Transistor Amplifier Circuits

Basic Electricity & Electronics
Transistor Amplifier Circuits
1-800-Lab-Volt
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91565-P0
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Student Manual
FACET®
Basic Electricity and Electronics
Transistor Amplifier Circuits
Student Manual
Edition 1
91565-P0
FIRST EDITION
Published March 2014
© 2014 Lab-Volt Systems, Inc.

Printed in Canada
All rights reserved.
ISBN 978-1-60533-575-9
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Transistor Amplifier Circuits Table of Contents
Introduction............................................................................................................................................1
Connecting the Circuit Board to the Base Unit.................................................................................1
Circuit Modification Switches............................................................................................................1
Fault Switches...................................................................................................................................2
Troubleshooting................................................................................................................................2
Troubleshooting Basics.....................................................................................................................2
Systematic Troubleshooting..............................................................................................................4
Circuit Performance Check...............................................................................................................4
Real-Number Questions and Recall Values......................................................................................4
Measurements and Measurement Tolerances..................................................................................5
Miscellaneous Information................................................................................................................5
Unit 1: Introduction to Transistor Amplifiers......................................................................................7
Exercise 1: Circuit Location and Identification..................................................................................9
Exercise 2: Multistage Amplifier Introduction..................................................................................19
UNIT TEST......................................................................................................................................25
Unit 2: Common Base Circuit.............................................................................................................27
Exercise 1: Common Base Circuit DC Operation...........................................................................29
Exercise 2: Common Base Circuit AC Operation............................................................................48
UNIT TEST .....................................................................................................................................61
TROUBLESHOOTING....................................................................................................................63
Unit 3: Common Emitter Circuit.........................................................................................................65
Exercise 1: Common Emitter Circuit DC Operation........................................................................67
Exercise 2: Common Emitter Circuit AC Operation........................................................................88
UNIT TEST................................................................................................................................... 105
TROUBLESHOOTING................................................................................................................. 107
Unit 4: Common Collector Circuit................................................................................................... 109
Exercise 1: Common Collector Circuit DC Operation...................................................................112
Exercise 2: Common Collector Circuit AC Operation................................................................... 124
UNIT TEST................................................................................................................................... 141
TROUBLESHOOTING I............................................................................................................... 143
TROUBLESHOOTING II.............................................................................................................. 145
Unit 5: Bias Stabilization.................................................................................................................. 147
Exercise 1: Temperature Effect on Fixed Bias............................................................................. 150
Exercise 2: Temperature Effect on Voltage Divider...................................................................... 162
UNIT TEST .................................................................................................................................. 173
Unit 6: Transistor Specification Sheet............................................................................................ 175
Exercise 1: Transistor Parameters Familiarization....................................................................... 177
Exercise 2: Using the Transistor Specification Sheet.................................................................. 185
UNIT TEST .................................................................................................................................. 192
Unit 7: RC Coupling.......................................................................................................................... 195
Exercise 1: DC Operation............................................................................................................ 197
Exercise 2: AC Voltage Gain and Phase...................................................................................... 206
Exercise 3: Frequency Response................................................................................................ 224
UNIT TEST .................................................................................................................................. 234
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Table of Contents Transistor Amplifier Circuits

TROUBLESHOOTING III............................................................................................................. 240
Unit 8: Transformer Coupling.......................................................................................................... 243
Exercise 1: DC Operation............................................................................................................ 245
Exercise 2: AC Operation............................................................................................................. 257
Exercise 3: Frequency Response................................................................................................ 273
UNIT TEST .................................................................................................................................. 280
Unit 9: Direct Coupling..................................................................................................................... 291
Exercise 1: Direct-Coupled Amplifier DC Operation.................................................................... 293
Exercise 2: Direct-Coupled Amplifier AC Operation..................................................................... 306
Exercise 3: Direct-Coupled Amp Frequency Response............................................................... 320
UNIT TEST .................................................................................................................................. 331
Appendix A – Safety......................................................................................................................... 339
Appendix B – Answer Key............................................................................................................... 341
Appendix C – Measurement Techniques........................................................................................ 363
AC Point Voltage.......................................................................................................................... 363
AC Voltage Drop (ADD-INVERT Method).................................................................................... 363
AC Current................................................................................................................................... 364
Measuring Frequency.................................................................................................................. 365
Setting Frequency........................................................................................................................ 365
Measuring Phase Angle............................................................................................................... 366
Measuring DC Voltage and Current with a Multimeter................................................................. 366
DC Voltage Drop.......................................................................................................................... 367
DC Current................................................................................................................................... 367
Appendix D – Measurement Tolerances......................................................................................... 369
Appendix E – The Generator Buffer................................................................................................ 373
Appendix F – Electrical Units and Symbols.................................................................................. 375
Appendix G – Scientific Notation and Electronic Calculations.................................................... 377
Appendix H – Schematic Symbols................................................................................................. 381
Appendix I – Reference Charts....................................................................................................... 385
Appendix J – New Terms and Words.............................................................................................. 387
Introduction to Transistor Amplifiers............................................................................................. 387
Common Base Circuit.................................................................................................................. 387
Common Emitter Circuit............................................................................................................... 387
Common Collector Circuit............................................................................................................ 387
Bias Stabilization.......................................................................................................................... 387
Transistor Specification Sheet..................................................................................................... 387
RC Coupling................................................................................................................................. 387
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Transistor Amplifier Circuits Table of Contents
Transformer Coupling.................................................................................................................. 387

Direct Coupling............................................................................................................................ 387
Appendix K – Using the Base Unit.................................................................................................. 389
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Table of Contents Transistor Amplifier Circuits
Student Manual
viii FACET by Lab-Volt
Introduction
Introduction
This Student Manual includes fundamental concepts, discussions, procedures, exercises, tests, review
questions, and hands-on activities using the Fault Assisted Circuits for Electronics Training (FACET)
system. It will provide you with solid knowledge and understanding of analog and digital electronics
circuitry, along with the ability to apply, design, troubleshoot, and test circuits.
You must be familiar with the information in this introduction in order to complete your assignments
successfully. Study these instructions before beginning your lab work. If you have problems performing an
exercise, review the following rules before calling your instructor.
Connecting the Circuit Board to the Base Unit

Set up the power sources before you insert a circuit board in the base unit. ALWAYS check the source
voltages because someone else may have changed these values. NEVER insert or remove a circuit
board when power is applied to the base unit.
1. Turn on the positive and negative power sources. Use your multimeter to measure the voltages in the
following steps even if your power sources have built-in voltmeters. Your multimeter is more accurate
than other meters.
2. Measure the positive voltage source at its output terminals and adjust to +15.0 Vdc if necessary.
Measure the negative power source, and adjust its output to -15.0 Vdc if necessary. The tolerances of
acceptable answers are based on the accuracy of these voltages to within ±3%.
3. Turn off the power sources.
4. Open the connector in the base unit by turning the knob on the right side of the base unit away from
you. Do not use force; the knob should turn with reasonable pressure.
5. Insert the circuit board by sliding it along the grooves in the base unit. Be sure the connector fits all
the way into the slot at the back of the base unit.
6. Lock the base unit connector by turning the knob toward you about a quarter-turn.
7. Refer to Appendix E to determine if you need the GENERATOR BUFFER. If it is required, plug it into
the area provided on the circuit board.
8. Turn on the power sources.
Circuit Modification Switches

The base unit of the training system is equipped with 20 circuit modification switches (called CM switches
in the manual). These switches change component values or introduce short or open circuits into the
circuit blocks on the circuit board. The following rules apply when you use a CM switch.
A. CM switch is off when the switch handle is toward you and on when it is away from you.
B. You should never have more than one CM switch on at any one time.
C. The exercise procedures or review questions will tell you when to turn on a CM switch. ALWAYS turn
off the switch unless you are explicitly told to leave it on.
D. When a review question requires that you turn on a CM switch, be sure that the circuit board is
connected and power voltages are set as described previously. Make sure that all other CM switches
are off.
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FACET by Lab-Volt 1
Introduction
Fault Switches
The base unit of the FACET system has 12 fault switches under a locked cover. During the
troubleshooting unit, your instructor will use these switches to introduce problems into the circuit blocks,
and you will troubleshoot these faults. If you measure unreasonable values in an exercise, even after
double checking your circuit, CM switches, and power voltages, ask your instructor to verify that all fault
switches are off.
Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting is a logical and systematic way of isolating both a malfunction and its cause. When the
malfunction is defined and its cause is discovered, the fault can be repaired to restore the equipment to
normal operation. For example, a signal light that is off when it should be on defines a malfunction.
On FACET courses, you will be troubleshooting circuits with instructor-inserted faults.
To ensure that the circuit is operating properly, you should check it against the performance specifications
before requesting that your instructor insert a fault in a circuit block.
When you troubleshoot a FACET circuit board, you can develop techniques that enable you to logically
analyze symptoms generated by a fault. By analyzing the symptoms, you can isolate the fault to a
circuit or a group of components. Once the faulty component has been isolated and repaired, system
performance checks should be done once more to ensure system operation.
You can use the Troubleshooting Basics flowchart as a reference troubleshooting method/guide to help
you identify malfunctions and faults in a circuit.
Troubleshooting Basics
You should troubleshoot circuits in a logical and systematic way to eliminate possible causes of a
malfunction until the defective component is isolated.
Individual initiative and imagination combined with circuit knowledge and logical procedures are important
elements of successful troubleshooting.
Speedy isolation of a circuit fault begins with a solid foundation of basic troubleshooting skills. The seven
basic steps for troubleshooting a circuit fault are:
1. Analyze the Symptoms
2. Confirm Fault Exists
3. Visual Inspection
4. Make Performance Measurements
5. Identify Faulty Circuit Section
6. Repair Fault
7. Verify the Repair
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Introduction
A troubleshooting procedure can also be shown in a diagram called a troubleshooting flowchart, which
can help you develop a systematic approach to troubleshooting. A general purpose troubleshooting
flowchart is shown to the right.
The flowchart is made up of rectangular and diamond-
shaped boxes. A rectangular box indicates a specific
step to be performed and a diamond-shaped box
indicates a decision point in the flow. Notice the
diamond-shaped boxes have two exit points, labeled
either YES or NO. Your answer determines the next
step to be taken.
Depending on measurement results, the
troubleshooting steps or flowchart guide you to the
next logical measurement that should bring you closer
to the fault.
Troubleshooting begins after a symptom of a problem
is noticed. In commercial electronic equipment, the
symptoms of a circuit problem are usually noticed by
your senses: radio static -- hearing, TV snow -- sight,
the odor of a burnt component -- smell. By analyzing
the symptoms, you can sometimes identify the specific
circuit section or component causing the problem.
Confirm that the circuit actually contains a fault by
making observations and measurements. In most
circuits, a circuit performance check, which consists
of measuring one or two key voltage, current, or
resistance parameters, often at the input and output,
will determine if there is a fault. Circuit performance
specifications give the nominal values with percent
tolerances for the circuit parameters.
After confirming that a fault exists, visually inspect
the circuit. If a visual inspection indicates no apparent
faults, troubleshoot the circuit by using systematic and
logical methods.
Performance measurements consist of measuring
input/output signals and circuit component
parameters. The performance check values are
compared to the nominal values listed in the
performance specification table. A performance
specification table is given for each circuit that you will
troubleshoot during the procedure.
After reviewing the measured values against the
performance specification, determine the circuit
section containing the fault, and make a good
assumption about the possible fault.
Confirm or disprove the component fault assumption
by measuring continuity and resistance, calculating
current, or by measuring other component
parameters. If the circuit measurements disprove
your fault assumption, make additional performance
measurements and another fault assumption.
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Introduction
When your fault assumption is confirmed, repair the fault. In the troubleshooting procedures, repair of a
fault is simulated by the computer turning off the fault switch.
Repeat the circuit performance check to verify the repair.
Systematic Troubleshooting
Systematic troubleshooting includes the following eight steps:
1. Analyze the symptoms of the problem.
2. Make performance checks to confirm that a fault exists.
3. Visually inspect the circuit.
4. Make additional performance measurements to determine the section of the circuit containing the
fault.
5. Make a fault assumption based on the performance measurements.
6. Confirm the fault assumption by circuit continuity or component resistance measurements.
7. Repeat steps 4, 5, and 6 if the fault is not located.
8. Repair the fault and do a performance check to confirm proper operation.
Circuit Performance Check

In most circuits, proper operation is verified (or not verified) when you measure one or two key voltage,
current, resistance, or logic parameters listed in the circuit performance specification table. The key
measurements are often at the circuit input and output.
During the troubleshooting exercises, three occasions require a performance check:
1. After the circuit is set up, check that the circuit is operating properly before a fault is activated.
2. After a fault is activated, confirm that a fault is in the circuit (the first step in troubleshooting).
3. After the fault is located and repaired, check that the circuit is operating properly.
Real-Number Questions and Recall Values

Throughout FACET courses, students may encounter Recall Values.
Some questions require real-number answers that are graded correct if they fall within an acceptable
tolerance range.
Some of these real-number values may be further used within the Procedure and can be recalled in later
questions. They are called Recall Value x, where x (starting at 1) corresponds to its order of appearance
within a Procedure. In the second instance the Recall Value x appears, the value of x will be 2, and so on.
A Recall Value can be a measured value or a calculated value.
A Recall Value can be compared with other recalled values (from previous steps) or used in calculations.
Example of inputting a measured value

3. Measure the total current of your circuit.
IT = ____________mA (Recall Value 1)
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Introduction
8. After modifying the circuit, measure its total circuit current.

IT = ____________mA (Recall Value 5)
Example using recalled measured values

9. Based on an unmodified circuit current of mA (Step 3, Recall Value 1) and a modified
circuit current of mA (Step 8, (Recall Value 5) , the equivalent resistance of the circuit
a. increased.
b. did not change.
c. decreased.
Example using calculations with recalled values

11. Given the currents below and the equation IT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3, what is the value of IR1?
IT = mA (Step 8, Recall Value 5)
IR2 = mA (Step 5, Recall Value 3)
IR3 = mA (Step 6, Recall Value 4)
a. about [0 + (Step 8, Recall Value 5) – (Step 5, Recall Value 3) +
(Step 6, Recall Value 4)] mA
b. about 1.5 mA
c. cannot be determined
Measurements and Measurement Tolerances

Appendix C offers a review of measurement methods, and Appendix D provides information about
measurement tolerances. You should read these appendices if you have questions about measurement
procedures in this manual. Your results are acceptable if they are within the tolerances.
NOTE: Unless stated otherwise in a procedural step, all measurements in this volume are
acceptable if they are within ±30% of nominal values.
Miscellaneous Information
Circuit boards that require low level signals from the signal generator usually have an ATTENUATOR
circuit block. The ATTENUATOR divides the signal generator output by 11 to ease adjustment of the
generator amplitude. If you use the ATTENUATOR, be sure to measure the signal amplitude at the output
of the ATTENUATOR, not at the output of the generator or the GENERATOR BUFFER.
In general, your FACET setup will be used for one or more review questions, so you should not
disconnect it immediately after the procedure. When you have completed your work for the day, remove
all circuit board connections, and turn off the power sources before opening the base unit connector and
removing the circuit board from the base unit. Stow the circuit board and all connectors as directed by
your instructor.
Graphics found in a gray rectangle (see sample on the
right) are included for certain steps/questions to provide
additional help.
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FACET by Lab-Volt 5
Introduction
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6 FACET by Lab-Volt
Transistor Amplifier Circuits Introduction to Transistor Amplifiers
Unit 1: Introduction to Transistor Amplifiers

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to identify, connect, and operate circuit blocks and their
major components on the TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS circuit board.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
This unit describes the circuit blocks on the TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS circuit board and
presents some background on transistor amplifiers.
Transistor amplifiers are grouped into one of three basic circuit configurations depending on which
transistor element is common to input and output signal circuits.
1. Common base
2. Common emitter
3. Common collector
Each circuit configuration has its own characteristics and, therefore, its own applications.
Multistage transistor amplifiers include more than one transistor. The output of the first stage is connected
(coupled) to the input of the second stage. The output of the second stage is coupled to the input of the
third stage, and so forth.
The three methods of coupling amplifier stages on the TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS circuit board
are RC coupling, transformer coupling, and direct coupling.
How many basic transistor amplifier circuit configurations are there?

HINT: The circuit configuration depends on which transistor element is common to both input and output
signal circuits.
a. 2
b. 3
c. 4
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FACET by Lab-Volt 7
Introduction to Transistor Amplifiers Transistor Amplifier Circuits
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

multistage – an amplifier circuit that uses more than one active component (transistor).
active component – a circuit component that controls gain or directs current flow.
gain – the amount by which an amplifier increases signal voltage, current, or power; expressed as a ratio
of the output to input value.
distortion – undesired change to a signal waveform.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS circuit board
Multimeter
Oscilloscope, dual trace
Generator, sine wave
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
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8 FACET by Lab-Volt
Exercise 1: Circuit Location and Identification
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to locate and identify the functional circuit blocks
on the TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS circuit board. You will observe the operation of two basic
amplifier circuits by using an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
Amplifiers are circuits that increase the voltage, current, or power of a signal.
An amplifier requires an active component and a source of power to operate.
The active components on the circuit board are the transistors; the power is supplied by the external
power source.
Amplifiers are circuits that can increase

a. voltage.
b. current.
c. power.
d. All of the above.
The TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS circuit board has five amplifier circuit blocks that can be
configured for seven different circuits.
Two types of amplifier circuits can be configured on the COMMON BASE/EMITTER and on the RC
COUPLING/TRANSFORMER COUPLING circuit blocks.
Two-post connectors are used to configure the circuits.
The first amplifier circuit block is the COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block.
The NPN transistor (Q1) within this circuit may be connected in either the common base or the common
emitter configuration.
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FACET by Lab-Volt 9
You will observe the operation of both configurations in this exercise and determine that both circuit
arrangements produce signal gain.
How many transistors are used on the COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
The second circuit block is the COMMON COLLECTOR circuit block.
Potentiometer R4 is the load resistor.
If potentiometer R4 on the COMMON COLLECTOR circuit block were adjusted fully clockwise (CW), the
resistance across R4 would be
a. minimum.
b. maximum.
c. about half the total value.
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The BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block includes a resistor, labeled HEATER, that is physically close to
the case of a transistor.
A separate dc power supply is used to pass a current through this resistor (HEATER).
A positive variable dc power supply is used in the BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block.
This circuit block does not use a sine wave generator.
The heater circuit in the BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block uses

a. a fixed dc supply separate from the transistor supply.
b. a variable dc supply separate from the transistor supply.
c. the same fixed dc supply as that used by the transistor.
d. the same variable dc supply as that used by the transistor.
The RC COUPLING/TRANSFORMER COUPLING circuit block includes components that are used in a
two-stage amplifier.
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FACET by Lab-Volt 11
The two NPN transistors (Q1 and Q2) can be connected by either RC (resistor-capacitor) or transformer
coupling between the stages.
How many transistors are used on the RC COUPLING/TRANSFORMER COUPLING circuit block?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
The DIRECT COUPLING circuit block has components that demonstrate the operation of a two-stage
amplifier with a direct connection between stages.
Student Manual
Potentiometer R1 is used in the voltage divider circuit.
The second stage contains a PNP transistor (Q2).
All other transistors on the circuit board are NPNs.
The DIRECT COUPLING circuit block uses

a. 2 PNP transistors.
b. 2 NPN transistors.
c. 1 NPN and 1 PNP transistor.
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PROCEDURE
২ 1. Examine the TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS circuit board. A circuit block that can be
configured as two different circuits is the
a. COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block.
b. COMMON COLLECTOR circuit block.
c. BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block.
d. DIRECT COUPLING circuit block.
২ 2. Examine the TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS circuit board. The circuit blocks that
have a potentiometer are the COMMON
a. BASE/EMITTER, COMMON COLLECTOR, and DIRECT COUPLING circuit blocks.
b. COLLECTOR, BIAS STABILIZATION, and DIRECT COUPLING circuit blocks.
c. BASE/EMITTER, COMMON COLLECTOR, and BIAS STABILIZATION circuit blocks.
d. COLLECTOR, BIAS STABILIZATION, and RC COUPLING/TRANSFORMER COUPLING
circuit blocks.
২ 3. The circuit block that is powered by a positive variable dc power supply is the
a. COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block.
b. COMMON COLLECTOR circuit block.
c. BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block.
২ 4. Which circuit block has a PNP transistor?

a. COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block
b. COMMON COLLECTOR circuit block
c. BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block
d. DIRECT COUPLING circuit block
২ 5. Which circuit block does not have a connection for the sine wave generator?
a. COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block
b. COMMON COLLECTOR circuit block
c. BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block
d. DIRECT COUPLING circuit block
২ 6. Locate the COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown.
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২ 7. While observing the signal on oscilloscope channel 1, adjust the sine wave generator for a
1 kHz, 50 mVpk-pk input signal (Vi).
২ 8. Using the oscilloscope channel 2 probe, measure the ac output signal.
Vo = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 1)
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২ 9. Is the output signal (Vo) larger than the input signal (Vi)? (This indicates gain.)
a. yes
b. no
Vi = 50 mVpk-pk
Vo = Vpk-pk (Step 8, Recall Value 1)
২ 10. Connect the common emitter amplifier circuit shown.
২ 11. While observing the signal on oscilloscope channel 1, adjust the sine wave generator for a 1
kHz, 100 mVpk-pk ac input signal (Vi) at the base of Q1.
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২ 12. Using the oscilloscope channel 2 probe, measure the ac output signal (Vo).
Vo = mVpk-pk (Recall Value 2)
২ 13. Is the output signal (Vo) larger than the input signal (Vi)? (This indicates gain.)
a. yes
b. no
Vo = mVpk-pk (Step 12, Recall Value 2)

Vi = 100 mVpk-pk
২ 14. What is the phase relationship between the input and output signals?
a. in phase
b. out of phase
CONCLUSION
• There are five transistor amplifier circuit blocks on the TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS circuit
board.
• Two of these circuit blocks can each be configured for two different amplifier circuits.
• The input signal level should be measured at the location shown in the circuit connection diagram.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Transistor amplifiers may be configured in a common

a. base circuit.
b. emitter circuit.
c. collector circuit.
2. Transistors in a multistage amplifier may be connected by

a. RC coupling.
b. transformer coupling.
c. direct coupling.
3. When small ac input signals are required,

a. use channel 1 on the oscilloscope.
b. use the ATTENUATOR.
c. adjust the potentiometer carefully.
d. use the variable dc power supply.
4. The circuit block(s) used to configure two types of transistor amplifiers is(are) the
a. COMMON COLLECTOR circuit block.
b. BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block.
c. COMMON BASE/EMITTER and RC COUPLING/TRANSFORMER COUPLING circuit blocks.
5. The potentiometers on some of the circuit blocks

a. change the value of the resistor.
b. adjust the dc voltage supply.
c. configure the amplifier circuit.
d. adjust the ac input signal.
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Exercise 2: Multistage Amplifier Introduction
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will have observed the operation of a two-stage transistor
amplifier circuit. You will view your results on an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
Multistage transistor amplifiers, such as the one shown here, include more than one transistor.
A multistage transistor amplifier provides voltage, current, or power gains greater than can be provided by
a single stage transistor amplifier.
One of the advantages of a multistage amplifier over a single stage amplifier is that
a. less power is used.
b. fewer components are needed.
c. the gain is greater.
Multistage amplifiers are often identified by the method used to couple a signal between amplifier stages.
Resistor-capacitor (RC) coupling uses a resistor to develop the signal and a capacitor to pass the signal
from the output of one stage to the input of the next.
Transformer coupling uses a transformer to couple signals from the primary to the secondary coil.
Student Manual
The use of a capacitor or a transformer as a coupling device allows the dc bias levels in each stage to be
isolated from adjacent stages, simplifying the design of individual amplifier sections.
To isolate dc bias levels in each stage of a multistage amplifier, you may use a
a. resistor-capacitor network.
b. transformer.
c. Either of the above.
Every amplifier is designed to operate within a certain range of frequencies and input/output signal
amplitudes.
If an input signal is too large or outside of the frequency range of an amplifier, output signal distortion may
occur.
Output signal distortion may occur if

a. an input signal is too large for the amplifier.
b. an input signal is outside of the frequency range of an amplifier.
c. Both of the above.
PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the RC COUPLING/TRANSFORMER COUPLING circuit block.
২ 2. Connect the RC coupled amplifier circuit shown.
২ 3. While observing the input signal on oscilloscope channel 1, adjust the sine wave generator
for a 1 kHz, 80 mVpk-pk ac signal (Vi1) at the base of transistor Q1.
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২ 4. Connect the channel 2 oscilloscope probe to the first-stage output signal (Vo1) at the
collector of Q1, which is also the second-stage input signal (Vi2).
Measure Vo1.
Vo1 = mVpk-pk (Recall Value 1)
২ 5. Does the first-stage amplifier (Q1) provide voltage gain (Av)?

a. yes
b. no
Vo1 = mVpk-pk (Step 4, Recall Value 1)

Av = Vo/Vi
২ 6. Connect the channel 2 probe to the second-stage (Q2) output signal (Vo2).
Measure the second-stage output signal.
Vo2 = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 2)
২ 7. Does the second-stage amplifier (Q2) provide voltage gain (Av)?

a. yes
b. no
Vo2 = Vpk-pk (Step 6, Recall Value 2)

Av = Vo/Vi
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২ 8. Again, connect the channel 2 oscilloscope probe to Vo1.

Increase the Q1 input signal (Vi1) to 200 mVpk-pk (monitor on oscilloscope channel 1).
Measure Vo1.
২ 9. Is there any distortion in the first-stage output signal (Vo1)?

a. yes
b. no
২ 10. Connect the channel 2 probe to Vo2. Is there any distortion in the second-stage output signal
(Vo2)?
a. yes
b. no
২ 11. Which amplifier stage caused this distortion, Q1 or Q2?

a. Q1
b. Q2
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CONCLUSION
• A multistage amplifier can provide greater gain than a single-stage amplifier.
• Each transistor in a multistage amplifier provides part of the overall circuit gain.
• Signal distortion can occur when the amplitude of the input signal becomes too large for the capability
of the amplifier.
• Signal distortion can also occur when the frequency of the input signal becomes too large for the
amplifier.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The transistors in the two-stage amplifier are each configured

a. as a common base circuit.
b. as a common collector circuit.
c. as a common emitter circuit.
d. differently.
2. The coupling method used between stages in the two-stage amplifier is

a. RC coupling.
c. direct coupling.
d. impedance coupling.
3. The output signal from each stage of an RC-coupled amplifier is developed across a(n)
a. inductor.
b. resistor.
c. transformer primary.
d. capacitor.
4. The first stage (Q1) and the second stage (Q2) of the two-stage amplifier are
a. both NPN transistors.
b. both PNP transistors.
c. NPN and PNP transistors, respectively.
d. PNP and NPN transistors, respectively.
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5. A waveform is distorted in an amplifier when the

a. peaks of the output signal are flattened.
b. valleys of the output signal are flattened.
c. output signal is not the same waveform as the input signal.
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UNIT TEST
1. The TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS circuit board contains
a. 7 circuit blocks.
b. 8 circuit blocks.
c. 5 circuit blocks.
d. 4 circuit blocks.
2. The circuit block that does not require the use of a signal generator is the
b. BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block.
c. DIRECT COUPLING circuit block.
d. COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block.
3. The ATTENUATOR block on the circuit board allows you to more easily
a. and accurately set low level signal generator amplitudes.
b. view low level amplifier output signals on the oscilloscope.
c. and accurately set high signal generator output amplitudes.
d. view high level amplifier output levels on the oscilloscope.
4. The circuit block that uses a positive variable dc power supply is the
b. RC COUPLING/TRANSFORMER COUPLING circuit block.
c. COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block.
d. BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block.
5. On the TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS circuit board, the fixed dc power supply voltage is
a. 15.0 Vdc.
b. 10.0 Vdc.
c. 5.0 Vdc.
d. 20.0 Vdc.
6. In a common emitter circuit, the terminal that is common to the input and output signals is the
a. base.
b. collector.
c. emitter.
d. None of the above.
7. The term gain describes the increase in

a. voltage produced by an amplifier circuit.
b. current produced by an amplifier circuit.
c. power produced by an amplifier circuit.
d. Any of the above.
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8. The coupling capacitor in an RC-coupled amplifier

a. should have a high reactance at signal frequencies.
b. passes ac signals but blocks dc signals.
c. allows the bias levels from one stage to influence adjacent stages.
d. connects a transistor element to signal common.
9. The circuit that uses an NPN transistor is the

a. direct coupling circuit.
b. RC coupling/transformer coupling circuit.
c. bias stabilization circuit.
10. When a high amplitude signal is applied to the input of an amplifier that is designed to operate with
low amplitude signals, the
a. amplifier does not produce any output.
b. signal is amplified correctly.
c. output signal is distorted.
d. amplifier gain is greater than normal.
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Transistor Amplifier Circuits Common Base Circuit
Unit 2: Common Base Circuit

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to demonstrate the operation of the common base transistor
amplifier circuit by using calculated and measured circuit conditions.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
The base terminal is common to the input and output signals in the common base (CB) transistor circuit.
The ac output signal of a common base (CB) circuit is in phase with the input signal.
For a PNP or NPN transistor to function normally in any type of amplifier circuit, the base-emitter junction
is forward biased, and the base-collector junction is reversed biased.
For a PNP or NPN transistor to function normally, the base-emitter junction has to be
a. forward biased.
b. reverse biased.
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Common Base Circuit Transistor Amplifier Circuits
The emitter current (IE) increases very rapidly after the transistor is forward biased [base-emitter voltage
(VBE) of about 0.6 Vdc].
Proper biasing of a CB transistor circuit can be provided by a connection between the base terminal and a
voltage divider circuit across a single dc power supply.
Can a single power source be used to operate a common base (CB) circuit?
a. yes
b. no
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

active region – the region on the transistor load line between the saturation point and the cutoff point.
Q-point (quiescent point) – the dc steady state operating point set by the dc bias conditions.
cutoff point – the point on the load line where the collector current is essentially zero.
saturation point – the point on the load line where the collector current is maximum.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Multimeter
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
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Exercise 1: Common Base Circuit DC Operation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine the dc operating conditions of
a common base (CB) transistor circuit by using a typical CB circuit. You will verify your results with a
multimeter.
DISCUSSION
This is the dc operation schematic of the common base (CB) amplifier circuit on the TRANSISTOR
AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS circuit board.
This is also the common base (CB) amplifier schematic, rearranged to show the common base
configuration more clearly.
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The base terminal is common to the input and output signals and is connected to ground for ac signals by
capacitor C2.
A voltage divider circuit, R1 and R2, across the dc power supply provides a fixed dc base voltage
necessary to forward bias the base-emitter junction.
This circuit is the common

a. base circuit.
b. emitter circuit.
c. collector circuit.
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You can calculate base voltage (VB) from the voltage divider equation:
R2
VB = VA ×
R1 + R2
where VA is the dc supply voltage and R1 and R2 are the base voltage divider resistors.
The base-emitter difference voltage (VBE) in a silicon NPN transistor is normally about 0.6 Vdc.
Consequently, the emitter voltage (VE) is 0.6 Vdc less than the base voltage.
VE = VB – 0.6
To determine the emitter voltage (VE),

a. add 0.6 Vdc to the base voltage.
b. subtract 0.6 Vdc from the collector voltage.
c. subtract 0.6 Vdc from the base voltage.
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To calculate emitter current (IE), use the value of the emitter resistor (R5) and Ohm’s law.
VE
IE =
R5
The collector current (IC) equals the difference between the emitter current (IE) and the base current (IB).
IC = IE – IB
The collector current (IC) nearly equals the emitter current (IE) due to the base current (IB) being much
smaller than the emitter current.
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Collector current (IC) can be calculated from Ohm’s law, where R4 is the collector resistor.
Collector current essentially equals emitter current (IE).
VA − VC
IC = = IE
R4
Collector current essentially equals the

a. base current.
b. base current plus the emitter current.
c. emitter current.
A dc load line is drawn on the collector current characteristic curves of the common base circuit.
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The dc Q-point (quiescent point) of the transistor is on the dc load line at the intersection of the operating
collector current (IC) on the Y-axis and the base-collector voltage (VBC) on the X-axis.
The cutoff point, on the X-axis, is where the collector and emitter currents are essentially zero (the base-
emitter junction comes out of forward bias). The collector voltage is nearly equal to VA.
The collector-base voltage [VCB(cutoff)] equals the difference between the dc supply voltage and the base
voltage (VA – VB).
The saturation point, on the Y-axis, is where the base-collector junction comes out of reverse bias.
Collector current (IC) is maximum.
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The active region of the transistor lies between the cutoff and saturation points.
The point on the dc load line at which the base-collector voltage (VBC) is zero is the
a. cutoff point.
b. Q-point.
c. saturation point.
PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block, and connect the circuit for a common
base circuit as shown.
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২ 2. Measure the value of the supply voltage (VA).
VA = Vdc (Recall Value 1)
২ 3. Calculate the base voltage (VB) of Q1. Use the values of R1 and R2 and the voltage divider
formula.
R2
VB = VA × = Vdc (Recall Value 2)
R1 + R2
২ 4. Measure the base voltage (VB) of Q1.
VB = Vdc (Recall Value 3)
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২ 5. Measure the base-emitter voltage (VBE).
VBE = Vdc (Recall Value 4)
২ 6. Based on the values you have just measured, is the base-emitter junction forward biased?
a. yes
b. no
VB = Vdc (Step 4, Recall Value 3)
VBE = Vdc (Step 5, Recall Value 4)
২ 7. Measure the base-collector voltage (VBC).
VBC = Vdc (Recall Value 5)
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২ 8. Based on the value you have just measured, is the base-collector junction reverse biased?
a. yes
b. no
VBC = Vdc (Step 7, Recall Value 5)
২ 9. Is NPN transistor Q1 biased to operate in the active region?

a. yes
b. no
২ 10. Measure the emitter voltage (VE).
VE = Vdc (Recall Value 6)
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২ 11. Calculate the dc emitter current (IE) by using Ohm’s law.
VE = Vdc (Step 10, Recall Value 6)

R5 = 1.0 kW
VE
IE = = mA (Recall Value 7)
R5
২ 12. Measure the collector voltage (VC).
VC = Vdc (Recall Value 8)
২ 13. The difference between the dc supply voltage (VA) and the collector voltage (VC) is the
voltage drop across R4.
VA = Vdc (Step 2, Recall Value 1)
VC = Vdc (Step 12, Recall Value 8)

Calculate the voltage drop across R4.
VR4 = VA – VC = Vdc (Recall Value 9)
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২ 14. Calculate the dc collector current (IC) by using Ohm’s law.
VR4 = Vdc (Step 13, Recall Value 9)

VR4
IC = = mA (Recall Value 10)
R4
২ 15. Are the emitter and collector currents essentially the same?
a. yes
b. no
IE = mA (Step 11, Recall Value 7)
IC = mA (Step 14, Recall Value 10)
২ 16. Place CM switch 9 in the ON position to change the Q1 bias as shown (base resistor R2 was
changed from 10 kΩ to 3.3 kΩ).
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Measure the collector voltage (VC), and enter the value below.
২ 17. Measure the base voltage (VB), and enter the value below.
VB = mVdc (Recall Value 12)
২ 18. Measure the emitter voltage (VE), and enter the value below.
VE = mVdc (Recall Value 13)
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২ 19. With Q1 biased as shown, does transistor Q1 still operate in the active region?
a. yes
b. no
VB = mVdc (Step 17, Recall Value 12)
VE = mVdc (Step 18, Recall Value 13)
২ 20. Based on your measured results, the transistor is operating at the

a. saturation point.
b. Q-point.
c. cutoff point.
২ 21. The transistor operating at the cutoff point can be determined by which relationship between
VB and VE?
a. VBE is less than 0.6 Vdc.
b. VB has changed in value.
c. VE has changed in value.
২ 22. Make sure all CMs are cleared (turned off) before proceeding to the next section.
CONCLUSION
• A voltage divider circuit provides a constant dc base voltage to properly bias the transistor.
• When the transistor is operating in the active region, the base-emitter junction is forward biased and
the base-collector junction is reverse biased.
• The emitter and collector currents are essentially equal.
• The dc load line describes the relationship of the collector current to the base-collector voltage
difference.
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• The Q-point on the dc load line is the intersection of the operating collector current (IC) and the base-
collector voltage (VBC).
• The intersection of the dc load line and the Y-axis is the saturation point; the intersection of the dc
load line and the X-axis is the cutoff point (zero current).
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Locate the COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block and connect the CB amplifier circuit shown.
Place the CM switch 7 in the ON position to change the value of R1 from 120 kΩ to 10 kΩ.
Measure the collector voltage (VC).
VC = Vdc
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Measure the base voltage (VB).
VB = Vdc
Measure the emitter voltage (VE).
VE = Vdc
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The transistor is operating

a. at the saturation point.
b. in the active region.
c. at the cutoff point.
d. at an optimum Q-point.
2. Place the CM switch 8 in the ON position to change the value of R4 from 15 kΩ to 2.7 kΩ.
Measure the collector voltage (VC).

VC = Vdc
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Measure the base voltage (VB).
VB = Vdc
Measure the emitter voltage (VE).
VE = Vdc
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d. at an optimum collector voltage (VC).
3. The voltage at the base of an NPN transistor operating in the active region is 0.6 V
a. more positive than the collector voltage.
b. less positive than the emitter voltage.
c. more positive than the emitter voltage.
4. The collector-base voltage [VCB(cutoff)] equals the difference between the dc supply voltage and the
base voltage (VA – VB). At the cutoff point, the base-collector voltage (VBC) is about equal to
a. VA – VB.
b. 0.0 Vdc.
c. VBE.
d. 0.6 Vdc.
5. In a CB transistor circuit, the maximum collector current occurs at

a. the Q-point.
b. the saturation point.
c. the cutoff point.
d. a point midway between the saturation and cutoff points.
NOTE: Make sure all CMs are cleared (turned off) before proceeding to the next section.
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Exercise 2: Common Base Circuit AC Operation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine ac operating characteristics of a
common base (CB) amplifier by using a typical CB circuit. You will verify your results with a multimeter
and an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
This is the ac operation schematic of the common base (CB) amplifier circuit.
A sine wave generator provides the ac input signal (Vi).
For ac signals, the base is shorted to ground by capacitor C2.
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The ac output signal (Vo) is taken between capacitor C3 at the collector of Q1 and ground.
The base of Q1 is shorted to ground for ac signals by

a. R1.
b. C2.
c. C3.
Shown on the right is the input impedance equivalent of the CB circuit on the left.
The input impedance of the CB circuit is very low (10 Ω to 100 Ω) due to the parallel base-emitter junction
resistance (re' is about 50 Ω).
The output impedance is high because it equals the value of collector resistor R4 (15 kΩ). The dc power
supply grounds R4 for ac signals.
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Because of the low input impedance, CB circuits load down the input signal.
However, the high ratio of output to input impedances makes the CB circuit desirable for high gain
applications.
One of the characteristics of the common base (CB) circuit is

a. low input impedance and low output impedance.
b. low input impedance and high output impedance.
c. high input impedance and low output impedance.
The ac output voltage is in phase with and considerably larger than the input signal.
The reason is that the output impedance is about 100 times greater than the input impedance, and the
collector and emitter currents are in phase, essentially equal, and 180º out of phase with the input signal
voltage.
As the ac input signal (Vi) increases, the emitter current (Ie) decreases, and, in turn, the collector current
(Ic) decreases.
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The collector and emitter currents are

a. essentially equal.
b. in phase.
c. 180º out of phase with the input signal voltage.
The voltage gain (Av) of a CB transistor circuit is determined by the ratio of the ac output voltage (Vo) to
the input voltage (Vi).
The voltage gain also equals the ratio of load and input impedances.
The voltage gain (Av) of a CB transistor circuit equals the ratio of the
a. ac output voltage (Vo) to the input voltage (Vi).
b. load and input impedances.
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PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown.
২ 2. Measure the supply voltage (VA) with reference to ground.
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২ 4. Measure the base voltage (VB).
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২ 6. Based on your measured values, is NPN transistor Q1 properly biased for ac operation?
a. yes
b. no
২ 7. While observing the input signal (Vi) on channel 1 of the oscilloscope, adjust the sine wave
generator for 50 mVpk-pk at 1 kHz (Vi = VGEN).
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২ 8. Connect the channel 2 probe of the oscilloscope to the ac output of Q1 (Vo).
২ 9. Measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the ac output signal (Vo).
২ 10. Is there any distortion or clipping of the sine wave signal between the ac input and output
(channel 1 and channel 2, respectively)?
a. yes
b. no
২ 11. What is the phase relationship between the output and input signals?
a. in phase
b. 180° out of phase
২ 12. Calculate the voltage gain (Av = Vo/Vi).

Vi = 50 mVpk-pk
Av = (Recall Value 6)
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২ 13. Connect resistor R6 to C3 at the collector terminal. R6 = 15 kW
২ 14. The collector terminal output impedance is now the parallel resistance of R6 (15 kΩ) and the
original collector output impedance.
Measure the new peak-to-peak voltage of the output signal (Vo).
২ 15. Based on the decrease in the output voltage, what was the original output impedance?
NOTE: When the output voltage decreases by half, the original output impedance equals the resistance of
R6, which was paralleled with the output.
a. 7.5 kW
b. 15.0 kW
c. 30.0 kW
Vo (unloaded) = Vpk-pk (Step 9, Recall Value 5)
Vo (loaded) = Vpk-pk (Step 14, Recall Value 7)
২ 16. Monitor and, if necessary, readjust the ac signal at the output of the signal generator (VGEN)
for 50 mVpk-pk.
Remove the two-post connector between C1 and R3 to disconnect the generator signal from the
CB transistor input.
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Does VGEN increase, decrease, or remain the same?

a. increase
b. decrease
c. remain the same
২ 17. Is the change in VGEN when the signal generator is disconnected from the CB input due to
the circuit loading?
a. yes
b. no
২ 18. The input signal is loaded down when the generator is connected because of
a. low CB input impedance.
b. high CB input impedance.
CONCLUSION
• The base terminal is common to the input and output signals.
• When the transistor is properly biased, the maximum ac output signal is not distorted and is in phase
with the ac input signal.
• The voltage gain is high.
• The input impedance is low and loads down the input signal.
• The transistor output impedance is high and equal to the resistance of the collector resistor (R4).
• The CB transistor does not amplify an input signal when operated at the saturation or cutoff points.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Locate the COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block and connect the circuit shown.
Set the sine wave generator for an ac input signal (VGEN) of 50 mVpk-pk.
Place the CM switch 9 in the ON position to change the bias of Q1 as shown (base resistor R2 was
Observe the output signal at the Q1 collector.
The transistor
a. is operating in the saturation region.
b. is operating in the cutoff region.
c. base and emitter terminals are shorted.
d. base current is too high.
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2. Place the CM switch 8 in the ON position to change the value of collector resistor R4 from 15 kΩ to
2.7 kΩ.
The output signal reduces to about 90 mVpk-pk because the

a. input impedance increases.
b. load impedance increases.
c. base voltage changes.
d. load impedance decreases.
3. The input impedance of a CB transistor circuit is

a. very low.
b. equal to the parallel resistance of the emitter and collector resistors.
c. very high.
d. equal to the emitter resistor.
4. The ac output signal of a CB transistor circuit is

a. out of phase with the signal at the collector.
b. in phase with the signal at the emitter.
c. in phase with the signal at the base.
d. smaller than the signal at the emitter.
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5. The base-collector voltage (VBC) at the cutoff point is considered equal to

a. the base-emitter voltage.
b. the collector-emitter voltage.
c. 0 Vdc.
d. the dc supply voltage minus the base voltage (VA – VB).
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UNIT TEST
1. In a CB transistor circuit, the ac input signal is applied between the

a. emitter and collector.
b. collector and base.
c. emitter and base.
d. collector and ground.
2. In a CB transistor circuit, the ac output signal is taken between the

a. collector and base.
b. collector and emitter.
c. base and ground.
d. emitter and base.
3. In a CB transistor circuit, which terminal is common to the ac input and output signals?
a. the emitter terminal
b. the collector terminal
c. the base terminal
d. the ground terminal
4. The ac input signal to a CB transistor circuit can become loaded down because the
a. emitter resistor usually has a low value.
b. ratio of the output to input impedance is low.
c. base terminal is common in the circuit.
d. input impedance is very low.
5. The CB circuit exhibits

a. low input impedance and low voltage gains.
b. low input impedance and high voltage gains.
c. high input impedance and low voltage gains.
d. high input impedance and high voltage gains.
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6. Voltage gain (Av) in a CB circuit equals

a. Vo /Vi.
b. Vi /Vo.
c. IE /IC.
d. IC /IE.
7. When a CB transistor circuit operates in the active region, the

a. base-collector junction is forward biased.
b. base-collector voltage equals VA – VB.
c. base-emitter junction is reverse biased.
d. base-emitter junction is forward biased.
8. The point on the load line where the dc operating collector current (IC) of the transistor circuit and the
dc operating VBC intersect is the
b. Q-point.
c. cutoff point.
d. active point.
9. When the base-emitter voltage falls below 0.6 Vdc, the transistor approaches the
b. Q-point.
c. cutoff point.
d. point of maximum base current.
10. To increase the voltage gain in a CB transistor circuit, what resistor(s) should be increased?
a. collector resistor
b. emitter resistor
c. base resistor
d. voltage divider resistors
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TROUBLESHOOTING
২ 1. Locate the COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block, and connect the common base circuit
shown.
২ 2. While observing the signal on oscilloscope channel 1, adjust VGEN for a 1 kHz, 50 mVpk-pk
ac input signal (Vi = VGEN).
২ 3. Before a fault is introduced, verify that the common base amplifier circuit is working properly
by doing a performance check.
Measure the input voltage (Vi).
Vi = mVpk-pk (Recall Value 1)
২ 4. Measure the output voltage (Vo).
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২ 5. Have your instructor insert a fault into the CB amplifier circuit. Select an item to begin
troubleshooting your circuit. Enter your observed values in the table.
Item Nominal Value Observed Value
VA 15.00 Vdc, ±3%
VGEN 50 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vi 50 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vo 4.4 Vpk-pk, ±25%
Phase* In phase
Distortion* None
VC 7.30 Vdc, ±25%
VB 1.13 Vdc, ±25%
VE 0.52 Vdc
* in relation to the ac input signal (Vi)
২ 6. The faulty component is

a. C2 (shorted).
b. Q1 (open base-emitter junction).
c. R2 (open).
d. Q1 (open base-collector junction).
২ 7. Have your instructor clear all faults before proceeding to the next section.
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Transistor Amplifier Circuits Common Emitter Circuit
Unit 3: Common Emitter Circuit

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to demonstrate the operation of a common emitter transistor
amplifier circuit by using calculated and measured circuit conditions.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
The emitter terminal is common to the input and output signals of the common emitter (CE) transistor
circuit.
The ac output signal of a CE circuit is 180º out of phase with the ac input signal.
After a base-emitter voltage (VBE) of about 0.6 Vdc, the base current (IB) increases very rapidly.
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Common Emitter Circuit Transistor Amplifier Circuits
The transistor circuit ac and dc load lines intersect at the Q-point on the collector current characteristic
curves.
A voltage divider circuit uses a single dc power supply to provide a constant base terminal voltage
for the CE transistor. The CE circuit has high current, voltage, and power gains. The input and output
impedances are high.
The common emitter (CE) transistor amplifier circuit has

a. high current, voltage, and power gains.
b. high input and output impedance.
c. All of the above.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

beta – the symbol used for the ratio of the dc collector current to the dc base current.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Multimeter
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
Student Manual
Exercise 1: Common Emitter Circuit DC Operation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine the dc operating conditions of
a common emitter (CE) transistor circuit by using a typical CE circuit. You will verify your results with a
multimeter and calculations.
DISCUSSION
This is the dc operation schematic of the common emitter (CE) amplifier circuit.
The emitter terminal is common to the input and output signals and is connected to ground by the emitter
resistor (R5).
Base voltage (VB) can be calculated from the voltage divider equation.
VB = VA x R2/(R1 + R2)
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To determine the base voltage,

a. use the voltage divider formula.
b. subtract 0.6 Vdc from the emitter voltage.
c. add 0.6 Vdc to the collector voltage.
When the transistor is operating normally, the emitter voltage (VE) is about 0.6 Vdc less than the base
voltage.
VE = VB – 0.6
Use Ohm’s law to calculate the emitter current (IE).

VE
IE =
R5
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In the emitter current formula, VE is the same as the voltage across

a. R1 (VR1).
b. R2 (VR2).
c. R5 (VR5).
The collector current (IC) is the difference between the emitter (IE) and base (IB) currents.
IC = IE – IB
The collector current (IC) nearly equals the emitter current (IE) because the base current (IB) is much
smaller than IE.
The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to base current (IB) is the current gain. The symbols beta (βDC) or
hFE represent the dc current gain. βDC is usually between 10 and 500.
IC
βDC = hFE =
IB
The transistor circuit is usually designed to have a collector voltage (VC) about halfway between the
power supply voltage (VA) and the emitter voltage (VE).
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The collector current (IC), which can be calculated from Ohm’s law, essentially equals the emitter current
(IE).
VA − VC
IC = = IE
R4
This is the dc load line on the collector current characteristic curves of the CE circuit.
The load line intersects the Y-axis where IC equals VA/(R4 + R5), and it intersects the X-axis where VCE
equals VA.
The saturation point is where the base-collector junction comes out of reverse bias.
At the saturation point, the collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is considered to be zero on the plotted load line,
and the collector current is maximum [IC(sat) = VA/(R4 + R5)].
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In practice, VCE is typically between 0.1 Vdc and 2 Vdc at the saturation point, depending on the type of
transistor.
At the saturation point, the practical collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is

a. equal to VA.
b. typically between 0.1 Vdc and 2.0 Vdc.
c. typically equal to half of VA.
The cutoff point is where the collector current (IC) is essentially zero; the base-emitter junction comes out
of forward bias.
The area between the saturation and cutoff points is the active region of the transistor circuit.
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The dc bias conditions (currents and voltages) of the transistor determine the Q-point.
The Q-point is on the dc load line at the intersection of the base current (IB), collector current (IC), and
collector-emitter voltage (VCE) curves.
At what point on the dc load line do the IB, IC, and VCE curves intersect?
a. saturation point
b. cutoff point
c. Q-point (quiescent point)
Ideally, the Q-point of a properly designed transistor circuit should be close to the midpoint of the dc load
line.
PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block, and connect the common emitter (CE)
circuit shown.
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২ 3. Calculate the base voltage (VB) of Q1.

R2
VB = VA × = Vdc (Recall Value 2)
R1 + R2
২ 4. Measure the collector voltage (VC) with reference to ground.
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২ 5. Measure the base voltage (VB) with reference to ground.
২ 6. Do your calculated and measured values of base voltage (VB) agree?

a. yes
b. no
VB (calculated) = Vdc (Step 3, Recall Value 2)
VB (measured) = Vdc (Step 5, Recall Value 4)
২ 7. Measure the emitter voltage (VE) with reference to ground.
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২ 8. Do your measurements indicate that the base-emitter junction is forward biased?

a. yes
b. no
২ 9. Do your measurements indicate that the base-collector junction is reverse biased?

a. yes
b. no
২ 10. Would you conclude that NPN transistor Q1 is correctly biased?

a. yes
b. no
২ 11. Is the transistor operating in its active region?

a. yes
b. no
২ 12. Calculate the dc emitter current.

NOTE: Your answer should be in milliamperes.
IE = VE/R5 = mA (Recall Value 6)
২ 13. Calculate the dc collector current.

NOTE: Your answer should be in milliamperes.
IC = (VA – VC)/R4 = mA (Recall Value 7)
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২ 14. Are the emitter and collector dc currents essentially equal?

a. yes
b. no
IE = mA (Step 12, Recall Value 6)
২ 15. The operating point, or Q-point, is determined by the dc bias conditions of the transistor.
Using the voltages measured previously, what is VCE?
VCE = VC – VE
VCE = Vdc (Recall Value 8)
২ 16. The quiescent point (Q-point) is at the intersection of IC on the Y-axis and VCE on the X-axis.
VCE = Vdc (Step 15, Recall Value 8)
২ 17. What is the value of VCE(cutoff)?
VCE(cutoff) = Vdc (Recall Value 9)
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২ 18. What is IC(sat)?
IC(sat) = mA (Recall Value 10)
২ 19. Is the transistor properly biased?

a. yes
b. no
২ 20. Place CM switch 7 in the ON position to change the value of R1 from 120 kΩ to 10 kΩ.
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২ 22. Measure the base voltage (VB).
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২ 24. What is the new collector current (IC)?
IC = (VA – VC)/R4 = mA (Recall Value 14)
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২ 25. What is the new emitter current (IE)?
২ 26. IC increases primarily due to an increase in

a. VC.
b. VB.
c. VE.
NORMAL VALUE PRESENT VALUE

R1 = 120 kΩ R1 = 10 kΩ
VC = Vdc (Step 4, Recall Value 3) VC = Vdc (Step 21, Recall Value 11)
VB = Vdc (Step 5, Recall Value 4) VB = Vdc (Step 22, Recall Value 12)
VE = Vdc (Step 7, Recall Value 5) VE = Vdc (Step 23, Recall Value 13)
IC = mA (Step 13, Recall Value 7) IC = mA (Step 24, Recall Value 14)
IE = mA (Step 12, Recall Value 6) IE = mA (Step 25, Recall Value 15)
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২ 27. Did IC and IE increase?

a. yes
b. no
NORMAL VALUE PRESENT VALUE

R1 = 120 kΩ R1 = 10 kΩ
IC = mA (Step 13, Recall Value 7) IC = mA (Step 24, Recall Value 14)
IE = mA (Step 12, Recall Value 6) IE = mA (Step 25, Recall Value 15)
২ 28. Does changing R1 to 10 kΩ cause transistor Q1 to operate at the saturation point?

a. yes
b. no
২ 29. Make sure all CMs are cleared (turned off) before proceeding to the next section.
CONCLUSION
• A voltage divider circuit provides a constant dc base voltage that properly biases the transistor.
• The emitter current is the sum of the base and collector currents.
• Because the base current is very small, the emitter and collector currents are essentially equal.
• For proper transistor operation in the active region, the base-emitter junction is forward biased, and
the base-collector junction is reverse biased.
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• The dc load line describes the relationship between the collector current (IC) and the collector-emitter
voltage difference (VCE).
• The Q-point on the dc load line is at the intersection of the operating collector current (IC) and the
collector-emitter voltage (VCE).
• The intersection of the dc load line and the Y-axis is the saturation point; the intersection of the dc
load line and the X-axis is the cutoff point (zero currents).
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Locate the COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block and connect the circuit shown.
Place the CM switch 8 in the ON position to change the value of R4 from 15 kΩ to 2.7 kΩ.
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Measure VC.
Measure VB.
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Measure VE.
Based on your measured results (with R4 equal to 2.7 kΩ), the transistor is operating
2. Place the CM switch 9 in the ON postion to change the bias of Q1 as shown (base resistor R2 was
Measure VC.
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Measure VB.
VB = mVdc (Recall Value 5)
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Measure VE.
VE = mVdc (Recall Value 6)
Based on your measured results (with CM 9 on), the transistor is operating

3. The voltage at the base of an NPN transistor operating in the active region is
a. 0.6 Vdc more positive than the collector voltage.
b. over 10.0 Vdc less than the supply voltage.
c. 0.6 Vdc more positive than the emitter voltage.
d. 0.6 Vdc less positive than the emitter voltage.
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4. The Q-point of a properly biased transistor amplifier should be located

a. close to the saturation point.
b. close to the cutoff point.
c. about on the center of the load line.
d. about 3.0 Vdc from the cutoff point.
5. In the cutoff region, a transistor is

a. turned off, and only emitter current flows.
b. turned off, and only collector current flows.
c. operating with VCE equal to half the supply voltage.
d. turned off, and essentially no current flows.
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Exercise 2: Common Emitter Circuit AC Operation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine the ac operating characteristics of
a common emitter (CE) amplifier by using a typical CE transistor circuit. You will verify your results with a
multimeter and an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
This is the ac operation schematic of the CE amplifier circuit.
A sine wave generator connected between the transistor and ground produces the ac input signal.
The ac output signal (Vo) is taken between the collector terminal and ground.
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Because the dc power supply grounds the collector resistance (R4) when ac signals are applied, the ac
load is the parallel resistance of R4 and R6.
The ac load in this CE circuit is the

a. resistance of R6.
b. parallel resistance of R4 and R6.
c. value of capacitor C3.
This is the CE circuit as it appears to ac input and output signals.
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Load resistor RL is equivalent to the parallel resistance of R4 and R6.
The ac load of the CE circuit equals the

a. emitter resistor, R5.
b. base resistor, R2.
c. parallel resistance of R4 and R6.
The ac output peak-to-peak voltage is greater than (indicating voltage gain) and 180º out of phase with
the input signal.
As base voltage increases, base current increases, resulting in an increase in collector and emitter
currents.
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The waveform of the ac emitter voltage is in phase with the base input signal.
The ac output voltage in a CE circuit is

a. 180º out of phase with the base voltage.
b. in phase with the emitter voltage.
c. in phase with the base voltage.
d. 180º out of phase with the collector voltage.
The larger output voltage is due to the collector load resistance (RL) being 7.5 times the value of the
emitter resistor R5 (7.5 kΩ to 1 kΩ).
(The collector and emitter currents are essentially equal and in phase.)
RL = R4 IN PARALLEL WITH R6
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The voltage gain (Av) of CE transistor circuits is determined by the ratio of the ac output voltage (Vo) to
the ac input voltage (Vi).
Av = –Vo/Vi
NOTE: (–) indicates that the output is 180º out of phase with the input.
In a CE circuit where an emitter resistor is not bypassed by a capacitor, the voltage gain also equals the
ratio of the collector load (RL) to the emitter resistor (R5).
Av = –RL/R5
In this CE circuit, the voltage gain (Av) equals

a. –Vo/Vi.
b. –RL/R5.
c. (–R4||R6)/R5.
The ac and dc load lines are drawn on the collector current characteristic curves (showing IB) of the CE
circuit.
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The ac and dc load lines have the same Q-point.
The ac and dc load lines are drawn on the

a. collector current characteristic curves.
b. base current characteristic curves.
c. emitter current characteristic curves.
The following relationship for the ac collector saturation current (Ic(sat)) is obtained from the sum of the
Q-point conditions (IC and VCE) and the ac voltage drops in the collector and emitter circuits.
VCE
Ic(sat) = IC +
RL + R5
By connecting the Q-point with the Ic(sat) point and drawing a line to the X-axis, you obtain the ac cutoff
voltage (Vce(cutoff)).
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The line connecting these points is the ac load line.
When the ac input signal is large enough to make the peak output voltage exceed the maximum allowed
by the cutoff point, the peak of the output signal is clipped, or cut off.
This clipping occurs because the collector-emitter voltage difference (Vce) at the peak output voltage
exceeds the Vce(cutoff) point.
Also, the valley of the output signal may be clipped if the saturation point is reached (Vce(sat)).
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The optimum Q-point is at the center of the ac load line.
The maximum allowable output signal is obtained when the Q-point is at the center of the ac load line.
The optimum Q-point on the ac load line is

a. where the saturation and cutoff points are equal distances from the Q-point.
b. near the cutoff point.
c. near the saturation point.
PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the COMMONBASE/EMITTER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown. Set the
AF level on the generator to minimum.
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২ 3. Measure VC with reference to ground.
২ 4. Measure VB with reference to ground.
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২ 5. Measure VE with reference to ground.
২ 6. Is NPN transistor Q1 properly biased for ac operation?

a. yes
b. no
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1 kHz, 300 mVpk-pk ac input signal (Vi) at the base of transistor Q1.
২ 8. Connect the channel 2 oscilloscope probe to the ac output of Q1. Measure the peak-to-peak
voltage of the ac output signal (Vo).
২ 9. Is there any distortion or clipping of the sine wave signal at the output?
a. yes
b. no
২ 10. The output and input signals are

a. in phase.
b. 180º out of phase.
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২ 11. You adjusted the sine wave generator for a 1 kHz, 300 mVpk-pk ac input signal (Vi).
The ac output signal (Vo) you measured was Vpk-pk (Step 8, Recall Value 5).
Calculate the voltage gain from your measured values (Av = –Vo/Vi).
NOTE: When calculating voltage gains use peak-to-peak values. The minus sign indicates phase inversion
and is not part of the calculation.
Av(meas) = (Recall Value 6)
২ 12. Divide the load resistance by the emitter resistance to calculate the approximate voltage
gain.
NOTE: The minus sign indicates phase inversion and is not part of the calculation.
Av(calc) = –RL/R5 = (Recall Value 7)
২ 13. Are the Av(gain) values, calculated from RL and R5 and calculated from the measured values
of Vi and Vo, approximately equal?
a. yes
b. no
Av(meas) = (Step 11, Recall Value 6)
Av(calc) = (Step 12, Recall Value 7)
২ 14. Connect the channel 2 oscilloscope probe to the emitter terminal.

Measure Ve.
Ve = mVpk-pk (Recall Value 8)
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২ 15. Compared to the ac input signal (Vi) at the base terminal, the ac signal at the emitter
terminal (Ve) is
a. 180º out of phase.
b. in phase.
The Q-point on the load line is at the intersection of IC and VCE.
২ 16. Calculate IC.

IC = (VA – VC)/R4
R4 = 15 kW
IC = mA (Recall Value 9)
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২ 17. Calculate VCE.
VCE = VC – VE = Vdc (Recall Value 10)
২ 18. Calculate the ac collector saturation current (Ic(sat)).

RL = 7.5 kΩ (R6||R4)
R5 = 1.0 kW
VCE
Ic(sat) = IC +
RL + R5
Ic(sat) = mA (Recall Value 11)
২ 19. What is the value of Vce(cutoff)?
Vce(cutoff) = Vdc (Recall Value 12)
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২ 20. Connect the channel 1 probe to the input at the base terminal (Vi).
Connect the channel 2 probe to the output (Vo).
২ 21. Increase the ac input signal until the peak of the ac output signal starts to become clipped.
What point on the ac load line is reached?
a. the Q-point
b. the saturation point
c. the cutoff point
২ 22. Slowly increase the ac input until the valley of the output signal becomes clipped.
What point on the ac load line is reached?
a. the Q-point
b. the saturation point
c. the cutoff point
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CONCLUSION
• The emitter terminal is common to the ac input and output signals.
• When the transistor is properly biased, the minimum ac output signal is not distorted and is 180° out
of phase with the ac input signal.
• The measured voltage gain about equals the ratio of the ac load resistance to the emitter resistance.
• The ac load line intersects the dc load line at the Q-point.
• When the input is increased to the point at which the collector-emitter voltage exceeds the cutoff
point, the output becomes clipped.
• Clipping also occurs when the saturation point is reached.
• The optimum Q-point is at the midpoint of the ac load line.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. A possible cause of an amplifier distorting ac signals at the output could be that the transistor
a. is operating too near the saturation point.
b. is operating too near the cutoff point.
c. input signal is too large.
d. Any of these statements.
2. Place the CM switch 7 in the ON position to change the value of R1 from 120 kΩ to 10 kΩ. Observe
the output signal. You can use the toggle switch to turn CM 7 on and off.
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The ac output signal is equal to and in phase with the input signal because the transistor is operating
a. at the cutoff point.
b. at the Q-point during the complete cycle.
c. at the saturation point.
d. with a reverse biased base-emitter junction.
3. In a CE transistor circuit, the ac output signal is

a. in phase with the input signal.
b. out of phase with the signal at the collector.
c. 180° out of phase with the input signal.
d. in phase with the signal at the emitter.
4. In a CE transistor circuit, the voltage gain equals the ratio of the

a. load resistance to the emitter resistance.
b. collector resistance to the emitter resistance.
c. input voltage to the output voltage.
d. parallel resistance of the collector and load resistors to the base.
5. For a transistor to properly amplify ac signals, it must

a. be an NPN transistor.
b. operate in the active region at all times.
c. have a reverse biased base-emitter junction.
d. have a 1 kΩ emitter resistor.
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UNIT TEST
1. In a common emitter (CE) transistor circuit, the ac input signal is applied between the
b. base and collector.
c. collector and ground.
d. base and emitter.
2. In a CE transistor circuit, the ac output signal is taken between the

a. emitter and ground.
b. collector and ground.
c. base and ground.
3. In a CE transistor circuit, what terminal is common to the input and output signals?
a. emitter
b. collector
c. base
4. The ac voltage gain in a CE circuit is typically

a. more than beta (β).
b. more than 1.0.
c. less than 1.0.
5. When a CE transistor circuit is used as an amplifier, the

a. base-emitter junction is reverse biased.
b. base-collector junction is forward biased.
c. base-collector junction is reverse biased.
d. collector-emitter voltage difference controls the gain.
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6. The CE transistor circuit exhibits

a. high voltage gain.
b. high current gain.
c. high power gain.
7. At the saturation point of a CE transistor circuit, the

a. collector current is maximum.
b. base current is minimum.
c. collector current equals the base current.
d. emitter current is minimum.
8. Beta dc (βDC), or hFE, equals

a. IC /IE.
b. IC /IB.
c. VC /VE.
d. VC /VB.
9. The ac voltage gain of a CE transistor circuit equals

a. ac collector voltage divided by ac base voltage.
b. VE /VC.
c. VC /VB.
d. ac emitter voltage divided by ac base voltage.
10. The optimum Q-point is located

a. on the ac load line at 4.0 Vdc less than Vce(cutoff).
b. at a collector-emitter voltage difference that is 50% of the dc supply voltage.
c. at a collector-emitter voltage difference that is 50% of the ac input signal peak-to-peak voltage.
d. at the center of the ac load line.
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TROUBLESHOOTING
২ 1. Locate the COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block, and connect the common emitter circuit
shown.
ac input signal (Vi = VGEN).
২ 3. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the common emitter amplifier circuit is working
properly by doing a performance check.
Measure Vi.
২ 4. Measure Vo.
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২ 5. Have your instructor insert a fault into the CE amplifier circuit. Select an item to begin
VA 15.00 Vdc, ±3%
Vo 2.1 Vpk-pk, ±25%
Phase* 180° Out of phase
Distortion* None
VC 7.30 Vdc, ±25%
VB 1.13 Vdc, ±25%
VE 0.52 Vdc
* in relation to the ac input signal (Vi1)

a. R5 (shorted).
b. R2 (shorted).
c. Q1 (open base-collector junction).
d. Q1 (open base-emitter junction).
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Transistor Amplifier Circuits Common Collector Circuit
Unit 4: Common Collector Circuit

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to demonstrate the operation of a common collector
transistor amplifier circuit by using calculated and measured circuit conditions.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
The collector terminal is common to the input and output signals of the common collector (CC) transistor
circuit.
The ac output signal of a CC circuit is in phase with the input signal.
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Common Collector Circuit Transistor Amplifier Circuits
The ac output signal of a common collector (CC) circuit is

a. 180° out of phase with the input signal.
b. in phase with the input signal.
c. taken from the collector.
The CC transistor circuit base and collector current characteristic curves are similar to the CE circuit
curves.
A CC transistor voltage divider circuit biases the base terminal with a single dc power supply.
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The CC circuit has a voltage gain less than 1.0 and has current gains between 10 and 500.
High input impedance and low output impedance make the CC transistor circuit desirable for applications
between a high impedance source and a low impedance load.
The CC transistor circuit has

a. high input and low output impedance.
b. low input and high output impedance.
c. high input and high output impedance.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

None
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Multimeter
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
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Exercise 1: Common Collector Circuit DC Operation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine the dc operating conditions of a
common collector (CC) transistor circuit by using a typical CC circuit. You will verify your results with a
multimeter and with calculations.
DISCUSSION
This is the dc operation schematic of the common collector (CC) amplifier circuit.
The collector terminal is common to the input and output signals and is connected to the dc power supply.
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Because there is no collector resistor, the collector voltage (VC) equals the dc power supply voltage (VA).
Collector voltage (VC) in a common collector circuit equals

a. the dc power supply voltage (VA).
b. the base voltage (VB).
c. ground.
You can calculate the base voltage (VB) from the voltage divider equation.
R2
VB = VA ×
R1 + R2
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The emitter voltage (VE) is about 0.6 Vdc less than the base voltage when the transistor is operating
normally.
VE = VB – 0.6
To calculate emitter current (IE), use the values of emitter voltage and the emitter resistor in Ohm’s law.
VE
IE =
R3
The collector current is the difference between the emitter and base currents.
IC = IE – IB
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The collector current is assumed to be equal to the emitter current because the base current is very small.
IC = IE – IB = IE
The collector current is assumed to be equal to the emitter current because the
a. collector current is less than the base current.
b. emitter current is less than the base current.
c. base current is very small.
The dc load line goes through the saturation point, Q-point, and cutoff point.
The cutoff point is where VCE(cutoff) equals VA and IC equals 0 mA.
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The saturation point is where IC(sat) equals VA/R3 and VCE equals 0.0 Vdc.
The cutoff point is where

a. VCE(cutoff) equals VA.
b. IC is 0 mA.
PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the COMMON COLLECTOR circuit block, and connect the circuit shown.

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২ 3. Use the voltage divider equation to calculate the base voltage (VB) of Q1 at the junction of
resistors R1 and R2.
R2
VB = VA ×
R1 + R2
২ 4. Measure the base voltage (VB), referenced to ground.
২ 5. Do the calculated and measured values of base voltage agree?

a. yes
b. no
VB(calc) = Vdc (Step 3, Recall Value 2)
VB(meas) = Vdc (Step 4, Recall Value 3)
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২ 6. Measure the collector voltage (VC), referenced to ground.
২ 7. Measure the emitter voltage (VE), referenced to ground.
২ 8. Do your measurements indicate that the base emitter junction is forward biased?
a. yes
b. no
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২ 9. Do your measurements indicate that the base collector junction is reverse biased?
a. yes
b. no
২ 10. Is NPN transistor Q1 biased correctly?

a. no
b. yes
২ 11. Is the transistor operating in its active region?

a. yes
b. no
২ 12. Calculate the dc emitter current (IE) by applying Ohm’s law.
২ 13. The collector current (IC) is effectively the same as the

a. emitter current.
b. base current.
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২ 14. The Q-point is determined by the dc bias conditions of the transistor.

Determine VCE from the measured voltages.
VCE = Vdc (Recall Value 7)
২ 15. The Q-point is at the intersection of IC on the Y-axis and VCE on the X-axis.
IC = mAdc (Step 12, Recall Value 6)
২ 16. The cutoff point is where VCE(cutoff) equals VA (the dc supply voltage) and IC equals 0.0 mA. In
your CC circuit, what is the value of VCE(cutoff)?
২ 17. Observe the dc load line.

What is the value of IC(sat)?
IC(sat) = mA (Recall Value 9)

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CONCLUSION
• A voltage divider circuit provides a constant dc base voltage to properly bias the transistor.
• Because there is no collector resistor, the collector voltage (VC) equals the dc supply voltage (VA).
• The emitter voltage (VE) is about 0.6 V less than the base voltage (VB) when the NPN transistor is
operating normally.
• The emitter and collector currents are considered essentially equal.
• For operation in the active region, the base-emitter junction is forward biased, and the base-collector
junction is reverse biased.
• The slope of the dc load line depends on the value of the emitter resistor (R3).
• The Q-point on the dc load line is the intersection of the operating collector current (IC) and the
collector-emitter voltage (VCE).
• The intersection of the dc load line and the Y-axis (IC) is the saturation point.
• The intersection of the dc load line and the X-axis (VCE) is the cutoff point (zero current).
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Locate the COMMON COLLECTOR circuit block and connect the circuit shown.
Place the CM switch 14 in the ON position to change the value of R2 from 120 kΩ to 47 kΩ.
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Measure the collector voltage (VC) with reference to ground.
Measure the base voltage (VB) with reference to ground.
Measure the emitter voltage (VE) with reference to ground.

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Based on your measured values, the transistor is operating

2. With R2 equal to 47 kΩ, the emitter current (IE) is closest to

a. 0.519 mA.
b. 0.059 mA.
c. 0.155 mA.
d. 0.939 mA.
3. With R2 equal to 47 kΩ, the

a. slope of the load line changes.
b. saturation point changes.
c. cutoff point changes.
d. Q-point changes, but the load line does not.
4. With R2 equal to 47 kΩ, the new VCE is closest to

a. 11.47 Vdc
b. 0.61 Vdc.
c. 7.43 Vdc.
d. 15.00 Vdc.
5. In a CC transistor circuit, the collector voltage (VC) equals

a. VA – 0.6.
b. VB + VE.
c. VB – 0.6.
d. VA.
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Exercise 2: Common Collector Circuit AC Operation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine ac operating characteristics of a
common collector (CC) amplifier by using a typical CC transistor circuit. You will verify your results with a
multimeter and an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
This is the ac operation schematic of the CC amplifier circuit.
A sine wave generator connected between the transistor base and ground produces the ac input signal.
The ac output signal is taken between the emitter terminal and ground.
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For ac signals, the collector terminal, which is common to the input and output, is grounded by the low
internal resistance of the dc power supply.
The ac output signal is taken between ground and the

a. base terminal.
b. emitter terminal.
c. collector terminal.
The voltage gain (Av) of the CC transistor circuit is the ratio of the ac output voltage (Vo) to the input
voltage (Vi).
AV = Vo/Vi
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This simplified sketch illustrates the voltage gain and the input/output phase relationship of the CC circuit.
The ac emitter resistance is re'.

As shown by the drawing and the following equations, the voltage gain is always less than 1.0.
Vo = Ie x R3
Vi = Ie x (re' + R3)
Since: Vo = Ie x R3 and
Vi = Ie x (re' + R3)
Vo
Then: AV =
Vi
Ie × R3
=
Ie × (re '+ R3)
R3
=
re '+ R3
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Which equation is correct for Av?
Vo
a. AV =
Vi
Ie × R3
b. Av =
Ie × (re '+ R3)
R3
c. Av =
re '+ R3
Because the ac emitter resistance (re') is very small compared to R3 (about 25 Ω versus 6800 Ω), Av is
slightly less than 1.0.
The voltage drop across re' is very small compared to the voltage drop across R3.
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Therefore, Vo essentially equals Vi in a CC circuit without a load resistor in parallel with R3.
The output signal is in phase with the input signal because the emitter current increases and decreases
with the input signal.
Because the output signal follows the input signal, the CC transistor circuit is also known as the emitter
follower transistor circuit.
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As the base voltage (Vi) increases, the

a. emitter current decreases with the input signal.
b. emitter current increases with the input signal.
c. output signal is out of phase with the input signal.
When a very small resistor, such as R4, is placed in parallel with R3, the ac load line becomes very steep.
The maximum, nondistorted peak-to-peak voltage of the output signal is greatly reduced because the
cutoff point is moved near VCE (at the Q-point).
Without a load in parallel with R3, the ac and dc load lines are the same.
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The input impedance (Zi) equals the combined parallel resistance of R1, R2, and β x (R3 + re').
Because β x (R3 + re') is more than 100 times as large as R1||R2, the input impedance (Zi) equals R1||R2.
In this circuit, Zi is 60 kΩ.
The following equation determines output impedance (Zo).

Zo = R3 || (re' + RGEN) || R1 || (R2/β)
Because the emitter resistor (R3) is large, Zo essentially equals (re' + RGEN) || R1 || (R2/β).
You can measure output impedance (Zo) by connecting potentiometer R4 in parallel with R3 and then
adjusting R4 to obtain an output signal (Vo) half that of the original.
With these conditions, the measured resistance of R4 approximately equals the output impedance (Zo).
You can measure output impedance (Zo) by connecting R4 in parallel with R3 and adjusting R4 to obtain
an output signal (Vo) that is
a. equal to the input signal (Vi).
b. twice the input signal (Vi).
c. half the output signal (Vo).
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PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the COMMON COLLECTOR circuit block, and connect the circuit shown.
২ 2. In a common collector circuit, the collector voltage is the same as

a. VA.
b. VB.
c. VE.
২ 3. Measure VC, referenced to ground.
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২ 4. Measure VB, referenced to ground.
২ 5. Measure VE, referenced to ground.
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২ 6. Is NPN transistor Q1 properly biased for ac operation?

a. yes
b. no
1 kHz, 4.00 Vpk-pk ac input signal (Vi) at the base of transistor Q1.
২ 8. Connect the channel 2 oscilloscope probe to the ac output of Q1, which is at the emitter
terminal.
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২ 9. What is the peak-to-peak voltage of the ac output signal (Vo)?
২ 10. Is there any distortion or clipping of the sine wave signal between the ac input and output?
a. yes
b. no
২ 11. What is the phase relationship between the output and input signals?
a. in phase
b. 180º out of phase
২ 12. Calculate the voltage gain.

Vi = 4.00 Vpk-pk
Av = Vo/Vi = (Recall Value 5)
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২ 13. Adjust the input signal (Vi) to 70 mVpk-pk.
Observe the output signal (Vo) on channel 2 of the oscilloscope.
What is the output signal?
২ 14. Turn variable resistor R4 fully clockwise (CW).
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With a two-post connector, connect R4 to C2.
Turn the knob on R4 counter-clockwise (CCW) until Vo is exactly half of Vi (35 mVpk-pk).
২ 15. Without disturbing the R4 setting, disconnect R4 from C2 (remove the two-post connector).
Measure the resistance of R4.
R4 = Ω (Recall Value 7)
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CONCLUSION
• The collector terminal is common to the ac input and output signals.
• When the transistor is properly biased, the maximum ac output signal is not distorted.
• The output signal is in phase with the ac input signal.
• The voltage gain is slightly less than 1.0.
• An ac load in parallel with R3 reduces the maximum, undistorted peak-to-peak voltage of the output
signal.
• The input impedance is high.
• The output impedance is low.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Locate the COMMON COLLECTOR circuit block and connect the CC amplifier circuit shown.
Set the input (Vi) for a 1 kHz, 4.0 Vpk-pk signal.
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What is the ouput signal (Vo)?
Vo = Vpk-pk
Place the CM switch 15 in the ON position to change the value of R3 from 6.8 kΩ to 15 kΩ.
Observe the output signal (Vo).
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a. at the cutoff point.
b. in the active region during the complete cycle.
c. at the saturation point.
d. with the base-emitter junction in reverse bias.
2. When R3 was changed from 6.8 kΩ to 15 kΩ, the

a. slope of the load line became less steep.
b. slope of the load line became steeper.
c. Q-point did not change.
d. base bias voltage changed.
3. In a CC transistor circuit, the ac output signal is

a. in phase with the input signal.
b. 180º out of phase with the input signal.
c. half the peak-to-peak voltage of the input signal.
d. in phase and greater than the input signal.
4. In a CC transistor circuit, the input

a. and output impedances are low.
b. impedance is low and the output impedance is high.
c. and output impedances are high.
d. impedance is high and the output impedance is low.
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5. A CC transistor circuit is also called a(n)

a. collector follower circuit.
b. base follower circuit.
c. emitter follower circuit.
d. low impedance transistor circuit.
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UNIT TEST
1. In a CC transistor circuit, the ac input signal is applied between the
b. base and ground.
c. collector and ground.
d. base and emitter.
2. In a CC transistor circuit, the ac output

signal is taken between the
a. collector and ground.
b. emitter and ground.
c. base and ground.
3. In a CC transistor circuit, the terminal

that is common to the input and output
signal is the
a. emitter.
b. collector.
c. base.
d. ground terminal.
4. The ac voltage gain in a CC circuit is

a. more than 100.
b. more than 1.0.
c. less than 1.0.
5. The collector voltage (VC) of a CC transistor circuit equals

a. VB – 0.6.
b. 0 Vdc.
c. the dc supply voltage (VA).
d. VA – 0.6.
6. The CC transistor circuit exhibits high

a. voltage gain.
b. input and low output impedances.
c. power gain.
7. Adding an ac load in parallel with the emitter resistor of a CC transistor circuit

a. changes the phase shift.
b. reduces the input base voltage.
c. affects the collector voltage.
d. reduces the peak-to-peak voltage of the output signal.
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8. The ac output signal of a CC circuit is

a. 180º out of phase with the input signal.
b. 0.6 Vpk-pk less than the input signal.
c. in phase with the input signal.
d. greater than and in phase with the input signal.
9. Adding a low impedance load in parallel with the emitter resistor

a. makes the ac load line very steep.
b. changes the Q-point.
c. makes the ac load line equal to the dc load line.
d. increases the output signal.
10. The input impedance (Zi) of this CC circuit is approximately

a. 100 kΩ.
b. 50 kΩ.
c. 200 kΩ.
d. 100 kΩ + β.
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TROUBLESHOOTING I
২ 1. Locate the COMMON COLLECTOR circuit block, and connect the common collector circuit
shown.
ac input signal (Vi).
২ 3. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the common collector amplifier circuit is
working properly by doing a performance check.
Measure Vi.
২ 4. Measure Vo.
২ 5. Have your instructor insert a fault into the CC amplifier circuit. Select an item to begin
VA 15.00 Vdc, ±3%
Vo 80 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Phase* In phase
Distortion* None
VC 15.00 Vdc, ±3%
VB 7.14 Vdc, ±25%
VE 6.53 Vdc, ±25%
*in relation to the ac input signal (Vi)
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a. Q1 (open base-emitter junction).
b. Q1 (shorted base-emitter junction).
d. C2 (shorted).
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TROUBLESHOOTING II
২ 1. Locate the COMMON COLLECTOR circuit block, and connect the common collector circuit
shown.
ac input signal (Vi).
২ 3. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the common collector amplifier circuit is
Measure Vi.
২ 4. Measure Vo.
২ 5. Have your instructor insert a fault into the CC amplifier circuit. Select an item to begin
VA 15.00 Vdc, ±3%
Vo 80 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Phase* In phase
Distortion* None
VC 15.00 Vdc, ±3%
VB 7.14 Vdc, ±25%
VE 6.53 Vdc, ±25%
*in relation to the ac input signal (Vi)
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d. C2 (shorted).
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Transistor Amplifier Circuits Bias Stabilization
Unit 5: Bias Stabilization

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to demonstrate the effect of a temperature increase on
transistor bias by using typical transistor amplifier bias circuits.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Transistor bias refers to the dc operating conditions: the base, collector, and emitter dc voltages and
currents.
Transistor bias depends on the dc voltage supply and on the values and configuration of the circuit
resistors.
Transistor bias refers to the

a. ac operating conditions: the base, collector, and emitter ac voltages.
b. dc operating conditions: the base, collector, and emitter dc currents.
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Bias Stabilization Transistor Amplifier Circuits
The Q-point of the load line is determined by the transistor bias. Transistors are heat-sensitive devices. A
change in transistor temperature can adversely affect the output signal quality.
If a circuit is not designed to overcome the effects of temperature change, the location of the Q-point can
move toward the saturation or cutoff points causing signal distortion.
A transistor amplifier circuit with a base voltage divider and an emitter resistor fixes the bias voltage levels
and, therefore, has good bias temperature stability. The stability factor (S) is a measure of a transistor
circuit’s bias stability with changes in temperature.
A transistor amplifier circuit with good bias temperature stability has

a. a base voltage divider.
b. an emitter resistor.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

collector leakage current (ICBO) – current caused by the reverse bias voltage between the collector and
the base. ICBO increases with temperature.
feedback – control of the output signal where part of the output signal is returned to the input signal.
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EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Multimeter
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
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Exercise 1: Temperature Effect on Fixed Bias
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to describe the effect of temperature on a
fixed bias circuit by using a typical transistor circuit. You will verify your results with a multimeter and
calculations.
DISCUSSION
An increase in transistor temperature increases beta (β, the current gain) and collector leakage current
(ICBO) and decreases the base-emitter voltage difference.
A change in beta (β) has the greatest effect on the collector current in the fixed bias circuit.
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If there is a large temperature increase, the collector current can reach the saturation point or a thermal
runaway condition that could destroy the transistor.
An increase in transistor temperature increases

a. beta (β).
b. collector leakage current (ICBO).
The collector leakage current (ICBO) is caused by the reverse bias voltage. ICBO increases with
temperature.
ICBO is measured from the base to the collector with the emitter open.
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The collector leakage current (ICBO) is in the range of nanoamperes (nA), but it doubles with every 10°
Celsius increase.
The collector leakage current (ICBO) is 10 nA at 30º Celsius. At 40º Celsius, ICBO would be about
a. 10 nA.
b. 20 nA.
c. 30 nA.
The stability factor (S), a measure of transistor temperature stability, is usually measured as the ratio of
the change in collector current to the change in collector leakage current.
the change in IC
S=
the change in ICBO
The stability factor (S) of a transistor circuit can range from a value as high as beta (20 to 500) to a value
as low as 1.0.
The lower the S value, the more stable the transistor is against temperature change.
An S value less than 10 is considered good.
A transistor is more stable against temperature change when the transistor stability factor is
a. low.
b. high.
The fixed bias circuit, also referred to as the simple bias circuit, has poor temperature stability.
The stability factor for the fixed bias circuit equals beta (β).
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In a fixed bias circuit, a temperature increase causes a decrease in VBE, which causes an increase in both
the voltage drop across R3 and the base current.
The base current increase causes an increase in collector current.
The increase in beta and in collector leakage current compounds the collector current increase with base
current.
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In a fixed bias circuit, an increase in temperature causes a(n)

a. decrease in VBE.
b. increase in the voltage drop across R3.
c. increase in the base current.
The fixed bias circuit is usually used only for transistor circuits that function as switches and that operate
at cutoff (open) or saturation (closed).
The fixed bias circuit is best used for transistor circuits that function as
a. switches.
b. high gain amplifiers.
c. high frequency amplifiers.
PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block.
২ 2. Turn potentiometer R3 fully counterclockwise (CCW) for maximum resistance.

Connect the fixed bias circuit shown. Use resistor R1.
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২ 3. Adjust the positive variable dc power supply so that VA equals 6.0 Vdc.
২ 4. Adjust potentiometer R3 for 0.20 Vdc across R5 in the collector circuit.

NOTE: If R3 cannot be adjusted for 0.20 Vdc across R5, disconnect R1 and connect R2 to the circuit.
Adjust R3 for 0.20 Vdc across R5. The flexibility in using R1 or R2 is due to the large variation in Q1 beta.
২ 5. Adjusting potentiometer R3 for 0.20 Vdc across R5 sets the collector current (IC).
Calculate the collector current.
IC = mA (Recall Value 1)
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২ 6. You will observe the change in base-emitter voltage (VBE) and collector current (IC) due to an
increase in transistor Q1 temperature after the transistor is heated for 2 minutes.
On your circuit board, the HEATER is the resistor that is physically on top of transistor Q1.
২ 7. Measure the base-emitter voltage (VBE(cold)).
VBE(cold) = Vdc (Recall Value 2)
২ 8. Connect the transistor HEATER to the circuit by using a two-post connector, and make note
of the time.
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After the HEATER is connected for 2 minutes, measure VBE(hot).
VBE(hot) = Vdc (Recall Value 3)
২ 9. Disconnect the HEATER from the circuit.
২ 10. Does VBE decrease or increase when the transistor Q1 temperature increases?
a. increase
b. decrease
VBE(cold) = Vdc (Step 7, Recall Value 2)
VBE(hot) = Vdc (Step 8, Recall Value 3)
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২ 11. What is the change in VBE after the transistor is heated for 2 minutes?
The change in VBE = Vdc (Recall Value 4)
২ 12. Wait at least 10 minutes for transistor Q1 to cool.

Then, if necessary, readjust R3 for 0.20 Vdc across R5.
২ 13. Enter the voltage across R5 (VR5(cold)).
VR5(cold) = Vdc (Recall Value 5)
২ 14. Calculate the collector current (IC(cold)).
IC(cold) = mA (Recall Value 6)
২ 15. Connect the transistor HEATER to the circuit, and make note of the time.
After the HEATER is connected for 2 minutes, measure the voltage across R5 (VR5(hot)).
VR5(hot) = Vdc (Recall Value 7)
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২ 17. What is the collector current (IC(hot)) after the transistor is heated for 2 minutes?
VR5(hot) = Vdc (Step 15, Recall Value 7)
IC(hot) = mA (Recall Value 8)
২ 18. Does IC decrease or increase when the transistor Q1 temperature increases?

a. decrease
b. increase
IC(hot) = mA (Step 17, Recall Value 8)
IC(cold) = mA (Step 14, Recall Value 6)
২ 19. What is the change in IC after the transistor is heated for 2 minutes?
the change in IC = mA (Recall Value 9)
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২ 20. What is the percentage (%) of change in collector current (IC) after transistor Q1 is heated
for 2 minutes in a fixed bias circuit?
IC(hot) − IC(cold)
× 100
IC(cold)
% change = percent (Recall Value 10)
CONCLUSION
• Transistors are temperature sensitive.
• A change in beta (β) due to a change in temperature has the most significant effect on collector
current in a fixed bias circuit.
• The base-emitter voltage (VBE) decreases with a transistor temperature increase.
• The fixed bias circuit has very poor temperature stability; the collector current changes significantly
with temperature change.
• The fixed bias circuit is used mainly for transistor switch circuits that operate at either the saturation
point (on) or the cutoff point (off).
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Transistors are
a. not very sensitive to changes in temperature.
b. heat sensitive.
c. reliable when operated above 75º Celsius.
d. pressure sensitive.
2. Transistor bias refers to the

a. dc operating conditions.
b. ac operating conditions.
c. temperature stability.
d. dc voltage supply.
3. The transistor base-emitter voltage (VBE)

a. increases with an increase in temperature.
b. is not affected by temperature change.
c. decreases with an increase in temperature.
d. has no effect on collector current.
4. In a fixed bias circuit, an increase in transistor operating temperature moves the Q-point
a. toward the cutoff point.
b. insignificantly.
c. to a new dc load line.
d. toward the saturation point.
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5. A transistor circuit with a stability factor of 200

a. is not affected by a temperature change.
b. has very poor temperature stability.
c. is usually used in audio amplifier circuits.
d. is usually not affected by a change in beta (β) due to a temperature change.
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Exercise 2: Temperature Effect on Voltage Divider
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to describe the temperature effects on a voltage
divider bias circuit by using a typical transistor circuit. You will verify your results with a multimeter and
calculations.
DISCUSSION
This transistor circuit has a voltage divider circuit with an emitter resistor for bias stability.
The collector current is almost independent of beta (β); consequently, as β changes with temperature, the
effect on the circuit bias is minimal.
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In this transistor circuit, beta (β) changes with temperature. The effect on the circuit bias is
a. maximum.
b. minimal.
c. nonexistent.
The junction of the voltage divider resistors (R1 and R4) connects to the transistor base terminal.
When the resistor values are correctly selected, the base voltage is essentially constant under all normal
transistor operating conditions.
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Use the voltage divider equation to calculate base voltage.

R4
VB = VA ×
R1 + R4
The combination of a firm base voltage and feedback from the emitter resistor gives this circuit good
temperature stability.
Under normal transistor operating conditions, the base voltage

a. is essentially constant.
b. varies widely to compensate for temperature.
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As the collector and emitter currents increase due to a temperature rise, the emitter voltage increases.
An increase in the emitter voltage temporarily opposes and slightly increases the base voltage.
A slight increase in the base voltage decreases the base current, which counteracts the increase in
collector and emitter currents.
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As the emitter voltage increases due to a temperature rise, the base voltage
a. increases to a new value.
b. increases momentarily, then returns to normal.
c. decreases momentarily, then returns to normal.
The effect of the emitter voltage increase on the base voltage is called feedback.
The feedback suppresses the base current increase (input) and limits the collector current increase
(output).
The larger the emitter resistor, the better the bias stability.
But an emitter circuit with a large emitter resistor has a smaller voltage gain and a Q-point closer to the
saturation point, which limits the ac signal operating range.
The larger the emitter resistor,

a. the smaller the voltage gain.
b. the closer the Q-point to the saturation point.
c. the better the bias stability.
The stability factor (S) of this voltage divider bias circuit is approximately equal to the ratio of R4 to R7.
S = 1000/390 = 2.56
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The new stability factor of this voltage divider bias circuit approximately equals the ratio of the new values
of R4 to R7.
Calculate S.
S = (Recall Value 1)
A good bias circuit has a stability factor of 10 or less.
From the S value you calculated, is this voltage divider bias circuit temperature stable?
a. yes
b. no
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PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block.
২ 2. Turn the potentiometer R3 knob fully clockwise (zero resistance).

Connect the voltage divider bias circuit shown.
২ 3. Adjust the positive variable dc power supply to 6.0 Vdc.
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২ 4. Measure the voltage (VR5(cold)) across resistor R5 in the collector circuit.
VR5(cold) = Vdc (Recall Value 1)
২ 5. Leave the multimeter connected across R5.
২ 6. Calculate the collector current (IC(cold)).
VR5(cold) = Vdc (Step 4, Recall Value 1)
IC(cold) = mA (Recall Value 2)
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In the following steps, you will measure the change in collector current due to an increase in transistor Q1
temperature after a 2 minute period.
২ 7. Connect the transistor HEATER to the circuit, and make note of the time.
Measure the voltage across R5 (VR5(hot)) after the HEATER is connected for 2 minutes.
VR5(hot) = Vdc (Recall Value 3)
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২ 9. What is the collector current (IC(hot)) after 2 minutes?
VR5(hot) = Vdc (Step 7, Recall Value 3)
IC(hot) = mA (Recall Value 4)
২ 10. Does IC decrease or increase when the transistor Q1 temperature increases?

a. increase
b. decrease
IC(cold) = mA (Step 6, Recall Value 2)
IC(hot) = mA (Step 9, Recall Value 4)
২ 11. What is the percentage (%) of change in collector current after transistor Q1 is heated for 2
minutes in a fixed bias circuit?
IC(hot) − IC(cold)
× 100
IC(cold)
% change = (Recall Value 5)
২ 12. Is the percentage of increase in the voltage divider’s collector current less than, equal to, or
more than the percentage of change in collector current of the fixed bias circuit, calculated
previously?
% change (voltage divider circuit) = % (Step 11, Recall Value 5)
% change (fixed bias circuit) = 12.0%

a. less than
b. equal to
c. more than
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CONCLUSION
• The voltage divider bias circuit has the lowest increase in collector current with an increase in
temperature because the collector current is almost independent of beta.
• The voltage divider circuit with an emitter feedback resistor tries to maintain a constant base voltage
(VB).
• The stability factor (S) of a voltage divider circuit is about equal to the ratio of the base resistor to the
emitter resistor.
• A bias circuit with a stability factor less than 10 is very stable.
• Because of the emitter resistor, any increase in emitter current causes the emitter voltage to increase.
This increase feeds back and decreases the base current.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. An ideal common emitter transistor bias circuit with a low stability factor has
a. a collector resistor larger than the emitter resistor.
b. base and collector resistors.
c. a voltage divider circuit and an emitter resistor.
d. two dc power supplies.
2. A good stability factor is

a. less than 10.
b. over 50.
c. equal to β.
3. A voltage divider circuit has an emitter resistor. As the

emitter voltage increases with temperature, the base
a. current increases.
b. to ground voltage decreases.
c. current decreases.
d. current remains the same.
4. The voltage divider circuit with an emitter resistor has good temperature stability because the
collector current change due to temperature change
a. depends on the dc supply voltage.
b. depends on β.
c. equals the emitter current.
d. is almost independent of β.
5. The purpose of the voltage divider circuit with an emitter resistor is to

a. set the collector current.
b. fix β for the transistor.
c. maintain an essentially constant Q-point.
d. maintain a constant VBE.
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UNIT TEST
1. The transistor dc operating conditions are referred to as the
a. transistor bias.
b. saturation point.
c. cutoff point.
d. transistor stability.
2. The transistor bias determines the

a. Q-point.
b. saturation point.
c. cutoff point.
3. When the transistor temperature increases, β

a. decreases.
b. increases.
c. does not change.
d. has no effect on the collector current.
4. A transistor circuit with poor bias stability

a. may have its dc power supply affected by temperature change.
b. may have its load line affected by temperature change.
c. may have the quality of its ac output signal affected by temperature change.
d. is not affected by a decrease in temperature.
5. A transistor with a fixed bias circuit

a. has very good bias stability.
b. has better bias stability than the voltage divider with an emitter resistor bias circuit.
c. has a Q-point that is not affected by temperature change.
d. is usually used as a switch.
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6. The purpose of the emitter resistor in a voltage divider bias circuit is to

a. maintain a constant dc power supply voltage.
b. provide a feedback voltage to the base terminal in order to control the base current.
c. maintain a stability factor of greater than 25.
d. give the amplifier a high voltage gain.
7. A fixed bias circuit has a stability factor equal to

a. β.
b. less than 5.
c. alpha (α).
d. the ratio of the base resistor to the emitter resistor.
8. A bias circuit is considered to have good temperature stability if its stability factor is
a. greater than 25.
b. less than β.
c. less than 1.
d. less than 10.
9. The collector current of a transistor in a voltage divider bias circuit with an emitter resistor is almost
independent of changes in
a. VBE.
b. VCE.
c. β.
d. VA.
10. The purpose of the voltage divider bias circuit with an emitter resistor is to
a. prevent β from changing.
b. keep the bias conditions constant when temperature changes.
c. minimize the effect of a change in the dc voltage supply.
d. eliminate the need for a collector resistor.
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Transistor Amplifier Circuits Transistor Specification Sheet
Unit 6: Transistor Specification Sheet

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to cite transistor parameters by using a transistor
specification sheet.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
A transistor parameter is a physical or an electrical property whose value determines the characteristics
or behavior of the transistor. The transistor specification (data) sheet summarizes all the transistor
parameters and technical data that the manufacturer considers important for the user. The user should
refer to the specification sheet when selecting a transistor for a specific circuit application.
A typical transistor specification sheet contains:
1. A listing of the manufacturer’s transistor identification numbers and transistor casing types.
2. Maximum ratings.
3. Electrical characteristics.
4. Characteristic curves.
5. Mechanical features.
Some important transistor parameters include:

1. Current gain (hFE).
2. Maximum power dissipation (PD).
3. Saturation voltages (VCE(sat) and VBE(sat) are measures of conductivity).
4. Collector leakage (cutoff) current (ICBO).
5. Breakdown voltage (V(BR)CEO, V(BR)CBO, V(BR)EBO).
6. Switching characteristics.
7. Noise (NF).
Transistor specification sheets are contained in the manufacturer’s technical information book. Such
books usually cover the family of devices to which a transistor belongs.
Some important transistor parameters include V(BR)CEO, V(BR)CBO, and V(BR)EBO, which are all forms of
a. breakdown voltage.
b. switching characteristics.
c. noise (NF).
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Transistor Specification Sheet Transistor Amplifier Circuits
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

parameter – a quantity whose value determines the characteristics of related variables.
small-signal – the value of an ac voltage or current that when halved or doubled does not affect the
characteristic of the parameter being measured.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
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Exercise 1: Transistor Parameters Familiarization
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be familiar with several transistor parameter symbols.
You will verify your knowledge with a list of common transistor parameter symbols and meanings.
DISCUSSION
Some frequently used transistor parameter symbols and their meanings are given here.
Transistor parameter symbols are like other abbreviations; they consist of one or more letters that appear
in the name or definition of the parameter.
Capital letter subscripts usually denote dc or maximum values.
Lower case subscript letters usually represent ac (dynamic, rms, or instantaneous) values.
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AC parameters are usually represented by

a. upper case subscripts.
b. lower case subscripts.
c. either lower or upper case subscripts.
Subscripts usually denote the terminal junctions to which the parameter refers.
For example, VCE(sat) refers to the collector-emitter saturation voltage.
Current gain, referred to as beta (β) in previous exercises, is listed as hFE for dc current gain and hfe for
small-signal, ac current gain.
You know hFE (not shown in this table) denotes dc current gain because
a. h is lower case.
b. fe is lower case.
c. FE is capitalized.
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The collector-emitter breakdown voltage symbol is V(BR)CEO.

The (BR) indicates breakdown, and the CEO stands for collector-emitter with an open base terminal.
The V in V(BR)CEO stands for

a. a PNP transistor.
b. an NPN transistor.
c. voltage.
d. volume.
PROCEDURE
২ 1. Using the tables shown in the following steps, determine the correct meaning of the
parameter symbols listed in the questions.
২ 2. hfe is
a. small-signal current gain.
b. dc current gain.
c. dc voltage gain.
d. small-signal input impedance.
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২ 3. V(BR)CEO is breakdown
a. current, collector-emitter, base open.
b. voltage, collector-base, emitter open.
c. voltage, collector-emitter, base open.
d. voltage, base-emitter, collector open.
২ 4. PD is
a. power down.
b. minimum power dissipation.
c. maximum power dissipation.
d. predetermined disaster.
২ 5. NF is
a. noise figure.
b. noise frequency.
c. new frequency.
d. not found.
২ 6. VCE(sat) is
a. collector saturation voltage.
b. collector-base saturation voltage.
c. collector-emitter voltage.
d. collector-emitter saturation voltage.
২ 7. IEBO is emitter cutoff current

a. (dc).
b. (dc), collector open.
c. (dc), base open.
d. (ac), collector open.
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২ 8. Using the tables shown in the following steps, determine the correct transistor parameter
symbol for each meaning listed in the questions.
২ 9. The symbol for rise time is

a. tR.
b. Tr.
c. tr.
d. rt.
২ 10. The symbol for base current (dc) is

a. IC.
b. IB.
c. IE.
d. V B.
২ 11. The symbol for base-emitter voltage (dc) is

a. Vbeo.
b. VBEO.
c. Vbe.
d. VBE.
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২ 12. The symbol for emitter current (instantaneous) is

a. i e.
b. Ie.
c. IE.
d. iE.
২ 13. The symbol for small-signal current gain is

a. hFE.
b. hfe.
c. Hfe.
d. HFE.
CONCLUSION
• Transistor parameter symbols are abbreviations for parameters.
• Capital letters are usually used for dc or maximum values.
• Lower case letters are usually used for ac or instantaneous values.
• Subscripts usually denote the terminal junctions to which the parameter refers.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Capital letters in transistor parameter symbols usually denote

a. rms values.
b. instantaneous values.
c. dc values.
d. ac values.
2. The dc current gain (common emitter) is abbreviated

a. hfe.
b. hFE.
c. hfc.
d. FT.
3. The dc base-collector voltage is abbreviated

a. VBC.
b. Vbc.
c. vbc.
d. VBCO.
4. The symbol ICBO is defined as the collector cutoff current with

a. the base terminal open.
b. a specified circuit between the base and emitter terminals.
c. the base and emitter terminals shorted.
d. the emitter terminal open.
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5. In the transistor parameter symbol V(BR)CEO, the (BR) stands for

a. base resistor.
b. breakdown.
c. base reference.
d. buffer resistor.
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Exercise 2: Using the Transistor Specification Sheet
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to locate maximum ratings, dc characteristics,
and operating parameters by using a typical transistor specification sheet. You will verify your results by
successfully completing all tasks.
DISCUSSION
The transistor specification (data) sheets are contained in a technical information book published by the
transistor manufacturer.
The transistor technical information book usually contains an alphanumeric index showing the data sheet
page number of a specific transistor.
Transistor selector guide tables are given in the technical information book.
These guide tables, which are helpful in making an initial selection, compare the performance of specific
transistors in a general design or application grouping.
Use transistor selector guide tables to

a. make a final selection of a particular transistor.
b. make an initial selection of a transistor in a general group.
c. find what page a certain transistor’s specifications are on.
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The specification sheet includes sections for maximum ratings, electrical characteristics, and
characteristic curves.
Included in the data sheet are the transistor identification numbers, casing types, application, transistor
configuration, and material.
The following tables show the transistor specification sheet of a 2N2219A transistor (and similar types),
which is used on the TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS circuit board.
The maximum ratings section contains the key maximum operating parameters.
For reliable transistor circuit performance, the transistor should never be operated at or near its maximum
voltage, current, power, or temperature ratings.
You should expect to find the maximum allowable base-collector voltage of a transistor in the
a. alphanumeric index.
b. maximum ratings section.
c. electrical characteristics section.
The electrical characteristics section is subdivided into sections for off characteristics, on characteristics,
small-signal characteristics, and switching characteristics.
The electrical characteristics give the maximum and minimum parameter values necessary for circuit
design.
You should expect to find the small-signal characteristics of a transistor in the

a. alphanumeric index.
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The typical characteristic curves are plots of the commonly used electrical parameters.
The transistor package outline dimensions and pin configurations are given in a separate section of the
technical information book.
Are characteristic curves of the commonly used electrical parameters, transistor package outline
dimensions, and pin configurations included in the technical information book supplied by the transistor
manufacturer?
a. yes
b. no
PROCEDURE
২ 1. Using the tables shown in the following steps, determine the correct meaning of the
parameter symbols listed in the questions.
২ 2. Three of the transistor identification numbers covered by the specification sheet are
a. 2N2218, 2N2219, 2N3436.
b. 2N2218A, 2N2219A, 2N3436A.
c. 2N2218A, 2N2219A, and 2N3053.
২ 3. What is the polarity of the 2N2218A, 2N2219A, and 2N3053 transistors?

a. NPN
b. PNP
২ 4. You are looking for an NPN transistor with a minimum breakdown voltage (V(BR)CEO) of 40
and a minimum gain (hFE) of 100. The first transistor that meets these specifications is the
a. 2N2218A.
b. 2N2219A.
c. 2N2219.
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২ 5. According to the table, the maximum base-emitter voltage (VBEO) that the 2N2219A can
operate at is
a. 5.0 Vdc.
b. 6.0 Vdc.
c. 40 Vdc.
২ 6. You are looking for the base-collector breakdown voltage of the 2N2219A transistor. The
minimum value is
a. 40 Vdc.
b. 60 Vdc.
c. 75 Vdc.
২ 7. What is the maximum collector cutoff current (IBCO) of transistor 2N2222 when VBC is 50 Vdc
and IE is 0?
a. 0.01 µAdc
b. 10 µAdc
c. 10 nAdc
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২ 8. The maximum collector-emitter voltage (VCEO) for transistor 2N2218 is

a. 30 Vdc.
b. 40 Vdc.
c. 60 Vdc.
২ 9. The maximum collector-base voltage (VCBO) for transistor 2N2222A is

a. 40 Vdc.
b. 60 Vdc.
c. 75 Vdc.
২ 10. The maximum emitter-base voltage for transistor 2N5582 is

a. 5.0 Vdc.
b. 6.0 Vdc.
c. 30 Vdc.
২ 11. When case temperature (TC) is 25º, total maximum device dissipation for transistor 2N2222A
is
a. 1.2 W.
b. 2.0 W.
c. 3.0 W.
২ 12. When TA is 25º, the maximum PD for transistor 2N5582 is

a. 0.5 W.
b. 0.6 W.
c. 0.8 W.
CONCLUSION
• Transistor specification sheets are published by the transistor manufacturer.
• The transistor parameters and technical data that the manufacturer considers important for the user
are included in the specification sheets.
• Specification sheets are divided into sections for maximum ratings, electrical characteristics, and
characteristic curves.
• Transistor package outline dimensions and pin configurations are given for each transistor casing
type.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. When IC is 150 mAdc and VCE is 10 Vdc, the minimum value of hFE for transistor 2N2219 is
a. 40.
b. 100.
c. 50.
d. 25.
2. The maximum fall time (tf) for transistor 2N5582 is

a. 60 ns.
b. 25 ns.
c. 10 ns.
d. 225 ns.
3. For transistor 2N2222 at TA, the total device dissipation derating factor above 25ºC is
a. 2.28 mW/ºC.
b. 6.85 mW/ºC.
c. 3.33 mW/ºC.
d. 4.57 mW/ºC.
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4. For transistor 2N2218A, the minimum value of collector-emitter breakdown voltage is

a. 30 Vdc.
b. 40 Vdc.
c. 60 Vdc.
d. 75 Vdc.
5. The specification sheet for transistors 2N5581 and 2N5582 is

a. not available for transistors with metal cases.
b. not available for these transistors.
c. supplied with each transistor.
d. available from the manufacturer.
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UNIT TEST
1. A transistor’s maximum ratings
a. are used as maximum normal operating limits.
b. should not be approached in normal operation.
c. can be exceeded without harming the transistor.
d. are not important considerations in a circuit design.
2. The symbol for the small-signal current gain (common emitter) is

a. hoe.
b. hre.
c. hie.
d. hfe.
3. Unless otherwise noted, all electrical characteristics on a transistor specification sheet are taken at an
ambient temperature (TA) of
a. 50ºC.
b. 0ºC.
c. 25ºC.
d. 100ºC.
4. Transistor selector guide tables

a. allow comparison of performance of specific transistors.
b. group transistors together by general applications.
c. are helpful in making an initial selection.
5. The symbol for emitter-base breakdown voltage with collector open is

a. V(BR)EBO.
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b. VEBO.
c. V(BR)CEO.
d. VBE(SAT).
6. The minimum small-signal current gain (hfe) of a 2N2219A transistor with IC equal to 1.0 mAdc is
a. 2.
b. 30.
c. 50.
d. 300.
7. The transistor with the highest total device dissipation (PD) listed in the help window is the
a. 2N5581.
b. 2N2221.
c. 2N5582.
d. 2N2219.
8. The minimum collector-emitter breakdown voltage (V(BR)CEO) for a 2N5582 transistor is

a. 60 Vdc.
b. 75 Vdc.
c. 40 Vdc.
d. 6.0 Vdc.
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9. The maximum collector-emitter saturation voltage (VCE(SAT)) for a 2N5581 transistor in which IC equals
150 mAdc is
a. 0.3 Vdc.
b. 1.6 Vdc.
c. 0.4 Vdc.
d. 1.0 Vdc.
10. In the parameter VCEO, the subscript O means

a. collector terminal open.
b. emitter and collector terminals open.
c. base terminal off.
d. base terminal open.
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Transistor Amplifier Circuits RC Coupling
Unit 7: RC Coupling
UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to demonstrate the operation of a two-stage RC-coupled
amplifier by using measured circuit conditions.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Two amplifiers are cascaded when the output of the first amplifier is connected to the input of the second
amplifier. In a cascaded system, the first amplifier is called the first stage. The second amplifier is called
the second stage. Cascaded amplifiers achieve an overall gain higher than that possible with one
amplifier.
Two amplifiers are cascaded when the output of the first amplifier is connected to the
a. output of the second amplifier.
b. input of the second amplifier.
c. input of the first amplifier.
When a capacitor and one or more resistors connect the output of the first stage to the input of the
second stage, the amplifiers are RC (resistance-capacitance) coupled.
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RC Coupling Transistor Amplifier Circuits
With common-emitter circuits, each amplifier inverts the input signal so that the output of the second
stage is in phase with the input of the first stage.
The manner in which gain varies with the frequency of the input signal is called frequency response.
In cascaded common-emitter circuits, the output of the second stage is

a. out of phase with the input of the first stage.
b. in phase with the input of the first stage.
c. in phase with the output of the first stage.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

cascaded – when the output of the first stage is connected to the input of the second stage.
frequency response – the manner in which gain varies with the frequency of the input signal.
bandwidth – the range of signal frequencies over which the gain is relatively constant.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Multimeter
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
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Exercise 1: DC Operation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine the dc operating conditions of an
RC-coupled amplifier by using measured values. You will verify your results with a multimeter.
DISCUSSION
This is the dc operation schematic for the RC COUPLING circuit block.
The RC coupling circuit consists of two cascaded common-emitter NPN amplifiers (Q1 and Q2).
Coupling capacitor C2 connects the output of the first stage (Q1) at the collector to the input of the second
stage (Q2) at the base.
C2 blocks the dc collector current of Q1 from the base current of Q2, preventing dc interaction and
shifting of the Q-points of each amplifier.
In this RC-coupled amplifier, C2

a. blocks dc current from Q1 (collector) to Q2 (base).
b. prevents ac interaction from Q1 (collector) to Q2 (base).
c. None of the above.
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The term RC (resistance-capacitance) refers to capacitor C2 and the second-stage (Q2) divider circuit
resistors R4 and R8.
Since both amplifiers (Q1 and Q2) have identical voltage divider circuits, collector resistors, and emitter
resistors, the dc bias for each amplifier is essentially the same.
In the RC-coupled amplifier shown in the image below, the term RC refers to capacitor
a. C1 and voltage divider circuit resistors R1 and R2.
b. C1 and second-stage (Q2) voltage divider circuit resistors R4 and R8.
c. C2 and second-stage (Q2) voltage divider circuit resistors R4 and R8.
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PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the RC COUPLING/TRANSFORMER COUPLING circuit block, and connect the

circuit shown.
২ 2. What circuit components indicate that the circuit you just connected is RC coupled?
a. C1, R1, and R2
b. C2, R4, and R8
c. C4 and R9
২ 4. Measure the first-stage amplifier (Q1) collector voltage with reference to ground.
VC1 = Vdc (Recall Value 2)
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২ 5. Measure the first-stage amplifier (Q1) base voltage with reference to ground.
VB1 = Vdc (Recall Value 3)
২ 6. Measure the first-stage amplifier (Q1) emitter voltage with reference to ground.
VE1 = Vdc (Recall Value 4)
২ 7. Is the base-emitter junction forward biased?

a. yes
b. no
VC1 = Vdc (Step 4, Recall Value 2)
VB1 = Vdc (Step 5, Recall Value 3)
VE1 = Vdc (Step 6, Recall Value 4)
২ 8. Is the base-collector junction reverse biased?

a. yes
b. no
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২ 9. Is NPN amplifier Q1 biased correctly?

a. yes
b. no
২ 10. Is the amplifier operating in its active region?

a. yes
b. no
২ 11. Measure the second-stage amplifier (Q2) collector voltage with reference to ground.
২ 12. Measure the second-stage amplifier (Q2) base voltage with reference to ground.
২ 13. Measure the second-stage amplifier (Q2) emitter voltage with reference to ground.
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২ 14. Is the base-emitter junction forward biased?

a. yes
b. no
২ 15. Is the base-collector junction reverse biased?

a. yes
b. no
২ 16. Is NPN amplifier Q2 biased correctly?

a. yes
b. no
২ 17. Is the amplifier operating in its active region?

a. yes
b. no
২ 18. Are the Q1 collector and Q2 base voltages the same?

a. yes
b. no
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CONCLUSION
• Two amplifiers are RC coupled when a capacitor and one or more resistors connect the output of the
first stage to the input of the second stage.
• RC stands for resistance-capacitance, which includes the capacitor and resistor in the connection
circuit.
• The connecting capacitor prevents dc interaction between amplifiers to maintain dc bias stability.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Locate the RC COUPLING/TRANSFORMER COUPLING circuit block and connect the circuit shown.
Place the CM switch 1 in the ON position to change the value of R5 from 1 kΩ to 4.7 kΩ.
Measure VC1 with reference to ground.
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Measure VB1 with reference to ground.
Measure VE1 with reference to ground.
When R5 is 4.7 kΩ, Q1 is

a. operating in the saturation region.
b. the cutoff point.
c. operating in the active region.
d. no longer RC-coupled to amplifier Q2.
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2. Cascaded amplifiers
a. operate in parallel.
b. connect the output of the first-stage amplifier to the input of the second-stage amplifier.
c. use the collector voltage of the first-stage amplifier as the base voltage for the second stage.
d. are connected in order to have equal dc current gains.
3. The capacitor that connects RC-coupled amplifiers

a. changes the dc bias of the first amplifier.
b. changes the Q-point of the second amplifier.
c. does not affect the dc bias of either amplifier.
d. reduces the beta (β) of the second amplifier.
4. In an RC-coupled amplifier circuit, the base-collector junctions of each transistor

a. are biased differently.
b. are reverse biased.
c. are forward biased.
d. have a voltage difference of 0.6 Vdc.
5. Each transistor has a voltage divider circuit in order to

a. prevent dc interaction between transistors.
b. provide a return path for the first transistor emitter current.
c. create equal collector currents.
d. properly bias each transistor.
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Exercise 2: AC Voltage Gain and Phase
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine the ac voltage gain and the input/
output phase relationship of an RC-coupled amplifier by using measured and calculated values. You will
verify your results with a multimeter and an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
This is the ac operation schematic for the cascaded two-stage, RC coupled NPN, common-emitter
amplifier circuit.
A sine wave generator (GEN) provides the ac input signal (Vi1) at the base of the first-stage amplifier (Q1).
The ac peak-to-peak output voltage (Vo1) of the first-stage amplifier (Q1) depends on the ac output load
resistance of Q1 (RL1).
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Because C2 passes ac signals, the first-stage (Q1) ac load (RL1) is not just the collector resistor (R3) but
the parallel resistance of R3, R4, R8, and the Q2 β x (re' + R10), as shown.
Because the value of Q2 β x (re' + R10) is very large, ignore it when calculating RL1.
RL1 equals
a. the collector resistor (R3).
b. the parallel resistance of R3, R4, R8, and Q2 β x (re' + R10).
c. None of the above.
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The voltage gain (Av1) of the first stage (Q1) equals the voltage ratio of the output to input signals.
Av1 = –Vo1/Vi1
NOTE: The minus sign (–) for gain indicates phase inversion.
Voltage gain also approximately equals the ratio of the ac load resistance (RL1) to the emitter resistor
(R5).
Av1 = –RL1/R5
NOTE: The minus sign (–) for gain indicates phase inversion.
The voltage gain of the first stage (Q1) is expressed as

a. Av1 = –Vo1/Vi1.
b. Av1 = –RL1/R5.
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The ac output load resistance of Q2 (RL2) equals the value of collector resistor (R9).
The Q2 voltage gain (Av2) is expressed by the equations below.

Av2 = –Vo2/Vi2 = –RL2/R10 = –R9/R10
The overall circuit voltage gain (Avc) of a two-stage RC amplifier circuit is determined by the ratio of the
second-stage output signal (Vo2) to the first-stage input signal (Vi1).
Avc = Vo2/Vi1
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Because Vo1 equals Vi2, the overall circuit gain equals the product of the gains for each stage.
Avc = (–Vo1/Vi1) x (–Vo2/Vi2) = Av1 x Av2
Overall circuit gain for the two-stage, RC-coupled amplifier equals

a. the sum of the gains of each stage.
b. the product of the gains of each stage.
c. the difference of the gains of each stage.
In a two-stage, RC-coupled amplifier composed of two NPN common-emitter amplifiers, Vo2 is in phase
with Vi1 because of the phase inversion of each stage.
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The overall voltage gain of the two-stage, RC-coupled amplifier is affected when a load (R12) is
connected to the second-stage (Q2) collector terminal at C4.
The output load resistance (RL2) becomes the parallel resistance of R9 and R12.
Because the load resistance is reduced, the gain is smaller.
When R12 is connected to the second-stage output, the Q2 load resistance (RL2) becomes the
a. resistance of R9.
b. resistance of R12.
Adding bypassing affects the second-stage (Q2) emitter resistor (R10).
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The effect of the second-stage emitter resistor (R10 at 1 kΩ) on the second-stage output signal and gain
can be greatly reduced when bypassed with C5 and R11 (100 Ω).
Emitter resistor bypassing greatly increases the second-stage voltage gain (Av2) and the overall circuit
gain (Avc).
However, bypassing of emitter resistor R10 slightly reduces the first-stage output load (RL1) and, as a
result, the first-stage gain (Av1).
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When C5 and R11 are connected to the Q2 emitter terminal, the emitter resistor is reduced from 1 kΩ to
91 Ω because it is the parallel resistance of R11 and R10.
When R10 is bypassed, and you are calculating voltage gains, you must account for the resistance of re'
(about 21 Ω) in the total emitter circuit resistance (91 Ω + 21 Ω = 112 Ω).
When C5 and R11 are connected to Q2, the total emitter resistance is reduced because R11 is in parallel
with
a. R10.
b. R12.
c. R8.
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PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the RC COUPLING/TRANSFORMER COUPLING circuit block, and connect the RC-
coupled amplifier circuit for ac operation, as shown.
২ 3. While observing the signal on channel 1 of the oscilloscope, adjust the sine wave generator
for a 1 kHz, 100 mVpk-pk ac input signal (Vi1) at the base of transistor Q1.
২ 4. Connect the channel 2 oscilloscope probe to the ac output signal (Vo1) at the collector of Q1.
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২ 5. What is your measured value of Vo1?
২ 6. What is the phase relationship of Vo1 to Vi1?

a. in phase
২ 7. Calculate the voltage gain of Q1.

Vi1 = 100 mVpk-pk
Av1 = –Vo1/Vi1 = (Recall Value 3)

NOTE: The minus sign indicates phase inversion.
২ 8. Connect the channel 1 probe to the second-stage ac input signal (Vi2) at the base of Q2.
Measure Vi2.
Vi2 = mVpk-pk (Recall Value 4)
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২ 9. Does Vi2 equal Vo1?

a. yes
b. no
Vi2 = mVpk-pk (Step 8, Recall Value 4)
২ 10. Connect the channel 2 probe to the ac output signal (Vo2) of Q2 at the collector of Q2.
Measure Vo2.
২ 11. What is the phase relationship of Vo2 to Vi2?

a. in phase
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২ 13. Connect the channel 1 probe to the base of Q1 (Vi1). What is the phase relationship of Vo2 to
Vi1?
a. 180º out of phase
b. in phase
২ 14. Calculate the overall circuit gain (Avc).

Vi1 = 100 mVpk-pk
Avc = Vo2/Vi1 = (Recall Value 7)
২ 15. Does the measured overall circuit gain (Avc) equal the product of Av1 and Av2?
a. yes
b. no
Avc = (Step 14, Recall Value 7)
Av1 = (Step 7, Recall Value 3)
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NOTE: The following procedural steps will be performed with a load connected to the output of Q2.
২ 16. At the output of Q2, connect load resistor R12 to C4 with a two-post connector.
For ac signals, R12 is in parallel with Q2 collector resistor R9.
২ 17. With a 1 kHz, 100 mVpk-pk input signal (Vi1), measure Vo2(L).
Vo2(L) = mVpk-pk (Recall Value 8)
২ 18. Calculate the loaded overall circuit gain (AvcL).
Vo2(L) = mVpk-pk (Step 17, Recall Value 8)

Vi1 = 100 mVpk-pk
AvcL = Vo2(L)/Vi1 = (Recall Value 9)
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২ 19. Is the loaded overall circuit gain (AvcL) less than the unloaded overall circuit gain (Avc)
calculated previously?
a. yes
b. no
AvcL = (Step 18, Recall Value 9)

NOTE: The following procedural steps will be performed with a load connected to the output of Q2 and
emitter resistor R10 bypassed.
২ 20. Bypass emitter resistor R10 by connecting R11 and C5 to the emitter of Q2 with a two-post
connector.
Load resistor R12 should still be connected to C4.
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২ 21. With a 100 mVpk-pk input signal (Vi1), measure Vo2(L/B).
Vo2(L/B) = mVpk-pk (Recall Value 10)
২ 22. Calculate the loaded overall circuit gain (Avc(L/B)).

Vi1 = 100 mVpk-pk
Vo2(L/B) = mVpk-pk (Step 21, Recall Value 10)
Avc(L/B) = Vo2(L/B)/Vi1 = (Recall Value 11)
২ 23. Did bypassing the emitter resistor greatly increase the overall gain (Avc)?
a. yes
b. no
AvcL = (Step 18, Recall Value 9)
Avc(L/B) = (Step 22, Recall Value 11)
CONCLUSION
• The voltage gain of a two-stage, RC-coupled amplifier is the product of the gains of each stage.
• The output signal of a two-stage, RC-coupled, NPN common-emitter amplifier is in phase with the
input signal.
• Connecting an external load across the output of an RC-coupled amplifier reduces the voltage gain.
• Using a capacitor to bypass the emitter resistor of the second stage greatly increases the voltage
gain.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
Observe the input signal (Vi1) with channel 1 of the oscilloscope and set the generator for
100 mVpk-pk (1 kHz).
Observe the output signal (Vo2) with channel 2 of the oscilloscope.
Measure Vo2.
Vo2 = mVpk-pk
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Place the CM switch 12 in the ON position to change the value of R11 from 100 Ω to 390 Ω.
The RC-coupled amplifier output signal (Vo2) amplitude changed because the
a. output load (RL2) decreased.
b. second-stage emitter resistance increased.
c. second-stage emitter resistance decreased.
d. first-stage voltage gain decreased.
2. The overall circuit voltage gain of a two-stage, RC-coupled amplifier equals

a. Vo2 /Vi1.
b. Av1 x Av2.
c. (–Vo1 /Vi1) x (–Vo2 /Vi2).
3. When an ac input signal is applied, each common-emitter stage

a. changes the phase of its input signal by 90º.
b. acts as an independent amplifier circuit.
c. changes the phase of its input signal by 180º.
d. has an output signal in phase with its input signal.
4. When the emitter resistor of the second stage is bypassed with a capacitor, the
a. v oltage gain of the second stage increases greatly, but the gain of the first stage decreases
slightly.
b. voltage gain of the first stage increases greatly, but the gain of the second stage decreases
slightly.
c. second-stage amplifier goes into saturation.
d. second-stage emitter current decreases significantly.
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5. Increasing the collector resistance of either stage

a. decreases the amplifier gain.
b. increases the amplifier gain.
c. affects the input/output phase relationship.
d. has no effect on the overall gain.
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Exercise 3: Frequency Response
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine the frequency response of an
RC-coupled amplifier by using measured values. You will verify your results with a multimeter and an
oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
The gain of an amplifier is not the same for all input signal frequencies.
The way in which the gain varies with frequency is called the frequency response.
The gain of the RC coupled amplifier used in this exercise decreases at frequencies below 20 Hz and
above 100 kHz.
The bandwidth of an amplifier is the range of signal frequencies over which the amplifier gain is relatively
constant or flat.
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In an amplifier, the way in which the gain varies with frequency is called
a. frequency response.
b. bandwidth.
c. gain.
Generally, when the gain of an audio amplifier falls more than 15%, the end of the bandwidth frequency
range has been reached.
The frequency response curve for audio amplifiers should be relatively flat between approximately 20 Hz
and 20 kHz.
The bandwidth of the RC-coupled amplifier depicted here is approximately

a. 20 Hz to 100 Hz.
b. 20 Hz to 100 kHz.
c. 20 kHz to 100 kHz.
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The size of the coupling capacitor (C2) can affect frequency response at lower frequencies.
The capacitive reactance (XC) of a 1.0 µF capacitor does not appreciably affect the magnitude of the
second-stage ac input signal (Vi2) at frequencies above 50 Hz.
The second-stage input (Vi2) equals the first-stage output (Vo1).
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However, if the capacitance is reduced by a factor of 1/100 (1.0 µF to 0.01 µF), the capacitive reactance
(XC) increases by a factor of 100.
If C2 is changed to 0.01 µF, XC and the input impedance of Q2 act like a voltage divider, making Vi2
significantly less than Vo1 at frequencies less than 5 kHz.
As a result of the voltage divider action of C2 and the Q2 input impedance, the overall amplifier gain (Avc)
with signals less than 5 kHz
a. decreases.
b. increases.
c. remains the same.
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The upper frequency limit of the bandwidth is affected by frequency-dependent amplifier parameters and
stray capacitance in the circuit elements.
The upper frequency limit of the bandwidth is affected by

a. frequency-dependent amplifier parameters.
b. stray capacitance in the circuit elements.
PROCEDURE
coupled amplifier circuit for frequency response measurements, as shown.
R12 is connected to C4, but R11 is not connected to R10.
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1 kHz, 100 mVpk-pk ac input signal (Vi1) at the base of transistor Q1.
২ 4. Connect the channel 2 oscilloscope probe to the second-stage ac output signal (Vo2) at C4.
২ 5. Measure Vo2 at a frequency of 1 kHz.
২ 6. Adjust the sine wave generator for 20 Hz, and if necessary, readjust the input signal (Vi1) for
100 mVpk-pk.
Measure Vo2 at a frequency of 20 Hz.
২ 7. Adjust the sine wave generator for 50 Hz, and if necessary, readjust the input signal (Vi1) for
100 mVpk-pk.
২ 8. Adjust the sine wave generator for 50 kHz, and if necessary, readjust Vi1 for 100 mVpk-pk.
Measure Vo2 at a frequency of 50 kHz.
২ 9. Adjust the sine wave generator for 100 kHz, and if necessary, readjust Vi1 for 100 mVpk-pk.
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২ 10. Calculate the overall loaded circuit gain (AvcL) with a 100 mVpk-pk input signal at a frequency
of 20 Hz.
AvcL = Vo2/Vi1 = (Recall Value 7)
Frequency Vo2
20 Hz mVpk-pk (Step 6, Recall Value 3)
1 kHz mVpk-pk (Step 5, Recall Value 2)
২ 11. Calculate AvcL with a 100 mVpk-pk input signal at a frequency of 50 Hz.
২ 12. Calculate AvcL with a 100 mVpk-pk input signal at a frequency of 1 kHz.
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২ 15. This is a typical frequency response curve for the two-stage, RC-coupled amplifier circuit.
The points on the curve correspond to the frequencies at which you calculated the amplifier
gains (Avc(L)).
২ 16. The X-axis of the frequency response curve is a logarithmic scale for the range of input
signal frequencies of about 10 Hz to 1 MHz.
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২ 17. Do the gains on the frequency curve increase sharply before a frequency of 20 Hz and
decrease sharply after 100 kHz?
a. yes
b. no
২ 18. Are the gains with frequencies in the audio frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz generally
within the bandwidth of the two-stage, RC-coupled amplifier?
a. yes
b. no
CONCLUSION
• The way in which gain varies with frequency is the frequency response.
• The bandwidth is the range of signal frequencies over which the gain is relatively constant.
• The size of the coupling capacitor affects frequency response at lower frequencies.
• The upper frequency limit of the bandwidth is affected by frequency-dependent amplifier parameters
and stray capacitance in the circuit elements.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The way in which gain varies with frequency is the

a. bandwidth.
b. frequency response.
c. gain efficiency.
d. relative frequency.
2. The range of frequencies over which the amplifier gain is constant is the
a. bandwidth.
b. frequency response.
c. gain efficiency.
d. relative frequency.
3. The size of the coupling capacitor affects frequency response at which frequencies?
a. high
b. middle
c. low
d. all
4. Amplifier gain decreases at higher frequencies because

a. resistor values are affected at high frequencies.
b. the coupling capacitor starts to break down.
c. of bias instability.
d. the amplifier parameters change at high frequencies.
5. Increasing the size of the coupling capacitor in a two-stage, RC-coupled amplifier from 0.05 µF to
5.0 µF
a. increases the bandwidth.
b. decreases the bandwidth.
c. does not affect the bandwidth.
d. decreases the bandwidth at the higher frequencies.
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UNIT TEST
1. An RC-coupled amplifier is identified by which component(s)?

a. the input capacitor of the first-stage transistor
b. the capacitor and resistor connecting the first-stage output to the second-stage input
c. the capacitor and resistor connecting the second-stage output to the first-stage input
d. the emitter resistor bypass capacitor
2. RC stands for
a. resistive-couple.
b. resonant-circuit.
c. reactance-control.
d. resistance-capacitance.
3. The dc bias of each RC-coupled amplifier should be

a. set to the optimum Q-point for each stage.
b. different.
c. proportional to the gain of each transistor.
d. such that the collector voltage of the first transistor is less than the base voltage of the second
transistor.
4. The overall gain of an RC-coupled amplifier is about equal to the

a. sum of the dc gains of each stage.
b. gain of the second stage divided by the gain of the first stage.
c. loaded gain of the first stage times the loaded gain of the second stage.
d. output impedance of the second stage divided by the input impedance of the first stage.
5. The first-stage gain of an RC-coupled amplifier is about equal to the

a. collector resistor value divided by the emitter resistor (RE) value.
b. first-stage output impedance divided by the first-stage emitter resistor (RE) value.
c. first-stage output impedance divided by its input impedance.
d. collector resistor value divided by the parallel resistance of the voltage divider resistors.
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6. When a bypass capacitor (C5) is connected in parallel with the emitter resistor (RE), the
a. overall gain of the RC amplifier decreases.
b. overall gain of the RC amplifier increases.
c. overall gain of the RC amplifier does not change.
d. frequency response is greatly reduced.
7. The output signal of a common emitter two-stage, RC-coupled amplifier is

a. in phase with the input of the first stage.
b. in phase with the input of the second stage.
c. 180º out of phase with the input of the first stage.
d. 90º out of phase with the input of the second stage.
8. Each stage of a common emitter two-stage, RC-coupled amplifier

a. does not cause a phase shift.
b. produces a phase shift depending on signal frequency.
c. produces a 180º phase shift between the input and output signals.
d. has the same ac gain.
9. The gain of an RC-coupled amplifier

a. is not affected by the signal frequency.
b. increases in proportion to signal frequency.
c. decreases in proportion to signal frequency.
d. is essentially constant over a frequency range of 20 Hz to 100 kHz.
10. The frequency range over which the gain of an RC-coupled amplifier is essentially constant is the
a. bandwidth.
b. gainwidth.
c. overall frequency range.
d. audio frequency width.
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TROUBLESHOOTING I
coupled amplifier circuit shown.
ac input signal (Vi1) at the base of transistor Q1.
২ 3. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the RC-coupled amplifier circuit is working
Measure Vi1.
২ 4. Measure Vo2.
২ 5. Have your instructor insert a fault into the RC-coupled amplifier circuit. Select an item to
begin troubleshooting your circuit. Enter your observed values in the table.
VA 15.00 Vdc, ±3%
Vi1 100 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vo2 670 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Phase* In phase
Distortion* None
Vo1 293 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vi2 293 mVpk-pk, ±25%
VC1 9.23 Vdc, ±25%
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VB1 1.86 Vdc, ±25%
VE1 1.23 Vdc, ±25%
VC2 9.23 Vdc, ±25%
VB2 1.86 Vdc, ±25%
VE2 1.23 Vdc, ±25%
*in relation to the ac input signal (Vi1)

a. Q1 (shorted base-emitter junction).
d. C4 (open circuit).
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TROUBLESHOOTING II
Measure Vi1.
২ 4. Measure Vo2.
VA 15.00 Vdc, ±3%
Vi1 100 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vo2 670 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Phase* In phase
Distortion* None
Vo1 293 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vi2 293 mVpk-pk, ±25%
VC1 9.23 Vdc, ±25%
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VB1 1.86 Vdc, ±25%
VE1 1.23 Vdc, ±25%
VC2 9.23 Vdc, ±25%
VB2 1.86 Vdc, ±25%
VE2 1.23 Vdc, ±25%

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TROUBLESHOOTING III
Measure Vi1.
২ 4. Measure Vo2.
VA 15.00 Vdc, ±3%
Vi1 100 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vo2 670 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Phase* In phase
Distortion* None
Vo1 293 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vi2 293 mVpk-pk, ±25%
VC1 9.23 Vdc, ±25%
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VB1 1.86 Vdc, ±25%
VE1 1.23 Vdc, ±25%
VC2 9.23 Vdc, ±25%
VB2 1.86 Vdc, ±25%
VE2 1.23 Vdc, ±25%

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Student Manual
Transistor Amplifier Circuits Transformer Coupling
Unit 8: Transformer Coupling

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to demonstrate the operation of a transformer-coupled two-
stage amplifier by using measured circuit conditions.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
When a transformer connects the output of the first-stage amplifier to the input of the second-stage
amplifier, the amplifiers are transformer-coupled.
The transformer matches the high output impedance of the first-stage amplifier (Q1) with the low input
impedance of the second-stage amplifier (Q2).
A transformer-coupled amplifier uses less power than an RC-coupled amplifier does because the dc
voltage drop across a transformer winding is less than that of a collector resistor, permitting a smaller dc
supply voltage.
The frequency response of a transformer-coupled amplifier is normally poorer than that of an RC-coupled
amplifier.
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Transformer Coupling Transistor Amplifier Circuits
Transformer coupling
a. matches a high output impedance with the low input impedance of a two-stage amplifier.
b. uses less power than does an RC-coupled amplifier.
c. frequency response is normally poorer than that of an RC-coupled amplifier.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

None
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Multimeter
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
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Exercise 1: DC Operation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine the dc operating conditions of a
transformer-coupled two-stage amplifier by using measured values. You will verify your results with a
multimeter.
DISCUSSION
This is the dc operation schematic for the transformer-coupled amplifier circuit.
The circuit includes two NPN common emitter amplifiers (Q1 and Q2).
The primary coil of transformer T1 is connected between the first-stage amplifier (Q1) collector terminal
and the dc power supply.
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The transformer secondary coil connects to the base terminal of the second-stage amplifier (Q2) and to
ground through a dc current blocking capacitor (C3).
The primary coil of transformer T1 is connected between the dc power supply and the
a. Q1 collector.
b. Q2 collector.
c. Q2 base.
Transformer T1 electrically couples the first stage to the second stage only for ac signals.
DC current flow between stages is blocked by the transformer, isolating the dc bias of each stage.
Transformers are electrically active circuit elements only for ac signals.
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Transformer T1
a. ac couples the first and second stages.
b. blocks dc bias currents between stages.
Resistor R7 (1 kΩ) is connected in parallel with the transformer secondary coil to keep the secondary coil
impedance within the specification for T1.
Both amplifiers (Q1 and Q2) have identical voltage divider circuits and emitter resistors; the dc base and
emitter voltages (VB and VE) of each transistor are essentially the same.
The collector circuits of each stage are different.
The first-stage collector circuit contains the primary coil of T1 but no collector resistor.
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The resistance of the primary coil is small (about 290 Ω).

Since the resistance of the primary coil is small, the collector voltage (VC1) is slightly less than the dc
supply voltage (VA).
The collector voltage (VC1) is slightly less than the dc supply voltage (VA) because
a. the resistance of the primary coil is small.
b. the resistance of the primary coil is large.
c. of the dc coupling through the transformer from the primary to the secondary.
The second stage has collector resistor R9 (4.7 kΩ).
This collector resistor gives a second-stage collector voltage (VC2) of about 9.0 Vdc for the collector
current condition.
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The second-stage collector voltage (VC2) is

a. about 9.0 Vdc for the collector current condition.
b. slightly less than VA, since the primary coil resistance is small.
PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the RC COUPLING/TRANSFORMER circuit block, and connect the transformer-

coupled circuit for dc operation, as shown.
২ 2. What circuit component indicates that the amplifier circuit you just connected is transformer
coupled?
a. Q1
b. T1
c. C1
২ 3. Measure the value of the supply voltage (VA) with reference to ground.
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২ 4. Measure the first-stage amplifier (Q1) collector voltage (VC1) with reference to ground.
২ 5. Measure the first-stage amplifier (Q1) base voltage (VB1) with reference to ground.
২ 6. Measure the first-stage amplifier (Q1) emitter voltage (VE1), with reference to ground.
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২ 7. Do your measurements indicate that the resistance of the transformer primary coil is very
low?
a. yes
b. no
২ 8. Do your measurements indicate that the Q1 base-emitter junction is forward biased?

a. yes
b. no
২ 9. Do your measurements indicate that the Q1 base-collector junction is reverse biased?

a. yes
b. no
২ 10. Would you conclude that NPN amplifier Q1 is biased incorrectly?

a. yes
b. no
২ 11. Measure the second-stage amplifier (Q2) collector voltage (VC2) with reference to ground.
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২ 12. Measure the second-stage amplifier (Q2) base voltage (VB2) with reference to ground.
২ 13. Measure the second-stage amplifier (Q2) emitter voltage (VE2) with reference to ground.
২ 14. Do your measurements indicate that the Q2 base-emitter junction is forward biased?
a. yes
b. no
VC2 = (Step 11, Recall Number 5)
VB2 = (Step 12, Recall Number 6)
VE2 = (Step 13, Recall Number 7)
২ 15. Do your measurements indicate that the Q2 base-collector junction is reverse biased?
a. yes
b. no
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২ 16. Would you conclude that NPN amplifier Q2 is biased incorrectly?

a. yes
b. no
২ 17. Is the dc bias the same for the first and second-stage amplifiers?
a. yes
b. no
Q1 Q2
VC (Step 4, Recall Value 2) (Step 11, Recall Value 5)
VB (Step 5, Recall Value 3) (Step 12, Recall Value 6)
VE (Step 6, Recall Value 4) (Step 13, Recall Value 7)
২ 18. Is the Q1 collector voltage the same as the Q2 base voltage?

a. yes
b. no
CONCLUSION
• Two amplifiers are transformer-coupled when a transformer connects the output of the first-stage
amplifier to the input of the second-stage amplifier.
• The transformer primary coil in the collector circuit of the first-stage CE amplifier has a low dc
resistance.
• The transformer blocks dc current between the first and second-stage amplifiers, enabling each
amplifier to maintain its dc bias.
• The secondary coil of the transformer in your circuit had to be connected to ground through a
capacitor to maintain the dc bias of the second-stage transistor.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
Make sure that VA is 15 Vdc.
Place the CM switch 5 in the ON position to short (approximately 100 Ω) blocking capacitor C3 to
ground.
Measure VC2 with reference to ground.

V = Vdc (Recall Value 1)
C2
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B2

E2
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Second-stage amplifier Q2 is
b. operating in the active region.
d. not transformer-coupled to the first stage.
2. A transformer-coupled amplifier can be identified by

a. two NPN common emitter amplifiers.
b. a capacitor connecting the secondary coil to ground.
c. the voltage divider resistors of each amplifier.
d. the transformer connecting the amplifier stages.
3. The transformer connecting the amplifier stages

a. blocks the dc current between amplifier stages, thus maintaining the dc bias of each stage.
b. passes dc current between amplifier stages but blocks ac signals.
c. has a high primary coil resistance.
d. is connected between the first-stage emitter terminal and the second-stage base terminal.
4. The primary coil of the transformer is

a. in the collector circuit of the second-stage amplifier.
b. in the emitter circuit of the first-stage amplifier.
c. in the collector circuit of the first-stage amplifier.
d. connected to the base terminal of the second-stage amplifier.
5. The purpose of having a voltage divider circuit for each amplifier is to

a. prevent dc interaction between amplifiers.
b. provide a return path for the first amplifier emitter current.
c. have the same dc bias for each stage.
d. properly bias each amplifier.
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Exercise 2: AC Operation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine the ac voltage gain, impedance
matching, and input/output phase relationship of a transformer-coupled amplifier by using measured and
calculated values. You will verify your results with a multimeter and an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
This is the ac operation schematic of the transformer-coupled two-stage amplifier circuit.
A sine wave generator (GEN) provides the ac input signal (Vi1) at the base of the first-stage amplifier (Q1).
The primary coil of T1 is in the collector circuit of first-stage amplifier Q1.
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The secondary coil of T1 connects to the base of second-stage amplifier Q2.
A function of the transformer is to match the low impedance of the second-stage base circuit with the high
impedance of the first-stage collector circuit.
T1 matches the high impedance of the first-stage output to the

a. high impedance of the second-stage input.
b. low impedance of the first-stage input.
c. low impedance of the second-stage input.
The impedance of the primary transformer coil (ZP) in the collector circuit equals the impedance of the
secondary coil (ZS) times the square of the transformer turns ratio (NP/NS).
ZP = ZS x (NP/NS)2
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The impedance of the second-stage base circuit, which is connected to the secondary coil, is 0.89 kΩ: the
parallel resistance of R7, R6, R8, and β x (re' + R10).
The turns ratio of transformer T1 (NP/NS) is 1.96.

ZP = ZS x (NP/NS)2
What is the primary coil impedance (ZP) when ZS equals 0.89 kΩ?
ZP = kΩ (Recall Value 1)
The transformer also reduces (steps down) the ac peak-to-peak voltage between the primary and
secondary coils in proportion to the turns ratio.
The collector signal (Vc1) of the first-stage CE amplifier is not exactly 180º out of phase with the input
signal (Vi1) because of the inductive reactance of the primary transformer coil.
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The transformer secondary coil signal (Vo1) is either in phase or 180º out of phase with the primary coil
signal (Vc1) depending on the connection point to the secondary coil.
The dot on the bottom of the primary coil and the dot on the top of the secondary coil indicate that the
signals at these two points are in phase.
The voltage gain (Av1) of the first-stage (Q1) equals the voltage ratio of the input and output signals.
Av1 = –Vo1/Vi1
NOTE: The minus sign (–) indicates phase inversion.
The first-stage ac input signal (Vi1) is measured at the base of Q1, and the output signal (Vo1) is measured
at the base of Q2.
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The first-stage output signal (Vo1) is less than the first-stage collector signal (Vc1) because the transformer
steps down the signal.
Due to the transformer, the first-stage output signal (Vo1) is

a. the same as the first-stage collector signal, Vc1.
b. less than Vc1.
c. more than Vc1.
The ac output load (RL2) of Q2 is the collector resistor (R9).
The voltage gain of Q2 (Av2) can be expressed by any of the following equations.
Av2 = –Vo2/Vi2
Av2 = –RL2 /R10

Av2 = –R9/R10
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The overall circuit voltage gain (Avc) of a two-stage transformer coupled amplifier circuit is the ratio of the
second-stage output signal to the first-stage input signal.
Avc = Vo2/Vi1
The overall circuit gain (Avc) also equals the product of the gains of each stage.
Avc = Vo2/Vi1
or
Avc = (–Vo1/Vi1) x (–Vo2/Vi2)
or
Avc = Av1 x Av2
The output signal (Vo2) is not quite in phase with the input signal (Vi1) because of the inductive reactance
of the transformer.
Due to the transformer action, the ac cutoff point is at a collector to emitter voltage (VCE(cutoff)) higher than
the dc supply voltage (VA).
VCE(cutoff) can be as high as two times VA.
The output signal (Vo2) is not quite in phase with the input signal (Vi1) because of the
a. phase shift of transistors Q1 and Q2.
b. inductive reactance of the transformer.
c. phase shift of the RC coupling.
PROCEDURE

circuit for ac operation, as shown.
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২ 2. Measure VA with reference to ground.
২ 4. Connect the channel 2 oscilloscope probe to the ac collector signal (Vc1) at the primary coil
of the transformer T1 and the collector of Q1.
What is Vo1?
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২ 5. With the channel 2 probe connected to the Q1 collector signal (Vc1), connect the channel 1
probe to the Q1 emitter terminal (Ve1).
২ 6. Adjust the oscilloscope to measure the dc levels of the ac signals on channels 1 and 2.
২ 7. Adjust the sine wave generator to increase the ac input signal to the point just before the ac
collector and emitter signals start to become distorted (cutoff point).
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২ 8. Measure the voltage difference (VCE(cutoff)) between the peak of the collector signal on
channel 2 and the valley of the emitter signal on channel 1.
২ 9. Is VCE(cutoff) greater than the dc voltage supply (VA)?

a. yes
b. no
VCE(cutoff) = Vdc (Step 8, Recall Value 3)
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২ 10. Connect the channel 1 probe to the base of Q1.

Adjust the sine wave generator for a 1 kHz, 100 mVpk-pk input signal (Vi1).
২ 11. Connect the channel 1 probe to the base of Q2, which is the first-stage output signal (Vo1)
and the second-stage input signal (Vi2).
Enter the value of Vo1 (Vi2).
Vo1 (Vi2) = mVpk-pk (Recall Value 4)
২ 12. Is Vo1 (Vi2) equal to Vc1?

a. yes
b. no
Vo1 (Vi2) = mVpk-pk (Step 11, Recall Value 4)
Vc1 = mVpk-pk (Step 4, Recall Value 2)
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২ 13. Do your voltage measurements verify that T1 is a step-down transformer?

a. yes
b. no
২ 14. Calculate Av1.

Vo1 = Vi2
Vo1 (Vi2) = mVpk-pk (Step 11, Recall Value 4)
Vi1 = 100 mVpk-pk
২ 15. Connect the channel 2 oscilloscope probe to Vo2.

What is Vo2?
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২ 16. Calculate Av2.
২ 17. Connect the channel 1 probe to the base of Q1 (Vi1).
২ 18. Calculate the overall circuit gain.
Vi1 = 100 mVpk-pk
Avc = Vo2/Vi1 = (Recall Value 8)
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২ 19. Does Avc equal the product of Av1 and Av2?

a. yes
b. no
২ 20. Continue to monitor Vo2.
২ 21. Adding a load (R12) of equal value to the resistor (R9 equals 4.7 kΩ) effectively reduces the
output voltage by half.
২ 22. Adding an emitter bypass capacitor (C5) to Q2 greatly increases gain by providing the ac
signal with a low emitter impedance.
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CONCLUSION
• In a transformer-coupled two-stage amplifier, the transformer matches the second-stage input with
the high output impedance of the first stage.
• The first-stage amplifier ac collector to emitter cutoff voltage (VCE(cutoff)) can be up to two times the dc
supply voltage.
• The voltage gain of a transformer-coupled two-stage amplifier is the product of the gains of each
stage.
• Connecting an external load across the output of a transformer-coupled amplifier reduces the voltage
gain.
• Using a capacitor to bypass the emitter resistor of the second stage greatly increases the voltage
gain.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Set the sign wave generator for a 1 kHz, 100 mVpk-pk input signal.
Place the CM switch 13 in the ON position to change the value of R12 from 4.7 kΩ to 1 kΩ.
Measure the value of the second-stage output signal with load (L) resistor (R12) and bypass (B)
capacitor (C5) connected as shown in the schematic.
Vo2(L/B) = mVpk-pk (Recall Value 1)
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Using your measured value of Vo2(L/B), calculate the overall circuit gain.
Avc(L/B) = (Recall Value 1)/Vi1
Avc(L/B) equals
a. 9.00 because the output load (RL2) decreased.
b. 18.0 because RL2 decreased.
c. 9.00 because RL2 increased.
d. 1.0 because RL2 increased.
2. The overall circuit voltage gain of a two-stage transformer-coupled amplifier is the

a. difference between the second- and first-stage gains.
b. sum of the first- and second-stage gains.
c. second-stage gain divided by the first-stage gain.
d. product of the first- and second-stage gains.
3. The purpose of the transformer in a transformer-coupled amplifier is to

a. m atch the low output impedance of the first stage with the high input impedance of the second
stage.
b. match the high output impedance of the first stage with the low input impedance of the second
stage.
c. increase the signal amplitude between the first-stage collector and second-stage base.
d. maintain equal input and output impedances.
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4. The ac collector to emitter cutoff voltage (VCE(cutoff)) in a transformer-coupled amplifier

a. can be up to twice the dc supply voltage.
b. is never greater than the dc supply voltage.
c. is half of the dc collector to emitter cutoff voltage.
d. is not a concern in transformer-coupled amplifier design.
5. Connecting an external load across the second-stage output of a transformer-coupled amplifier

a. increases the amplifier gain.
b. increases the input impedance of the second stage.
c. changes the input/output phase relationship.
d. decreases the amplifier gain.
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Exercise 3: Frequency Response
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine the frequency response of a
transformer-coupled amplifier by using measured values. You will verify your results with a multimeter and
an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
Voltage gain (Av), the voltage ratio of the input signal to the output signal, can be expressed
logarithmically as well as arithmetically.
The unit for logarithmic gain is the decibel (dB).
The logarithmic voltage gain in decibels (dBv) is plotted against the input signal frequency to give a
frequency response curve.
You will use decibels to determine the frequency response and bandwidth of a two-stage transformer-
coupled amplifier.
The unit of logarithmic gain is the

a. decibel.
b. log.
The logarithmic voltage gain in decibels is calculated from the arithmetic voltage gain.
Voltage gain in dBv = 20 log10 (Vo/Vi) or 20 log10 (Av)
One reason decibels are used to express gain is that human hearing has a logarithmic response.
If the decibel level of a loudspeaker output is doubled, the sound seems twice as loud to the human ear.
Doubling the decibel level is equivalent to a tenfold increase in arithmetic gain.
To the human ear, if the decibel level of a loudspeaker output is doubled, the sound seems
a. the same.
b. twice as loud.
c. ten times as loud.
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As shown, transformer-coupled amplifiers have a poorer frequency response than do RC-coupled

amplifiers because of the transformer frequency response.
T1 has a frequency response specification of ±2 dB between 200 Hz and 10 kHz.
Any frequency response measurement outside of this specification is unpredictable.
Unreliable frequency response of this amplifier outside of about 200 Hz to 10 kHz is due to
a. the RC coupling.
c. the NPN transistors.
PROCEDURE

circuit for frequency measurements, as shown.
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২ 2. Measure VA with reference to ground.
২ 3. While observing the signal on oscilloscope channel 1, adjust the sine wave for a 1 kHz,
100 mVpk-pk ac input signal (Vi1) at the base of transistor Q1.
২ 4. Connect the channel 2 oscilloscope probe to the second-stage ac output signal (Vo2) at the
collector of Q2.
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২ 5. Measure Vo2 at a frequency of 1 kHz.
২ 6. Adjust the sine wave generator for 200 Hz and, if necessary, readjust the input signal (Vi1) to
100 mVpk-pk.
২ 7. Adjust the sine wave generator for 3 kHz and, if necessary, readjust the input signal (Vi1) to
100 mVpk-pk.
২ 8. Adjust the sine wave generator for 10 kHz and, if necessary, readjust the input signal (Vi1) to
100 mVpk-pk. Measure Vo2 at a frequency of 10 kHz.
২ 9. Calculate the overall loaded circuit gain for an input frequency of 200 Hz (Avc(L) = Vo2/Vi1).
Avc(L) = (Recall Value 6)
Frequency Vo2
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২ 10. Calculate the overall loaded circuit gain for an input frequency of 1 kHz (Avc(L) = Vo2/Vi1).
২ 13. This is a typical frequency response curve for the two-stage transformer-coupled amplifier
circuit.
২ 14. The points on the curve correspond to the frequencies at which you calculated the amplifier
gains (Avc(L)).
২ 15. The Y-axis shows your approximate calculated gains.
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The X-axis of the frequency response curve is a logarithmic scale for the range of input signal
frequencies (100 Hz to 200 kHz).
২ 16. Do the gains on the frequency curve increase sharply before a frequency of 1 kHz and
decrease sharply after 100 kHz?
a. yes
b. no
২ 17. Are the gains for frequencies in the frequency range of 1 kHz to 20 kHz generally within the
bandwidth of the two-stage transformer-coupled amplifier?
a. yes
b. no
CONCLUSION
• Voltage gain can be expressed in logarithmic units called decibels; decibels are plotted against input
signal frequency for a frequency response curve.
• The frequency response curve of a transformer-coupled amplifier is poorer than that of an RC-
coupled amplifier.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Expressing gain in decibels is desirable because human hearing is a(n)

a. arithmetic response.
b. geometric response.
c. logarithmic response.
d. exponential response.
2. The logarithmic voltage gain equals

a. 10 log10 (Av).
b. 20 log10 (Av).
c. 20 x Av.
d. Av/(20 log10).
3. The frequency response of the transformer-coupled amplifier in this exercise is good for input signal
frequencies
a. above 100 kHz.
b. less than 20 Hz.
c. between 1 kHz and 10 kHz.
d. between 100 Hz and 100 kHz.
4. A transformer-coupled amplifier has a poorer frequency response than does an RC-coupled amplifier
because
a. of the effect of the transformer response on the amplifier circuit.
b. there is no first-stage collector resistor.
c. the transformer steps down the ac signal.
d. of transformer impedance matching.
5. The poor frequency response of a transformer-coupled amplifier is offset by

a. high current gains.
b. low power consumption.
c. high voltage gains.
d. no signal distortion.
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UNIT TEST
1. The component that identifies a circuit as a transformer-coupled amplifier is the

a. capacitor connecting the secondary coil of the transformer to ground.
b. configuration of the second-stage bias resistors.
c. transformer connecting the first-stage output to the second-stage input.
d. emitter bypass resistor.
2. The dc bias for each transformer-coupled amplifier should be

a. proportional to the gain of each transistor.
b. set for the optimum Q-point of each stage.
c. proportional to the transformer primary to secondary turns ratio.
d. set so that the collector voltages of the first and second stages are equal.
3. In the transformer-coupled amplifier shown , the dc collector voltage of the first stage approximately
equals
a. the dc supply voltage (VA).
b. the base voltage of the second stage.
c. half of VA.
d. the collector voltage of the second stage.
4. The impedance of the transformer primary coil (output impedance of the first stage) equals the
a. input impedance of the second-stage amplifier.
b. resistance of the primary coil.
c. parallel resistance of the second-stage voltage divider resistors.
d. impedance of the secondary coil times the square of the primary to secondary turns ratio.
5. The input/output phase relationship of a transformer-coupled CE amplifier

a. d
epends on the locations of the connections to the primary and secondary coils of the
transformer.
b. is always in phase.
c. is always out of phase.
d. depends on the input signal frequency.
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6. In the transformer-coupled amplifier shown, the first-stage gain equals the

a. value of the collector resistor divided by the value of emitter resistor R5.
b. turns ratio of the transformer.
c. impedance of the primary coil of the transformer divided by the value of R5.
d. turns ratio of the transformer divided by the value of R5.
7. When a bypass capacitor is connected in parallel with the second-stage emitter resistor,
a. the frequency response is greatly decreased.
b. the overall gain increases.
c. the gain of the second stage decreases.
d. input/output phase relationship changes by 180°.
8. The voltage gain expressed in decibels (dB)

a. is an exponential relationship of the output signal voltage divided by the input signal voltage.
b. is a logarithmic relationship of the output signal voltage divided by the input signal voltage.
c. is the metric system method of expressing gain.
d. takes the power consumption of the amplifier into account.
9. The frequency response of a transformer-coupled amplifier

a. is very good below frequencies of 5 kHz.
b. is very good above frequencies of 100 kHz.
c. is not as good as that of an RC-coupled amplifier.
d. depends on the transformer turns ratio.
10. One advantage of a transformer-coupled amplifier is its

a. very good frequency response.
b. low cost.
c. good fidelity.
d. low power consumption.
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TROUBLESHOOTING I
Before you connect the circuit, measure the resistance of the transformer T1 primary coil.
Your measured T1 primary resistance will be used as the nominal value in the performance
specification table.
T1 primary = Ω (Recall Value 1)
২ 2. Measure the resistance of the transformer T1 secondary coil.

NOTE: T1 secondary coil is in parallel with R7. Since the resistance of R7 is approximately ten times the
value of a good T1 secondary coil resistance it has little effect on the measurement and can be ignored.
Your measured T1 secondary resistance will be used as the nominal value in the performance
T1 secondary = Ω (Recall Value 2)
২ 3. Connect the transformer coupled amplifier circuit shown.
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২ 4. While observing the signal on oscilloscope channel 1, adjust VGEN for 1 kHz, 100 mVpk-pk ac
input signal (Vi1) at the base of transistor Q1.
২ 5. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the transformer coupled amplifier circuit is
Measure Vi1.
২ 6. Measure Vo2.
২ 7. Have your instructor insert a fault into the transformer-coupled amplifier circuit. Select an
item to begin troubleshooting your circuit. Enter your observed values in the table.
VA 15.00 Vdc, ±3%
Vi1 100 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vo2 314 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Phase* 20° out of phase
Distortion* None
Vc1 328 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vi2 137 mVpk-pk, ±25%
VC1 14.67 Vdc, ±25%
VB1 1.86 Vdc, ±25%
VE1 1.24 Vdc, ±25%
VC2 9.23 Vdc, ±25%
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VB2 1.86 Vdc, ±25%
VE2 1.23 Vdc, ±25%
T1 Primary Coil 265.00 Ω, ±25%
T1 Secondary Coil 112.00 Ω, ±25%

c. T1 (short in secondary coil).
d. T1 (open circuit in secondary coil).
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TROUBLESHOOTING II

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Measure Vi1.
২ 6. Measure Vo2.
VA 15.00 Vdc, ±3%
Vi1 100 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vo2 314 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Distortion* None
Vc1 328 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vi2 137 mVpk-pk, ±25%
VC1 14.67 Vdc, ±25%
VB1 1.86 Vdc, ±25%
VE1 1.24 Vdc, ±25%
VC2 9.23 Vdc, ±25%
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VB2 1.86 Vdc, ±25%
VE2 1.23 Vdc, ±25%

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TROUBLESHOOTING III

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Measure Vi1.
২ 6. Measure Vo2.
VA 15.00 Vdc, ±3%
Vi1 100 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vo2 314 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Distortion* None
Vc1 328 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vi2 137 mVpk-pk, ±25%
VC1 14.67 Vdc, ±25%
VB1 1.86 Vdc, ±25%
VE1 1.24 Vdc, ±25%
VC2 9.23 Vdc, ±25%
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VB2 1.86 Vdc, ±25%
VE2 1.23 Vdc, ±25%

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Transistor Amplifier Circuits Direct Coupling
Unit 9: Direct Coupling

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to demonstrate the operation of a direct-coupled, two-stage
amplifier by using measured circuit conditions.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
When the output of the first-stage amplifier (Q1) is directly connected to the input of the second-stage
amplifier (Q2), the amplifiers are direct coupled.
The frequency response at low frequencies is very good for direct-coupled amplifiers. The dc conditions
of each amplifier stage are not isolated. A direct-coupled amplifier is temperature sensitive and requires
stabilizing circuits to minimize drifting of the dc bias.
When the Q1 collector is connected to the Q2 base, the amplifiers are

a. RC coupled.
b. transformer coupled.
c. direct coupled.
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Direct Coupling Transistor Amplifier Circuits
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

None
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Multimeter
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
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Exercise 1: Direct-Coupled Amplifier DC Operation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine the dc operating conditions
of a direct-coupled, two-stage amplifier by using measured values. You will verify your results with a
multimeter.
DISCUSSION
This is the dc operation schematic of the direct-coupled amplifier circuit.
The direct-coupled circuit includes two common emitter amplifiers:

The first stage is an NPN transistor, Q1.
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The second stage is a PNP transistor, Q2.
The Q1 output at the collector terminal connects directly to the Q2 input at the base terminal.
The first-stage collector voltage (VC1) and second-stage base voltage (VB2) are the same.
In a direct-coupled amplifier circuit, the second-stage base voltage (VB2) equals the first-stage
a. emitter voltage (VE1).
b. base voltage (VB1).
c. collector voltage (VC1).
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The first-stage common emitter amplifier (Q1) is an NPN transistor with dc conditions similar to those of
NPNs used in previous units.
The second-stage common emitter amplifier (Q2) is a PNP transistor.
The Q2 PNP emitter voltage (VE2) is about 0.6 Vdc more positive than the base voltage (VB2) when the
base-emitter junction is forward biased.
Because the base-collector junction is normally reverse biased, the collector voltage (VC2) is less positive
than the base voltage (VB2).
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In a PNP amplifier circuit, the transistor operates normally when the

a. base-emitter junction is forward biased.
b. base-collector junction is reverse biased.
Amplifier Q1 has a voltage divider circuit (R1 + R2 and R3) to set and stabilize the dc bias of the first
stage.
Q2 does not have a voltage-divider circuit. The base voltage (VB2) is set by the first-stage collector
voltage (VC1).
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The absence of a voltage divider in Q2 makes the dc bias more sensitive to temperature changes.
The second-stage emitter resistor (R6) provides some feedback to counteract dc bias drift due to
temperature, but it is not as effective as a voltage-divider circuit.
In a direct-coupled amplifier such as this one, is there dc interaction between stages?

a. yes
b. no
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PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the DIRECT COUPLING block, and connect the direct-coupled amplifier circuit for dc
operation, as shown.
২ 2. What feature indicates that the CE amplifier circuit you just connected is direct coupled?
a. A capacitor connects the two stages.
b. The first-stage collector ties directly to the second-stage base.
c. The first-stage base ties directly to the second-stage collector.
২ 3. Measure the value of the supply voltage (VA) with reference to ground.
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২ 4. Adjust potentiometer R1 for a Q1 collector voltage (VC1) of 13.40 Vdc.
২ 5. Measure the first-stage amplifier (Q1) collector voltage with reference to ground.
২ 6. Measure the first-stage amplifier (Q1) base voltage with reference to ground.
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২ 7. Measure the first-stage amplifier (Q1) emitter voltage with reference to ground.

a. yes
b. no

a. yes
b. no
২ 10. Would you conclude that Q1 is biased correctly?

a. no
b. yes
২ 11. Is Q1 operating in the active region?

a. yes
b. no
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২ 12. Measure the second-stage amplifier (Q2) collector voltage with reference to ground.
২ 13. Measure the second-stage amplifier (Q2) base voltage with reference to ground.
২ 14. Measure the second-stage amplifier (Q2) emitter voltage with reference to ground.
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a. yes
b. no
a. yes
b. no
২ 17. Would you conclude that Q2 is biased correctly?

a. no
b. yes
২ 18. Is Q2 operating in the active region?

a. yes
b. no
২ 19. Is the dc bias the same for the first- and second-stage amplifiers?
a. yes
b. no
২ 20. Is the second-stage base voltage (VB2) equal to the first-stage collector voltage (VC1)?
a. yes
b. no
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CONCLUSION
• Two amplifiers are direct coupled when the output of the first stage connects directly to the input of
the second stage.
• In a direct-coupled amplifier, the dc bias of each stage is not isolated.
• The temperature stability of a direct-coupled amplifier is not as good as that of an RC or a

transformer-coupled amplifier.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Locate the DIRECT COUPLING circuit block and connect the direct-coupled amplifier circuit shown.
Adjust R1 for 13.40 Vdc at VC1.
Place the CM switch 19 in the ON position to change the value of R7 from 3.3 kΩ to 6.8 kΩ.
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Measure the the second-stage amplifier (Q2) collector voltage with reference to ground.
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The second-stage amplifier is

b. still operating in the active region.
d. not direct coupled to the first stage.
2. The identifying feature(s) of a direct-coupled amplifier is (are)

a. NPN and PNP common emitter amplifiers.
b. a capacitor and a resistor used to connect a first-stage output to a second-stage input.
c. the voltage divider resistors for each amplifier.
d. a direct connection between the output of a stage to the input of the following stage.
3. The collector resistor of the first stage

a. also serves as the bias resistor for the input of the second stage.
b. eliminates the need to bias the second stage.
c. changes the gain of the second stage.
d. must be 2.2 kΩ.
4. In a direct-coupled amplifier, the dc biases of the stages

a. are not isolated.
b. do not affect each other.
c. have very good temperature stability.
d. must be set by voltage-divider circuits.
5. The temperature stability of a direct-coupled amplifier is

a. better than that of a transformer-coupled amplifier.
b. better than that of an RC-coupled amplifier.
c. not as good as that of an RC- or a transformer-coupled amplifier.
d. very good if the first stage is a PNP transistor and the second stage is an NPN transistor.
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Exercise 2: Direct-Coupled Amplifier AC Operation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine the ac voltage gain and the input/
output phase relationship of a direct-coupled amplifier by using measured and calculated values. You will
verify your results with a multimeter and an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
This is the ac operation schematic of the direct-coupled, two-stage amplifier circuit.
A sine wave generator provides the ac input signal (Vi1) at the base of the first-stage amplifier (Q1).
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The output signal (Vo2) is in phase with the input signal (Vi1) because of the 180º phase inversion by each
common emitter amplifier stage.
The input/output signal phase relationship is determined by the

a. frequency of the input signal.
b. configuration of each stage.
c. coupling capacitor.
The voltage gain of Q1 (Av1) equals the voltage ratio of the input to output signals.
Av1 = –Vo1/Vi1
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Voltage gain is also essentially equal to the ratio of the collector resistor (R4) to the emitter resistor (R5).
Av1 = –R4/R5
The voltage gain of Q1 (Av1) equals

a. R5/R4.
b. Vi /Vo1.
c. –Vo1/Vi1.
The first-stage ac input signal (Vi1) is measured at the base of Q1, and the output signal (Vo1) is measured
at the collector of Q1 (base of Q2).
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The ac output load of Q2 (RL2) is the collector resistor (R7).
The voltage gain of Q2 (Av2) can be expressed by any of the following equations.
Av2 = –Vo2/Vi2
Av2 = –RL2/R6
Av2 = –R7/R6

a. Vi2/Vo2.
b. –R7/RL2.
c. –Vo2/Vi2.
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The overall circuit voltage gain (Avc) of a two-stage, direct-coupled amplifier circuit is determined by the
ratio of the second-stage output signal to the first-stage input signal. Avc = Vo2/Vi1
The overall circuit gain also equals the product of the gains of each stage.
Avc = (–Vo1/Vi1) x (–Vo2/Vi2) = Av1 x Av2
The overall circuit gain (Avc) equals

a. Vi1/Vo2.
b. (–Vo1/Vi1) x (–Vo2/Vi2).
c. Av1/Av2.
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PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the DIRECT COUPLING circuit block, and connect the direct-coupled amplifier circuit
for ac operation, as shown.
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Enter the exact value of VC1.
২ 4. While observing the signal on channel 1 of the oscilloscope, adjust the sine wave generator
for a 1 kHz, 100 mVpk-pk ac input signal (Vi1) at the base of transistor Q1.
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২ 5. Connect the channel 2 oscilloscope probe to the ac output signal of Q1 (Vo1) at the collector
terminal.
Measure Vo1.
২ 6. Compared to the input signal, is there any distortion in the Q1 output signal waveform (Vo1)?
a. yes
b. no
২ 7. What is the phase shift between the

signals at Vo1 and Vi1?
a. 0º
b. 180º
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Vi1 = 100 mVpk-pk
২ 9. Connect the channel 1 oscilloscope probe to the ac output signal of Q2 (Vo2) at the collector
terminal.
Measure Vo2.
২ 10. What is the phase shift between the signals at Vo2 and Vi2?
a. 0°
b. 180°
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২ 12. Is there any distortion between the signals at Vo2 and Vi1?
a. yes
b. no
২ 13. Calculate the overall circuit gain (Avc).

Vi1 = 100 mVpk-pk
Avc(calc) = Vo2/Vi1 = (Recall Value 7)
২ 14. Calculate the overall gain using the product of the first- and second-stage gains.
Avc = Av1 x Av2 = (Recall Value 8)
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২ 15. Does the measured overall circuit gain (Avc) equal the product of Av1 and Av2?
a. yes
b. no
Av1 x Av2 = (Step 14, Recall Value 8)
Avc(calc) = (Step 13, Recall Value 7)
২ 16. Adding load resistor R9 to the output of the direct-coupled amplifier decreases the value of
collector resistor R7, decreasing gain.
২ 17. Adding bypass capacitor C2 provides a low impedance path for ac signals at the Q2 emitter,
increasing voltage gain.
Resistor R8 in series with C2 develops the signal.
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CONCLUSION
• The voltage gain of a direct-coupled, two-stage amplifier is the product of the gains of each stage.
• Connecting an external load across the output of a direct-coupled amplifier reduces the voltage gain.
• Bypassing the emitter resistor of the second stage with a capacitor greatly increases the voltage gain.
• The input/output signal phase relationship of a two-stage, direct-coupled amplifier is determined

by the amplifier configuration of each stage; the input/output signals of two direct-coupled common
emitter amplifiers are in phase.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Locate the DIRECT COUPLING circuit block and connect the circuit shown.
Set the sine wave generator for a 1 kHz, 100 mVpk-pk input signal (Vi1).
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If necessary, readjust R1 for 13.40 Vdc at VC1.
Observe the output signal (Vo2).
Place the CM switch 16 in the ON position to short the junction of R8 and C2 to the 15.0 Vdc power
supply (capacitor C2 shorted).
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The output signal (Vo2) was reduced to 0 mVpk-pk when the CM was activated because the
a. second-stage amplifier bias was placed at the cutoff point.
b. direct-coupled circuit between the first and second stages was shorted.
c. second-stage amplifier bias was placed at the saturation point.
d. second-stage amplifier base-emitter junction is reverse biased.
2. The input and output signals of a direct-coupled amplifier are

a. in phase.
b. 180º out of phase.
c. sometimes 90º out of phase.
d. in phase or 180º out of phase depending on the configuration of each amplifier stage.
3. The ac voltage gain (Avc) of a direct-coupled amplifier equals the

a. product of the individual stage voltage gains.
b. product of the transistor beta (β) of each stage.
c. sum of the voltage gains of each stage.
d. second-stage collector resistor value divided by the first-stage emitter resistor value.
4. Connecting a resistive load on the output of a direct-coupled amplifier

a. causes waveform distortions.
b. changes the input/output phase relationship.
c. decreases the voltage gain.
d. increases the voltage gain.
5. In a direct-coupled amplifier, bypassing the emitter resistor of the second stage

a. causes waveform distortions.
b. changes the input/output phase relationship.
c. decreases the voltage gain.
d. increases the voltage gain.
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Exercise 3: Direct-Coupled Amp Frequency Response
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine the frequency response of a
direct-coupled amplifier by using measured values. You will verify your results with a multimeter and an
oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
The bandwidth of a direct-coupled amplifier can extend to frequencies below 5 Hz.
The frequency response is good at low frequencies because there is no capacitor in the connection path.
Capacitive reactance (XC) reduces amplifier gains at low frequencies, and transformers have poor
frequency response at low frequencies.
The frequency response of this amplifier is good at low frequencies because it is

a. capacitor-coupled.
b. transformer-coupled.
c. direct-coupled.
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Capacitive reactance (XC) increases with a decrease in signal frequency.

In an RC-coupled amplifier, the capacitive reactance (XC) of a 1.0 µF capacitor becomes large enough at
frequencies below 50 Hz to reduce the gain.
As signal frequency decreases, capacitive reactance (XC)

a. decreases.
b. increases.
c. stays the same.
In a transformer-coupled amplifier, the gain drops off at the lower frequencies because of the transformer
characteristics.
The direct-coupled amplifier eliminates any capacitive reactance or poor transformer response between
stages simply by having a direct connection.
Consequently, the amplifier gain, in theory, is not affected by low signal frequencies.
However, the output signal coupling capacitor starts reducing the magnitude of the output signal at
frequencies below 5 kHz.
The high frequency limit on the bandwidth is caused by frequency-dependent amplifier parameters and
stray circuit capacitance.
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The high frequency limit on the bandwidth is caused by

a. frequency-dependent amplifier parameters.
b. stray circuit capacitance.
PROCEDURE
for frequency measurements, as shown.
R9 is connected to C3, but R8 (not shown) is not connected to R6.
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Enter the value of the voltage.
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1.0 kHz, 100 mVpk-pk ac input signal (Vi1) at the base of transistor Q1.
২ 5. Connect the channel 2 oscilloscope probe to monitor the second-stage ac output signal
(Vo2).
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২ 6. Measure Vo2 at a frequency of 1.0 kHz.
২ 7. Adjust the sine wave generator for 20 Hz, and if necessary readjust the input signal (Vi1) for
100 mVpk-pk.
২ 8. Adjust the sine wave generator for 50 Hz, and if necessary readjust Vi1 for 100 mVpk-pk.
২ 9. Adjust the sine wave generator for 50 kHz, and if necessary readjust Vi1 for 100 mVpk-pk.
২ 10. Adjust the sine wave generator for 100 kHz, and if necessary readjust Vi1 for 100 mVpk-pk.
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২ 11. Calculate AvcL for an input frequency of 20 Hz.
Frequency Vo2
২ 12. Calculate AvcL for an input frequency of 50 Hz.
AvcL = Vo2 /Vi1 = (Recall Value 9)
২ 13. Calculate AvcL for an input frequency of 1 kHz.
২ 16. Convert the arithmetic gain (AvcL) to decibels for an input frequency of 20 Hz: gain in dBv
equals 20 log10 AvcL.
Frequency Vo2 AvcL (Vo2/Vi1)
20 Hz mVpk-pk (Step 7, Recall Value 4) (Step 11, Recall Value 8)
50 Hz mVpk-pk (Step 8, Recall Value 5) (Step 12, Recall Value 9)
1 kHz mVpk-pk (Step 6, Recall Value 3) (Step 13, Recall Value 10)
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২ 17. Convert the arithmetic gain (AvcL) to decibels for an input frequency of 50 Hz: gain in dBv
GAIN IN dBv = (Recall Value 14)
২ 18. Convert the arithmetic gain (AvcL) to decibels for an input frequency of 1 kHz: gain in dBv
২ 21. Shown is the typical frequency response curve for the two-stage, direct-coupled amplifier
circuit.
The points on the curve correspond to the frequencies at which you calculated the amplifier
gains in dBv units.
On the Y-axis of the frequency response curve, typical calculated dBv gains are entered at the
points that correspond to the proper frequencies.
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Based on this curve, does the bandwidth for a direct-coupled amplifier extend to frequencies
below 20 Hz?
a. yes
b. no
২ 22. Based on this curve, what is the high frequency limit (±1 dB) of the bandwidth of a direct-
coupled amplifier?
a. 20 kHz
b. 100 kHz
c. 200 kHz
২ 23. Does the direct-coupled amplifier have a broader bandwidth than an RC or transformer-
coupled amplifier?
a. yes
b. no
CONCLUSION
• At very low frequencies, the frequency response of a direct-coupled amplifier is better than that of an
RC or a transformer-coupled amplifier.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Locate the DIRECT COUPLING AMPLIFIER circuit block and connect the circuit shown. Set the sine
wave generator for an input (Vi1) of 100 mVpk-pk at 1 kHz.
Observe the output signal (Vo2).
Place the CM switch 20 in the ON position to change C3 from 10.0 mF to 0.01 mF.
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The amplitude of the output signal (Vo2) decreases when the CM is activated because the
a. second-stage amplifier bias was placed near the saturation point.
b. capacitive reactance of C3 was increased 1000 times, and C3 and R9 formed a voltage divider.
c. circuit was changed to an RC-coupled amplifier.
d. gain of the second-stage amplifier was reduced.
2. The advantage of a direct-coupled amplifier is good frequency response at input signal frequencies
a. above 100 kHz.
b. less than 20 Hz.
c. between 1 kHz and 10 kHz.
d. between 100 Hz and 100 kHz.
3. RC coupling has poorer frequency response than direct coupling, which

a. has no inductive reactance between stages.
b. eliminates capacitive reactance between stages.
c. has higher possible gains.
d. isolates the dc bias of each stage.
4. The bandwidth (within ±1 dB) for a typical direct-coupled amplifier is

a. 10 Hz to 100 kHz.
b. 5 kHz to 100 kHz.
c. 10 kHz to 200 kHz.
d. 5 kHz to 50 kHz.
5. A direct-coupled amplifier has good frequency response at very low frequencies, but also has
a. a limit on voltage gain.
b. signal distortion in the mid-frequency range.
c. poor temperature stability.
d. high component cost.
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UNIT TEST
1. The identifying feature(s) of a direct-coupled amplifier is (are)

a. NPN and PNP common emitter amplifier.
b. the collector resistor of the first stage is part of the second-stage base circuit.
c. a direct connection between the output of a stage to the input of the following stage.
d. the voltage divider resistors for each amplifier.
2. An NPN transistor is used for the first stage and a PNP transistor is used for the second stage to
a. make dc biasing easier.
b. increase voltage gain.
c. improve frequency response.
d. improve the stability factor.
3. When an NPN common emitter amplifier is directly coupled to a PNP common emitter amplifier, the
a. emitter dc voltages of each stage are equal.
b. collector dc voltage of the first stage equals the base voltage of the second stage.
c. base dc voltages are the same.
d. emitter dc voltage of the first stage equals the base voltage of the second stage.
4. The direct-coupled common emitter NPN/PNP two-stage amplifier has

a. fixed bias circuits for both stages.
b. a voltage divider circuit for the first stage and an emitter feedback bias circuit for the second
stage.
c. voltage divider circuits for each stage.
d. a fixed bias circuit for the first stage and a voltage divider circuit for the second stage.
5. A direct-coupled amplifier has poor temperature stability because

a. both NPN and PNP transistors are used.
b. there is no capacitive or inductive reactance between stages.
c. of the capacitive reactance of the first-stage input signal capacitor.
d. the dc bias of each stage is not isolated.
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6. The output signal of the direct-coupled, two-stage common emitter amplifier shown in the help
window is
a. 180º out of phase with the input signal.
b. 90º out of phase with the input signal.
c. in phase with the input signal.
d. in phase with the first-stage output signal.
7. The ac voltage gain of a direct-coupled amplifier equals the

a. sum of the gains for each stage.
b. gain of the first stage times the beta (β) of the second stage.
c. gain of the second stage divided by the gain of the first stage.
d. gain of the first stage times the gain of the second stage.
8. A bypass capacitor around the emitter resistor of the second stage

a. greatly increases the amplifier gain.
b. greatly reduces the amplifier gain.
c. improves the frequency response of the amplifier.
d. decreases the frequency response bandwidth of the amplifier.
9. The frequency response of a direct-coupled amplifier is better than that of an RC-coupled amplifier
a. at very high frequencies.
b. in the mid-range frequencies.
c. at very low frequencies.
d. if all stages have NPN transistors.
10. The frequency response of a direct-coupled amplifier is better than that of an RC-coupled amplifier at
low frequencies because
a. there is no capacitive reactance between stages.
b. of the emitter feedback bias circuit of the second-stage amplifier.
c. of the combination of NPN and PNP transistors.
d. the voltage gain is greater.
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TROUBLESHOOTING I
shown.
২ 4. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the direct-coupled amplifier circuit is working
Measure Vi1.
২ 5. Measure Vo2.
২ 6. Have your instructor insert a fault into the DIRECT COUPLING amplifier circuit block. Select
an item to begin troubleshooting your circuit. Enter your observed values in the table.
VA 15.00 Vdc, ±3%
Vi1 100 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vo2 707 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Phase* In phase
Distortion* None
Vo1 205 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vi2 205 mVpk-pk, ±25%
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VC1 13.40 Vdc, ±25%
VB1 1.36 Vdc, ±25%
VE1 0.74 Vdc, ±25%
VC2 6.74 Vdc, ±25%
VB2 13.40 Vdc, ±25%
VE2 14.05 Vdc, ±25%

b. Q2 (open base-collector junction).
c. R7 (shorted).
d. Q2 (shorted base-emitter junction).
Student Manual
TROUBLESHOOTING II
shown.
kHz, 100 mVpk-pk ac input signal (Vi1) at the base of transistor Q1.
Measure Vi1.
২ 5. Measure Vo2.
VA 15.00 Vdc, ±3%
Vi1 100 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vo2 707 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Phase* In phase
Distortion* None
Vo1 205 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vi2 205 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Student Manual
VC1 13.40 Vdc, ±25%
VB1 1.36 Vdc, ±25%
VE1 0.74 Vdc, ±25%
VC2 6.74 Vdc, ±25%
VB2 13.40 Vdc, ±25%
VE2 14.05 Vdc, ±25%

c. R7 (shorted).
Student Manual
TROUBLESHOOTING III
shown.
kHz, 100 mVpk-pk ac input signal (Vi1) at the base of transistor Q1.
Measure Vi1.
২ 5. Measure Vo2.
VA 15.00 Vdc, ±3%
Vi1 100 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vo2 707 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Phase* In phase
Distortion* None
Vo1 205 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Vi2 205 mVpk-pk, ±25%
Student Manual
VC1 13.40 Vdc, ±25%
VB1 1.36 Vdc, ±25%
VE1 0.74 Vdc, ±25%
VC2 6.74 Vdc, ±25%
VB2 13.40 Vdc, ±25%
VE2 14.05 Vdc, ±25%

c. R7 (shorted).
Student Manual
Appendix A – Safety
Safety is everyone’s responsibility. All must cooperate to create the safest possible working environment.
Students must be reminded of the potential for harm, given common sense safety rules, and instructed to
follow the electrical safety rules.
Any environment can be hazardous when it is unfamiliar. The FACET computer-based laboratory may
be a new environment to some students. Instruct students in the proper use of the FACET equipment
and explain what behavior is expected of them in this laboratory. It is up to the instructor to provide the
necessary introduction to the learning environment and the equipment. This task will prevent injury to both
student and equipment.
The voltage and current used in the FACET Computer-Based Laboratory are, in themselves, harmless
to a normal, healthy person. However, an electrical shock coming as a surprise will be uncomfortable
and may cause a reaction that could create injury. The students should be made aware of the following
electrical safety rules.
1. Turn off the power before working on a circuit.

2. Always confirm that the circuit is wired correctly before turning on the power. If required, have your
instructor check your circuit wiring.
3. Perform the experiments as you are instructed: do not deviate from the documentation.
4. Never touch “live” wires with your bare hands or with tools.
5. Always hold test leads by their insulated areas.
6. B
e aware that some components can become very hot during operation. (However, this is not a normal
condition for your FACET course equipment.) Always allow time for the components to cool before
proceeding to touch or remove them from the circuit.
7. D
o not work without supervision. Be sure someone is nearby to shut off the power and provide first aid
in case of an accident.
8. Remove power cords by the plug, not by pulling on the cord. Check for cracked or broken insulation on
the cord.
Student Manual
Student Manual
Appendix B – Answer Key

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS
Unit Fundamentals
How many basic transistor amplifier circuit configurations are there?
b. 3
EXERCISE 1 CIRCUIT LOCATION AND IDENTIFICATION
Exercise Discussion
Amplifiers are circuits that can increase
How many transistors are used on the COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block?
b. 1
If potentiometer R4 on the COMMON COLLECTOR circuit block were adjusted fully clockwise (CW), the
resistance across R4 would be
b. maximum.
The heater circuit in the BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block uses
a. a fixed dc supply separate from the transistor supply.
How many transistors are used on the RC COUPLING/TRANSFORMER COUPLING circuit block?
b. 2
The DIRECT COUPLING circuit block uses
c. 1 NPN and 1 PNP transistor.
Exercise Procedure
1. a. COMMON BASE/EMITTER circuit block.
2. b. COLLECTOR, BIAS STABILIZATION, and DIRECT COUPLING circuit blocks.
3. c. BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block.
4. d. DIRECT COUPLING circuit block
5. c. BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block
8. Vo = 4.4 Vpk-pk ± 25% (Recall Value 1)
9. a. yes
12. Vo = 700.0 mVpk-pk ± 25% (Recall Value 2)
13. a. yes
14. b. out of phase
Review Questions
1. d. All of the above.
3. b. use the ATTENUATOR.
4. c. COMMON BASE/EMITTER and RC COUPLING/TRANSFORMER COUPLING circuit blocks.
5. a. change the value of the resistor.
Student Manual
EXERCISE 2 MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIER INTRODUCTION
Exercise Discussion
One of the advantages of a multistage amplifier over a single stage amplifier is that
c. the gain is greater.
To isolate dc bias levels in each stage of a multistage amplifier, you may use a
c. Either of the above.
Output signal distortion may occur if
Exercise Procedure
4. Vo1 = 200.00 mVpk-pk ± 25% (Recall Value 1)
5. a. yes
6. Vo2 = 4.1 Vpk-pk ± 25% (Recall Value 2)
7. a. yes
8. Vo1 = 520.0 mVpk-pk ± 25% (Recall Value 3)
9. b. no
10. a. yes
11. b. Q2
Review Questions
1. c. as a common emitter circuit.
2. a. RC coupling.
3. b. resistor.
4. a. both NPN transistors.
UNIT 2 COMMON BASE CIRCUIT
Unit Fundamentals
For a PNP or NPN transistor to function normally, the base-emitter junction has to be
a. forward biased.
Can a single power source be used to operate a common base (CB) circuit?
a. yes
EXERCISE 1 COMMON BASE CIRCUIT DC OPERATION
Exercise Discussion
This circuit is the common
a. base circuit.
To determine the emitter voltage (VE),
c. subtract 0.6 Vdc from the base voltage.
Collector current essentially equals the
c. emitter current.
The point on the dc load line at which the base-collector voltage (VBC) is zero is the
c. saturation point.
Student Manual
Exercise Procedure
2. VA = 15.0 Vdc ± 3% (Recall Value 1)
3. *VB = 1.154 Vdc ± 3% (Recall Value 2)
4. VB = 1.13 Vdc ± 20% (Recall Value 3)
5. VBE = 0.61 Vdc ± 20% (Recall Value 4)
6. a. yes
7. VBC = 6.17 Vdc ± 25% (Recall Value 5)
8. a. yes
9. a. yes
10. VE = 0.516 Vdc ± 25% (Recall Value 6)
11. *IE = 0.516 mA ± 5% (Recall Value 7)
12. VC = 7.3 Vdc ± 25% (Recall Value 8)
13. *VR4 = 7.7 Vdc ± 5% (Recall Value 9)
14. IC = 0.513 mA ± 5% (Recall Value 10)
15. a. yes
17. VB = 0.0 mVdc ± 20% (Recall Value 12)
18. VE = 0.0 mVdc ± 20% (Recall Value 13)
19. b. no
20. c. cutoff point.
21. a. VBE is less than 0.6 Vdc.
Review Questions
1. VC = 1.94 Vdc ± 25%
VB = 2.54 Vdc ± 25%
VE = 1.86 Vdc ± 25%
2. VC = 13.57 Vdc ± 25%
VB = 1.12 Vdc ± 25%
VE = 0.53 Vdc ± 25%
3. c. more positive than the emitter voltage.
4. a. VA – VB.
5. b. the saturation point.
* NOTE: Min/Max Values shown are based upon a calculation using the absolute lowest and highest recall value. By using the
actual input in your calculations, you will determine the correct value.
Student Manual
EXERCISE 2 COMMON BASE CIRCUIT AC OPERATION
Exercise Discussion
The base of Q1 is shorted to ground for ac signals by
b. C2.
One of the characteristics of the common base (CB) circuit is
b. low input impedance and high output impedance.
The collector and emitter currents are
The voltage gain (Av) of a CB transistor circuit equals the ratio of the
Exercise Procedure
2. VA = 15.0 Vdc ± 3% (Recall Value 1)
4. VB = 1.13 Vdc ± 25% (Recall Value 3)
5. VE = 0.52 Vdc ± 25% (Recall Value 4)
6. a. yes
10. b. no
11. a. in phase
12. *Av = 88.0 ± 5% (Recall Value 6)
15. b. 15.0 kΩ
16. a. increase
17. a. yes
18. a. low CB input impedance.
Review Questions
1. b. is operating in the cutoff region.
2. d. load impedance decreases.
3. a. very low.
4. b. in phase with the signal at the emitter.
5. d. the dc supply voltage minus the base voltage (VA – VB).
UNIT 3 COMMON EMITTER CIRCUIT
Unit Fundamentals
The common emitter (CE) transistor amplifier circuit has
c. All of the above.
Student Manual
EXERCISE 1 COMMON EMITTER CIRCUIT DC OPERATION
Exercise Discussion
To determine the base voltage,
a. use the voltage divider formula.
In the emitter current formula, VE is the same as the voltage across
c. R5 (VR5).
At the saturation point, the practical collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is
b. typically between 0.1 Vdc and 2.0 Vdc.
At what point on the dc load line do the IB, IC, and VCE curves intersect?
c. Q-point (quiescent point)
Exercise Procedure
2. VA = 15.0 Vdc ±3% (Recall Value 1)
3. *VB = 1.154 Vdc ±3% (Recall Value 2)
4. VC = 7.3 Vdc ±25% (Recall Value 3)
5. VB = 1.13 Vdc ±25% (Recall Value 4)
6. a. yes
7. VE = 0.52 Vdc ±25% (Recall Value 5)
8. a. yes
9. a. yes
10. a. yes
11. a. yes
12. *IE = 0.52 mA ±3% (Recall Value 6)
13. *IC = 0.513 mA ±3% (Recall Value 7)
14. a. yes
15. *VCE = 6.78 Vdc ±3% (Recall Value 8)
17. VCE(cutoff) = 15.0 Vdc ±3% (Recall Value 9)
18. IC(sat) = 0.94 mA ±30% (Recall Value 10)
19. a. yes
26. b. VB.
27. a. yes
28. a. yes
Student Manual
Review Questions
VB = 1.13 Vdc ±25% (Recall Value 2)
VE = 0.53 Vdc ±25% (Recall Value 3)
VB = 0.0 mVdc ±0% (Recall Value 5)
VE = 0.0 mVdc ±0% (Recall Value 6)
3. c. 0.6 Vdc more positive than the emitter voltage.
4. c. about on the center of the load line.
5. d. turned off, and essentially no current flows.
EXERCISE 2 COMMON EMITTER CIRCUIT AC OPERATION
Exercise Discussion
The ac load in this CE circuit is the
b. parallel resistance of R4 and R6.
The ac load of the CE circuit equals the
The ac output voltage in a CE circuit is
a. 180º out of phase with the base voltage.
In this CE circuit, the voltage gain (Av) equals
The ac and dc load lines are drawn on the
a. collector current characteristic curves.
The optimum Q-point on the ac load line is
a. where the saturation and cutoff points are equal distances from the Q-point.
Exercise Procedure
6. a. yes
8. Vo = 2.1 Vpk-pk ±25% (Recall Value 5)
9. b. no
10. b. 180º out of phase.
11. *Av = 7.0 ±3% (Recall Value 6)
(meas)
12. Av(calc) = 7.5 ±20% (Recall Value 7)
13. a. yes
Student Manual
14. Ve = 280.0 mVpk-pk ±25% (Recall Value 8)

15. b. in phase.
18. *Ic(sat) = 1.311 mA ±10% (Recall Value 11)
19. Vce(cutoff) = 11.1 Vdc ±25% (Recall Value 12)
21. c. the cutoff point
22. b. the saturation point
Review Questions
1. d. Any of these statements.
2. c. at the saturation point.
3. c. 180º out of phase with the input signal.
4. a. load resistance to the emitter resistance.
5. b. operate in the active region at all times.
UNIT 4 COMMON COLLECTOR CIRCUIT
Unit Fundamentals
The ac output signal of a common collector (CC) circuit is
b. in phase with the input signal.
The CC transistor circuit has
a. high input and low output impedance.
EXERCISE 1 COMMON COLLECTOR CIRCUIT DC OPERATION
Exercise Discussion
Collector voltage (VC) in a common collector circuit equals
a. the dc power supply voltage (VA).
The collector current is assumed to be equal to the emitter current because the
c. base current is very small.
The cutoff point is where
Exercise Procedure
3. *VB = 7.5 Vdc ±5% (Recall Value 2)
5 a. yes
6. *VC = 15.0 Vdc ±3% (Recall Value 4)
8. a. yes
9. a. yes
Student Manual
10. b. yes
11. a. yes
13. a. emitter current.
16. *VCE(cutoff) = 15.0 Vdc ±3% (Recall Value 8)
17. IC(sat) = 2.2 mA ±3% (Recall Value 9)
Review Questions
VB = 4.12 Vdc ±20% (Recall Value 2)
VE = 3.53 Vdc ±20% (Recall Value 3)
2. a. 0.519 mA.
3. d. Q-point changes, but the load line does not.
4. a. 11.47 Vdc
5. d. VA.
EXERCISE 2 COMMON COLLECTOR CIRCUIT AC OPERATION
Exercise Discussion
The ac output signal is taken between ground and the
b. emitter terminal.
Which equation is correct for Av?
As the base voltage (Vi) increases the
b. emitter current increases with the input signal.
You can measure output impedance (Zo) by connecting R4 in parallel with R3 and adjusting R4 to obtain
an output signal (Vo) that is
c. half the output signal (Vo).
Exercise Procedure
2. a. VA.
6. a. yes
9. Vo = 3.97 Vpk-pk ±25% (Recall Value 4)
10. b. no
11. a. in phase
12. *Av = 0.993 ±3% (Recall Value 5)
Student Manual
13. Vo = 70.0 mVpk-pk ±20%

15. R4 = 23.5 Ω ±50% (Recall Value 7)
Review Questions
1. Vo = 3.9 Vpk-pk ±25%
b. in the active region during the complete cycle.
2. a. slope of the load line became less steep.
3. a. in phase with the input signal.
4. d. impedance is high and the output impedance is low.
5. c. emitter follower circuit.
UNIT 5 BIAS STABILIZATION
Unit Fundamentals
Transistor bias refers to the
b. dc operating conditions: the base, collector, and emitter dc currents.
A transistor amplifier circuit with good bias temperature stability has
EXERCISE 1 TEMPERATURE EFFECT ON FIXED BIAS
Exercise Discussion
An increase in transistor temperature increases
The collector leakage current (ICBO) is 10 nA at 30º Celsius. At 40º Celsius, ICBO would be about
b. 20 nA.
A transistor is more stable against temperature change when the transistor stability factor is
a. low.
In a fixed bias circuit, an increase in temperature causes a(n)
The fixed bias circuit is best used for transistor circuits that function as
a. switches.
Exercise Procedure
5. IC = 2.0 mA ±3% (Recall Value 1)
7. VBE(cold) = 0.644 Vdc ±20% (Recall Value 2)
8. VBE(hot) = 0.606 Vdc ±20% (Recall Value 3)
10. b. decrease
11. VBE = 0.038 Vdc ±3% (Recall Value 4)
13. VR5(cold) = 0.2 Vdc ±20% (Recall Value 5)
14. *IC(cold) = 2.0 mA ±3% (Recall Value 6)
15. VR5(hot) = 0.224 Vdc ±20% (Recall Value 7)
17. *IC(hot) = 2.24 mA ±4% (Recall Value 8)
Student Manual
18. b. increase
19. IC = 0.24 mA ±3% (Recall Value 9)
20. % change = 12.0 percent ±3% (Recall Value 10)
Review Questions
1. b. heat sensitive.
2. a. dc operating conditions.
3. c. decreases with an increase in temperature.
4. d. toward the saturation point.
5. b. has very poor temperature stability.
EXERCISE 2
Exercise Discussion
In this transistor circuit, beta (β) changes with temperature. The effect on the circuit bias is
b. minimal.
Under normal transistor operating conditions, the base voltage
a. is essentially constant.
As the emitter voltage increases due to a temperature rise, the base voltage
b. increases momentarily, then returns to normal.
The larger the emitter resistor,
S = 10 ±3%
From the S value you calculated, is this voltage divider bias circuit temperature stable?
a. yes
Exercise Procedure
4. VR5(cold) = 0.19 Vdc ±25% (Recall Value 1)
6. *IC(cold) = 1.9 mA ±3% (Recall Value 2)
7. VR5(hot) = 0.2 Vdc ±25% (Recall Value 3)
9. *IC(hot) = 2.0 mA ±3% (Recall Value 4)
10. a. increase
11. % change = 5.263 percent ±3% (Recall Value 5)
12. a. less than
Review Questions
1. c. a voltage divider circuit and an emitter resistor.
2. a. less than 10.
3. c. current decreases.
4. d. is almost independent of β.
5. c. maintain an essentially constant Q-point.
Student Manual
UNIT 6 TRANSISTOR SPECIFICATION SHEET
Unit Fundamentals
Some important transistor parameters include V(BR)CEO, V(BR)CBO, and V(BR)EBO, which are all forms of
a. breakdown voltage.
EXERCISE 1 TRANSISTOR PARAMETERS FAMILIARIZATION
Exercise Discussion
AC parameters are usually represented by
b. lower case subscripts.
You know hFE (not shown in this table) denotes dc current gain because
c. FE is capitalized.
The V in V(BR)CEO stands for
c. voltage.
Exercise Procedure
2. a. small-signal current gain.
3. c. voltage, collector-emitter, base open.
4. c. maximum power dissipation.
5. a. noise figure.
6. d. collector-emitter saturation voltage.
7. b. (dc), collector open.
9. c. tr.
10. b. IB.
11. d. VBE.
12. a. ie.
13. b. hfe..
Review Questions
1. c. dc values.
2. b. hFE.
3. a. VBC.
4. d. the emitter terminal open.
5. b. breakdown.
EXERCISE 2 USING THE TRANSISTOR SPECIFICATION SHEET
Exercise Discussion
Use transistor selector guide tables to
b. make an initial selection of a transistor in a general group.
You should expect to find the maximum allowable base-collector voltage of a transistor in the
You should expect to find the small-signal characteristics of a transistor in the
Student Manual
Are characteristic curves of the commonly used electrical parameters, transistor package outline
dimensions, and pin configurations included in the technical information book supplied by the transistor
manufacturer?
a. yes
Exercise Procedure
2. c. 2N2218A, 2N2219A, and 2N3053.
3. a. NPN
4. b. 2N2219A.
5. b. 6.0 Vdc.
6. c. 75 Vdc.
7. a. 0.01 µAdc
8. a. 30 Vdc.
9. c. 75 Vdc.
10. b. 6.0 Vdc.
11. a. 1.2 W.
12. b. 0.6 W.
Review Questions
1. b. 100.
2. a. 60 ns.
3. a. 2.28 mW/ºC.
4. b. 40 Vdc.
5. d. available from the manufacturer.
UNIT 7 RC COUPLING
Unit Fundamentals
Two amplifiers are cascaded when the output of the first amplifier is connected to the
b. input of the second amplifier.
In cascaded common-emitter circuits, the output of the second stage is
b. in phase with the input of the first stage.
EXERCISE 1 DC OPERATION
Exercise Discussion
In this RC-coupled amplifier, C2
a. blocks dc current from Q1 (collector) to Q2 (base).
In the RC-coupled amplifier shown in the help window, the term RC refers to capacitor
c. C2 and second-stage (Q2) voltage divider circuit resistors R4 and R8.
Exercise Procedure
2. b. C2, R4, and R8
4. VC1 = 9.23 Vdc ±20% (Recall Value 2)
Student Manual
5. VB1 = 1.86 Vdc ±20% (Recall Value 3)

6. VE1 = 1.23 Vdc ±20% (Recall Value 4)
7. a. yes
8. a. yes
9. a. yes
10. a. yes
14 a. yes
15. a. yes
16. a. yes
17. a. yes
18. b. no
Review Questions
VB1 = 1.91 Vdc ±25% (Recall Value 2)
VE1 = 1.32 Vdc ±25% (Recall Value 3)
c. operating in the active region.
2 b. connect the output of the first-stage amplifier to the input of the second-stage amplifier.
3. c. does not affect the dc bias of either amplifier.
4. b. are reverse biased.
5. d. properly bias each transistor.
EXERCISE 2 AC VOLTAGE GAIN AND PHASE
Exercise Discussion
RL1 equals
b. the parallel resistance of R3, R4, R8, and Q2 β x (re' + R10).
The voltage gain of the first stage (Q1) is expressed as
Overall circuit gain for the two-stage, RC-coupled amplifier equals
b. the product of the gains of each stage.
When R12 is connected to the second-stage output, the Q2 load resistance (RL2) becomes the
When C5 and R11 are connected to Q2, the total emitter resistance is reduced because R11 is in parallel
with
a. R10.
Exercise Procedure
5. Vo1 = 293.0 mVpk-pk ±25% (Recall Value 2)
Student Manual
6. b. 180º out of phase

7. *Av1 = –2.93 ±4% (Recall Value 3)
8. Vi2 = 293.0 mVpk-pk ±25% (Recall Value 4)
9. a. yes
11. b. 180º out of phase
12. *Av2 = –4.57 ±3% (Recall Value 6)
13. b. in phase
14. *Avc = 13.38 ±3% (Recall Value 7)
15. a. yes
17. Vo2(L) = 670.0 mVpk-pk ±25% (Recall Value 8)
18. *AvcL = 6.7 ±3% (Recall Value 9)
19. yes
21. Vo2(L/B) = 5415.0 mVpk-pk ±25% (Recall Value 10)
22. *Avc(L/B) = 54.15 ±3% (Recall Value 11)
23. a. yes
Review Questions
1. Vo2 = 5415.0 mVpk-pk ±25%
b. second-stage emitter resistance increased.
3 c. changes the phase of its input signal by 180º.
4. a. v oltage gain of the second stage increases greatly, but the gain of the first stage decreases slightly.
5. b. increases the amplifier gain.
EXERCISE 3 FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Exercise Discussion
In an amplifier, the way in which the gain varies with frequency is called
a. frequency response.
The bandwidth of the RC-coupled amplifier depicted here is approximately
b. 20 Hz to 100 kHz.
As a result of the voltage divider action of C2 and the Q2 input impedance, the overall amplifier gain (Avc)
with signals less than 5 kHz
a. decreases.
The upper frequency limit of the bandwidth is affected by
Exercise Procedure
5. Vo2 = 670 mVpk-pk @ 1 kHz ±35% (Recall Value 2)
6. Vo2 = 570.0 mVpk-pk @ 20 Hz ±35% (Recall Value 3)
Student Manual

8. Vo2 = 640.0 mVpk-pk @ 50 kHz ±35% (Recall Value 5)
10. *AvcL = 5.7 @ 20 Hz ±3% (Recall Value 7)
11. *AvcL = 6.4 @ 50 Hz ±3% (Recall Value 8)
12. *AvcL = 6.7 @ 1 kHz ±3% (Recall Value 9)
17. a. yes
18. a. yes
Review Questions
1. b. frequency response.
2. a. bandwidth.
3. c. low
4. d. the amplifier parameters change at high frequencies.
5. a. increases the bandwidth.
UNIT 8 TRANSFORMER COUPLING
Unit Fundamentals
Transformer coupling
EXERCISE 1 DC OPERATION
Exercise Discussion
The primary coil of transformer T1 is connected between the dc power supply and the
a. Q1 collector.
Transformer T1
The collector voltage (VC1) is slightly less than the dc supply voltage (VA) because
a. the resistance of the primary coil is small.
The second-stage collector voltage (VC2) is
a. about 9.0 Vdc for the collector current condition.
Exercise Procedure
2. b. T1
7. a. yes
Student Manual
8. a. yes
9. a. yes
10. b. no
11 VC2 = 9.23 Vdc ±25% (Recall Value 5)
14. a. yes
15. a. yes
16 b. no
17. b. no
18. b. no
Review Questions
2. d. the transformer connecting the amplifier stages.
3. a. blocks the dc current between amplifier stages, thus maintaining the dc bias of each stage.
4. c. in the collector circuit of the first-stage amplifier.
5. d. properly bias each amplifier.
EXERCISE 2 AC OPERATION
Exercise Discussion
T1 matches the high impedance of the first-stage output to the
c. low impedance of the second-stage input.
ZP = 3.42 kΩ ±3%
Due to the transformer, the first-stage output signal (Vo1) is
b. less than Vc1.
The output signal (Vo2) is not quite in phase with the input signal (Vi1) because of the
b. inductive reactance of the transformer.
Exercise Procedure
8. VCE(cutoff) = 19.0 Vdc ±25% (Recall Value 3)
9. a. yes
11. Vo1 (Vi2) = 137.0 mVpk-pk ±25% (Recall Value 4)
12. b. no
13. a. yes
14. *Av1 = –1.37 ±10% (Recall Value 5)
Student Manual

16. *Av2 = –4.55 ±10% (Recall Value 7)
18. *Avc = 6.23 ±10% (Recall Value 8)
19. a. yes
Review Questions
1. Vo2(L/B) = 900.0 mVpk-pk ±30% (Recall Value 1)
a. 9.00 because the output load (RL2) decreased.
2. d. product of the first- and second-stage gains.
3. b. m
atch the high output impedance of the first stage with the low input impedance of the second
stage.
4. a. can be up to twice the dc supply voltage.
5. d. decreases the amplifier gain.
EXERCISE 3 FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Exercise Discussion
The unit of logarithmic gain is the
a. decibel.
To the human ear, if the decibel level of a loudspeaker output is doubled, the sound seems
b. twice as loud.
Unreliable frequency response of this amplifier outside of about 200 Hz to 10 kHz is due to
Exercise Procedure
9. *Avc(L)(200 Hz) = 2.25 ±5% (Recall Value 6)
10 *Avc(L)(1 kHz) = 3.14 ±5% (Recall Value 7)
11. *Avc(L)(3 kHz) = 3.65 ±3% (Recall Value 8)
12. *Avc(L)(10 kHz) = 3.75 ±5% (Recall Value 9)
16. a. yes
17. a. yes
Student Manual
Review Questions
1. c. logarithmic response.
2. b. 20 log10 (Av).
3. c. between 1 kHz and 10 kHz.
4. a. of the effect of the transformer response on the amplifier circuit.
5. b. low power consumption.
UNIT 9 DIRECT COUPLING
Unit Fundamentals
When the Q1 collector is connected to the Q2 base, the amplifiers are
c. direct coupled.
EXERCISE 1 DIRECT-COUPLED AMPLIFIER DC OPERATION
Exercise Discussion
In a direct-coupled amplifier circuit, the second-stage base voltage (VB2) equals the first-stage
c. collector voltage (VC1).
In a PNP amplifier circuit, the transistor operates normally when the
In a direct-coupled amplifier such as this one, is there dc interaction between stages?
a. yes
Exercise Procedure
2. b. The first-stage collector ties directly to the second-stage base.
8. a. yes
9. a. yes
10. b. yes
11. a. yes
15. a. yes
16. a. yes
17. b. yes
18. a. yes
19. b. no
20. a. yes
Student Manual
Review Questions
2. d. a direct connection between the output of a stage to the input of the following stage.
3. a. also serves as the bias resistor for the input of the second stage.
4. a. are not isolated.
5. c. not as good as that of an RC- or a transformer-coupled amplifier.
EXERCISE 2 DIRECT-COUPLED AMPLIFIER AC OPERATION
Exercise Discussion
The input/output signal phase relationship is determined by the
b. configuration of each stage.
c. –Vo1 /Vi1.
c. –Vo2 /Vi2.
The overall circuit gain (Avc) equals
b. (–Vo1 /Vi1) x (–Vo2 /Vi2).
Exercise Procedure
6. b. no
7. b. 180º
8. *Av1 = –2.05 ±3% (Recall Value 4)
10. b. 180º
11. *Av2 = –6.88 ±3% (Recall Value 6)
12 b. no
13. *Avc(calc) = 14.1 ±3% (Recall Value 7)
14. *Avc = 14.1 ±3% (Recall Value 8)
15. a. yes
Student Manual
Review Questions
1. c. second-stage amplifier bias was placed at the saturation point.
2. d. in phase or 180º out of phase depending on the configuration of each amplifier stage.
3. a. product of the individual stage voltage gains.
4. c. decreases the voltage gain.
5. d. increases the voltage gain.
EXERCISE 3 DIRECT-COUPLED AMP FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Exercise Discussion
The frequency response of this amplifier is good at low frequencies because it is
c. direct-coupled.
As signal frequency decreases, capacitive reactance (XC)
b. increases.
The high frequency limit on the bandwidth is caused by
Exercise Procedure
16. *GAIN IN dBv = 16.9 ±3% (Recall Value 13)
21. a. yes
22. b. 100 kHz
23. a. yes
Student Manual
Review Questions
1. b. capacitive reactance of C3 was increased 1000 times, and C3 and R9 formed a voltage divider.
2. b. less than 20 Hz.
3. b. eliminates capacitive reactance between stages.
4. a. 10 Hz to 100 kHz.
5. c. poor temperature stability.
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Student Manual
Appendix C – Measurement Techniques

Whenever you take a measurement, use the test points provided on the circuit board. Do not connect any
instrument directly to a component on the FACET circuit board.
AC Point Voltage
To measure the ac voltage at a particular point in a circuit, refer to the figure above and follow these
steps:
1. Make sure all variable controls on the oscilloscope are in the calibrated position. If the circuit has a
current-sensing resistor, short it out with a two-post connector.
2. Connect the ground clip on the X10 probe to circuit common.
3. Connect the X10 probe to the test point you are going to measure.
4. Adjust the vertical attenuator and time base controls so that the largest possible trace of one
complete cycle of the waveform you are going to measure is displayed.
5. Determine the peak-to-peak amplitude by measuring from the top of a peak to the top of a valley (see
figure below). This method subtracts the thickness of the trace from the measurement.
AC Voltage Drop (ADD-INVERT Method)
Use the ADD-INVERT Method to measure the ac voltage drop across an individual component in a circuit.
Refer to the figure above and follow these steps:
1. Make sure all variable controls on the oscilloscope are in the calibrated position. If the circuit has a
current-sensing resistor, short it out with a two-post connector.
2. Connect the ground clips on the X10 probes of both channels to circuit ground.
3. Connect the channel 1 X10 probe to the side of the circuit component with the greater potential.
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4. Connect the channel 2 X10 probe to the side of the circuit component with the lesser potential.
5. Place the vertical mode switch on the oscilloscope in the ADD position.
6. Activate the channel 2 INVERT function.
7. Set the vertical attenuator and the time base controls so that the largest possible trace of one cycle
of the waveform is displayed without exceeding the height of the graticule. Make sure both channel
vertical attenuator controls are on the same setting.
8. Determine the peak-to-peak amplitude by measuring from the top of a peak to the top of a valley. This
method subtracts the thickness of the trace from the measurement.
AC Current
Use the current-sensing resistor to measure ac current.

Refer to the figure above and follow these steps:
1. Make sure all variable controls on the oscilloscope are in the calibrated position. Remove the two-
post connector that shorts out the current-sensing resistor.
2. Connect the ground clip of the X10 probe to circuit ground.
3. Connect the X10 probe to the side of the current-sensing resistor with the higher potential.
4. Adjust the vertical attenuator and the time base controls so that the largest possible trace of one cycle
of the current-sensing resistor voltage is displayed without exceeding the height of the graticule.
5. Determine the peak-to-peak amplitude by measuring from the top of a peak to the top of a valley (see
figure above). This method subtracts the thickness of the trace from the measurement.
6. Calculate the circuit current by dividing the measured resistor voltage by the resistor value.
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Measuring Frequency
Frequency should always be measured and set with the oscilloscope. To measure frequency, refer to the
figure above and follow these steps:
1. Make sure all variable controls on the oscilloscope are in the calibrated position.
2. Apply the ac waveform to the X10 probe.
3. Adjust the vertical attenuator and time base controls so that the largest possible trace of one cycle of
the waveform is displayed without exceeding the height of the graticule.
4. Determine the period (T) of the waveform by measuring the time of one wave cycle.
5. The frequency equals the reciprocal of the period (1/T).
Setting Frequency
Frequency should always be measured and set with the oscilloscope. To set frequency, refer to the figure
above and follow these steps:
1. Make sure all variable controls on the oscilloscope are in the calibrated position.
2. Apply the ac waveform to the X10 probe.
3. Calculate the period (T) by finding the reciprocal of the frequency desired (T = 1/f).
4. Adjust the generator frequency so that the period of the waveform equals the calculated period of the
desired frequency.
Student Manual
Measuring Phase Angle
Phase angles are usually measured in reference to the input voltage. To measure phase angle, refer to
the figure above and follow these steps:
1. Make sure that the INVERT function on channel 2 is not active and that the oscilloscope is triggered
on channel 1.
2. Set the vertical mode switch to the ALT position for higher frequencies and to CHOP position for lower
frequencies.
3. Apply the reference waveform to the channel 1 X10 probe.
4. Apply the waveform you are going to measure to the channel 2 X10 probe.
5. Adjust the variable time base control so that one cycle of the waveform is exactly 8 divisions wide.
Each division then equals 45 degrees (360°/8 div = 45°/div).
6. Measure the horizontal distance (d) between the two waveforms (d is measured in divisions, not
time).
7. Calculate the phase angle by multiplying the measured distance by 45 degrees per division.
Measuring DC Voltage and Current with a Multimeter
To measure the dc voltage level at a particular point in a circuit, refer to the figure above and follow these
steps:
1. If the circuit has a current-sensing resistor, short it out with a two-post connector.
Student Manual
2. Set the multimeter function for dc voltage measurement.
3. Set the range.
4. Connect the minus probe (black) to circuit ground.
5. Connect the plus probe (red) to the test point in the circuit to be measured.
6. Adjust the range for the most accurate measurement without exceeding the range limit.
DC Voltage Drop
To measure the dc voltage drop across a particular circuit element, refer to the figure above and follow
these steps:
1. If the circuit has a current-sensing resistor, short it out with a two-post connector.
2. Set the multimeter function for dc voltage measurement.
3. Set the range.
4. Connect the minus probe (black) to the side of the component with the lower potential.
5. Connect the plus probe (red) to the side of the component with the higher potential.
DC Current
To measure dc current, refer to the figure above and follow these steps:
1. If the circuit contains a current-sensing resistor, short it out with a two-post connector. Current-
sensing resistors are used only when measuring current with an oscilloscope.
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2. Set the multimeter function for dc current measurement.
3. Set the range.
4. Because the multimeter must be placed in series with the circuit in order to measure current, it
replaces the two-post connector that normally connects the dc power supply to the circuit. Connect
the plus probe (red) to the point closest to the supply source. Connect the minus probe (black) to the
point closest to the circuit.
Student Manual
Appendix D – Measurement Tolerances

You will be asked to make many measurements as you progress through the exercises in this volume.
Sometimes you might find that a careful measurement produces a value that differs from the result you
expected. How do you know if your answers are correct?
Many factors affect the accuracy of measurements. In this section, you will examine several things that
may cause your readings to vary from expected values. You will also learn the definitions of the terms
used to describe these differences in measurements.
Instrument Accuracy
No measuring instrument is perfect. If there were a perfect instrument, it would be extremely expensive.
It would also not remain perfect for very long. The effects of temperature, aging, humidity, and so forth
would steadily lessen the accuracy of the device.
A carpenter’s 20-foot steel tape measure, for example, gradually stretches from repeated use. It becomes
longer during a hot summer day than during the freezing cold of winter. Electronic measuring instruments
are similarly degraded by aging and physical wear and tear. For these reasons, carpenters replace their
tape measures frequently, while electronic measuring instruments must regularly go through a process
called calibration.
All measuring instruments have some tolerance. For a specific reading, you see a range of meter
indications. The problem is in knowing when the meter readings are acceptable.
For example, suppose a particular voltmeter has a specified accuracy of ±3% of full scale when set to the
10 Vdc full-scale range. If you use this meter to measure an exact voltage source known to be 9.50 Vdc,
the meter may not indicate exactly 9.50 Vdc. However, based on the known meter tolerance, readings
between 9.2 Vdc and 9.8 Vdc are accepted as correct measurements from this meter.
In this example, you measured the voltage source of 9.50 Vdc using the 10 V full-scale range of the
meter. Good practice dictates selecting a range greater than the expected voltage or current value when
you are using an analog (pointer-type) meter. This practice avoids damage to the meter should the actual
value be greater than expected. When you have determined that a lower range may be used safely,
select the range that displays current or voltage values as closely as possible to the full-scale end of the
meter.
When making resistance measurements, always be certain that current from a source other than the
meter cannot flow in the circuit. If you are using an analog meter, select the range that displays the
resistance value in a scale area where the graduations are farthest apart.
Another source of error when you use analog meters results from the separation between the pointer and
the scale. If you view the meter at an angle and the pointer is not properly aligned with a scale graduation,
you may misread the indication. This error is called parallax error and can be avoided by reading the
meter “straight on.” Some analog meters have a mirrored scale to help you avoid parallax errors. When
using this type of meter, move your eye or the meter until the pointer’s reflection is hidden by the pointer
itself. The disappearance of the reflected pointer assures that you are viewing the instrument correctly
and that your measurements are accurate.
Component Accuracy
Electronic components such as resistors and capacitors also have some tolerance. Component tolerance
results from slight variations in the parts’ manufacturing process. Current production techniques are
quite good, so a manufacturer attempting to produce a batch of 1000 Ω resistors finds that the majority
of parts are between 950 Ω and 1050 Ω. These parts are marked to indicate that they are within ±5% of
the nominal value (1000 Ω in this case). Most electronic circuits are designed to function properly with
resistors that are within ±5% of nominal.
The manufacturer also finds a smaller number of parts whose values lie between 990 Ω and 1010 Ω,
or within ± 1% of nominal. These parts are marked to indicate their higher accuracy. Generally, these
Student Manual
parts (or parts with even higher accuracies) are used only in very demanding applications. If you are
called upon to replace components during your career in electronics, you may use high precision parts to
replace components of lower accuracy; however, you should never use lower accuracy parts to replace
components of higher accuracy.
The measurements you make will produce typical values if you have connected everything correctly and
if your circuit and instruments are within tolerance. Because some circuit values are slightly high while
others are slightly low, typical values are usually well within the worst case limits, or the absolute limits of
measurement for a normal circuit.
Worst case values are computed by design engineers who first assume all components and instruments
to be at one tolerance limit, then at the other. The resulting upper and lower (or maximum and minimum)
values are usually equally above and below the nominal value (such as ±11%), but sometimes they are
unequal (such as +11%, –8%). Any of your measurements that produce readings outside of the worst
case limits indicate an improper circuit connection, an incorrect power supply adjustment, or a faulty
instrument. If you recheck these items and still have measurement errors, notify your instructor.
Power Source Accuracy
All electronic equipment requires a source of power, and power sources also have tolerances.
Experienced electronics troubleshooters usually check power sources before anything else when they
attempt to locate and repair problems.
In your work with the training system, you will frequently be instructed to set power supply voltages to
specific values. You will do so by adjusting controls on the power supplies and on the base unit. Take the
time to perform these adjustments carefully, for a voltage error may cause errors in many of the circuit
measurements you take.
Dual-control adjustments are provided on the base unit for setting both positive and negative levels. The
larger knob is a coarse adjustment, whereas the smaller knob produces a smaller change per unit of
rotation and permits a fine adjustment. The best way to use these controls is as follows.
1. Set the small knobs on the base unit near the center of their range. (Turn a knob counterclockwise
until it stops, then clockwise until it stops. Set the knob about halfway between these limits.)
2. Adjust the large (COARSE control) knob until the level (as indicated on your meter and connected as
directed in the exercise) is very close to the value required by the exercise.
3. Now adjust the small (FINE control) knob for the required level until it is exactly correct.
To ensure that your measurements produce readings within expected ranges, set the power voltages as
follows.
POWER SUPPLIES (Tolerance ±3%)

Nominal Value Minimum Value Maximum Value
+15 Vdc +14.55 Vdc +15.45 Vdc
-15 Vdc -14.55 Vdc -15.45 Vdc
BASE UNIT REGULATOR (Required Setting, ±0.2 Vdc)
Required Setting
(Examples) Minimum Value Maximum Value
+10 Vdc +9.8 Vdc +10.2 Vdc
-6 Vdc -5.8 Vdc -6.2 Vdc
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NEW TERMS AND WORDS

calibration – the process of comparing an instrument against a “standard” and adjusting the instrument
until it indicates the correct value. Values displayed by uncalibrated instruments should not be trusted!
nominal – the value you measure if everything is perfect. When a measured value is the same as the
ideal, or perfect, value, the reading is nominal. The ideal value is the result of mathematical calculations,
not measurements. Figure D-1 illustrates the relationship between nominal and several other terms.
Figure D-1. Measurement relationships.
parallax – a measurement error resulting from an angular view of pointer-type meters.

tolerance – the amount an instrument, component, or power value can vary from ideal without being in
error. The tolerance for instruments and components is part of their specification. The tolerance for circuit
measurements is defined by worst case limits and is usually expressed as a percentage or a permissible
deviation.
typical – the actual value measured in a circuit.
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Student Manual
Appendix E – The Generator Buffer

Some of the exercises you perform with this board require the use of a waveform generator. If your signal
generator has a 50-ohm output impedance, the GENERATOR BUFFER is not required. Simply connect
the generator common lead (black) directly to the lower GEN (common) terminal of the circuit block
you are studying. Also connect the signal output lead (red) to the upper GEN (signal) terminal. These
connections should be indicated in an illustration that accompanies the exercise.
If your generator does not have a 50-ohm output impedance, you need to use the GENERATOR
BUFFER, which is optionally supplied with the trainer. Before applying power, plug the GENERATOR
BUFFER into the area of the circuit board labeled FOR GENERATOR BUFFER. Connect your signal
generator leads to the black (common) and blue (signal) terminals marked IN on the module. Use two
of the connecting wires supplied with the trainer to connect the black OUT terminal to the indicated
generator common point of the circuit block you are studying. Connect the blue (signal) OUT terminal to
the upper GEN terminal of the circuit block. When you have made these connections, you may ignore the
buffer and adjust the signal generator controls as directed in the exercise.
Please contact Lab-Volt for ordering information.
Student Manual
Student Manual
Appendix F – Electrical Units and Symbols

Quantity Symbol Basic Unit Basic Unit Symbol
current I ampere A
voltage E volt V
resistance R ohm Ω
capacitance C farad F
inductance L henry H
frequency f hertz Hz
period T second s
power P watt W
impedance Z ohm Ω
reactance X coulomb C
charge Q siemens* S**
conductance G siemens* S**
admittance Y siemens* S**
susceptance B
* Also called mho (an outdated term).

** Also symbolized as mho.
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Student Manual
Appendix G – Scientific Notation and Electronic Calculations
Appendix G – Scientific Notation and Electronic

Calculations
During your work in electronics, you will be required to perform calculations with numbers that may be
very large or very small. An example follows.
1,500,000 x 0.0000013
For dealing with such numbers, a system called scientific notation has been devised. Scientific notation
is simply a shorthand method for writing numbers without all the leading or trailing zeros, and it also
provides an easier way to calculate when you must deal with a wide range of numbers.
When a number is written in scientific notation, it is written as a number times a power of 10. Powers of
10 work as follows.
1 = 100 1/1 = 1 = 100

10 = 10 1
1/10 = 0.1 = 10-1
100 = 102 1/100 = 0.01 = 10-2
1000 = 103 1/1000 = 0.001 = 10-3
10,000= 104 1/10,000 = 0.0001 = 10-4
100,000 = 105 1/100,000 = 0.00001 = 10-5
1,000,000 = 106 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6
To write a large number in scientific notation, shift the decimal point toward the left, usually until only
one significant digit remains to the left of the decimal point. The number of places the decimal point is
shifted equals the power (or exponent) of 10 needed to produce the correct multiplier for the number. For
example, to convert the number 1,500,000 to scientific notation, shift the decimal point 6 places to the left
and use 6 as the exponent.
1 , 5 0 0 0 0 0 = 1.5 x 106 = 1.5 x 1,000,000
654321
The number could also be written correctly as 0.15 x 107, but moving the decimal point one more place
than necessary sometimes complicates rather than simplifies the arithmetic.
To write a small number in scientific notation, shift the decimal point toward the right until one significant
digit lies to the left of the point. The number of places the decimal point is shifted equals the negative
power of 10 needed to produce the correct multiplier for the number. For example, to convert the number
0.0000013 to scientific notation, shift the decimal point 6 places to the right and use -6 as the exponent.
0. 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 = 1.3 x 10-6 = 1.3 x 0.000001
123456
Another way of expressing a number in scientific notation is to replace the x 10 portion of the expression
with the capital letter E for exponent. For instance, the two examples used above can also be written as
follows.
1,500,000 = 1.5 x 106 = 1.5 E+6
0.0000013 = 1.3 x 10-6 = 1.3 E-6
Many pocket calculators (especially scientific calculators) use this form of notation, often with a key
labeled EE. If you have a calculator of this type, you should study the manufacturer’s instructions for
performing calculations in scientific notation.
Student Manual
Performing calculations on numbers expressed in scientific notation with pencil and paper requires that
you remember a few simple rules.
1. When you multiply numbers expressed in scientific notation, multiply the numbers and algebraically
add the exponents.
EXAMPLES: 1.9 E +4 x 3.3 E-5 = 6.27 E-1
(2.45 x 10-6) x (4.0 x 109) = 9.8 x 103
2. When you divide numbers expressed in scientific notation, divide the numbers, then algebraically
subtract the divisor’s exponent from the dividend’s exponent.
EXAMPLES: (9.6 x 10-4)/(3.2 x 104) = 3.0 x 10-8
2.2 E+5/4.0 E+3 = 0.55 E+2 = 5.5 E+1
3. When you add or subtract numbers expressed in scientific notation, you must adjust one of the
numbers by moving the decimal point and increasing or decreasing its exponent until the exponents
for both numbers are equal.
EXAMPLES:
3.3 E+4 = 3.3 E+4

(point shifted left by 2 places,
+1.5 E+2 = +0.015 E+4
exponent up 2)
3.315 E+4
9.1 x 109 = 9100.0 x 106

(point shifted right 3 places,
+4.5 x 106 = + 4.5 x 106 exponent down 3)
9104.5 x 106
As shown in Table G-1, many frequently used powers of 10 are represented by a prefix. For example,
instead of writing a resistor value as “1.5 x 106 Ω” and stating it as “one point five times ten to the sixth
ohms,” it is usually written “1.5 MΩ” and stated “one point five megohms.” A current of 1.3 x 10-6 A is
written “1.3 µA” and stated “one point three microamperes.”
Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation

10 12
tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro µ
10 -9
nano η
10-12 pico p
Table G-1. Common unit multipliers.
Student Manual
Shortcuts
The basic units used in most electronic calculations are volts, amperes, ohms, henries, farads, and hertz.
Many times you must perform calculations with values that are not expressed in basic units. The following
shortcuts can sometimes be helpful in such electronic calculations.
Shortcut 1
If current is measured in milliamperes and resistance is in kilohms, the following Ohm’s law formula
applies.
E (V) = I (mA) x R (kΩ)
For example, suppose you must calculate the voltage drop across a 6.8 kΩ resistor with a measured
current flow of 2.3 mA.
Ohm’s law for basic units follows.
E = l x R or E (volts) = I (amperes) x R (ohms)
You could convert the resistance to ohms and the current to amperes.
R = 6.8 kΩ = 6800 Ω
I = 2.3 mA = 0.0023 A
The equation would be as follows:
E = 0.0023 x 6800 = 15.64 V
You could save the bother of converting the measured values into basic units by using shortcut 1.
E (V) = I (mA) x R (kΩ) = 2.3 x 6.8 = 15.64 V
Shortcut 2
If current is measured in microamperes and resistance is in megohms, the following Ohm’s law formula
applies.
E (V) = I (µA) x R (MΩ)
These shortcuts also apply to the other forms of Ohm’s law.
E (V) E (V)
I (mA) = I (µA) =
R (kΩ) R (MΩ)
E (V) E (V)
R (kΩ) = R (MΩ) =
I (mA) I (µA)
Shortcut 3
Similar rules can help for inductive reactance problems. The basic unit formula for inductive reactance
follows.
XL (ohms) = 2π x f (hertz) x L (henries)
If frequency is expressed in kilohertz, and if inductance is in millihenries, then the following equation
applies.
XL (ohms) = 2π x f (kHz) x L (mH)
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Shortcut 4
If frequency is expressed in megahertz, and if inductance is in microhenries, then the following equation
applies.
XL (ohms) = 2π x f (MHz) x L (μH)
Shortcut 5
You can also simplify capacitive reactance problems. The basic unit formula for capacitive reactance
follows.
1
XC (ohms) =
2π × f (hertz) × C(farads)
Because 1/2 = 1/6.28 = 0.159, the basic unit formula can be simplified.
0.159
XC (ohms) =
f (hertz) × C(farads)
Shortcut 6
If frequency is expressed in megahertz, and if capacitance is in microfarads, then the following equation
applies.
0.159
XC (ohms) =
f (MHz) × C(µF)
Student Manual
Appendix H – Schematic Symbols

Symbol Description Symbol Description
4-Conductor Cable PBNO Switch
Shielded 4-Conductor
Cable with Shield Switch, SPST
Connected to Chassis
A A
B B A and B Connected Switch, DPDT
A A
B B
A and B Not Connected Multiposition Switch
Wire, Conductor Diac, Bidirectional Switch
Earth Ground Triac, Bidirectional Switch
Chassis or Generator, AC Source

Frame Connection GEN (no active connection)
Coaxial Cable with Shield

Connected to Chassis
GEN Generator, DC Source
Common Connections,
Ground
MOT Motor, DC Type
A
Antenna MOT Motor, AC Type
PBNC Switch Meter, Generic
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Meter, Specific:
A Ammeter Rheostat, Variable Resistor
V Voltmeter Relay, Contacts
Ohmmeter Relay, Coil
Constant Current Source, Crystal, Piezoelectric

DC Source Crystal, Quartz Crystal
Inductor;
Battery, DC Source
Tapped Inductor
Cell, DC Source Capacitor:

Generic; Non-polarized;
Variable DC Voltage Polarized; Variable
Source, Positive (+)
A K
Variable DC Voltage
Diode, Generic
Source, Negative (–)
A K
A K
Transformer with Magnetic
Diode, Photodiode
Core
A K
Transformer with Magnetic

Core and Electrostatic A K
Shield between Windings, Diode, PIN Type
Shield Connected to
A K
Frame
A K
Resistor
Diode, Zener, Voltage
A K Regulator
Potentiometer
A K
Thermistor, Thermal
Resistor, RTD (Resistance
Varactor (Capacitive Type
t° Temperature Detector),
Diode)
Temperature Transducer
(sensor)
A K
Student Manual

B
Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Transistor, Darlington

C
E
G
Thyristor, SCR B
K (Silicon Controlled Transistor, PNP Bipolar
Rectifier)
A K
E
Thyristor, GTO B
Transistor, NPN Bipolar
(Gate Turn-Off)
E
Thyristor, Triac
B
(gate triggered, 3-terminal Transistor, Phototransistor
thyristor)
E
G
Transistor, IGBT
LED (Light-Emitting Diode) (Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistor)

E
D B2
E
Transistor, JFET (Junction
G Transistor, UJT
Field-Effect Transistor),
(Unijunction Transistor)
N Type
S B1
D A
G A
G Transistor, JFET (Junction G Transistor, PUT
Field-Effect Transistor), (Programmable Unijunction
P Type Transistor)
S K K
D
G2 MOSFET, N Type, Dual
Solar Cell, Photovoltaic
Gate, Insulated Gate
Transducer
Depletion Type
G1
S
D
MOSFET, N Type, Single Photo Cell,
G Gate, Insulated Gate Photoconductive
Depletion Type Transducer
S
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Thermocouple,
Temperature Transducer XOR Gate
(sensor)
Amplifier, Op Amp
XNOR Gate
(Operational Amplifier)
Inverter, NOT Gate Speaker
Buffer Gate (non-inverting) Microphone
Buffer Gate (with Schmitt Sine Wave Generator/

Trigger Input) Oscillator, AC Source
Square Wave Generator/

AND Gate
Oscillator, AC Source
AND Gate (with Schmitt Pulse Generator/Oscillator,

Trigger Inputs) AC Source
NAND Gate Fuse
OR Gate
Lamp, Indicating Lamp,
Pilot Lamp, Indicator Light
NOR Gate
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Appendix I – Reference Charts
Appendix I –
Reference Charts
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Appendix I – Reference Charts
Student Manual
Appendix J – New Terms and Words

Introduction to Transistor Amplifiers
multistage – an amplifier circuit that uses more than one active component (transistor).
active component – a circuit component that controls gain or directs current flow.
gain – the amount by which an amplifier increases signal voltage, current, or power; expressed as a ratio
of the output to input value.
distortion – undesired change to a signal waveform.
Common Base Circuit

active region – the region on the transistor load line between the saturation point and the cutoff point.
Q-point (quiescent point) – the dc steady state operating point set by the dc bias conditions.
cutoff point – the point on the load line where the collector current is essentially zero.
saturation point – the point on the load line where the collector current is maximum.
Common Emitter Circuit

beta – the symbol used for the ratio of the dc collector current to the dc base current.
Common Collector Circuit

None
Bias Stabilization
collector leakage current (ICBO) – current caused by the reverse bias voltage between the collector and
the base. ICBO increases with temperature.
feedback – control of the output signal where part of the output signal is returned to the input signal.
Transistor Specification Sheet

parameter – a quantity whose value determines the characteristics of related variables.
small-signal – the value of an ac voltage or current that when halved or doubled does not affect the
characteristic of the parameter being measured.
RC Coupling
cascaded – when the output of the first stage is connected to the input of the second stage.
frequency response – the manner in which gain varies with the frequency of the input signal.
bandwidth – the range of signal frequencies over which the gain is relatively constant.
Transformer Coupling
None
Direct Coupling
None
Student Manual
Student Manual
Appendix K – Using the Base Unit

The base unit contains CM and fault toggle switches, power supply controls, LEDs, and a Zero Insertion
Force (ZIF) connector that accepts circuit boards.
Faults toggle
switches
CM toggle
switches
Zero Insertion Force

(ZIF) connector
Power is applied to the base unit when the AC cord is plugged in and the power switch is on.
The base unit’s power switch should be in the off position when inserting circuit boards.
Power switch
On the base unit are LEDs (light-emitting diodes) indicating the presence of the plus and minus 15 Vdc
internal supplies. The LEDs are located above the control knobs of the negative and positive variable sup-
plies.
When power is applied to the base unit, the LEDs illuminate.
One or both LEDs will be off should a base unit protective circuit activate (to crowbar the base unit’s
power source).
To remove the crowbar condition on a base unit, turn off the POWER switch on the base unit, correct the
problem, and turn the POWER switch on.
If you cannot solve the problem, ask your instructor for help.
Student Manual
Each of the internal variable power supplies are adjusted with COARSE and FINE knobs (concentric
shaft) located on either end of the base unit.
Coarse Fine
There are twenty CM toggle switches, numbered 1 through 20, in the base unit.
The tolerances of acceptable answers in this course are based on an accuracy of these voltages to within
±3% (0.45 Vdc).
Variable 0 to –10 Vdc Variable 0 to +10 Vdc

power source power source
Student Manual
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Basic Electricity & Electronics

© 2014 Lab-Volt Systems, Inc.

Lab-Volt recognizes product names as trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective

TROUBLESHOOTING I............................................................................................................... 236

Transformer Coupling.................................................................................................................. 387

Connecting the Circuit Board to the Base Unit

3. Turn off the power sources.

8. Turn on the power sources.

Circuit Modification Switches

2. Confirm Fault Exists

4. Make Performance Measurements

5. Identify Faulty Circuit Section

7. Verify the Repair

2. Make performance checks to confirm that a fault exists.

3. Visually inspect the circuit.

5. Make a fault assumption based on the performance measurements.

6. Confirm the fault assumption by circuit continuity or component resistance measurements.

7. Repeat steps 4, 5, and 6 if the fault is not located.

8. Repair the fault and do a performance check to confirm proper operation.

Circuit Performance Check

Real-Number Questions and Recall Values

Example of inputting a measured value

8. After modifying the circuit, measure its total circuit current.

Example using recalled measured values

Example using calculations with recalled values

Measurements and Measurement Tolerances

Unit 1: Introduction to Transistor Amplifiers

How many basic transistor amplifier circuit configurations are there?

NEW TERMS AND WORDS

Exercise 1: Circuit Location and Identification

Amplifiers are circuits that can increase

The heater circuit in the BIAS STABILIZATION circuit block uses

Potentiometer R1 is used in the voltage divider circuit.

The second stage contains a PNP transistor (Q2).

All other transistors on the circuit board are NPNs.

The DIRECT COUPLING circuit block uses

২ 4. Which circuit block has a PNP transistor?

২ 8. Using the oscilloscope channel 2 probe, measure the ac output signal.

Vo = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 1)

Vo = Vpk-pk (Step 8, Recall Value 1)

২ 10. Connect the common emitter amplifier circuit shown.

Vo = mVpk-pk (Recall Value 2)

Vo = mVpk-pk (Step 12, Recall Value 2)

1. Transistor amplifiers may be configured in a common

2. Transistors in a multistage amplifier may be connected by

3. When small ac input signals are required,

5. The potentiometers on some of the circuit blocks

Exercise 2: Multistage Amplifier Introduction

Output signal distortion may occur if

২ 1. Locate the RC COUPLING/TRANSFORMER COUPLING circuit block.

২ 2. Connect the RC coupled amplifier circuit shown.

Vo1 = mVpk-pk (Recall Value 1)

২ 5. Does the first-stage amplifier (Q1) provide voltage gain (Av)?

Vo1 = mVpk-pk (Step 4, Recall Value 1)

Vo2 = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 2)

২ 7. Does the second-stage amplifier (Q2) provide voltage gain (Av)?

Vo2 = Vpk-pk (Step 6, Recall Value 2)

২ 8. Again, connect the channel 2 oscilloscope probe to Vo1.

Vo1 = mVpk-pk (Recall Value 3)

২ 9. Is there any distortion in the first-stage output signal (Vo1)?

২ 11. Which amplifier stage caused this distortion, Q1 or Q2?

1. The transistors in the two-stage amplifier are each configured