Field Manual

on
Watershed Management
(Revised Edition)

J.C .K a ty a l
R.P.Singh
S liriniw as S liarm a
S.K .D as
M.V.Padmanabhaii
P .K .M islira

'fit

^ '*■ g
6^2 1 9 7 0 i
1995 r

C e n tra l R esearch In stitu te for D ryland A g ric u ltu re

Hyderabad - 500 059
India

1995
REVISED EDITION AUGUST. 1995
FIRST EDITION JANUARY, 1990

Correct citation ; Katyal, J.C., Singh. R.P., Sharma, Shriniwas., Das, S K , Padmanabhan,
M,V, and Mishra, P.K., 1995, Field Manual on Watershed Management,
Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, India,
pp-223.

Price :
Rs.200/

All Rights Reserved

© Central Research institute for Dryland Agriculture

Published by J.C,Katyal, Director

Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture.
Santoshnagar, Hyderabad - 500 059, India.

Printed at Venu Enterprises, Chikkadpally, Hyderabad. ® 661538

 Tel. No 392629
Fax 307293

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3T5?mFi ^ RrRin

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Tijpr, 10001

G O V E R N M E N T O F INDIA
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH & EDUCATION
DR. R. S. PARODA AND
secretary IN D IA N C O U N C IL OF A G R IC U L T U R A L R ESEARCH
8t MINISTRV OF AGRICULTURE
DIRECTOR genera I KRISHI BHAWAN. NEW DELHI-110001

FO REW O RD

In India, rainfed agriculture predominates in most states except those in North-West

(Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh) which are mainly served by irrigation. The rainfed
states maintain high rural populations with highest concentration of poverty stricken
communities. Rainfed farmers tend to keep large herds of unproductive cattle to increase
their income. Ecological heterogeneity, marked by undulating terrain and poor quality
land are the familiar features o f rainfed tracts. Distribution o f rain, the only source of
water for sustenance o f agriculture, is unpredictable in timing and amount. Although
promotion o f rainfed farming has figured prominently in the successive Five Year Plan
documents, rates o f growth have not lived up to expectations. Over the past 25 years,
systematic research efforts led by ICAR through its institutes like CRID A have, no
doubt, led to development o f useful technologies on standard crop husbandry, appropriate
choice o f crops, their varieties and cropping systems. However, want o f serious attention
on conserving the rainwater during the times of abundance is at the root o f non-sustenance
o f rainfed farmers and their animal support system. With the current practices, nearly
30% o f the 400 million hectare metres precipitation equivalent received in India is lost
through surface flows, popularly known as runoff. Uncontrolled runoff exacerbates soil
erosion which knocks off nutrient-rich thin top-soil leaving behind sterile sub-soil mass.
I f runoff is reclaimed it can assist in building up permanent water resources for restoring
the lost ecology, saving the crops when they are stressed, and above all assuring the
sustainability o f rainfed communities.
Since rainwater tends to follow ridge to valley lines during its run, its effective
conservation and management obviously necessitate sub-division of a geographical area
into discreet hydrological units called watersheds. Although watershed approach has
been in existence since long time, it was in 1983, when ICAR guided the then lauftched
47 Model Watersheds under the aegis of National Watershed Programnre. Compared to
earlier programmes, the development of arable and non-arable areas was integrated.
Successes witnessed through the Model Watersheds led to the launching of a National
Watershed Development Programme for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) by Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of India in 1987-88. More recently Ministry of Rural Development
has introduced another programme for the development o f dryland agriculture in the
country with the watershed as the unit of development. Keeping in view these national
efforts with massive investments, it becomes necessary to prepare guidelines for treating
the command areas for their sustainable development.

CRIDA based upon its experience with 30 out of 47 Model Watersheds prepared a
Field M a n u a l on W a te rsh e d M a n ag e m en t in 1990, This publication found ready
acceptance from administrators, transfer of technology agencies, and field level functionaries.
As a result o f popular demand, supply of the initial edition has completely exhausted.
I am happy to note that a team led by Dr.J.C.Katyal, Director, CRIDA has made
valuable efforts in bringing out the Revised Edition of the Field M anual on W a te rsh e d
M a n ag e m en t. With additional information on vegetative conservation measures as well
as on simple and low cost rainwater harvesting structures, the current edition will be
far more useful. Inclusion of topical subjects highlighting procedures for getting maximum
participation o f the beneficiary farmers will make this report highly relevant even at
the grass root levels. I am confident, with these improvements and additional review
o f rainfed technologies. Field M a nual on W atersh ed M a n a g e m e n t (Revised Edition)
will elicit popular response from those interested in the development of rainfed agriculture
in India and elsewhere in the developing world.

R.S. P ai'oda
Director General, ICAR &
August 24, 1995 Secretary, DARE
 PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION

Population o f India is increasing at an alarming rate. Twenty five years from now,
India's population is expected to reach 1500 million of which nearly 600 million will
be living in rainfed areas An average food grain yield o f 2 t/ha will be required from
drylands to feed this burgeoning population against the prevailing productivity level of
around 0 8 t/ha. With dryland agriculture, water is the central production factor that
will determ ine the realization o f the productivity goals. Since rain is the only source
o f w ater for sustenance of rainfed agriculture, success will depend upon its maxim um
utilization for the area of its incidence. By now, it has been well recognized that
rainwater can be conserved, utilized and managed best with watershed as tlie unit of
developm ent

G overnm ent o f India has launched a massive national watershed program m e to improve
and stabilize the quality of agriculture resources in and output levels from rainfed
areas. To support this am bitious programme, necessary literature detailing guidelines to
prepare watershed master plans and their execution is generally lacking. Availability of
a com pendium of standard information dealing with various aspects o f watershed
program m e will be highly useful for the implementing and monitoring agencies. To
respond to this long felt need. Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture
(C R ID A ) brought out a self-contained publication entitled "F ie ld M a n u a l on W a te r s h e d
M a n a g e m e n t " in 1990. Much more than what was expected at the time o f getting its
first print, there has been notable appreciation as well as rising dem and for this
publication Quite a few requests for supply o f this manual have been pending since
1992, as all the copies of the first punt are sold out. Since watershed approach has
been accepted as the basis to develop rainfed agriculture in the country, the need for
a Watershed Manual has become all llie more essential.

Hi
In view of the changing concepts white handling watershed programmes, need for an
updated edition incorporating the latest revelations from detailed investigations of
research stations and also those from on-farm experiments has become imminent
Additionally, there are no alternatives/substitutes for ground level surveys. A minimum
knowledge on various aspects of hydrological design criteria is prerequisite to systematic
planning, execution, management and long term sustenance of a watershed. Accordingly,
appropriate material on procedures related to watershed surveys and hydrological
computations, performance of rainwater conservation structures and a case study on
watershed management have been incorporated in the present edition. In view of the
extention-needs of State Governments at field level, a separate chapter on Guidelines
of National Watershed Development Projects designed by Ministry of Agriculture has
also been added.

We sincerely hope that with updation, the revised edition of the Field Manual on
Watershed Management will prove more useful

J.C.Katyal
R. P. Singh
Shriniwas Sharma
S.K.Das
Hyderabad M.V. Padmanabhan
August 24, 1995 P.K.Mishra

/V
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
In line with watershed approach, sound soil and water conservation measures are
required to be taken up in all lands, particularly on priority basis in areas having
erratic rainfall. And in addition, these conservation structures are to be backed by
scientific crop management programmes for getting optimum dividends. Keeping in
view, the urgency of the programme. Government of India have recently sanctioned a
number of watershed schemes for propagation of integrated watershed and dryland
m anagement technology. But, it has been observed that there is still lack o f trained
staff for implementing the programme at grass-root level. Whereas, most o f the recent
advances related to soil and water engineering and conservation agronomy are confined
only in a few test books requiring sufficient background of basic sciences for understanding
the implications - sometimes much above the level of general field workers - only
broad thumb rules are presently being circulated in the form o f departmental handbooks.
This at times, has resulted in failures o f soil conservation and water harvesting measures,
and inefficient and uneconomic land uses; thus defeating the very purpose o f the
programme. Considering this precarious situation, there is an immediate need o f having
a manual describing the state-of-the-art in the field. An attempt has therefore been
made, herein, to cover briefly all the aspects of watershed programme including design
criteria o f soil conservation works in simple language based on the experience of the
model watershed programme.

This monograph has been compiled by picking up different threads of watershed

experiences lying in scattered manner through the length and breadth of the country.
Being first o f its kind and by containing the state-of-the-art of conservation strategy,
it is hoped that the publication would serve as a text/reference book for students of
undergraduate and postgraduate levels in different Agricultural Universities,

R. P. Singh
Shriniwas Sharma
M.V. Padmanabhan
Hyderabad S.K.Das
January 1, 1990 P.K.Mishra
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, FIRST EDITION
The authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to Dr.N.S.Randhawa, Director General,
ICAR, for providing valuable guidance. Thanks are also due to Dr.I.P.Abrol, Deputy
Director General, ICAR, for providing inspiration and valuable suggestions.

The authors record their thanks to Shri Muni Krishnaiah, Technical Officer, for extending
valuable help in compiling the material. They express due appreciation for the sincere
efforts made by Sarvashri M.A,Rashid, K.V.Gopal Krishna Murthy and K.Ramakrishnaiah
of Cartographic Section. CRIDA, in preparing the diagrams.

The assistance rendered by Smt.A.Prema Kumari and Smt.C.Kanaka Durga in typing

the manuscript is also gratefully acknowledged.

vr
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, REVISED EDITION
The authors wish to thank the readers and users of the Field Manual on Watershed
Management; specially for their appreciation of its contents - in the context of challenges
o f watershed problems; they received suggestions from the readers; these have been
taken care of in the revised edition of this manual, They are grateful to Dr Y,S Ramakrishna
for providing vauable assistance in bringing out this manuscript in print. The authors
also record their appreciation for the sincere assistance of Sarvasri S.Siva Prasad,
S.K.Srivastava, P.Vijay Kumar, M,Srinivasa Rao, C A.Rama Rao, Smt.M.Vanaja and
N.Munikrishnaiah in bringing out this compilation.

The assistance rendered by Sarvasri P.Chandra Sekhar for computer work, K.V.G.K.Murthy
for making diagrams and cover page, Smt.M,A.Rekha and Smt.C. Kanaka Durga in
typing the manuscript is duly acknowledged
 CONTENTS

Chapter Page No.

FOREWORD i

PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION iii

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION V

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. FIRST EDITION vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, REVISED EDITION vii

LIST OF TABLES xiii

LIST OF FIGURES xvi

.1 WHY WATERSHED MANAGEMENT I

II SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION 4

2.1 Importance of Soil and Water Conservation 4

\,2.2 Watershed Approach 5

2.3 Conservation Land Treatments 6

2.3.1 Bunding 5

2.3.2 Submergence btindhis 15

2.3.3 Trenching • Ig

2.3.4 Bench terracing 18

2.3.5 Zingg terracing 22

2.3.6 Vegetative barriers 25

2.3.7 Grass waterways 26

4 Water Harvesting Structures 30

2.4.1 Farm ponds ^ 30

2.4.2 Minor irrigation tanks/Low earth dams 35

 Chapter Page No.

2.4.3 Water harvesting btmdhis 46

2.4.4 Nala bunds and percolation tanks 49

2.4.5 Stop dams 52

2.5 Water Surplussing and Grade Stabilisation Structures 60

2.5.1 Waste weirs in bunds 61

2.5.2 Drop spillways 64

2.5.3 Drop in-iet spillways 73

2.5.4 Chute spillway 78

2.5.5 Grass outlets and emergency spillways 81

2.5.6 Rockfill dams 83

2.5.7 Gully plugs 85

III CROP PRODUCTION 88

3.1 Introduction 88

3.2 Crops and Varieties Matching the Rainfall Patterns 90

3.3 Crops and Varieties Matching the 93

Soil Moisture Storage Capacity

3.4 Crops and Cropping Systems for Various Situations 93

3.4.1 Monocropping 96

3.4.2 Intercropping 98

3.4.3 Double cropping 102

3.5 Land Configurations and Cropping Strategy for 103

Aberrant Weather Situations and Stability of Production

3.6 Other Improved Practices for Conservationof Resources 110

3.6.1 Contour farming 110

3.6.2 Other softwares for minimising erosion 110

 C h a p te r Page No.

3.6.3 Mulching and cropresiduemanagement 111

3.6.4 Strip cropping 111

IV ALTERNATE LAND USE SYSTEMS 112

4.1 Why Alternate Land Use 112

4.2 Land Capability and Land UseSystems 112

4.3 Systems for Arable Lands 113

4.3.1 Alley cropping 115

4.3.2 Ley farming 115

4.3.3 Agro-horticulture system 116

4.4 Systems for Marginal Lands 116

4.4.1 Pasture management 117

4.4.2 Tree farming 117

4.4.3 Silvi-pastural management systems 118

4.5 Economics of the System 121

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN VERTISOLS - 122

A CASE STUDY

5.1 Location 122

5.1.1 Climate 123

5.1.2 Soils 124

5.1.3 Vegetation 126

5.1.4 Crop production leveland practices adopted 126

5.1.5 Animal management 127

5.1.6 Socio-economic conditions 127

5.2 Irrigated Agriculture 127

5.3 Salient Achievements 128

 5.3.1 Resources created for soil and water conservation 128

5.3.2 Crop production programme and impact on crops 130

5.4 Impact of the Programme 133

5.4.1 Crops and cropping systems 133

5.4.2 Varieties 135

5.4.3 Agronomic practices 136

5.5 Feedback to Research 139

5.6 Constraints Identified 139

5.6.1 Technical 139

5.6.2 Institutional 140

5.6.3 Organisational 140

5.6.4 Socio-economic 141

m MODEL WATERSHED PROGRAMME EXPERIENCES 142

6.1 Experiences Gained 142

6.2 Lessons Learnt 143

6.2.1 Constraints 143

6.2.2 Feed back 143

6.2.3 Research gaps 144

6.3 Growth Parameters of Watershed 144

VH ORGANISATIONAL SET-UP 147

7.1 State Level Committee 148

7.2 District Level Project Implementat-on Committee 149

7.3 Watershed Resource Management Committee 149

7.4 Scientific Consortium 149

VIII REFERENCES 150

XI
 A ppendix Page No.

APPENDIX-A LIST OF OPERATIONAL RESEARCH 153

PROJECTS ON WATERSHEDS

APPENDIX-B GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION 156

AND IMPLEMENTATION OF WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT PROJECTS

APPENDIX-C GUIDELINES OF NATIONAL WATERSHED 162

DEVELOPMENT PROJECT FOR RAINFED AREAS

APPENDIX-D STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING PRODUC- 181

TIVITY IN DIFFERENT AGRO-CLiMATIC
REGIONS OF INDIA

APPENDIX-E TOOLS/IMPLEMENTS DEVELOPED AT 186

DIFFERENT CENTRES

APPENDIX-F PACKAGE OF PRACTICES FOR SOME FODDER 188

CROPS IN CENTRAL DECCAN REGIONS

APPENDIX-G PROFORMA FOR ESTABLISHING A 195

WATERSHED RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
SOCIETY

APPENDIX-H TYPICAL BYE-LAWS OF WATERSHED 198

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT SOCIETY

APPENDIX-I USE OF RATIONAL FORMULA FOR PEAK 207

RUNOFF ESTIMATION

APPENDIX-J SURVEYS FOR WATERSHED PLANNING 215

ABBREVAITIONS AND SYMBOLS USED 221

XII
 L IS T O F T A B L E S

Table P age No.

2.1 Values of discharge in cumec per metre width of grass 28

waterway

2 .2 Proportion of estimated runoff to rainfall (Strange’s table) 36

2.3 Minimum standards of water harvesting bundhis 47

2.4 Width of cut outlet for nala bunding work 51

(upto 7S0 mm rainfall zone)

2.5 Width of cut outlet (750 to 1000 mm rainfall zone) 51

2.6 Peak discharge (cumec) from catchments of 10 to 100 ha 66

for different intensity (I, mm/hr) and runoff coefficient
values (using rational formula)

2.7 Discharge per metre width of broad crested weir 66

(using formula, Q = 1.75

2.8 Spillway pipe sizes for drop inlet structures 74

3.1 Crop productivity in different rainfall zones of India 88

3.2 Choice of crop varieties for normal and late sown conditions 90
for different regions

3.3 Agro-ecological conditions in different rainfall zones of India 91

3.4 Major efficient food crop-based double cropping systems 92

for different rain-dependent regions of India
(based on water availability periods)

3.5 Broad soil groups and their moisture sto»'age capacities 94

in rainfed areas of India

3.6 Suggested cropping strategy for conserved soil moisture 94

storage patterns in Aridisols - Hissar

3.7 Crop choice in relation to stored moisture in Vertisols • Bellary 95

XI It
 T able Page No.

3.8 Potential cropping systems in relation to rainfall and soil type 95

3.9 Choice of crops and cropping systems in relation to soil 96

depth and available moisture - Indore

3.10 Alternate efficient crops in various dryland regions 97

3.11 Unconventional crops for different dryland regions 97

3.12 Stable intercropping systems for arid tropics of India 98

3.13 Efficient intercropping systems for semi-arid tropics o f India 99

3.14 Efficient intercropping systems for sum-humid regions o f India 100

3.15 Efficient food crop-based intercropping systems grown 101

during rainy season for different rain-dependent regions
o f India (based on water availability periods)

3.16 Double cropping systems suggested for different regions 102

in the country

3.17 Alternate crop planning to meet weather aberrations 103

3.18 Stable crops and cropping systems suitable for different soil types 104

3.19 Effect o f land treatment on increase of crop yields - 106

Research Farm data

3.20 Effect o f land treatment under on-farm situations 107

(data from Operational Research Projects)

3.21 Fertilizer recommendations for principal rainfed rainy 107

season crops for different rain dependent regions of India
(based on average annua! rainfall, moisture storage and
native fertility status)

3.22 Fertiliser recommendations for principal rainfed 108

post-rainy season crops

3.23 Performance of dryland crops under on-farm situations 109

 Table Page No.

4.1 Suitability for cropping, special precautions and alternate 114

land use options for different land capability classes

4.2 Tree species found suitable at different dryland research centres 118

4.3 Choice of grass and legume species for different situations 119

5.1 Monthly rainfall at Jogipet during 1978-82 along with average 123
rainfall during the last 1 0 0 years

5.2 Soil depth description of Chevella watershed 124

5.3 Cropping patterns in Chevella watershed 126

5.4a Soil conservation works carried out in Chevella watershed 131

5.4b Soil Conservation works carried oui from the inception upto 132
March, 1990

5.5 Crops and cropping systems in Chevella watershed 134

5.6 Fertilizer use in Chevella watershed 137

5.7 Comparison of crop yield inside and outside watershed 138

5.8 Total production in Chevella watershed 138

JCV
 L IS T O F F IG U R E S

Figure Description Page No.

2.1 Graded bund sections for different soils 8

2.2 Graded bund (0.54 sqm) - Manneguda watershed (A.P.) 10

2.3 Contour bund sections for different soils 13

2.4 Contour bund (0.65 sqm) - Chevella watershed (A.P) 14

2.5 A typical cross section of a submergence bimdhi 16

2.6 Details of submergence hundhi - Rendhar watershed (U P ) 17

2.7 Cross section o f bench terrace 19

2 .8 Cross section o f zingg terrace 22

2.9 Typical cross sections of earthen dams with different types 38

of materials and on different types of foundations

2.10 Cross section of earthen dam - Naratora (M.P) 42

2.11 Structural details of waste weir of minor irrigation tank - 43

Naratora (M.P)

2.12 Sluice gate of minor irrigation tank - Naratora (M.P.) 45

2.13 Forces acting on the stop dam 55

2.14 Waste weir on bund 63

2.15 Design chart for determination of strike length (Xa) 67

o f upper nappe

2.16 Straight drop spillway 68

2.17 A typical drop inlet spillway 75

2.18 Chute structure - Addeviswanathapuram, Bangalore 80

2.19 A typical emergency spillway 82

2.20 Rockfill check dam - Chevella - Pothulaboguda ORP watershed (A.P.) 84

 F ig u re D escription P age No.

4.1 Possible alternate land uses 113

5.1 Map o f watershed area 122

5.2 Soil series in the watershed 125

I .l ( a ) l hour rainfall -10years frequency 209

1.1(b)! hour rainfall -25years frequency 210

1.1(c) 1 hour rainfall -50years frequency 211

1.2 Relationship of 1 hour rainfall intensities for other durations 212

xvn
 CHAPTER I

WHY WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Historicaliy arid and semi-arid rainfed regions have received attention, that is by and
large non-commensurable to their extent by the development planners and researchers.
It is only during the recent years, the past impasse of neglect has paved way for
serious commitment to the problems of these areas. Arid and semi-arid regions have
concentration of eroded and degraded natural resources. Loss of vegetative cover followed
by soil degradation through various forms of erosion have resulted into lands which
are thirsty in terms of water as well as hungry in terms of soil nutrients. All these
regions have predominantly livestock-centered farming systems; less biomass for animals
not only reduces animal productivity, the inevitable uncontrolled grazing pressure on
already eroded lands further exacerbates the problem and deteriorates the ecological
balance. Growing population pressure, higher demand for food and fodder coupled with
impact of rapidly changing socio-economic conditions have added fuel tothe fire.The
piecemeal approaches such as contour bunding or terracing on individual holdings or
a group of farms only marginally benefit as they are done ignoring to what happens
to other areas which are influencing the hydrological characteristics. Such sporadic
actions generally fail to attract farmers as they do not yield benefits proportional to
the efforts and investments made. Thusf^or maximising the advantages, all developmental
activities should be undertaken in a comprehensive way on watershed basis. The main
principles of watershed management are :

i) Utilizing the land according to its capability

ii) Putting adequate vegetal cover on the soil during the rainy season

iii) Conserving as much rain water as possible at the place where it falls

iv) Draining out excess water with a safe - eiocity and diverting it to storage ponds
and store it for future use

v) Avoiding gully formation and putting checks at suitable intervals to control soil
erosion and recharge ground water

vi) Maximising productivity per unit area, per unit time and per unit of water
vii) Increasing cropping intensity and land equivalent ratio through intercropping and
sequence cropping

viii) Safe utilization o f marginal land^ through alternate land use systems

ix) Ensuring sustainability o f the eco-systems benefiting the m an-animal-plant-land-water

complex in the watershed

x) M axim ising the combined income from the inter-related and dynamic crop-live­
stock-tree-labour complex over years

xi) Stabilizing total income and cut-down risks during aberrant weather situations

xii) Improving infrastructural facilities with regard to storage, transportation and marketing

Based on these concepts, watershed programmes will have the following two types of
components :

1. H ardware (Core) components

2 . Software components

Core components are generally cost-intensive in nature; by and large they are subsidized
by the Government^ They may include the following :

i) Foundation treatments for land and water resources mainly in agricultural lands
such as diversion bunds, contour and graded bunds, check dams and grass
waterways.

ii) Water storage structures including 'nalla h ' bunds, gully plugs, ponds, percolation
tanks, open wells and water harvesting bundhis, field channels, underground pipes
etc., for efficient utilisation of limited available water.

iii) Alternate land uses, afforestation and plantation of fodder and fuel trees, pasture
development supported by water conservation measures like water spreading contour
trenches.

^Software components include improved crop and cropping systems which also encompass
contingency cropping to meet weather aberrations These integrate the use o f short
duration improved crop varieties, fertilisers, plant protection measures, improved implements
et* ^Jn situ conservation practices, carried out in the inter-bunded areas like contour
farming and dead furrow formation etc. are integral part of software components.
Government may not take responsibility of fully financing the software components.

O f late,/ihere have been some significant innovations in the watershed management

technology, and model watershed programme has earned very good nam e^Subsequent
chapters have been drafted for the description of some of the advances in detail. In
addition, based on the experiences in the model watersheds, other promising minor
interventions and options for the management of rainfed and dryland areas are also
discussed in detail with the major focus on maximising dividends from rainfed agriculture.