Tabag, Kenneth John Anthony D.

Apitong (Dipterocarpaceae)

Figure 1: Apitong leaves

Apitong is the vernacular (or trade) name given to around 75 commercial and similar
timber species from the genus Dipterocarpus and family Dipterocarpaceae (CIRAD 2003, Wyatt-
Smith 1999) indigenous to the Asian tropics. The species occurs from Sri Lanka, India to the
Philippines. The 75 species of Dipterocarpus growing in South East Asia are all broadly quite
similar in wood anatomical features and are marketed collectively as mixtures available under a
single name. The name Keruing is the best known and is used in Malaysia and Indonesia. Other
local names are “apitong” (Philippines), “yang” (Thailand), “kerunwing” (Indonesia) and “dan”
(Vietnam) (Kukachka 1969, Menon 1964).
The mixture in any consignment will have some variability but it is not normally important.
The timber from Thailand and the Philippines is considered to be less variable in its properties
than that from Malaysia (Kukachka 1969). The timbers vary in colour from pinkish-brown to dark
brown. Grain is straight or shallowly interlocked and the texture is moderately coarse and even.
All of the species contain oleo-resins and many of them will exude it onto surfaces during drying
or when exposed to heat or sunshine when in use. Apitong is a moderately heavy timber, some
species being as strong as teakwood. The species have variations of density and weight but is
generally within the range 720 to 800 kg/m3 when dried. All the species tend to be used in place
of the more expensive oak for plywood manufacture, heavy construction, decking, vehicle building
and sleepers in North America and elsewhere.
Family Dipterocarpaceae trees are fast growing, with a straight and uniform trunk of large
circumference. The trees are medium sized or large to very large trees (Ankarfjard & Kegl 1998).
Apitong is an evergreen tree commonly reaching heights of 100-200 ft, with clear cylindrical boles
70 ft long; trunk diameters 3 to 6 ft, commonly with a small buttressed base. The bark reaches 3-
4 cm thick. Outer bark is grey or pale brown while inner bark is yellow brown changing to brown
or dark brown with lapse of time. The Dipterocarpaceae is one of the most important resin-yielding
tree families. The wood contains resinous canals vertically disposed in concentric circles which
exude a liquid oleoresin or resin upon injury. The oleoresin has an essential oil fraction composed
almost entirely of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (Ankarfjard and Kegl 1998).
 Apitong species offer a wide range of colour variability. The sapwood is grey-brown,
distinct and clearly demarcated from the red-brown or purple-red-brown heartwood, may have
yellow or greyish tinges and darkens with age and on exposure with age (Kukachka 1969; Desch
1977; Menon 1993; CIRAD 2007). The heartwood varies between species and is usually red
brown to dark brown, sometimes with a purple tint. Variations include deep-pink, orange-pink,
purple-red. The coloring is not an issue as it is used for exterior constructions and will weather to
silver-grey.
The grain is generally straight or only shallowly interlocked resulting in some stripe figure
on the radial surface. Texture varies between species and area of origin from fine to coarse but
even (Kukachka 1969; CIRAD 2007). Vessels are predominantly solitary, large, visible to the
naked eye, uniform diffuse distribution, heavily tylosed in some species, but not in others.
Parenchyma is both apotracheal and paratracheal. Apotracheal exist as scattered or confluent
patches containing vertical resin canals while paratracheal very sparse as borders to vessels,
often distinct. Two distinct sizes of rays are observed. Medium size rays are visible to the naked
eye, quite prominent on radial surfaces. Intercellular canals are common and prominent, variable
in size, arrangement diffuse or in short tangential lines with 2-7 canals in a series. Resin canals
(axial) occur in all species and when abundant may exude resin over the surface of sawn lumber,
particularly if the lumber is exposed to the sun, heat, humid or warmer temperatures (Kukachka
1969). In the burning splinter test, the wood burns to an ash (DPIF 2007). The wood has a low
luster, strong resinous odor when freshly cut and resin exudation may be troublesome. Silica
content is variable, generally less than 0.5%.
Apitong species shows considerable variation in its properties. Expectedly being a
heterogeneous Apitong group of hardwoods, wood strength properties among the group would
differ, including their various manufactured structural products. It is therefore necessary to ensure
that Apitong structural products of sorts have the minimum required strength and natural durability
quality for the North American market for specified end-uses. In Malaysia this timber is regarded
as a medium hardwood (instead of light hardwood or heavy hardwood), which implies the timber
is generally strong, with air dry density varying from about 690 – 945 kg/m3 , rarely reaching about
1000 kg/m3 , while lighter groups as low as 595 kg/m3 exist (Wong 1982). Overall in the Asian
region, wood density of this dipterocarp species varies from 640 - 960 kg/m3 and averaging 790
kg/m3 (46 pcf) at 12 % moisture content; with approximately 1.3 m3 of seasoned sawn timber per
tonne. Dipterocarpus tuberculatus, indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and Thailand, weighs
880 kg/m3 (55 pcf). The timber exhibits high crushing strength and medium resistance to shock-
loads, high bending strength and, high stiffness. It is moderately hard 4.6 (rated 3 on a 6 class
scale) in relation to indentation and ease of working with hand tools. Table 1 shows a summary
of mechanical properties based on mature heartwood specimens at 12% moisture content. These
properties can vary depending on the origin and growth conditions.
In thicknesses greater than 2 inches (50.8 mm), the wood is very slow to dry and it is
sometimes difficult to achieve uniform drying from the center outwards in thick stock or quartered
stock. There is often considerable degrade due to checking and warp. Resin exudation is often
troublesome, especially if high temperatures are used, and existing surface checks will open up.
Slight collapse may occur (Kukachka 1969). Distortion, especially cupping, is considerable and
slight collapse may occur. Pre-steaming before drying can reduce degrade. Moisture content is
very variable especially for the most resinous species. Careful stacking and end coating are
recommended. Shrinkage to 12% MC, varies between species but averages approximately 7.0%
(tangential) and 2.5-5.5 % (radial). To illustrate the extent of inter-species shrinkage variability
among Apitong species. The coefficient of volumetric shrinkage is 0.54%. Total tangential
shrinkage is 0.0% and total radial shrinkage 5.4%. The fiber saturation point is 34% (CIRAD
2003). There is high shrinkage in drying and large movement in service.
Gluing results are variable but it must be done with care due to the presence of resin. The
timbers stain well, but varnishing or polishing requires care due to the stain. Nguyen et al. (1977)
investigated the effects of extraction and various chemicals applied on veneer surface on the
wettability and gluing properties of D. grandiflorus Blanco (Apitong) when using urea
formaldehyde resin. Wettability was determined by measuring contact angles with distilled water.
Extraction with methanol-benzene greatly improved the wettability and gluability of the veneer.
Likewise, surface treatment with methanol-benzene significantly increased the wettability of the
veneer as well as the dry and wet shear strengths of the resulting bond. Treatment with sodium
hydroxide increased both wettability and dry shear, but decreased the wet shear strength of the
bond. Acetone did not have a significant effect on both wettability and dry shear, but decreased
wet shear strength. Ether had adverse effects on the wettability and gluability of the veneer. A
positive linear correlation was found between wettability and gluability of apitong veneer.
The moderately high density of Apitong results in great properties in joints. In a study of
the durability properties of a finger-joint, (Vrazel & Sellers 2004) showed that given adequate
adhesive performance, strength and stiffness of the joints was dependent on density of the wood
species. Species studied were Apitong, southern pine (Pinus spp.) and Douglas-fir with Apitong
having the greatest density and greatest properties in the joint. Joints were subjected to a tension
test, a bending test, and a bending test following a cyclic delamination procedure. The response
variables measured for each of the bending tests included modulus of rupture, modulus of
elasticity, and percent wood failure. The response variables measured for the tension tests were
tensile strength and percent wood failure.
Given that Apitong vary widely in its properties, it is reasonably assumed too that wood
durability variations occurred in the heartwood of various Apitong species between non-durable
and moderately durable counterparts depending of the type of biodeteriogent (decay fungi versus
termites). The natural durability of Apitong wood in soil contact is average 4.3 years and is variable
from one species to another (CIRAD 2003). In Malaysia Apitong woods are rated moderately
resistant or nonresistant to a combined termite and fungal decay pressures in tropical soil-contact
(Wong 1982, Mohd Dahlan & Tam 1987, Ling et al. 2003, Wong & Ling 2009) where without
preservative treatment test wood species would expectedly fail within 6 months to 7 years in
ground contact or under Hazard Class 4 or 5 (Wong & Ling 2009).
Some of the lower density species are regarded as nondurable but most are at least
moderately durable. The sapwood is non-resistant to attack by powder post beetles while both
sapwood and heartwood are susceptible to termites. Damage is generally confined to the
sapwood in the case of ambrosia and lyctus, but the heartwood is susceptible to termite attack. It
is partially durable under cover; aboveground covered subterranean termite test has
demonstrated poor heartwood resistance after 1 year’s exposure (Wong unpublished 2009), but
termites can readily destroy the wood in exposed condition. Apitong is either decay resistant or
at least moderately durable to decay fungi from laboratory basidiomycete and soft rot decay tests
(Scheffer & Morrell 1998). It is reported (Wong, Lai and Sammy, 2012) that Apitong heartwood
was still quite resistant to fungal decay (sustaining between sound and 30% cross-sectional
decay) after 4.5 years of aboveground outdoor exposure in Sarawak as simulated timber decks.
However, a study of heartwood decay in 25 year old wooden handrails made of Apitong wood in
London, UK, revealed that white rot was the dominant type of decay but soft rot degradation
pattern was also notable (Kleist et al. 2002). It is thus recommended to restrict the use without
preservative treatment for end-uses under biological hazard class 2 (CIRAD 2003). Durability
above-ground is in class 3 (life expectancy: 7 - 15 years). Durability in-ground is in class 4 (life
expectancy: 7 - 15 years). Durability in-ground is in class 4 (life expectancy: <5 years).
Apitong is moderately resistant and at least poorly permeable to impregnation with
preservatives such pentachlorophenol in oil (Yudodibroto and Walters 1977) or chromated copper
arsenate (CCA) solutions (Ling 1990, Pendlebury and Petty 1992), resulting in an uneven
distribution of preservative (Wong et al. 1996). Sapwood and heartwood are both rated as
moderately resistant to preservative treatments using either open tank or pressure systems (Anon
1979; Anon 2003; Ling 1990; Rezanejad et al. 2004). While the wood is overall rated as
moderately resistant to penetration by preservative solutions, the vessels, resin canals, rays and
axial parenchyma are very readily impregnated with chromated copper arsenate preservatives
(Wong et al. 1996). CCA preservative mass/volume retentions in heartwood of an unauthenticated
Apitong species can be 50% less than that in Scots pine sapwood (Wong et al. 1999, 2000). Yet
there is also evidence of the heartwood other species of Apitong being relatively easy to treat with
CCA preservative (Martawijaya and Barly 1982; Ling 1990) though it is assumed there are only
relatively fewer species that can be easily treated given the effects of inherent resin in Apitong
that causes the timber to be refractory to preservative treatments. Pre-treatment steaming of
Apitong heartwood poles has been attempted to offset the negative effects of resin on CCA
treatment results (Ling W.C., 2009). Besides steaming, hot water extraction may also prove useful
in improving treatability of the wood (Choong & Achmadi 1989).
Reference
1. Choong, E.T. and Achmadi, S.S. 1989. [Effect of steaming and hot-water extraction on
the longitudinal permeability of several Indonesian woods]. Journal Penelitian Hutan
5(2), 33-36. (Text in Indonesian with English summary).
2. CIRAD. 2003. Forestry Department. KERUING. http://tropix.cirad.fr/asia/keruing.pdf
3. Desch, H.E. 1977. Timber – its structure and properties. 5th edition, Macmillan Press,
Ltd., Great Britain, 424pp.
4. Kukachka, F. 1969. Properties of Imported tropical woods. Forest Products Laboratory,
USDA. Presented at the conference on tropical hardwoods, Syracuse University, August
18-21, 1969.
5. Ling, W.C. 1990. A guide to preservation of timber for building construction. Forest
Department Sarawak, TRTTC Technical Report No. TR/15, 31p.
6. Martawijaya, A. and Barly. 1982. Resistance of Indonesian timbers to impregnation with
CCA preservative. Forest Products Research Institute, Bogor, Indonesia,
Communication No. 5, 18p.
7. Menon, P.B.K. 1964. Malayan timbers – equivalent woods. Malayan Forester 27, 218-
256.
8. Mohd. Dahlan, J. and Tam, M.K. 1987. Natural durability of Malaysian timbers. Ministry
of Primary Industries, Malaysia, Timber Trade Leaflet No.28.
9. Nguyen T., Pollisco F. S. and Casilla, R.C. 1977. Effects of extraction on wettability and
gluability of apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus). The Journal of Adhesion 9(1), 63-71.
10. Pendlebury, A.J. and Petty, J.A. 1992. Technique for monitoring absorption during a
vacuum pressure process. International Research Group on Wood Preservation.
Document No: IRG/WP/3696-92.
11. Rezanejad, A., Parsapajouh, D. and Firozjaii, H. A. 2004. A study on durability of teak,
balau, chengal and keruing woods against marine borers in Mahshar (Persian gulf) and
Bandahr Torkman and Noshahr (Caspian sea) coasts. Pajouhesh-va-Sazandegi. Natural
Resources 61, 64-69.
12. Scheffer, T.C. and Morrell, J.J. 1998. Natural durability of wood: A worldwide checklist of
species. Forestry Publications Office Oregon State University, 58pp.
13. Vrazel, M., and Sellers, T Jr. 2004. The effects of species, adhesive type, and cure
temperature on the strength and durability of a structural fingerjoint. For. Prod. Jour.
54(3), 66-75.
14. Wong, T.M. (1982). A Dictionary of Malaysian timbers. Forest Department, Peninsular
Malaysia, Malayan Forest Records No. 30, 259pp.
15. Wong, A.H.H. 2009. Unpublished data on H2-hazard class aboveground sheltered
termite test of Keruing heartwood stakes against subterranean termites.
16. Wong, A.H.H., Lai, J.K. and Sammy, J. 2012. Unpublished data on the decay resistance
of untreated keruing heartwood decks exposed to H3- hazard class aboveground in Kota
Samarahan Sarawak.
17. Wong, A.H.H. and Ling, W.C. 2009. Natural durability variations of Malaysian timbers
from Sarawak after 26 years exposure by stake test. International Research Group on
Wood Protection, Document No:IRG/WP 09-10704. 26p
18. Yudodibroto, H. and Walters, C.S. 1977. A treatability classification of some tropical
wood species. Proceedings of American Wood Preservers Association (AWPA)
meeting, pp.157-171.
 Lagnob Tree (Moraceae)

Figure 2: Leaves of Lagnob tree

Ficus (Moraceae) comprises one of the largest genera of angiosperms with more than 800
species of trees, shrubs, hemiepiphytes, climbers, and creepers in the tropics and subtropics
worldwide (Frodin, 2004). It is typically found in the thickets at low and medium altitude throughout
the Philippines, few species can be seen in the Table 1. This genus is an important genetic
resource due to its high economic and nutritional values and also an important part of the
biodiversity in the rainforest ecosystem. It is also a good source of food for fruit-eating animals in
tropical areas (Ronsted et at., 2007). The genus is divided into six subgenera based on
preliminary morphology. The monoecious subgenus Urostigma is the largest with about 280
species all inclusive, and most of them display distinctive hemiepiphytic habits. Ficus includes 23
species of hemiepiphytes and lithophytes which produce aerial and creeping root systems
(Ronsted et al., 2008).
F. carica L. is an important member of the genus Ficus. It is ordinarily deciduous and
commonly referred to as “fig”. The common fig is a tree native to southwest Asia and the eastern
Mediterranean, and it is one of the first plants that were cultivated by humans. The fig is an
important harvest worldwide for its dry and fresh consumption. Its common edible part is the fruit
which is fleshy, hollow, and receptacle (Duenas, 2008). The dried fruits of F. carica have been
reported as an important source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, sugars, organic acids, and
phenolic compounds (Jeong and Lachance, 2001). The fresh and dried figs also contain high
amounts of fiber and polyphenols (Vinson, 2005). Figs are an excellent source of phenolic
compounds, such as proanthocyanidins, whereas red wine and tea, which are two good sources
of phenolic compounds. Its fruit, root, and leaves are used in traditional medicine to treat various
ailments such as gastrointestinal (colic, indigestion, loss of appetite, and diarrhea), respiratory
(sore throats, coughs, and bronchial problems), and cardiovascular disorders and as anti-
inflammatory and antispasmodic remedy (Duke et al., 2002).
F. carica L. belongs to the order of Urticales and family of Moraceae with over 1400
species classified into about 40 genera (Baraket et al., 2009). A number of them are functionally
female and produce only a seed-bearing fruit, whereas others are functionally male and produce
only pollen and pollen-carrying wasp progeny (Kjellberg et al., 1987). The species of F. carica are
shrubs or small trees and deciduous. Its roots are not adventitious, and the barks are grayish and
slightly roughened. The leaves are stipulated and petiolated with obovate, nearly orbiculate or
ovate leaf blade, palmately lobed, cordate base, undulate or irregularly dentate margin, acute to
obtuse apex, and scabrous-pubescent surfaces (Mawa et al., 2013).

Table 1: Most common Ficus species (http://www.stuartxchange.org/Hauili.html)

F. carica has been cultivated for a long time in various places worldwide for its edible fruit.
It is supposed to originate from Western Asia and spread to the Mediterranean by humans (Tous,
1996). It is also an imperative world crop today. Turkey, Egypt, Morocco, Spain, Greece,
California, Italy, Brazil, and other places with typically mild winters and hot dry summers are the
major producers of edible figs (Tous 1996). Fruits can be eaten raw, dried, canned, or in other
preserved forms (Neal, 1965).
F. septica contained medicinal principles and it showed various pharmacological activities
such as analgesic, antifungal, diuretic and laxative but no toxicity studies have been considered
yet (Jangad and Licardo, 2015). Ficus septica is a shrub or a tree, often with pendulous branches;
it can grow from 3 - 25 meters tall and its diameter can be up to 30 centimeters. Basically, the
plant cannot produce a larger trunk than 30 centimeters that is why its primary purpose is for
woodland restoration. There’s no reported data for its mechanical properties.
Reference
1. Mawa, S., Husain, K., & Jantan, I. (2013). Ficus caricaL. (Moraceae): Phytochemistry,
Traditional Uses and Biological Activities. Evidence-Based Complementary and
Alternative Medicine, 2013, 1–8. doi:10.1155/2013/974256
2. D. G. Frodin, “History and concepts of big plant genera,” Taxon, vol. 53, no. 3, pp. 753–
776, 2004
3. N. Rønsted, G. Salvo, and V. Savolainen, “Biogeographical and phylogenetic origins of
African fig species (Ficus section Galoglychia),” Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 190–201, 2007.
4. N. Rønsted, G. D. Weiblen, V. Savolainen, and J. M. Cook, “Phylogeny, biogeography,
and ecology of Ficus section Malvanthera (Moraceae),” Molecular Phylogenetics and
Evolution, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 12–22, 2008.
5. M. Duenas, J. J. P ˜ erez-Alonso, C. Santos-Buelga, and T. ´ Escribano-Bailon,
“Anthocyanin composition in fig ( ´ Ficus carica L.),” Journal of Food Composition and
Analysis, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 107–115, 2008.
6. W. S. Jeong and P. A. Lachance, “Phytosterols and fatty acids in fig (Ficus carica var.
mission) fruit and tree components,” Food Chemistry and Toxicology, vol. 66, pp. 278–
281, 2001.
7. A. Slatnar, U. Klancar, F. Stampar, and R. Veberic, “Effect of drying of figs (Ficus carica
L.) on the contents of sugars, organic acids, and phenolic compounds,” Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 59, no. 21, pp. 11696–11702, 2011.
8. R. Veberic, J. Jakopic, and F. Stampar, “Internal fruit quality of figs (Ficus carica L.) in
the Northern Mediterranean Region,” Italian Journal of Food Science, vol. 20, no. 2, pp.
255–262, 2008.
9. J. A. Vinson, L. Zubik, P. Bose, N. Samman, and J. Proch, “Dried fruits: excellent in vitro
and in vivo antioxidants,” Journal of the American College of Nutrition, vol. 24, no. 1, pp.
44–50, 2005
10. J. A. Duke, M. J. Bugenschutz-godwin, J. Du collier, and P. K. Duke, Hand Book of
Medicinal Herbs, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla, USA, 2nd edition, 2002.
11. G. Baraket, O. Saddoud, K. Chatti et al., “Sequence analysis ofthe internal transcribed
spacers (ITSs) region of the nuclearribosomal DNA, (nrDNA) in fig cultivars (Ficus carica
L.),” Scientia Horticulturae, vol. 120, pp. 34–40, 2009.
12. F. Kjellberg, P.-H. Gouyon, M. Ibrahim, M. Raymond, and G. Valdeyron, “The stability of
the symbiosis between dioecious figs and their pollinators: a study of Ficus carica L. and
Blastophaga psenes L.,” International Journal of Organic Evolution, vol. 41, no. 4, pp.
693–704, 1987
13. J. Tous and L. Ferguson, “Mediterranean fruits,” in Progress in New Crops, J. Janick,
Ed., pp. 416–430, ASHS Press, Arlington, Va, USA, 1996.
14. M. C. Neal, In Gardens of Hawaii, vol. 40, University of Hawaii and Bishop Museum,
Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, 1965.
15. Aubrey Marie A. Jangad and Aira Danieca March B. Licardo. 2015. Acute and chronic
toxicity studies of Lagnob (Ficus septica Burm. F. 1768) fruit extract on albino rats
(Rattus norvegicus). Health Research and Development Information Network. University
of San Carlos-Josef Baumgartner Learning Resource Center, Science and Technology
Section