for mod-
eling a suspension system. The tire model given in [13] is
based on the longitudinal pressure distribution in the
TCP. Through a linear approximations of the pressure dis-
tribution, this last tire model is even real time capable while
variations of inflation pressure and temperatures are con-
sidered. In [23,25], tire models are proposed, based respec-
tively on 3D pressure distribution and on gum temperature
variation.
Other models are empirically oriented and aim at
describing observed phenomena in a simple form, using
in general functional approximations of experimental data.
Among these models, in [33] a model-based on identifica-
tion of experimental grip curves is given, where the param-
eters of the so-called magic formula are deduced.
Then, a third tire road category model is defined in
[9,12], where the derivation of a mixed condition model is
presented. This model is based on pure condition models
and do not rely on available combined slip data for calibra-
tion. In this case, the proposed model is based on the stan-
dard brush model for tire mechanics and on extraction of
enough information from pure condition empirical models
to construct the mixed condition tire forces.
The main objectives of this paper is the development of
a tire–road interaction model in multi-domains using
bond graph approach. The innovative interest is the use
of only one representation of the complex dynamics, which
allows us to estimate the longitudinal contact forces. Fur-
thermore, the proposed model will be used to develop a
robust Fault Detection and Isolation (FDI) algorithm
in order to detect earlier several tire failures for safety
improvement.
A contact surface area (m2)
T, T0 gum temperature (K), ambient external temper-
ature (K)
P gas pressure inside the tire tube (Pa)
V gas volume inside the tube (m3)
S, S0 gas entropy, initial gas entropy (J/K)
Cp, Cv thermal capacity of the gas in a constant pres-
sure and volume (J kg1 K1)
V0 initial gas volume of the tire tube (m3)
r0 perfect gas constant (J mol1 K1)
m, n gas molar mass (g/mol) and gas moles (mol)
RS, RN longitudinal and normal viscous friction coeffi-
cient of the gum (N s/m)
The experimental data used for the analysis are obtained
from an instrumented experimental vehicle RENAULT
Truck. The dynamic parameters are known. For a set of
tests, the real trajectory is straight line which is used as
reference in the modelling approach validation.
The proposed model has several attractive features:
1. It describes the interaction between four theoretical
models: mechanical, hydrodynamic, thermal, and
pneumatic.
2. It gives a global idea about the variation of: internal tire
pressure, hydrodynamic pressure, entropy flows and tire
normal deformation.
3. Only two known inputs are considered for the proposed
model and correspond to the linear velocities of the vehi-
cle and the wheel.
4. The model is nonlinear and takes in consideration the
driving and braking phases.
5. Due to the graphical tool, the dynamic models are
obtained in a modular fashion and symbolic format.
They can be consequently reused for other applications
(modelling, control and diagnostic).
1.1. Why bond graph modelling?
Tire–road system is a complex process because of cou-
pling of several energy domains (thermal, mechanical,
pneumatic, etc.). The Bond graph approach as a multidis-
ciplinary and unified graphical modelling language is well
suited for this purpose. Theory of this modelling tool is
well developed in the literature [14,15,34,39,40]. The basic
concepts of bond graph methodology for modelling single
or multi energy process is briefly presented in Appendix
B at the end of the paper.
The bond graph is a modelling and simulation tool,
providing many possibilities. It allows both causal and
 R. Merzouki et al. / Mechatronics 17 (2007) 93–108
behavioral process analysis. On one hand, the bond graph
is subject to evolution and can be refined by adding graph-
ically more elements like thermal losses or inertias and stor-
age effects, without having to start all over again. Because
of causal properties and graphical aspect of the bond graph
tool, it will be shown in the paper how the global model can
be built in a modular fashion and generated in symbolic
format using appropriate software SYMBOLS 2000 [29].
The formal model under state equation form is then trans-
formed into MATLAB S-function for numerical simula-
tion. On the other hand, from the simulation point of
view, the causal properties of the bond graph language
enable the modeler to resolve the modelling singularities,
by assigning adequate derivative or integral causality in
the formulation stage, even before the detailed equations
have been derived. Finally, structural and causal properties
provided by this graphical representation can be used for
control and model based diagnostic design [35,36]. This is
why the bond graph can be considered as a real integrated
and aided design tool for industry. The obtained dynamic
will be used for diagnostic design for our further research
work.
This paper is organized as follows: the next section
describes bond graph modelling of the system with road-
way and environment interactions; simulation results done
with quarter vehicle model are presented in the third sec-
tion; the global dynamic model is then validated in the
forth section using experimental data from a RENAULT
Truck.
2. Dynamic bond graph model of tire–road system
2.1. System description
In this part, we limit ourselves to a tire–road system
made up of six parts: the gum, the tube tire, the wave front,
the wheel, the environment and the roadway; as they are
shown in Fig. 1. In the following modelling development,
Fig. 1. Tire–road system.
95
only longitudinal and normal dynamics are taken into con-
sideration for mechanical aspect due to the tire–road con-
tact. Thermal power exchange is also modelled between
the gum and the tire tube, and between the environment
and the tire tube. Finally, pneumatic and hydrodynamic
phenomena are described respectively by the pressure var-
iation inside the tire tube and hydrodynamics force gener-
ated by the wave front.
2.2. Word bond graph
The word bond graph represents the technological level
of the model where global system is decomposed into six
subsystems (see Fig. 2). Comparing to classical block dia-
gram, the input and output of each subsystem define power
variables represented by a conjugated pair of force-flow
labelled by a half arrow. Power variables used for the studied
system are: ðForce; Linear velocityÞ ¼ ðF ; x_ Þ;ðTemperature;
Thermal Flow EntropyÞ ¼ ðT ; SÞ; _ ðPressure; Volume FlowÞ ¼
ðP ; V_ Þ, (Torque, Angular velocity) = (C, x). These true and
pseudo bond graph variables are associated respectively
with mechanical translation and hydrodynamic, thermal,
pneumatic, and mechanical rotation.
2.3. Bond graph models
In this part, the bond graph models of each subsystem
[36], described in Fig. 2, are presented.
2.3.1. Tire gum
2.3.1.1. Longitudinal tire gum behavior bond graph. Tire
gum is considered as a viscoelastic material, which is
deforming with a behavior located between a viscous liquid
and an elastic solid.
When the tire is in contact with the road, kinematically,
one defines a slip velocity x_ s , which is the difference between
two collinear velocities at the center of tire contact
[17,8,22,37]: the longitudinal quarter of vehicle velocity x_ L
Fig. 2. Word bond graph.
96 R. Merzouki et al. / Mechatronics 17 (2007) 93–108
and the linear tire velocity r Æ x, with r the tire radius and
considered constant due to the tire rigidity and x the angu-
lar velocity of tire.
x_ s ¼ x_ L  r  x:
The two collinear velocities are supposed to be the only
available measured inputs. Fig. 3 shows the longitudinal tire
gum behavior when the wheel makes angular and transla-
tion motions after contact with the roadway. At the contact
level, the generated longitudinal force Fx is decomposed
into three forces: inertial force due to mass M, elastic force
from the spring k and viscous friction force through the
resistance RS. The resistance element RS is used in bond
graph theory to model the passive resistance which generate
the entropy flow from mechanical friction effect. This irre-
versible transformation from mechanical to thermal power
provide the thermal flow Q_ to the tire tube.
Bond graph model of this subsystem is given in Fig. 4.
The bond graph reflects the viscoelastic phenomena of
the tire–road contact shown in Fig. 4. In our case, the
known and measurable inputs are respectively the vehicle
velocity x_ L and the angular wheel velocity x. They are
represented by flow sources (SF : xL) and (SF : x). Then,
according to the viscoelastic characteristic of the gum,
transmitted mechanical power (in the case where the tire
is in contact with the roadway) is decomposed in to two
Fig. 3. Longitudinal tire gum behavior.
Fig. 4. Longitudinal tire gum bond graph model with derivative causality.
parts: The first one is transformed into kinetic energy
through inertia of mass M, modelled by I element and
which describes the dynamics of all tire points outside of
physical contact. The second part is due to the contact con-
ð1Þ figuration, the slip velocity x_ s is transformed into friction
(generating a thermal power RS element) and into elasticity
modelled by a storage element C of value k.
In this case, the non-standard element RS (as a resis-
tance that generates entropy) is suggested. RS element
transforms the mechanical power to thermal power gener-
ating entropy flow S_ g . The used power variables are (force
and velocity) from a mechanical part and (temperature-
entropy flow) from thermal part.
The longitudinal force Fx is estimated by using bond
graph I element in derivative causality. This causality con-
flict introduces implicit equations in numerical simulation.
This is due of presence of imposed flow source ðSF : x_ L Þ.
The slip velocity x_ s is calculated by 0 junction and modu-
lated transformer used to transfer angular velocity x to
linear one. The deduced equation is given in (1).
The equation of the longitudinal motion, referred to the
contact surface, can be derived from the bond graph model
and it is given as follows:
From 1 junction associated with C and RS elements, we
have:
F s ¼ F C þ F RS ¼ k  xs þ RS  x_ s : ð2Þ
From 1 junction and I element in derivative causality,
Eq. (3) is deduced:
F x ¼ M  €xL þ RS  x_ s þ k  xs ð3Þ
where xs is the slip displacement, €xL is the longitudinal
acceleration of the vehicle and M is the quarter vehicle
mass.
To avoid derivative causality, which introduces implicit
equation in numerical simulation, a pad is introduced in
between ðSF : x_ L Þ and (I : M) element [16]. This pad is given
as a rigid stiff spring-damper combination with a big values
of stiffness ke and friction coefficient Re. Let us consider
that during slip of the wheel, the points of the tire which
do not belong to the contact are as much deformed as those
in contact; so it can be the physical meaning of the added
pad. The bond graph model of the longitudinal tire gum
behavior, including the pad, is given in Fig. 5.
This last bond graph model is in integral causality. Let
us prove that flow f4 of element (I:M) is equal to x_ L after
adding the new pad.
Consider PI and e4 the momentum and force of element
(I:M) from (I:M)
Z
1 PI
f4 ¼  e4 dt ¼ ð4Þ
M M
the displacement q14 associated with C : k1e element is calcu-
lated from its flow f14 as follows:
Z
q14 ¼ f14 dt ð5Þ
 R. Merzouki et al. / Mechatronics 17 (2007) 93–108 97

Fig. 6. Slip angle.

a slip angle which increases with a saturated tire forces. So,

the simplest model for combined slip (i.e., combined brak-
ing and cornering) is based on the friction ellipse distribu-
tion (see Fig. 11). It is assumed that Fy and Fx (lateral and
longitudinal efforts) cannot exceed their maximum values
F y max and F xmax . The tire force distribution print is assumed
Fig. 5. Longitudinal tire gum bond graph in integral causality.
to be on the edge of the ellipse [42,27].
 2  2
Fy Fx
then the state equation of the bond graph model can be þ ¼1 ð11Þ
F y max F xmax
easily deduced:
( where the lateral and longitudinal tire forces Fy, Fx in the
P_ I ¼ k e  q14 þ Re  ð_xL  f4 Þ
ð6Þ direction of the wheel ground contact are approximated
q_ 14 ¼ x_ L  f4 linearly to the slide slip angles a. Generally, the slip angles
depend on the steer angle, yaw and lateral velocities [18]
from the second equation of (6)
and in our case it is considered measured. In the presented
e_ 14 work, only longitudinal effort is estimated and F xmax is not
q_ 14 ¼ ¼ x_ L  f4 ð7Þ
ke identified, so the dimension of the print is used in the next
since k e  e_ 14 then section to calculate the normal force FN, using a polar
coordinates transformation.
q_ 14 ’ 0 ð8Þ
and 2.3.1.2. Normal tire gum behavior bond graph. The gum is a
viscoelastic material which can be described by (damper,
f4 ’ x_ L : ð9Þ spring and mass) system of Fig. 7. The input variable cor-
According to affected causality, thermal power generating responds to the normal force FN deduced from the pressure
entropy flow S_ g by the active RS element is given by Eq. variation in the tire tube. The viscous normal friction is
(10) and detailed in [25]. represented by a dissipative bond graph element (R:RN)
while elasticity is represented by an element C of elasticity
RS  x_ 2s  a
S_ g ¼ ð10Þ KN which store a potential energy. The quarter vehicle iner-
T tia due to its mass M is represented by conservative element
where RS is the resistance value and a is the slip angle (see (I:M).
Fig. 6).
Eq. (10) describes also the transformation of the tire side
effort to the heat flow. This is possible by assuming that the
action of the tire on the road surface is changed to thermal
energy and it was detailed [26].
The slip angle a is the angle formed by the plane of the
wheel and the tangent to the wheel’s path [30].
A slip angle may be necessary for keeping a vehicle in a
straight line. This is what happens when the vehicle is
exposed to a cross-wind.
In the general case, the tires produce lateral forces
depending on lateral slip. This lateral slip is measured with Fig. 7. Tire–road normal effort.
98 R. Merzouki et al. / Mechatronics 17 (2007) 93–108
Fig. 8. Normal model bond graph.
In this case, the dynamic element (I:M) is in integral
causality, because the force FN is known. That is why the
normal mass velocity x_ 1 can be deduced by integration.
(R:RN) is a dissipative R element with any thermal power
generation. The corresponding bond graph model is given
in Fig. 8.
The following mechanical equation (12) is deduced from
bond graph of Fig. 8
M  €x1 þ RN  ð_x1  x_ 2 Þ þ K N  ðx1  x2 Þ ¼ F N
x1 and x_ 1 are the vertical gum displacement and vertical
gum velocity due to the load and x2 and x_ 2 are the vertical
gum displacement and vertical gum velocity due to the
roadway profile.
2.3.2. Wave front and hydrodynamic effect
Two kinds of forces interaction can generate a wave
front phenomena: internal forces interaction between fluid
molecules and external forces interaction between fluid
molecules and those of the tire circumference (see Fig. 9).
Each fluid molecule does not run out at the same velocity
[43,30] and follows a velocity profile of Fig. 9. Bond graph
model of hydrodynamic phenomena is given in Fig. 10.
When each particle located in a cross-section perpendic-
ular to the overall flow is represented by a velocity vector,
the obtained curve from the vectors extremities represents
the velocity profile of Fig. 9. The movement of the fluid
Fig. 9. Tire–road hydrodynamic effects.
Fig. 10. Tire–road hydrodynamic bond graph.
can be regarded as resulting from the slip of the fluid layers
the ones on the others. The velocity of each layer is a func-
tion of distance h of this curve in the fixed plan: x_ f ¼ x_ f ðhÞ.
The hydrodynamic pressure generated by a slick tire
tread on the ‘‘bank’’ of water at the slip area (contact area),
ð12Þ
can be approximated by Bernoulli’s equation [30]:
1
Ph ¼  q  x_ s ð13Þ
2
where q is the density of the water, in kg/m3, x_ s is the slip
velocity of the vehicle located at the contact area, in m/s,
Ph being expressed in Pa (105 Pa = 1 bar).
Know, let us consider two distant contiguous layers of
fluid of dh. The friction force Fh which is exerted on sepa-
ration surface of these two layers, opposes to the slip of a
layer on the other. Thus, the force Fh is proportional to the
difference in layers velocity d_xf , on their surface s0 and
inversely proportional to dh:
d_xf
F h ¼ g  s0  ð14Þ
dh
where g describes the dynamic viscosity coefficient.
In our case, we take the difference in layers velocity d_xf
equal to the velocity slip x_ s (i.e. velocity of the first layer is
x_ f ¼ 0 and for the second x_ f ¼ x_ s in the slip surface for
water height level of h). So, Fh can be written as:
x_ s
F h ¼ g  s0  : ð15Þ
h
Between the two expressions of (13) and (15), which de-
scribe respectively the hydrodynamic pressure and force
at the contact area, the second expression is linear of the
slip velocity x_ s . This latter can be easily transformed graph-
ically to the hydrodynamic force Fh using bond graph
 R. Merzouki et al. / Mechatronics 17 (2007) 93–108 99

model of Fig. 10, by a modulated gyrator element GY with

the constant gsh 0 as a modulus.

2.3.3. Tire tube

Tire tube is a synthetic rubber sheet located inside the
tire and describes an elastic enclosure containing a perfect
gas under pressure. The tire tube and the corresponding
bond graph model are given in Figs. 11 and 12. Tire tube
exchanges the thermal power with the external environ-
ment due to the heat conductivity of its wall, and stores
two types of energies, pneumatic and thermal. The thermal
exchange is modelled by the dissipation element R and the
storage phenomena is represented by the two port C Fig. 12. Tire tube bond graph.
element.
During the slip stage, the temperature variation acts on then, Eq. (18) becomes:
the internal pressure inside the tire tube according to the Z Z pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
perfect gas equation (16) F ¼ P0 1  X 2  Y 2 dX dY : ð20Þ
ðsÞ
P  V ¼ n  R0  T ð16Þ
with P the gas pressure inside the tire tube, V the gas vol- In order to change the double integral defined in Cartesian
ume of the tire tube, n is moles number, R0 is a gas constant coordinates (X, Y) to the Polar coordinates (R), the follow-
and T the temperature inside the tire tube. ing variables transformation is given:
Knowing that normal force FN is proportional to con- 
X ¼ k  cos u
tact pressure distribution P(x, y) and contact surface A as ð21Þ
Y ¼ k  sin u:
given [38] by Eq. (17)
F N ¼ P ðx; yÞ  A: ð17Þ Let us note
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffipffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Let us consider that distribution of pressure during the 1  X 2  Y 2 ¼ 1  k2 : ð22Þ
contact tire–road is represented by an ellipsoidal function
In the XY plan, the coordinate k for an arbitrary u varies
of longitudinal and lateral positions in 3D [23], as it is between 0 and l with u varies between 0 and p.
shown in Fig. 11. From (17), FN could be expressed as Z Z pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Z p Z l pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
follows:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1  X2  Y2 ¼ du k 1  k2 dk: ð23Þ
ZZ ZZ ðsÞ 0 0
x2 y 2
FN ¼ P ðx; yÞ ¼ P 0  1  2  2 dx dy ð18Þ After development of Eq. (23), the following expression of
ðsÞ ðsÞ a b
FN is deduced after a double integral in curvilinear coordi-
where P0 is the maximum pressure magnitude and a and b nates [24]:
are the longitudinal and lateral dimensions of the ellip-  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
p
soidal distributions. Let us use the following variables F N ¼  P 0  1  ð1  l2 Þ3 ð24Þ
affectation 3
8
>X ¼ x
<  with l describes the contact surface length, with: (x, y) are
a and dX ¼ dx the two dimensions contact surface and a, b are constants.
y ð19Þ
>
:Y ¼ dY ¼ dy Thus, the bond graph model of the tire tube is given by
b Fig. 12. Resistance (R:R1) represents the heat conductivity

Fig. 11. Pneumatic and thermical effects in tire tube.

100 R. Merzouki et al. / Mechatronics 17 (2007) 93–108

of the tire tube walls. It ensures the heat transfer with the where T and T0 are respectively tire tube and environment
external environment. Input model corresponds to the flow temperatures, and the global flow entropy S_ to the tire is
entropy originally from the friction of gum S_ g , and the out- calculated from 0 junction and given in Eq. (28)
put one represents the normal force FN, obtained by ellip-
S_ ¼ S_ 0 þ S_ g : ð28Þ
soidal distribution of pressure due to transformer TF. The
two ports C element describes entropy S and volume V In practice, the thermal resistance R1 is variable of the time
variations inside the tire tube and is detailed in [28]. The and depends to the air flow due to the rotational and trans-
nonlinear state equation of the two port element C is the lational wheel velocity. This latter is considered constant in
following: the proposed work due to two following points:
(
X_ ¼ f ðX ; uÞ
ð25Þ • the dynamic of this resistance is so complex and difficult
Y ¼ hðX Þ to be identified online during our experiments;
• the used assumption is considered at the steady state
where X T ¼ ½S V  (entropy and volume) is the state vector
interval when R1 approaches a constant. For that, our
and the output variable is Y T ¼ ½T P  (temperature and
experimental tests were done for a small slip velocities
pressure), described by Eq. (26)
in order to consider that R1 could be taken equal to
8  CRg
> V constant.
>
>
v SS 0
<T ¼ T0   e mCv
V0 ð26Þ
>  c
>
> m  C v  T0 V SS 0
:P ¼  e mCv 2.4. Global system modelling
V0 V0
C
where c ¼ Cpv , S gas entropy, S0 initial entropy of the gas, Global tire–road bond graph model is given in Fig. 13,
Cp thermal capacity of the gas in a constant pressure, Cv where interconnection appears clearly between all sub-
thermal capacity of the gas in a constant volume, V0 and systems represented in word bond graph.
T0 represent the initial gas volume and initial temperature For this global model, one needs two principal measure-
of the tire tube, Rg is a gas constant and m gas molar mass. ments: linear velocity of the vehicle x_ L , and angular wheel
The thermal flow entropy S_ 0 exchanged between envi- velocity x. The external temperature can be added as
ronment and tire tube is given by following equation (see parameter online or offline and the roadway profile can
Fig. 12): be considered as external input. So, tire gum vertical defor-
mation x1  x2 can be estimated through the normal force
ðT 0  T Þ FN variation due to variation of pressure P inside the tire
S_ 0 ¼ ð27Þ
R1  T tube. This pressure variation is caused by variation of tem-

Fig. 13. Global tire–road bond graph model.

 R. Merzouki et al. / Mechatronics 17 (2007) 93–108 101

perature T of the tire tube which is generated from trans-
formation to heat flow Q_ of the tire–road longitudinal fric-
tion force RS  x_ s . In order to represent more the water
presence on roadway, wave front subsystem can be option-
ally added to the global model as shown in Fig. 13.
3. Simulation tests
0.5 m/s of slip. During this phase one notes a grip effect
between the braking action and the vehicle reaction, then,
A degradation of the deceleration is noticed until the wheel
locking at 2 m/s This phase corresponds to a fall of the
force value generating the wheel locking and the slip of
the vehicle. A quasi-symmetric longitudinal force behavior

Simulation is done on bond graph software SYMBOLS

2000 and Matlab-Simulink by using a corresponding S-
function. All simulation parameters are listed in Appendix
A, deduced after measurement and identification [21] from
experiment data base of LCPC’s RENAULT Truck. l and r
are taken as determinist values, deduced from the static
position and radius of the wheel before starting the exper-
imental tests. RS value of Appendix A is identified experi-
mentally as viscous friction coefficient of the tire [30], then
the final value used for the model has been refined during
online model validation. For the longitudinal force, a
canonical curve behavior is observed (see Fig. 14), for driv-
ing and braking torques according to the slip velocity state
(i.e. negative and positive). Thus, force variation can be
divided in two stages: for an increasing slip velocity, longi- Fig. 16. Viscosity influence of wet surfaces.
tudinal force rises towards a maximum, reached for a value

Fig. 14. Canonical curve of longitudinal effort. Fig. 17. Temperature variation influence inside the tire tube.

Fig. 15. Wave front influence on longitudinal effort. Fig. 18. Pressure variation inside the tire tube.
102 R. Merzouki et al. / Mechatronics 17 (2007) 93–108
is obtained in the case of negative slip velocity (i.e. braking
torque case).
When the wave front phenomena is present at the tire–
road contact level (see Fig. 15), the grip mechanism
depends inversely on the water height. One notices a fall
of force value from 0.63 kN to 0.58 kN for a water height
of 0.3 mm. By increasing the water height on the roadway,
the grip is degraded and the force reached a value of
0.52 kN for 2 m/s of slip velocity and 1.5 mm of water
height. In this phase, the micro-indenters are flooded,
and only the macro ones continue to operate.
On a wet roadway, water viscosity increases when tem-
perature decreases. Thus, the ground becomes more slip-
ping, and the grip potential is degraded. The maximum
force value goes from 0.68 kN to 0.58 kN when water
viscosity varies from 0.5 · 103 Pa/s to 3 · 103 Pa/s with
the same slip speed profile (see Fig. 16).
The curves of Fig. 17 are obtained for an initial value of
temperature inside the tire tube of 45 C, and two values of
Fig. 19. Instrumented RENAULT Truck.
Fig. 20. Grip characteristics for forward left wheel: (a) slip velocity, (b) transmitted torque, (c) longitudinal temporal effort, (d) canonical grip curve.
ambient temperature, 15 C and 30 C. The shift between
the two curves shows the influence of the ambient temper-
ature on temperature variation inside the tire tube. For the
case of 15 C and for slip velocity profile of Fig. 17, a tem-
perature decreasing from 45 C to 44.92 C is noticed when
the slip velocity goes to zero, then it increases gradually
with the slip velocity where the tire tube releases heat to
the external environment because its temperature is higher
than outside temperature.
Pressure variation is in progression with temperature
variation, by comparing the curve of Fig. 17 with that of
Fig. 18. When the pressure increase, then the couple
impact effort and temperature increase also. One notices
that pressure decreases with temperature, which occurs
indeed for values of slip going from 1 m/s to 0.2 m/s,
when pressure varies from 2 bar to 1.68 bar and tem-
perature goes from 45 C to 44.92 C. Then a relative
increase of pressure is observed when slip and temperature
increase.
4. Comparison to experimental tests
Experimental vehicle is a French military truck (see
Fig. 19), from RENAULT Trucks firm, named TRM10000.
It is a typical logistic vehicle, with a maximum load of about
10,000 kg. TRM is a French acronym for AWD (all-wheel
drive vehicle).
It has been chosen for the following reasons:
• important payload,
• structure modification possibility with large amplitudes
of the gravity height center of the load,
• all characteristics and model parameters required for the
simulation are known.
 R. Merzouki et al. / Mechatronics 17 (2007) 93–108 103

Its main characteristics are detailed in the following: Using bond graph model, a simulation of a RENAULT
Trucks tire–road with the corresponding slip velocity is
weight (unloaded) 12,000 kg done and the results were superposed on those experimen-
c Æ g height (unloaded) about 1.20 m tal and presented in Figs. 20(d), 21(d), 22(d) and 23(d). In
max load about 10,000 kg this case, a correct reconstruction of the canonical grip
number of axles 3 form is obtained during the braking stage for the forward
number of wheels 6 wheels. In the case of rear wheels, and during the slip velo-
steering axle front axle city decreasing, some disturbances are noticed (see Figs.
rear axle rear tandem 22(d) and 23(d)). Two main situations can explain the pres-
front suspension semi-elliptical leaf springs ence of oscillations in the rear wheel canonical curve:
(auxiliary and main springs), 1. The instrumented RENAULT Truck has motorized
mechanical stops and telescopic rear wheels, since the forward ones are passives. Then, as
shock absorbers shown in Fig. 24, the mechanical transmission from the
rear suspensions semi-elliptical leaf spring, actuator to the wheel via the rear axle, cross a ‘Divider’ part
mechanical stops to attend the ‘Planet gears’. So, due to some old mechanical
tires on and off-road tires from parts of the instrumented vehicles (see Fig. 24), some
Michelin interconnected parts (i.e. Divider, Crown-Satellites, Satel-
length/width/height 9.2 m/2.5 m/3.1 m lites-Planet gear) present some wear, which introduce a
wheel base axle 1–2 4.3 m mechanical backlash. The concatenation of all the backlash
wheel base axle 2–3 1.4 m magnitudes describes a mechanical imperfection which
max speed about 90 km/h affects of course on the measurements (example of the
transmitted torque of Figs. 22(d) and 23(d), where oscilla-
In the following description, an experimental data acqui- tions are present at the slip interval). Knowing that the for-
sition from four wheels of the RENAULT Truck have been ward axle mechanism is relatively different to the rear one
treated. These data correspond to the linear truck velocity, due to the passive traction identified by a negative longitu-
angular velocities of the wheels and the motorized torques. dinal effort on the forward wheels (see Figs. 20(a), 21(a))
So, two scenarios are presented in this test and correspond and do not present this mechanical imperfection, since
to a relaxation stage where the slip velocity is decreasing to the rear and active wheels are driven by a positive efforts
zero, then a braking stage according to exponential increas- before the braking stage (see Figs. 22(d) and 23(d)). In
ing of the slip velocity (see Figs. 20(a), 21(a), 22(a) and the presented model, this nonlinear imperfection was not
23(a)). Experimental and temporal longitudinal force for taken into account (due to the complex phenomena), thus
the two stages are presented by Figs. 20(c), 21(c), 22(c) the estimated canonical curves for the rear wheels decrease
and 23(c) and the transmitted torques for each wheel are linearly during the slip interval while the real ones present
given by Figs. 20(b), 21(b), 22(b) and 23(b). some oscillations.

Fig. 21. Grip characteristics for forward right wheel: (a) slip velocity, (b) transmitted torque, (c) longitudinal temporal effort, (d) canonical grip curve.
104 R. Merzouki et al. / Mechatronics 17 (2007) 93–108

Fig. 22. Grip characteristics for rear left wheel: (a) slip velocity, (b) transmitted torque, (c) longitudinal temporal effort, (d) canonical grip curve.

Fig. 23. Grip characteristics for rear right wheel: (a) slip velocity, (b) transmitted torque, (c) longitudinal temporal effort, (d) canonical grip curve.

2. The second point concerns the curve deviation of the
contact tire–road point, due principally to the rear suspen-
sion mechanism, which causes also a non neglected oscilla-
tions. This phenomena is detailed in [10] and the last
phenomenon was not taken in account for the presented
tire–road model.
ling approach. Then, estimation of longitudinal effort in
presence of temperature and pressure fluctuations, is given.
Validation of the results by comparison with experimental
data are also presented. In future, we would like to use
the described tire–road bond graph model to develop fault
detection and isolation algorithms for this complex system.

5. Conclusion Acknowledgments

In this paper, a multiphysics model of the tire–road inter- Authors thank Bernard Mathelin, Dominique Ben-
action is presented. Global model is represented in bond ardeau, François Saulais (ETAS) and Patrick Daburon,
graph form which is an unified multi-energy domain model- Victor Dolcemasco, Yves Delanne (LCPC-Paris, Nantes),
 R. Merzouki et al. / Mechatronics 17 (2007) 93–108 105

Fig. 24. Synaptic schema of rear RENAULT Truck axle.

whom took part in the preparation and the realization of

a b
the experiments described in this paper.

Appendix A. Simulation parameters

P0 2 · 105 (Pa) Fig. 25. Bond graph representation and causality.

V0 0.03 (m3)
l 0.1 (m)
can be systematically deduced from the bond graph model
r 0.25 (m)
using a covering causal paths through the graph. Indeed,
KN, k 6 (N/m), 6 (N/m)
the determination of causes and effects in the process plant
M 500 (kg)
is directly deduced from the graphical representation. In
RS, RN 12 (N s/m), 9 (N s/m)
the bond graph, it is denoted by the cross-stroke indicating
s0 0.1 (m2)
how e and f simultaneously are determined causally on
R1 0.23 (W/m K)
a bond. As example in Fig. 25(a), the assigned causality
A 0.3 (m2)
means that system A imposes the effort on B. In the corre-
ke 1000 (N/m)
sponding block diagram given by Fig. 25(b), the direction
Re 1000 (N s/rad)
of action is indicated by an arrow on each connection as
R0 8.31 (J mol1 K1)
illustrated. Independently of the causality, the direction
of the positive power is indicated by the half-arrow on
the bond.
Appendix B. Bond graph methodology Since power interactions are always present when two
multiports are connected, the various power variables are
B.1. True bond graphs classified in a universal scheme and to describe all types
of multiports in a common language. Table 1 gives power
Bond graphs were invented by Henry Paynter from MIT variables called effort or flow for some of physical domains.
in 1959, after intensive use of block diagrams for servo- This type of bond graph is then called true bond graph.
controls and simulation problems. The key to bond graph The power Pu corresponds to the product between power
modelling is the representation (by a bond) of power as the variables effort and flow:
product of an effort and a flow, with elements acting
between these variables and junction structures to put the P u ðtÞ ¼ eðtÞ  f ðtÞ: ð29Þ
process plant together. As shown in Fig. 25(a), the power
exchanged between two process plants A and B is indicated
by a bond and is the product of two variables – a potential B.1.1. Energy variables
variable (i.e. pressure, electrical potential, temperature, Two additional physical quantities are used in bond
chemical potential, force, etc.) called effort (e) and a current graph modelling. They are called energy variables and are
variable (i.e. volume flow, current, entropy flow, velocity, important for dynamic system representation and are asso-
molar flow, etc.) referred to as flow (f). From a diagnostic ciated with state variables. Two kinds of energy variables
point of view, one important structural property of the are used: generalized momentum p(t) (charge, volume,
bond graph is its causality concept. In the model based entropy, etc.) and generalized displacement q(t) (angular
FDI, the indicator faults (analytical redundancy relations) momentum, pressure momentum, etc.). They are obtained
106 R. Merzouki et al. / Mechatronics 17 (2007) 93–108

Table 1
Power variables in a true bond graph
Domain Effort e(t) Flow f(t)
Electric Voltage u (V) Current i (A)
Mechanics rotation Torque C (N m) Angular velocity x
(rad/s)
Mechanics translation Force F (N) Velocity v (m/s)
Hydraulics Pressure (Pa) Volume flow rate V_
(m3/s)
Thermodynamics Temperature (K) Entropy flow (J/K s)
Chemistry
Transformation Chemical potential l Molar flow rate n_
phenomenon (J/mol) (mol/s)
Kinetic phenomena Chemical affinity A Speed of reaction n_

by integration of the power variables (effort or flow) with

respect to time:
Z t
qðtÞ ¼ f ðsÞ ds
0
Z t ð30Þ
pðtÞ ¼ eðsÞ ds:
0

The state vector in a bond graph model is composed by the

energy variables p and q. Those variables appear in their
derivative form in Cðq_ ¼ f Þ and Iðp_ ¼ eÞ elements. The
dimension of the state vector is equal to the number of C
and I elements in integral causality.
Finally, as shown in Fig. 26, the bond graph symbol
gives four informations:
(1) the physical link between two systems with the bond,
Fig. 27. Definitions of the basic bond graph elements.
(2) the type of power (electric, mechanical, etc.) with the
power variables, (3) the power direction with the half arrow,
(4) and the causality with the stroke.
and can represent the signal transmitted by sensors, inte-
grators, etc.
B.1.2. Bond graph elements
There are nine basic energetic multiport elements and
two informations elements, grouped into four categories B.2. Pseudo bond graphs
according to their energy characteristics. These elements
and definitions (constitutive equations) are summarized in In some engineering processes, several phenomena
Fig. 27. (chemical, thermal and hydraulic) are coupled. Three
In bond graph language, two active elements (called energy are involved in such systems. Power variables are
sources) (Se and Sf), three generalized passive elements thus presented in vectorial form:
(I, C, and R) two junctions (0 and 1) and two transducers E ¼ ½et eh ec t ; F ¼ ½fc f t f c t : ð31Þ
(TF and GY) are used to model any energetic process.
When the exchanged power is negligible, it is represented where et, eh and ec represent respectively the thermal effort
by an information bond, which corresponds to block (specific enthalpy or temperature), the hydraulic effort
diagrams arrows. It is shown as a full arrow on the bond (pressure), and the chemical effort (chemical potential,

Fig. 26. Informations given by bond graph representation.

 R. Merzouki et al. / Mechatronics 17 (2007) 93–108
Table 2
Power variables in process engineering
Field Pseudo bond graph
Effort (e) Flow (f)
Chemistry C (mol/m3) n_ (mol/s)
Hydraulic P (Pa) m_ (kg/s)
Thermal conduction T (K) Q_ (J/s)
Convection T or h (J/kg) H_ (J/s)
chemical affinity or concentration). ft, fh and fc represent
respectively the thermal (or entropy) flow (by conduction
Q_ or by convection H_ ), the hydraulic flow (mass flow m_
or volume flow V_ ) and the chemical flow (molar flow n). _ velocity. Contr Eng Practice 2003:1361–70.
True bond graphs, as shown above in Table 1 have
physical power corresponding to product of two conju-
gated effort and flow variables. This type of bond graph
is well suited for electric, mechanical or incompressible
hydraulic. True bond graphs in thermal and chemical engi-
neering introduce complex variables like entropy and
chemical potential, which do not obey to conservation
laws. So, in such processes it is convenient to choose a
pseudo bond graph where the product effort-flow does not
have the physical dimension of a power. Although the the-
ory and the systematic derivation of equation from bond
graph, causal and structural properties for control and
monitoring analysis still remain applicable. The selection
of power variables in such process plants including
thermo-fluid, biological and chemical engineering is not
trivial and depends on the process type. In Table 2, pseudo
power variables in process engineering are shown.
In the hydraulic domain, the pair ðm;
_ P Þ is used because
the thermo-fluid energies are coupled, where the enthalpy
flow H_ is calculated from the mass flow mð _ H_ ¼ m_  hÞ.
For thermal energy domain (Lagrangian point of view),
the pair (H_ , T (or h)) enthalpy flow and temperature (or
specific enthalpy) is used as power variables. In the case
of thermal conduction (Eulerian point of view), the pair
_ is used. For chemical systems, a pseudo bond graph
ðT ; QÞ
is defined, where the effort variable is the concentration C
instead of the chemical potential and the flow variable is
the molar flow n. _ This approach is extensively used because
it allows to manipulate more intuitive and measurable
variables.
The energy variables (state variables) in pseudo bond
graphRare associated with time integration:
R of mass flow
ðm ¼ R m_ dtÞ, of enthalpy flow ðH ¼ H_R dtÞ, of molar flow
ðN ¼ n_ dtÞ and of thermal flow ðQ ¼ Q_ dtÞ.
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