AC 2 Fundamentals - Student Manual

Basic Electricity & Electronics
AC 2 Fundamentals
1-800-Lab-Volt
www.labvolt.com
91563-P0
|3091563P00000n~
Student Manual
FACET®
Basic Electricity and Electronics
AC 2 Fundamentals
Student Manual
Edition 1
91563-P0
FIRST EDITION
Published February 2014
© 2014 Lab-Volt Systems, Inc.

Printed in Canada
All rights reserved.
ISBN 978-1-60533-574-2
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopied, recorded, or otherwise, without prior
written permission from Lab-Volt Systems, Inc.
Information in this document is subject to change without notice and does not represent a
commitment on the part of Lab-Volt Systems, Inc. All Lab-Volt® content described in this document
is furnished under a license agreement or a nondisclosure agreement and may be used or copied
only in accordance with the terms of the agreement.
Lab-Volt®, FACET® and Mind-Sight™ logos are registered trademarks of Lab-Volt Systems, Inc.
All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Other trademarks and trade
names may be used in this material to refer to either the entity claiming the marks and names or
their products. Lab-Volt Systems, Inc. disclaims any proprietary interest in trademarks and trade
names other than its own.
Lab-Volt recognizes product names as trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective

holders.
AC 2 Fundamentals Table of Contents
Introduction............................................................................................................................................1
Connecting the Circuit Board to the Base Unit.................................................................................1
Circuit Modification Switches............................................................................................................1
Fault Switches...................................................................................................................................2
Troubleshooting................................................................................................................................2
Troubleshooting Basics.....................................................................................................................2
Systematic Troubleshooting..............................................................................................................4
Circuit Performance Check...............................................................................................................4
Real-Number Questions and Recall Values......................................................................................4
Measurements and Measurement Tolerances..................................................................................5
Miscellaneous Information................................................................................................................5
Unit 1: RLC Circuits...............................................................................................................................7
Exercise 1: Series RLC Circuits......................................................................................................10
Exercise 2: Parallel RLC Circuits....................................................................................................24
UNIT TEST .....................................................................................................................................38
Unit 2: Series Resonance...................................................................................................................41
Exercise 1: Series Resonant Circuits..............................................................................................46
Exercise 2: Q and Bandwidth of a Series RLC Circuit....................................................................60
UNIT TEST .....................................................................................................................................74
TROUBLESHOOTING....................................................................................................................77
Unit 3: Parallel Resonance.................................................................................................................79
Exercise 1: Parallel Resonant Circuits............................................................................................85
Exercise 2: Q and Bandwidth..........................................................................................................98
UNIT TEST ...................................................................................................................................112
TROUBLESHOOTING I................................................................................................................114
TROUBLESHOOTING II...............................................................................................................116
Unit 4: Power in AC Circuits.............................................................................................................119
Exercise 1: Power Division.......................................................................................................... 124
Exercise 2: Power Factor............................................................................................................. 134
UNIT TEST .................................................................................................................................. 146
Unit 5: Low- and High-Pass Filters................................................................................................. 149
Exercise 1: Low-Pass Filters........................................................................................................ 154
Exercise 2: High-Pass Filters....................................................................................................... 167
UNIT TEST .................................................................................................................................. 178
TROUBLESHOOTING I............................................................................................................... 181
TROUBLESHOOTING................................................................................................................. 183
TROUBLESHOOTING III............................................................................................................. 185
Unit 6: Bandpass and Bandstop Filters......................................................................................... 187
Exercise 1: BandPass Filters....................................................................................................... 190
Exercise 2: BandStop Filters........................................................................................................ 204
UNIT TEST................................................................................................................................... 219
TROUBLESHOOTING I............................................................................................................... 221
TROUBLESHOOTING II.............................................................................................................. 223
TROUBLESHOOTING III............................................................................................................. 225
TROUBLESHOOTING IV............................................................................................................ 227
TROUBLESHOOTING V............................................................................................................. 229
Student Manual
FACET by Lab-Volt v
Table of Contents AC 2 Fundamentals
Appendix A – Safety......................................................................................................................... 231

Appendix B – Answer Key............................................................................................................... 233
Appendix C – Measurement Techniques........................................................................................ 245
AC Point Voltage.......................................................................................................................... 245
AC Voltage Drop (ADD-INVERT Method).................................................................................... 245
AC Current................................................................................................................................... 246
Measuring Frequency.................................................................................................................. 247
Setting Frequency........................................................................................................................ 247
Measuring Phase Angle............................................................................................................... 248
Measuring DC Voltage and Current with a Multimeter................................................................. 248
DC Voltage Drop.......................................................................................................................... 249
DC Current................................................................................................................................... 249
Appendix D – Measurement Tolerances......................................................................................... 251
Appendix E – The Generator Buffer................................................................................................ 255
Appendix F – Electrical Units and Symbols.................................................................................. 257
Appendix G – Scientific Notation and Electronic Calculations.................................................... 259
Appendix H – Schematic Symbols................................................................................................. 263
Appendix I – Reference Charts....................................................................................................... 267
Appendix J – New Terms and Words.............................................................................................. 269
Appendix K – Using the Base Unit.................................................................................................. 271
Student Manual
vi FACET by Lab-Volt
Introduction
Introduction
This Student Manual includes fundamental concepts, discussions, procedures, exercises, tests, review
questions, and hands-on activities using the Fault Assisted Circuits for Electronics Training (FACET)
system. It will provide you with solid knowledge and understanding of analog and digital electronics
circuitry, along with the ability to apply, design, troubleshoot, and test circuits.
You must be familiar with the information in this introduction in order to complete your assignments
successfully. Study these instructions before beginning your lab work. If you have problems performing an
exercise, review the following rules before calling your instructor.
Connecting the Circuit Board to the Base Unit

Set up the power sources before you insert a circuit board in the base unit. ALWAYS check the source
voltages because someone else may have changed these values. NEVER insert or remove a circuit
board when power is applied to the base unit.
1. Turn on the positive and negative power sources. Use your multimeter to measure the voltages in the
following steps even if your power sources have built-in voltmeters. Your multimeter is more accurate
than other meters.
2. Measure the positive voltage source at its output terminals and adjust to +15.0 Vdc if necessary.
Measure the negative power source, and adjust its output to -15.0 Vdc if necessary. The tolerances of
acceptable answers are based on the accuracy of these voltages to within ±3%.
3. Turn off the power sources.
4. Open the connector in the base unit by turning the knob on the right side of the base unit away from
you. Do not use force; the knob should turn with reasonable pressure.
5. Insert the circuit board by sliding it along the grooves in the base unit. Be sure the connector fits all
the way into the slot at the back of the base unit.
6. Lock the base unit connector by turning the knob toward you about a quarter-turn.
7. Refer to Appendix E to determine if you need the GENERATOR BUFFER. If it is required, plug it into
the area provided on the circuit board.
8. Turn on the power sources.
Circuit Modification Switches

The base unit of the training system is equipped with 20 circuit modification switches (called CM switches
in the manual). These switches change component values or introduce short or open circuits into the
circuit blocks on the circuit board. The following rules apply when you use a CM switch.
A. CM switch is off when the switch handle is toward you and on when it is away from you.
B. You should never have more than one CM switch on at any one time.
C. The exercise procedures or review questions will tell you when to turn on a CM switch. ALWAYS turn
off the switch unless you are explicitly told to leave it on.
D. When a review question requires that you turn on a CM switch, be sure that the circuit board is
connected and power voltages are set as described previously. Make sure that all other CM switches
are off.
Student Manual
FACET by Lab-Volt 1
Introduction
Fault Switches
The base unit of the FACET system has 12 fault switches under a locked cover. During the
troubleshooting unit, your instructor will use these switches to introduce problems into the circuit blocks,
and you will troubleshoot these faults. If you measure unreasonable values in an exercise, even after
double checking your circuit, CM switches, and power voltages, ask your instructor to verify that all fault
switches are off.
Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting is a logical and systematic way of isolating both a malfunction and its cause. When the
malfunction is defined and its cause is discovered, the fault can be repaired to restore the equipment to
normal operation. For example, a signal light that is off when it should be on defines a malfunction.
On FACET courses, you will be troubleshooting circuits with instructor-inserted faults.
To ensure that the circuit is operating properly, you should check it against the performance specifications
before requesting that your instructor insert a fault in a circuit block.
When you troubleshoot a FACET circuit board, you can develop techniques that enable you to logically
analyze symptoms generated by a fault. By analyzing the symptoms, you can isolate the fault to a
circuit or a group of components. Once the faulty component has been isolated and repaired, system
performance checks should be done once more to ensure system operation.
You can use the Troubleshooting Basics flowchart as a reference troubleshooting method/guide to help
you identify malfunctions and faults in a circuit.
Troubleshooting Basics
You should troubleshoot circuits in a logical and systematic way to eliminate possible causes of a
malfunction until the defective component is isolated.
Individual initiative and imagination combined with circuit knowledge and logical procedures are important
elements of successful troubleshooting.
Speedy isolation of a circuit fault begins with a solid foundation of basic troubleshooting skills. The seven
basic steps for troubleshooting a circuit fault are:
1. Analyze the Symptoms
2. Confirm Fault Exists
3. Visual Inspection
4. Make Performance Measurements
5. Identify Faulty Circuit Section
6. Repair Fault
7. Verify the Repair
Student Manual
2 FACET by Lab-Volt
Introduction
A troubleshooting procedure can also be shown in a diagram called a troubleshooting flowchart, which
can help you develop a systematic approach to troubleshooting. A general purpose troubleshooting
flowchart is shown to the right.
The flowchart is made up of rectangular and diamond-
shaped boxes. A rectangular box indicates a specific
step to be performed and a diamond-shaped box
indicates a decision point in the flow. Notice the
diamond-shaped boxes have two exit points, labeled
either YES or NO. Your answer determines the next
step to be taken.
Depending on measurement results, the
troubleshooting steps or flowchart guide you to the
next logical measurement that should bring you closer
to the fault.
Troubleshooting begins after a symptom of a problem
is noticed. In commercial electronic equipment, the
symptoms of a circuit problem are usually noticed by
your senses: radio static -- hearing, TV snow -- sight,
the odor of a burnt component -- smell. By analyzing
the symptoms, you can sometimes identify the specific
circuit section or component causing the problem.
Confirm that the circuit actually contains a fault by
making observations and measurements. In most
circuits, a circuit performance check, which consists
of measuring one or two key voltage, current, or
resistance parameters, often at the input and output,
will determine if there is a fault. Circuit performance
specifications give the nominal values with percent
tolerances for the circuit parameters.
After confirming that a fault exists, visually inspect
the circuit. If a visual inspection indicates no apparent
faults, troubleshoot the circuit by using systematic and
logical methods.
Performance measurements consist of measuring
input/output signals and circuit component
parameters. The performance check values are
compared to the nominal values listed in the
performance specification table. A performance
specification table is given for each circuit that you will
troubleshoot during the procedure.
After reviewing the measured values against the
performance specification, determine the circuit
section containing the fault, and make a good
assumption about the possible fault.
Confirm or disprove the component fault assumption
by measuring continuity and resistance, calculating
current, or by measuring other component
parameters. If the circuit measurements disprove
your fault assumption, make additional performance
measurements and another fault assumption.
Student Manual
FACET by Lab-Volt 3
Introduction
When your fault assumption is confirmed, repair the fault. In the troubleshooting procedures, repair of a
fault is simulated by the computer turning off the fault switch.
Repeat the circuit performance check to verify the repair.
Systematic Troubleshooting
Systematic troubleshooting includes the following eight steps:
1. Analyze the symptoms of the problem.
2. Make performance checks to confirm that a fault exists.
3. Visually inspect the circuit.
4. Make additional performance measurements to determine the section of the circuit containing the
fault.
5. Make a fault assumption based on the performance measurements.
6. Confirm the fault assumption by circuit continuity or component resistance measurements.
7. Repeat steps 4, 5, and 6 if the fault is not located.
8. Repair the fault and do a performance check to confirm proper operation.
Circuit Performance Check

In most circuits, proper operation is verified (or not verified) when you measure one or two key voltage,
current, resistance, or logic parameters listed in the circuit performance specification table. The key
measurements are often at the circuit input and output.
During the troubleshooting exercises, three occasions require a performance check:
1. After the circuit is set up, check that the circuit is operating properly before a fault is activated.
2. After a fault is activated, confirm that a fault is in the circuit (the first step in troubleshooting).
3. After the fault is located and repaired, check that the circuit is operating properly.
Real-Number Questions and Recall Values

Throughout FACET courses, students may encounter Recall Values.
Some questions require real-number answers that are graded correct if they fall within an acceptable
tolerance range.
Some of these real-number values may be further used within the Procedure and can be recalled in later
questions. They are called Recall Value x, where x (starting at 1) corresponds to its order of appearance
within a Procedure. In the second instance the Recall Value x appears, the value of x will be 2, and so on.
A Recall Value can be a measured value or a calculated value.
A Recall Value can be compared with other recalled values (from previous steps) or used in calculations.
Example of inputting a measured value

3. Measure the total current of your circuit.
IT = ____________mA (Recall Value 1)
Student Manual
4 FACET by Lab-Volt
Introduction
8. After modifying the circuit, measure its total circuit current.

IT = ____________mA (Recall Value 5)
Example using recalled measured values

9. Based on an unmodified circuit current of mA (Step 3, Recall Value 1) and a modified
circuit current of mA (Step 8, (Recall Value 5) , the equivalent resistance of the circuit
a. increased.
b. did not change.
c. decreased.
Example using calculations with recalled values

11. Given the currents below and the equation IT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3, what is the value of IR1?
IT = mA (Step 8, Recall Value 5)
IR2 = mA (Step 5, Recall Value 3)
a. about [0 + (Step 8, Recall Value 5) – (Step 5, Recall Value 3) +
(Step 6, Recall Value 4)] mA
b. about 1.5 mA
c. cannot be determined
Measurements and Measurement Tolerances

Appendix C offers a review of measurement methods, and Appendix D provides information about
measurement tolerances. You should read these appendices if you have questions about measurement
procedures in this manual. Your results are acceptable if they are within the tolerances.
NOTE: Unless stated otherwise in a procedural step, all measurements in this volume are
acceptable if they are within ±30% of nominal values.
Miscellaneous Information
Circuit boards that require low level signals from the signal generator usually have an ATTENUATOR
circuit block. The ATTENUATOR divides the signal generator output by 11 to ease adjustment of the
generator amplitude. If you use the ATTENUATOR, be sure to measure the signal amplitude at the output
of the ATTENUATOR, not at the output of the generator or the GENERATOR BUFFER.
In general, your FACET setup will be used for one or more review questions, so you should not
disconnect it immediately after the procedure. When you have completed your work for the day, remove
all circuit board connections, and turn off the power sources before opening the base unit connector and
removing the circuit board from the base unit. Stow the circuit board and all connectors as directed by
your instructor.
Graphics found in a gray rectangle (see sample on the
right) are included for certain steps/questions to provide
additional help.
Student Manual
FACET by Lab-Volt 5
Introduction
Student Manual
6 FACET by Lab-Volt
AC 2 Fundamentals RLC Circuits
Unit 1: RLC Circuits

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to analyze series and parallel RLC circuits by using
calculations and measurements.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Many electronics circuits are made up of resistors (R), inductors (L), and capacitors (C). Such networks
are referred to as RLC circuits. There are many ways that resistors, inductors, and capacitors can be
connected.
One way to connect these three components is in series.
Another way to arrange these three components is in parallel.
More complex RLC circuits are made up of combinations of series and parallel RLC circuits.
Student Manual
FACET by Lab-Volt 7
RLC Circuits AC 2 Fundamentals
Varying the frequency of the applied voltage (VGEN) causes both the inductive (XL) and capacitive (XC)
reactances to change. Will this cause the total circuit current (IT) to change?
a. yes
b. no
At some frequencies, the RLC circuits act capacitively. The current (IT) leads the applied voltage (VGEN).
At other frequencies, the RLC circuits act inductively, and IT lags VGEN.
In a series circuit, the same current flows in all three components. Given the current (IT), can you use
Ohm’s law to calculate the voltage drops across the individual circuit components?
a. yes
b. no
In a parallel circuit, VGEN appears across each of the components. Given VGEN, can you use Ohm’s law to
calculate the current through each of the three circuit branches?
a. yes
b. no
Student Manual
8 FACET by Lab-Volt
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

RLC circuits – networks created by resistors (R), inductors (L), and capacitors (C) connected in various
ways to perform some useful function such as filtering, phase shifting, or impedance matching; also called
RLC circuits.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
AC 2 FUNDAMENTALS circuit board
Oscilloscope, dual trace
Generator, sine wave
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
Student Manual
FACET by Lab-Volt 9
Exercise 1: Series RLC Circuits
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to analyze series RLC circuits by using
calculations and measurements. You will verify your results with an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
The total impedance (Z) offered to current flow (IT) in a series RLC circuit is a combination of the
oppositions offered by the resistance (R), inductive reactance (XL), and capacitive reactance (XC).
Net reactance is the difference between the two reactances. An RLC circuit can be reduced to one
equivalent resistance and one net reactance (XNET).
When the value of capacitive reactance (XC) is larger than the value of inductive reactance (XL), the circuit
acts like a resistor in series with an equivalent capacitor. The net reactance is determined as follows:
XCNET = XC – XL
Student Manual
10 FACET by Lab-Volt
However, when the value of inductive reactance (XL) is larger than the capacitive reactance (XC), the
circuit acts like a resistor in series with an equivalent inductor. The net reactance is determined as follows:
XLNET = XL – XC
This series RLC circuit acts like a 100 Ω resistor in series with an equivalent
a. capacitor.
b. inductor.
Knowing the reactances and resistance of a series RLC circuit, you can calculate the total circuit
impedance (Z).
Z = R12 + ( XC1 − XL1 )2
Z= 2565 W
Student Manual
FACET by Lab-Volt 11
Using the values of Z and VGEN, you can calculate the total circuit current from Ohm’s law.
Now that you know circuit current, you can calculate the voltage drop across each component by using
Ohm’s law.
VR1 = IT x R1 = 5.85 x 10–3 x 1000 = 5.85 V
VL1 = IT x XL1 = 5.85 x 10–3 x 1256 = 7.35 V
Student Manual
VC1 = IT x XC1 = 5.85 x 10–3 x 3619 = 21.2 V
In a series RLC circuit, does the sum of the component voltage drops equal the applied source voltage
(VGEN)?
a. yes
b. no
The following equation is used to determine VGEN, where VR equals the total resistive voltage drop and
VNET equals the net reactive voltage (VC1 – VL1).
VGEN = VR 2 + VNET 2
Student Manual
Calculate VGEN.
VR12 + ( VC1 − VL1 )

2
VGEN =
VGEN= Vpk-pk (Recall Value 1)
This phasor diagram shows the relationship of the voltage drops of the resistive and reactive components
to the source voltage (VGEN).
VGEN does not equal the sum of the voltage drops across the individual components.
VR12 + ( VC1 − VL1 )

2
VGEN =
Student Manual
A practical way to tell if an RLC is inductive or capacitive is to measure the individual voltage drops across
the inductor and capacitor. The one with the highest voltage drop determines the total reactive effect.
This circuit acts like a resistor in series with an equivalent

a. inductor.
b. capacitor.
The impedance phase angle (θ) can be determined from the following equation, where XNET equals
(XL – XC) or (XC – XL).
XNET
θ = tan−1
R
Student Manual
When the voltage drop across each component is known, you can determine the phase angle (θ) from the
following equation, where VNET equals (VL1 – VC1) or (VC1 – VL1).
VNET
θ = tan−1
VR1
Calculate the phase angle (θ) in the series RLC circuit shown above.
VNET
θ = tan−1
VR1
θ = degrees (Recall Value 2)

Circuit values depend upon the frequency of the applied voltage. Changing the frequency changes the
reactive values and other factors in the circuit.
Increasing the frequency increases the value of inductive reactance and lowers the value of capacitive
reactance. Decreasing the frequency decreases the value of inductive reactance and raises the value of
capacitive reactance.
Changing the frequency changes the way a circuit acts (either inductively, capacitively, or resistively).
PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the RLC/RESONANCE/POWER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown.
২ 2. Adjust (VGEN) for a 15 Vpk-pk, 20 kHz sine wave. Set the frequency and amplitude with the
oscilloscope.
Student Manual
In the next few steps, you will measure the voltage drops across the individual components.
You will compare the value of generator voltage (VGEN) with the individual voltage drops.
VGEN = VR 2 + VNET 2
২ 3. Connect the oscilloscope as shown, and measure the voltage drop across C1 (VC1).
VC1 = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 1)
২ 4. Connect the oscilloscope as shown, and use the ADD-INVERT method to measure the
voltage drop across L1 (VL1).
VL1 = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 2)
Student Manual
২ 5. Connect the oscilloscope as shown, and use the ADD-INVERT method to measure the voltage
drop across R2 (VR2).
VR2 = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 3)
২ 6. Compare the value of VGEN (15 Vpk-pk) with your measured values of VC1 ( Vpk-pk
[Step 3, Recall Value 1]), VL1 ( Vpk-pk [Step 4, Recall Value 2]), and VR2
( Vpk-pk [Step 5, Recall Value 3]).
In a series RLC circuit, is the applied voltage
(VGEN) equal to the sum of the individual
component drops?
a. yes
b. no
In the following steps, you will determine if this circuit acts inductively or capacitively at an input frequency
of 20 kHz.
You will increase the value of C1 and observe any changes in circuit performance.
২ 7. Compare your measured values of VC1 and VL1.
VC1 = Vpk-pk (Step 3, Recall Value 1)
VL1 = Vpk-pk (Step 4, Recall Value 2)

a. capacitor.
b. inductor.
Student Manual
২ 8. Connect the oscilloscope channels as shown. Observe the phase angle (θ) between the
circuit current (circuit current and VR3 have identical phase) and the applied generator
voltage (VGEN). Use VGEN as the reference.
২ 9. Does the circuit current lead or lag the applied generator voltage?
a. lead
b. lag
২ 10. Place CM switch 10 in the ON position to increase the value of C1. Observe the voltage
drops across L1 and C1. Does this circuit change cause the circuit to be inductive or remain
capacitive?
a. capacitive
b. inductive
In the following steps, you will determine if this circuit acts inductively or capacitively at an input frequency
of 50 kHz.
You will calculate the circuit phase angle (θ).
Student Manual
২ 11. Adjust VGEN for a 15 Vpk-pk, 50 kHz sine wave. Set the frequency and amplitude with the
oscilloscope.
২ 12. Connect the oscilloscope as shown, and measure the voltage drop across C1 (VC1).
voltage drop across L1 (VL1).
voltage drop across R2 (VR2).
Student Manual
২ 15. Compare your measured values of VC1 and VL1.

a. capacitor.
b. inductor.
২ 16. Using the voltage drop across each component, calculate the phase angle (θ).
VR2 = Vpk-pk (Step 14, Recall Value 6)
VL1 − VC1
θ = tan−1
VR2
২ 17. Connect the oscilloscope channels as shown. Observe the phase angle (θ) between the
circuit current (circuit current and VR3 have identical phase) and the applied generator
voltage (VGEN). Use VGEN as the reference.
Student Manual
২ 18. Does the circuit current lead or lag the applied generator voltage?
a. lead
b. lag
২ 19. Make sure all CMs are cleared (turned off) before proceeding to the next section.
CONCLUSION
• As frequency varies in a series RLC circuit, the reactances, impedance, voltage, current, and phase
angle change.
• At lower frequencies, XC is greater than XL, so the circuit acts capacitively and the current leads the
voltage.
• At higher frequencies, XL is greater than XC, so the circuit acts inductively and the current lags the
voltage.
• The sum of the component voltage drops does not equal the applied source voltage because the
voltages are out of phase with one another.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Locate the RLC/RESONANCE/POWER circuit block and connect the circuit shown. Adjust VGEN for a
15 Vpk-pk, 20 kHz sine wave. Set the frequency and amplitude with the oscilloscope.
Place the CM switch 11 in the ON position to decrease the value of C1. Connect the oscilloscope
channels as shown. Use VGEN as the reference.
Observe the phase angle (θ) between the circuit current and the VGEN.
Student Manual
While observing the phase angle (θ), toggle CM switch 11 off and on.
Based on your observation of the phase angle (θ), you determine that the CM caused the circuit to
a. change from capacitive to inductive.
b. remain inductive.
c. change from inductive to capacitive.
d. remain capacitive.
2. A series RLC circuit acts like a resistor in series with an inductor when
a. XC is greater than XL.
b. XL is less than XC.
c. VL is greater than VC.
d. VC is greater than VL.
3. Based on the given values, the circuit acts

a. resistively.
b. like an inductor is in series with a capacitor.
c. like a resistor is in series with an inductor.
d. like a resistor is in series with a capacitor.
4. In this series RLC circuit, VC is greater than VL.

The current
a. lags the applied voltage.
b. leads the applied voltage.
c. and voltage are in phase.
d. and voltage phase relationship cannot be determined with this data.
5. In a series RLC circuit, the component voltage drops

a. equal the applied source voltage.
b. are in phase with one another.
c. are out of phase with one another.
d. can be added directly.
NOTE: Make sure all CMs are cleared (turned off) before proceeding to the next section.
Student Manual
Exercise 2: Parallel RLC Circuits
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to analyze parallel RLC circuits by using
calculations and measurements. You will verify your results with an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
In this parallel RLC circuit, the resistance, inductance, and capacitance are all connected directly across
the ac supply voltage (VGEN).
Each component forms one branch of the circuit, and each branch draws a current from the ac supply
based upon the applied voltage and its resistance or reactance.
Since the voltage is the same for all branches, current will be used to analyze parallel RLC circuits.
NOTE: Use Ohm’s law to determine the branch currents.
VGEN 5
IC = = = 3.45 mA
XC 1447
Student Manual
VGEN 5
IL = = = 1.77 mA
XL 2826
VGEN 5
IR = = = 1.28 mA
R 3900
IT is the total circuit current drawn from the generator source (VGEN). Can the individual branch currents
be added directly to obtain IT?
a. yes
b. no
Calculate IT from the following equation.

IT = IR 2 + (IC − IL )2
IT = mA (Recall Value 1)
Student Manual
This phasor diagram shows the relationship of the branch currents.

Because the currents through the inductor (IL) and capacitor (IC) are 180º out of phase with one another,
they naturally oppose and cancel one another.
One way to tell if a parallel RLC circuit is inductive or capacitive is to examine the individual branch
reactances or currents. The component with the lowest reactance or with the highest current dominates.
The circuit shown above acts like a circuit with a resistor in parallel with an equivalent
a. capacitor.
b. inductor.
The equivalent parallel RLC circuit is a 3.9 kΩ resistor in parallel with a capacitor that draws a net
reactance current equal to IC – IL (3.45 mA – 1.77 mA = 1.68 mA).
Student Manual
To calculate the value of the equivalent capacitor, first find its reactance.
VGEN 5
XC = = = 2.976 Ω
ICNET 1.68 mA
Calculate the equivalent capacitance from the following equation.
1
C=
2πfXC
C = µF (Recall Value2 )
Because the circuit is capacitive, the current leads the applied voltage (VGEN) by some phase angle
between 0º and 90º.
This phase angle (θ) can be computed from the current amplitudes.
ICNET 1.68 mA
θ = tan−1 = = 52.7°
IR 1.28 mA
Varying the frequency changes the reactances, branch currents, total current, impedance, and phase
angles.
At lower frequencies, XL is smaller than XC, so the circuit is inductive.
At higher frequencies, XC is smaller than XL, so the circuit is capacitive.
NOTE: Use Ohm’s law to determine the branch currents.
Student Manual
PROCEDURE
২ 2. Adjust VGEN so that a 5 Vpk-pk, 50 kHz sine wave (Vac) appears directly across the parallel
network.
In the next few steps, you will determine the individual branch currents.
You will calculate total circuit current (IT) from the following equation.
2
IT = IR 2 + (IC − IL )
You will then calculate and observe circuit current phase with respect to the applied parallel voltage (Vac).
Student Manual
২ 3. Measure the voltage drop across R4 to determine the branch current through C2 (IC2).
VR4
IC2 =
R4
IC2 = mApk-pk (Recall Value 1)
২ 4. Measure the voltage drop across R5 to determine the current through L2 (IL2)
VR5
IL2 =
R5
IL2 = mApk-pk (Recall Value 2)
Student Manual
২ 5. Measure the voltage drop across R6 to determine the current through R6 (IR6).
VR6
IR6 =
R6
IR6 = mApk-pk (Recall Value 3)
২ 6. Using your measured values of branch currents, calculate the total circuit current (IT).
IC2 = mA (Step 3, Recall Value 1)
IL2 = mA (Step 4, Recall Value 2)
2
IT = IR62 + (IC2 − IL2 )
IT = mA (Recall Value 4)
২ 7. Compare your value total circuit current ( mA [Step 6, Recall Value 4]) with the
individual branch currents.

Can the individual branch currents be added directly to obtain the total circuit current (IT) in a
parallel RLC circuit?
a. yes
b. no
Student Manual
২ 8. Compare your measured values of branch currents.
This circuit acts

a. inductively.
b. capacitively.
২ 9. Compute the phase angle from your measured branch current amplitudes.
IC2 − IL2
θ = tan−1
IR6
Student Manual
২ 10. Connect the oscilloscope probes as shown. Observe the phase angle (θ) between the circuit
current and the applied parallel voltage (Vac). Use Vac (channel 1) as the reference.
২ 11. Does your calculated phase angle of ( degrees [Step 9, Recall Value 5]) indicate a
lagging inductive or a leading capacitive current?
a. lagging inductive
b. leading capacitive
২ 12. Change VGEN so that a 5 Vpk-pk, 20 kHz sine wave Vac appears directly across the parallel
network.
Student Manual
In the next few steps, you will determine the new reactive branch currents at 20 kHz and observe the
phase angle.
You will then determine if lowering the input frequency causes the circuit to remain capacitive or act
inductively.
২ 13. Measure the voltage drop across R4 to determine the current through C2 (IC2).
VR4
IC2 =
R4
IC2 = mApk-pk (Recall Value 6)
Student Manual
২ 14. Measure the voltage drop across R5 to determine the current through L2 (IL2).
VR5
IL2 =
R5
২ 15. Compare your measured values of reactive branch currents.
IC2 = mApk-pk (Step 13, Recall Value 6)
IL2 = mApk-pk (Step 14, Recall Value 7)
At 20 kHz, this circuit acts

a. inductively.
b. capacitively.
২ 16. Connect the oscilloscope probes as shown. Observe the phase angle (θ) between the circuit
current and Vac. Use Vac (channel 1) as the reference.
Student Manual
২ 17. Does the phase angle indicate a lagging inductive or a leading capacitive current with
respect to Vac?
a. lagging inductive
b. leading capacitive
২ 18. Place CM switch 12 in the ON position to increase the value of C2. Observe the current
through each reactive branch (IR4 and IR5). Does the CM cause the circuit to be capacitive or
remain inductive?
a. capacitive
b. inductive
CONCLUSION
• As frequency varies in a parallel RLC circuit, the reactances, impedance, currents, and phase angle
change.
• When inductor current is larger, the circuit is inductive; when capacitor current is larger, the circuit is
capacitive.
• At lower frequencies, XL is smaller than XC, so the circuit acts inductively, and the circuit current lags
the applied parallel voltage.
• At higher frequencies, XC is smaller than XL, so the circuit acts capacitively, and the circuit current
leads the applied parallel voltage.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. As the frequency of the voltage applied changes, which of the following does not change?
a. IL
b. IC
c. IR
d. IT
Student Manual
2. Locate the RLC/RESONANCE/POWER circuit block and connect the circuit shown. Adjust VGEN so
that a 5 Vpk-pk, 25 kHz sine wave (Vac) appears directly across the parallel network.
Place the CM switch 16 in the ON position to change the value of L2 to 5 mH. Observe the current
through each reactive branch (IR4 and IR5).
With L2 equal to 5 mH, the circuit acts

a. resistively.
b. capacitively.
c. inductively.
d. capacitively and inductively.
3. A parallel RLC circuit is capacitive when

a. IC is greater than IR.
b. IT is greater than IC.
c. IL is greater than IC.
d. IC is greater than IL.
4. The reactive branch currents (IL and IC) in a parallel RLC circuit naturally oppose and cancel one
another because they are
a. 180º out of phase.
b. in phase.
c. 90º out of phase.
d. 360º out of phase.
Student Manual
5. Can the individual branch currents be added directly to obtain the total circuit current (IT) in a parallel
RLC circuit?
a. No, because they are in phase.
b. Yes, because they are in phase.
c. Yes, because they are out of phase.
d. No, because they are out of phase.
Student Manual
UNIT TEST
1. The circuit current leads the applied voltage (Vac). To make the current lag the applied voltage without
changing the frequency,
a. increase the value of L1.
b. decrease the value of L1.
c. decrease the value of C1.
d. increase the value of R1.
2. The circuit current lags the applied voltage.

Which of the following is true?
a. VL1 < VC1
b. VL1 = VC1
c. VC1 > VL1
d. VL1 > VC1
3. In this circuit, VC1 is greater than VL1.

Which of the following is true?
a. The phase shift is 0º.
b. The circuit is inductive.
c. The circuit is capacitive.
d. The condition of the circuit cannot be
determined.
4. The branch current of L1 is greater than that of C1. The equivalent circuit of this RLC circuit is a
resistor and a(n)
a. inductor in parallel.
b. capacitor in series.
c. capacitor in parallel.
d. inductor in series.
5. The frequency is 20 kHz. To find the branch current

through either C1 or L1, divide
a. Vac by IT.
b. Vac by either XC1 or XL1.
c. VL1 by IT.
d. VC1 by IT.
Student Manual
6. This circuit is operating at 60 kHz. Which action changes the circuit from capacitive to inductive?
a. increasing the value of L1
b. increasing the value of R1
c. decreasing the value of C1
d. increasing the value of C1
7. Can the individual branch currents be added

directly to obtain the total circuit current (IT)?
a. Yes, but only at low frequencies.
b. No, because the currents are out of phase.
c. Yes, but only at high frequencies.
d. No, because the currents are in phase.
8. This RLC circuit is capacitive. The current leads the applied voltage (Vac). The phase shift could be
a. 360º.
b. greater than 0º but less than 180º.
c. 180º.
d. greater than 0º but less than 90º.
9. In this circuit, does the sum of the component voltage drops

equal the applied source voltage (Vac)?
a. Yes, but only at low frequencies
b. No, because the voltage drops are out of phase
c. Yes, but only at high frequencies
d. No, because the voltage drops are in phase
10. A parallel RLC circuit is inductive; therefore,

a. IL < IC.
b. IL = 0.
c. IL > IC.
d. IC > IL.
Student Manual
Student Manual
AC 2 Fundamentals Series Resonance
Unit 2: Series Resonance

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to analyze series resonant RLC circuits by using
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Do the inductive and capacitive reactances in an RLC circuit vary with frequency?
a. yes
b. no
An increase in frequency (f) causes the inductive reactance (XL) to increase. A decrease in frequency
causes the inductive reactance (XL) to decrease.
A decrease in frequency (f) causes the capacitive reactance (XC) to increase. An increase in frequency
causes the capacitive reactance (XC) to
a. increase.
b. decrease.
Student Manual
Series Resonance AC 2 Fundamentals
At some frequency, the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal in a series RLC circuit. This
frequency is called the resonant frequency (fr).
To calculate resonant frequency, apply the following formula.
1
fr =
2π LC
At resonance, the reactances are equal, so they cancel one another (XL − XC).
Student Manual
The total circuit impedance of a series RLC circuit at resonance is simply the circuit resistance (R1).
This response curve shows that as frequency increases, the circuit impedance (Z) decreases until it
reaches a minimum point (R), then it increases again.
At the resonant point (fr), total circuit current (IT) is

a. minimum.
b. maximum.
This response curve shows that as frequency increases, the circuit current (IT) increases until it reaches a
maximum point (IRESON), then it decreases again.
RLC series circuits are widely used in radio, TV, and communications equipment for tuning and filtering
because they allow a large peak current at the resonant frequency and provide a high opposition to
current flow at all other frequencies. This ability to select a desired frequency while rejecting other
frequencies is known as selectivity.
Student Manual
The selectivity of a circuit is determined by the bandwidth (B) of the circuit.
The bandwidth is determined by the upper and lower cutoff frequencies of the circuit (B = f2 − f1).
The selectivity and bandwidth of a series RLC circuit depends on the circuit Q (Q = XL/R).
Student Manual
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

resonant frequency (fr) – the frequency at which the inductive and capacitive reactances in an RLC
circuit are equal.
resonance – the condition where the inductive and capacitive reactances in any RLC circuit are equal
and cancel one another.
tuning – varying the inductance or capacitance in an RLC circuit in order to set the resonant frequency
and select or reject specific signals.
filtering – the process of either passing or rejecting specific frequencies.
selectivity – the measure of the ability of a tuned circuit to pass selected frequencies or bands of
frequencies and reject all others.
bandwidth (B) – the range of frequencies that will be passed or rejected by a resonsant circuit; the
difference between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies.
cutoff frequencies – the frequencies above and below the resonant frequency of a tuned series circuit
where the current is 70.7% of, or 3 dB down from, its peak value; also known as the half power points.
Q – the ratio of inductive reactance to resistance (Q = XL/R).
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
Student Manual
Exercise 1: Series Resonant Circuits
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to compute the resonant frequency, total
current, and impedance in a series RLC circuit by using standard formulas and procedures. You will verify
your results with an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
At what frequency are the inductive and capacitive reactances equal in a series RLC circuit?
a. cutoff frequency
b. resonant frequency
Resonant frequency is calculated from the following formula:
1
fr =
2π LC
where 2π = 6.28
L = the total value of inductance in henries.
C = the total value of capacitance in farads
fr = the resonant frequency in hertz.
Calculate the resonant frequency (fr) of this circuit.
fr = kHz (Recall Value 1)
Student Manual
When the resonant frequency of this circuit is 33.952 kHz, the inductive reactance of L1 (XL1) and the
capacitive reactance of C1 (XC1) are equal.
At this frequency (33.952 kHz), the inductive reactance (XL1) equals 2132 Ω.
XL1 = 2pfL
= (6.28) x (33.952 x 103) x (10 x 10–3)
= 2132 W
What is the capacitive reactance of C1 (XC1)?
XC1 = 1/(2pfC)
XC1 = Ω (Recall Value 2)

Since XL1 and XC1 are equal, their effects cancel one another. The total circuit impedance is simply the
circuit resistance.
What is the circuit impedance (Z)?

Z = Ω (Recall Value 3)
Student Manual
At resonance, the total circuit current (IT) can be determined from the applied voltage (VGEN) and the total
circuit resistance.
VGEN
IT =
R1
15 Vpk −pk
IT =
1000 Ω
IT = 15 mApk-pk
Knowing the resistance (1000 Ω), reactances (2132 Ω), and the total circuit current (15 mApk-pk), you can
determine the individual component voltage drops.
VR1 = IT x R1 = 15 mApk-pk x 1000 = 15 V
VL1 = IT x XL1 = 15 mApk-pk x 2132
VL1 = 31.98 V
Student Manual
Calculate the voltage drop across capacitor C1.

VR1 = IT x R1 = 15 mApk-pk x 1000 = 15 V
VL1 = IT x XL1 = 15 mApk-pk x 2132 = 31.98 V
VC1 = IT x XC1
VC1 = V (Recall Value 4)
The voltage drop across the resistance (R1) equals the applied voltage (VGEN). At the resonant frequency,
the circuit acts as if only the 1000 Ω resistor exists in the circuit.
Because the circuit appears totally resistive at resonance, the circuit current (IT) is in phase with the
applied voltage (VGEN).
Student Manual
The voltage drops across the inductor and capacitor are equal, since XL1 equals XC1, and they share a
common current (IT).
Are the voltage drops across the inductor and capacitor significantly higher than the applied voltage
(VGEN)?
a. yes
b. no
PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the RLC/RESONANCE/POWER circuit block and connect the circuit shown.
২ 2. Adjust the generator output voltage (VGEN) for a 15 Vpk-pk, 20 kHz sine wave.
Student Manual
২ 3. Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope across series combination L1 and C1, as shown.
Increase the frequency of the generator to tune for series resonance as determined by a voltage
null across series combination L1 and C1.
২ 4. Determine the resonant frequency (fr) by using an oscilloscope (CH 1) to measure the period
(T) at VGEN.
fr = 1/T
Student Manual
২ 5. With the circuit tuned at resonance, determine the total circuit current (IT).
VR3
IT =
R3
IT = mApk-pk (Recall Value 2)
২ 6. Vary the frequency above and below resonance while observing the total circuit current (IT).
Is IT maximum at resonance?
a. no
b. yes
২ 7. While observing IT with the oscilloscope, retune the series circuit by varying the generator
frequency several kilohertz (around 33.6 kHz) until a current peak occurs.
Student Manual
২ 8. Connect the oscilloscope channels as shown. At resonance, observe the phase angle (θ)
between the circuit current and the applied generator voltage (VGEN).
NOTE: Use VGEN (CH 1) as the reference.
২ 9. At resonance, is the circuit current in phase or out of phase with VGEN?

a. in phase
b. out of phase
২ 10. Vary the generator frequency several kilohertz above the resonant frequency while
observing the phase relationship between the circuit current and applied voltage.
Above resonance, circuit current lags VGEN, so the circuit acts inductively.
২ 11. Vary the generator frequency several kilohertz below the resonant frequency while observing
the phase relationship between the circuit current and applied voltage.
Below resonance, does circuit current lag or lead the applied voltage?
a. lag
b. lead
Student Manual
In the next few steps, you will measure the voltage drops across R2 and C1 at resonance.
You will compare VGEN with your measured voltage drops across R2 and C1.
২ 12. Adjust VGEN for a 15 Vpk-pk, 20 kHz sine wave.
২ 13. Increase the frequency of the generator to tune for series resonance, as determined by a
voltage null across series combination L1 and C1.
২ 14. With the oscilloscope probes connected as shown, use the ADD-INVERT method to
measure the voltage drop across R2 (VR2).
Student Manual
২ 15. Compare your measured value of VR2 ( Vpk-pk [Step 14, Recall Value 3]) with the
applied generator voltage (15 Vpk-pk). At resonance, does the circuit act as if only R2 existed
in the circuit?
a. yes
b. no
২ 16. With the series circuit at resonance, connect the oscilloscope as shown, and measure the
voltage drop across C1 (VC1).
২ 17. Compare your measured value of VC1 ( Vpk-pk [Step 16, Recall Value 4]) with the
applied generator voltage (15 Vpk-pk). Is VC1 larger or smaller than VGEN?
a. smaller
b. larger
In the next few steps, you will change the values of R2 and C1.
You will observe how changes in these components affect the series resonant circuit.
২ 18. Adjust the generator output (VGEN) for a 15 Vpk-pk, 20 kHz sine wave.
Student Manual
২ 19. Increase the frequency of the generator to tune for series resonance, as determined by a
২ 20. Place CM switch 9 in the ON position to increase the value of R2 to 3.2 kΩ. Tune for series
resonance, as determined by a voltage null across series combination L1 and C1 (CH 2).
Determine the circuit’s new resonant frequency (fr) and compare it to your previously measured
value of fr ( kHz [Step 4, Recall Value 1]). Did changing the value of R2 affect fr?
a. yes
b. no
২ 21. Place CM switch 10 in the ON position to increase the value of C1 to 0.0044 µF. Tune for
series resonance, as determined by a voltage null across series combination L1 and C1
(CH 2).
Student Manual
Determine the circuit’s new resonant frequency and compare it to your previously measured
value of fr ( kHz [Step 4, Recall Value 1]). Did changing the value of C1 affect fr?
a. yes
b. no
CONCLUSION
• At the resonant frequency, XL equals XC, and they cancel one another, leaving only the circuit
resistance to control current.
• At series resonance, circuit current is maximum and in phase with the applied voltage.
• Inductance and capacitance values affect the resonant frequency.
• Circuit resistance has no effect on resonant frequency (fr), but it does affect impedance and current.
• The voltage drops across the reactive components (XL and XC) are significantly higher than the
applied voltage and peak at resonance.
Student Manual
REVIEW QUESTIONS
15 Vpk-pk, 10 kHz sine wave.
Place the CM switch 11 in the ON position to decrease the value of C1. This decrease changes the
value of resonance (33.9 kHz).
Increase the frequency of the generator to tune for series resonance, as determined by a voltage null
across series combination L1 and C1.
The new resonant frequency (fr) you determine at VGEN is approximately

a. 20 kHz.
b. 24 kHz.
c. 34 kHz.
d. 48 kHz.
Student Manual
2. The step-up voltage across a coil or capacitor in a series RLC circuit peaks
a. at twice the resonant frequency.
b. at the resonant frequency.
c. below the resonant frequency.
d. above the resonant frequency.
3. At series resonance, the circuit current is

a. minimum and in phase with the applied voltage.
b. maximum and in phase with the applied voltage.
c. maximum and out of phase with the applied voltage.
d. minimum and out of phase with the applied voltage.
4. At the resonant frequency (fr) of a series RLC circuit, XL is

a. greater than XC, and the circuit acts inductively.
b. less than XC, and the circuit acts capacitively.
c. equal to XC, and the circuit acts resistively.
d. equal to R, and the circuit acts resistively.
5. When the value of resistance in an RLC series circuit increases, the

a. resonant frequency remains the same.
b. circuit current increases at resonance.
c. circuit current remains the same at resonance.
d. resonant frequency increases.
Student Manual
Exercise 2: Q and Bandwidth of a Series RLC Circuit
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to calculate the bandwidth and Q of a series
RLC circuit by using standard formulas. You will verify your results with an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
Resonant RLC circuits are often used for tuning and filtering.
In a series RLC circuit, selectivity is the ability to provide large current flow (IRESON) at the resonant
frequency (fr) and provide a high opposition to current flow at all other frequencies.
A sharply, or highly, selective circuit is responsive to a limited range of frequencies.

A broadly, or poorly, selective circuit is responsive to a wide range of frequencies.
Would a response curve of a highly selective series RLC circuit

have a narrow (sharp) bandwidth (B) or broad (wide) bandwidth?
a. narrow
b. broad
Student Manual
The response curve of a series RLC tuning circuit has a broad (wide) bandwidth. Would this type of
response curve make a highly selective tuning circuit for a radio?
a. yes
b. no
The selectivity of a resonant circuit is determined by its bandwidth (B).
The bandwidth is determined by the upper and lower cutoff frequencies of the circuit.
Student Manual
In the response curve of a series RLC circuit, IRESON is the maximum circuit current at the resonant
frequency (fr). What is IRESON of the circuit shown?
VGEN
IR ESON =
R1
IRESON = mApk-pk (Recall Value 1)
The lower and upper cutoff frequencies are 70.7% of, or 3 dB down from, the maximum current at
resonance (IRESON).
Student Manual
Determine the –3 dB point when IRESON is 15 mApk-pk.

I–3dB = 0.707 x IRESON
I–3dB = mApk-pk (Recall Value 2)
The bandwidth (B) is determined from the upper and lower cutoff frequencies.
B = f2 – f1
The bandwidth (B) of this response curve is

a. 8.5 kHz.
b. 34.5 kHz.
c. 17.0 kHz.
A characteristic of a resonant circuit is its sharpness of resonance. This sharpness is indicated by a factor
called Q.
XL
Q=
R
where XL is the inductive reactance at the resonant frequency

and R is the total resistance in series with XL.
The higher the Q of a circuit, the better its selectivity. Less than 10
is a low Q, while more than 250 is a very high Q.
The higher the Q, the smaller the bandwidth (B).
This relationship is defined below.
fr
B=
Q
Student Manual
Which curve displays the lower circuit Q?

a. A
b. B
The Q of the resonant circuit also determines how much step-up voltage is across L1 or C1.
Compute the resonant rise across C1 or L1 with the following expression.

VC1 or VL1 = Q x VGEN
With a circuit Q of 3, the resonant step-up voltage across either L1 or C1 equals

a. 15 Vpk-pk.
b. 45 Vpk-pk.
c. 3 Vpk-pk.
Student Manual
PROCEDURE
২ 2. Adjust the generator output voltage (VGEN) for a 15 Vpk-pk, 20 kHz sine wave.
২ 3. Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope across series combination L1 and C1, as shown.
Increase the frequency of the generator to tune for series resonance, as determined by a voltage
null across series combination L1 and C1.
Student Manual
২ 4. Determine the resonant frequency (fr) by using an oscilloscope (CH 1) to measure the period
(T) at VGEN.
1
fr =
T
২ 5. With the circuit tuned at resonance, determine the maximum circuit current (IRESON).
VR3
IRESON =
R3
IRESON = mApk-pk (Recall Value 2)
Student Manual
২ 6. Use your measured value of IRESON ( mApk-pk [Step 5, Recall Value 2]) to
determine the –3 dB point.
I–3dB = 0.707 x IRESON
I–3dB = mApk-pk (Recall Value 3)
২ 7. To determine the lower cutoff frequency (–3 dB point), slowly decrease the generator
frequency as you observe a decrease in voltage across current-sensing resistor R3. Stop
when the current equals your calculated value of I–3dB ( mApk-pk [Step 6, Recall
Value 3]).
Student Manual
২ 8. Determine the lower cutoff frequency (f1) by using an oscilloscope (CH 1) to measure the
period (T) at VGEN.
1
f1 =
T
f1 = kHz (Recall Value 4)
২ 9. To determine the upper cutoff frequency (–3 dB point), slowly increase the generator
frequency from the lower cutoff frequency (f1) past resonance (fr). As the current decreases
from resonance, stop increasing generator frequency when the current equals your
calculated value of I–3db ( mApk-pk [Step 6, Recall Value 3]).
Student Manual
২ 10. Determine the upper cutoff frequency (f2) by using an oscilloscope (CH 1) to measure the
period (T) at VGEN.
1
f2 =
T
২ 11. Using your values of lower (f1) and upper (f2) cutoff frequencies, compute the bandwidth (B)
of the circuit.
B = f2 – f1
B = kHz (Recall Value 6)
f1 = kHz (Step 8, Recall Value 4)
fr = kHz (Step 4, Recall Value 1)
২ 12. Is the selectivity of this resonant circuit determined by the bandwidth?

a. yes
b. no
B = kHz (Step 11, Recall Value 6)
Student Manual
২ 13. Compute the circuit Q from your values of resonant frequency and bandwidth.
fr
Q=
B
Q = (Recall Value 7)
২ 14. Place CM switch 9 in the ON position to increase the value of R2 to 3.3 kΩ.
Tune for series resonance, as determined by a voltage null across series combination L1 and
C1 (CH 2).
Student Manual
২ 15. With the series circuit at resonance and R2 equal to 3.3 kW, connect the oscilloscope as
shown, and measure the voltage drop across C1 (VC1).
২ 16. Determine the circuit Q with R2 equal to 3.3 kΩ.
VC1
Q=
VGEN
২ 17. Compare your values of circuit Q. In a series RLC circuit, does the bandwidth increase or
decrease with an increase of series resistance?
a. increase
b. decrease
Q = (Step 13, Recall Value 7) with R2 equal to 1 kW
Q = (Step 16, Recall Value 9) with R2 equal to 3.3 kW
Student Manual
CONCLUSION
• The lower and upper cutoff frequencies are determined by the –3 dB points.
• The bandwidth is determined from the cutoff frequencies (B = f2 – f1).
• Q can be computed from resonant frequency and bandwidth (Q = fr /B).
• Q equals the voltage across either the capacitive or inductive component divided by the source
voltage (Q = VC/VGEN or VL/VGEN).
• In a series RLC circuit, an increase in resistance decreases Q. The higher the Q, the narrower the
bandwidth (B) and the better the selectivity. The lower the Q, the wider the bandwidth and the poorer
the selectivity.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Place the CM switch 10 in the ON position to increase the value of C1.
Increase the frequency of the generator to tune for series resonance, as determined by a voltage null
Student Manual
Measure the voltage across C1 (VC1) and determine the circuit Q from the equation Q = VC1 /VGEN.
a. 1.3
b. 6.0
c. less than 0.5
d. greater than 10
2. The selectivity of a resonant RLC circuit is a function of the circuit Q. Which of the following Q values
has the best selectivity?
a. 3.5
b. 6.0
c. 1.0
d. less than 1.0
3. The peak current (IRESON) in a series RLC circuit is 8.5 mApk-pk. The –3 dB (0.707) points occur at
a. 4.25 mApk-pk.
b. 7.50 mApk-pk.
c. 6.00 mApk-pk.
d. 8.50 mApk-pk.
4. The Q of an RLC series resonant circuit determines the

a. resonant frequency.
b. step-up voltage across the inductor.
c. step-down voltage across the capacitor.
d. generator voltage setting.
5. The bandwidth (B) of a series RLC resonant circuit is 20 kHz with a lower cutoff frequency of 50 kHz.
The circuit’s upper cutoff frequency is
a. 20 kHz.
b. 70 kHz.
c. 30 kHz.
d. 60 kHz.
Student Manual
UNIT TEST
1. In this series RLC circuit, the resonant frequency [(fr) = 1/(2π√LC)] is approximately
a. 20 kHz.
b. 28 kHz.
c. 34 kHz.
d. 48 kHz.
2. The resonant frequency [fr = 1/(2π√LC)] in a series RLC circuit may be decreased by
a. decreasing L.
b. decreasing C.
c. decreasing R.
d. increasing C.
3. Which of the following statements is false regarding a series RLC circuit at the resonant frequency?
a. The circuit acts inductively.
b. XL = XC
c. Phase shift equals 0°.
d. VC = VL
4. At resonance, a series RLC circuit acts

a. capacitively and current leads voltage.
b. inductively and current lags voltage.
c. resistively and the current and voltage are in phase.
d. resistively and the current and voltage are 180° out of phase.
5. In this series RLC resonant circuit, increasing the value of R1 to 10 kΩ

a. increases resonant frequency (fr).
b. decreases the value of circuit current at resonance (IRESON).
c. decreases fr.
d. increases IRESON.
Student Manual
6. The bandwidth (B) in this series RLC resonant response curve is

a. 8.8 kHz.
b. 34.5 kHz.
c. 26.0 kHz.
d. 17.0 kHz.
7. In this series RLC circuit, the total current at resonance (IT) equals
a. VGEN/R1.
b. VGEN/XL.
c. VGEN/XC.
d. VGEN/(XL – XC).
8. In this series RLC circuit, the voltage drop across a reactive component (L1 or C1) at resonance is
a. less than the generator voltage (VGEN).
b. equal to VGEN.
c. greater than VGEN.
d. minimum at resonance.
9. The Q (Q = XL/R) of a series RLC circuit may be increased by

a. increasing R.
b. decreasing R.
c. decreasing XL.
d. increasing VGEN.
Student Manual
10. The impedance in a series RLC circuit at resonance is

a. maximum.
b. zero.
c. minimum.
d. infinite.
Student Manual
TROUBLESHOOTING
২ 3. Increase the frequency of the generator to tune for series resonance as determined by a
২ 4. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the series RLC resonant circuit is working
properly by doing a performance check. Check the value of the resonant frequency (fr).
২ 5. Measure the period (T) at VGEN.
1
fr =
T
২ 6. Have your instructor insert a fault into the RLC/RESONANCE/POWER circuit block. Select
an item to begin troubleshooting your circuit. Enter your observed values in the table.
Item Nominal Value Observed Value
VGEN 15.0 Vpk-pk, ±3%
VR2 14.3 Vpk-pk, ±30%*
VL1 30.8 Vpk-pk, ±30%*
VC1 30.8 Vpk-pk, ±30%*
IT 14.3 mApk-pk, ±30%*
VR1 (Ref VGEN) 0° +5°, –5°*
fr 33.7 kHz ±30%*
R2 1000 Ω, ±20%
RL1 22 Ω, ±20%
* At resonance
Student Manual
২ 7. The faulty component is

a. L1 (shorted).
b. C1 (shorted).
c. C1 (open).
d. R2 (open).
২ 8. Have your instructor clear all faults before proceeding to the next section.
Student Manual
AC 2 Fundamentals Parallel Resonance
Unit 3: Parallel Resonance

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to analyze parallel resonant LC circuits by using
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Resonance occurs in series and parallel circuits. The resonant frequency (fr) of a parallel resonant circuit
is calculated with the same formula used for series resonant circuits.
1
fr =
2π LC
In a parallel LC circuit, the generator voltage (VGEN) is applied across each component.
The component currents (IC and IL) are determined from the following equations.
VGEN
IC =
XC
VGEN
IL =
XL
In the ideal circuit shown above, are IC and IL equal at resonance?

a. yes
b. no
Student Manual
Parallel Resonance AC 2 Fundamentals
The current in the capacitor (IC) leads the generator voltage (VGEN) by 90°.
The current in the inductor (IL) lags the generator voltage by 90°.
At resonance, the currents (IC and IL) are equal and opposite in their effect, so they cancel one another.
Student Manual
The total current drawn from the generator is the line current (IT).
In the ideal circuit shown, the line current (IT) is

a. maximum at resonance.
b. 0 at resonance.
The inductor and capacitor effectively exchange energy. The current exchange between the capacitor and
inductor is referred to as the circulating current. A parallel circuit consisting of inductors and capacitors
that exchange circulating current is referred to as a tank circuit. Circulating current flows inside the tank
as the inductor and capacitor exchange energy, but no current is drawn from the generator.
Animation
At resonance, the circulating current is maximum while the total line current (IT) is 0.
In the ideal circuit shown above, the circuit impedance (Z) is

b. minimum at resonance.
Student Manual
In a practical parallel resonant LC circuit, the small series resistance in the inductor (RL) causes the
inductor current (IL) to be slightly lower than the capacitor current (IC).
Because of the coil resistance, inductor current (IL) does not equal capacitor current (IC), and a small
amount of line current flows. Circuit impedance (Z) is still very high and resistive.
This response curve shows that as frequency increases, the circuit

impedance (Z) increases until it reaches a maximum point, then it
decreases again.
At the resonant frequency (fr), total circuit, or line current (IT) is

a. maximum.
b. minimum.
Student Manual
This response curve shows that as frequency increases, the circuit

current (IT) decreases until it reaches a minimum point, then it
increases again.
The relationship between impedance and line current in a parallel
resonant circuit is exactly opposite to the relationship between
impedance and total current in a series resonant circuit.
At resonance, circuit current and voltage are in phase (impedance is
resistive) for series and parallel LC circuits.
Parallel resonant circuits are used in tuning and filtering circuits

because they provide a high impedance at the resonant frequency
and a low impedance at all other frequencies.
As in series resonant circuits, the Q determines the selectivity of

a parallel resonant circuit, and the bandwidth (B) is a measure
of selectivity.
Student Manual
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

line current – the combined total current drawn by the inductor, capacitor, and resistor in a parallel
resonant RLC circuit.
circulating current – the tank circuit current that flows in the inductor and capacitor as they exchange
energy.
tank circuit – a parallel resonant LC circuit that stores energy in the form of an electric field in the
capacitor and a magnetic field in the inductor.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
Student Manual
Exercise 1: Parallel Resonant Circuits
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to compute the resonant frequency, total circuit
current, and impedance of a parallel LC circuit by using standard electronics formulas. You will verify your
results with an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
At some frequency, the inductive (XL) and capacitive (XC) reactances are equal in a parallel LC tank
circuit. This frequency is the resonant frequency (fr).
The formula for computing fr in parallel resonant circuits is the same as that used in series resonant
circuits.
1
fr =
2π LC
where 2π = 6.28
L = the total value of inductance in henries
C = the total value of capacitance in farads
fr = the resonant frequency in hertz
Calculate the resonant frequency of the tank circuit.
Student Manual
A change in the inductance (L) or capacitance (C) changes the resonant frequency (fr).
1
fr =
2π LC
Does a decrease in the value of C to 0.0011 µF result in a higher or lower value of fr?
a. higher
b. lower
At resonance, a practical LC tank circuit has a very high impedance and acts resistively.
This LC tank impedance (Z) is maximum at resonance.
VRESON
Z=
IT
Student Manual
In this circuit, is the voltage across the tank circuit (VRESON) maximum or minimum at the resonant
frequency?
a. maximum
b. minimum
VRESON
Z=
IT
To determine the total line current (IT) of the circuit shown, measure the voltage drop across R1 and divide
by the resistance of R1.
VR1
IT =
R1
At resonance, the circulating current inside the tank circuit is very large.
Student Manual
The total circuit current (IT) drawn from the generator is

At resonance, the reactive components (L and C) of the LC tank circuit are opposite in their effect and
cancel one another. The result is a parallel LC circuit that is highly resistive only at the resonant frequency
(fr).
At resonance, the circuit current (IT) and the generator voltage (VGEN) are
a. in phase.
b. out of phase.
Student Manual
PROCEDURE
২ 3. Connect the oscilloscope probes as shown. Use the ADD-INVERT method to monitor the
circuit current (IT) through R1.
NOTE: Monitor IT by observing the voltage drop across R1.
২ 4. Increase the frequency of the generator (VGEN) to tune for parallel resonance, as determined
by a current null across R1.
Student Manual
২ 5. Determine the resonant frequency (fr) by using channel 1 of the oscilloscope to measure the
period (T) at VGEN.
1
fr =
T
২ 6. Measure the voltage across the parallel tank circuit (VRESON) at resonance. Use CH 2 of the
oscilloscope.
VRESON = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 2)
২ 7. With the circuit still tuned at resonance, determine the total circuit current (IT) that flows
through R1.
VR1
IT =
R1
IT =
(
15 Vpk −pk − ______Vpk −pk Step 6, Re call Value 2 )
4.7 kΩ
IT = µApk-pk (Recall Value 3)
Student Manual
Your values of circuit current (IT) and tank voltage (VRESON) yield the impedance of the parallel
LC tank circuit.
VRESON = Vpk-pk (Step 6, Recall Value 2)
IT = µApk-pk (Step 7, Recall Value 3)
VRESON
Z=
IT
*Z = kW
* Certain calculated answers based on measured Recall Values are not included in the Instructor Guide. The instructor may
use Recall Value nominal answers from the Instructor Guide to determine if the calculated answer by the student is within the
nominal value range.
Student Manual
২ 8. In this circuit, the current is minimum ( µApk-pk [Step 7, Recall Value 3]), and the LC
tank impedance ((VRESON/IT) • 1000 kΩ) is very high at resonance. The voltage across the
parallel tank circuit (VRESON) is
In the next few steps, you will determine, at resonance, the LC tank circulating current from the current
through inductor L2 (IL2).
You will compare the magnitude of the circulating current (IL2) to the value of circuit current (IT) drawn
from the generator.
Student Manual
২ 10. Increase the frequency of the generator to tune for parallel resonance, as determined by a
voltage peak across the LC tank circuit.
২ 11. Determine the tank circulating current (IL2).
VR5
IL2 =
R5
Student Manual
২ 12. Compare your value of circulating current (IL2) with that drawn from the generator (IT).
IL2 = mApk-pk(Step 11, Recall Value 4)
IT = µApk-pk (Step 7, Recall Value 3)
২ 13. Can a parallel LC tank circuit at resonance draw a small current from the source (generator)
but still have high circulating current?
a. yes
b. no
In the next few steps, you will observe the phase angle (θ) between VGEN and VRESON.
You will observe the phase angle (θ) at resonance and off resonance.
NOTE: Off resonance is any frequency setting that does not equal the resonant frequency.
Student Manual
২ 15. Increase the frequency of the generator to tune for parallel resonance, as determined by a
২ 16. Observe the phase angle (θ) between VGEN and VRESON.
NOTE: Use VGEN (CH 1) as the reference.
২ 17. At resonance, is VRESON in phase or out of phase with VGEN?

a. in phase
b. out of phase
২ 18. Vary the generator frequency several kilohertz above and below the resonant frequency
while observing the phase relationship between the two sine waves.
Off resonance, is VRESON in phase or out of phase with VGEN?

a. in phase
b. out of phase
Student Manual
CONCLUSION
• The resonant frequency of a parallel LC circuit depends on the values of inductance (L) and
capacitance (C).
• At parallel resonance, circuit current is minimum, and the circuit tank impedance is maximum.
• At parallel resonance, the tank circuit acts resistively and the circuit current and voltage are in phase.
• Circulating current inside an LC tank circuit is high, while generator current flow outside the tank
circuit is low.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Place the CM switch 16 in the ON position to change the value of L2. Before L2 was changed, the
resonant frequency (fr) equaled 33.9 kHz.
Increase the frequency of the generator to tune for parallel resonance, as determined by a voltage
peak across the tank circuit.
Student Manual
The new resonant frequency at VGEN is approximately

a. 10 kHz.
b. 48 kHz.
c. 96 kHz.
d. 31 kHz.
2. Based on your answer in the previous question, the unseen inductor activated by the circuit
modification
a. was added in parallel.
b. was added in series.
c. had no effect on fr.
d. caused fr to decrease.
3. The impedance (Z) of a practical LC tank circuit at resonance is

a. 0.
b. minimum.
c. maximum.
d. infinite.
4. At resonance, the circulating current is

a. smaller than the current drawn from the generator (IT).
b. minimum because IL equals IC.
c. larger than IT.
d. minimum because IL is greater than IC.
5. The LC tank voltage (VRESON) is in phase with the applied generator voltage (VGEN) when the
generator frequency is tuned
a. off resonance.
b. below resonance.
c. above resonance.
d. for resonance.
Student Manual
Exercise 2: Q and Bandwidth
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to calculate the Q and the bandwidth of a
parallel resonant circuit by using standard formulas. You will verify your results with an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
A characteristic of a resonant circuit is its sharpness of resonance. This sharpness is indicated by the
overall Q factor.
As shown by the response curve, a narrow bandwidth (B) passes a small group of frequencies.
A wide bandwidth (B) passes a larger group of frequencies.
Student Manual
For the same resonant frequency (fr), which Q results in a greater bandwidth (B)?
a. 80
b. 40
The Q of an individual coil equals XL/RL, where RL is the ac resistance of the coil, and XL is the inductive
reactance at any frequency.
Using the values shown, calculate the Q of the coil.
XL
Q=
RL
In the practical circuit shown, a series resistor (R1), a sine wave generator, and its output impedance
(RGEN) are connected to an LC tank circuit.
In this case, the overall circuit Q is not the same as the Q of the coil but much lower.
Student Manual
The circuit on the right is a simplified version of the practical parallel circuit on the left.
The series combination of the generator’s output impedance (RGEN) and resistor (R1) is in parallel with
the tank circuit.
An equivalent parallel resistance (RLP) replaces the series ac resistance of the coil (RL).
A coil Q of 41.8 and a coil ac resistance of 51 Ω yields 89.1 kΩ of equivalent parallel resistance.
RLP = Q2 x RL
RLP = 41.82 x 51 W
RLP = 89.1 kW
Student Manual
The equivalent circuit can be further simplified to a final equivalent circuit by combining RGEN, R1, and RLP
into a single shunt (parallel) resistance (RE).
The Q of this practical circuit equals RE / XL, where RE is the equivalent parallel, or shunt, resistance
across the LC tank.
RE
Q=
XL
4.5 kΩ
Q=
2132 Ω
Q = 2.1
In the circuit shown, the Q of the coil is 41.8, but the overall circuit Q is 2.1. Does the Q of the coil or the
Q of the circuit determine bandwidth?
a. Q of the coil
b. circuit Q
Student Manual
The selectivity of a resonant circuit is determined by the bandwidth (B).
The bandwidth is determined by the difference between

a. the lower cutoff frequency (f1) and the resonant frequency (fr).
b. the upper (f2) and lower (f1) cutoff frequencies.
c. fr and f2.
In the response curve of a parallel LC tank circuit, the voltage across the tank circuit (VRESON) peaks
(maximum) at the resonant frequency (fr).
Student Manual
The upper and lower cutoff frequencies are 70.7% of, or 3 dB down from, the maximum voltage at
resonance (VRESON).
NOTE: 70.7% of VRESON expressed in decibels is –3 dB.
Determine the –3 dB voltage point when VRESON is 15 Vpk-pk.

V = 0.707 x V
–3dB RESON
V = V (Recall Value 2)
–3dB
The bandwidth (B) is determined from the upper and lower cutoff frequencies.
B = f2 – f1
The bandwidth (B) shown by this response curve is

a. 6 kHz.
b. 10 kHz.
c. 16 kHz.
Student Manual
The bandwidth (B) of a parallel resonant circuit can also be determined from the circuit Q.
fr
B=
Q
From the circuit bandwidth (B), Q can be determined.
fr
Q=
B
PROCEDURE
২ 3. Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope across the LC tank circuit, as shown.

Increase the frequency of the generator to tune for parallel resonance, as determined by a
Student Manual
২ 4. At resonance, determine the resonant frequency (fr) by using an oscilloscope probe, as

shown, to measure the period (T).
1
fr =
T
২ 5. With the circuit tuned at resonance, measure the voltage drop across the LC tank circuit.
২ 6. Use your measured value of VRESON ( Vpk-pk [Step 5, Recall Value 2]) to determine
the –3 dB point.
V–3dB = 0.707 x VRESON
V–3dB = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 3)
Student Manual
২ 7. To determine the lower cutoff frequency (–3 dB point), slowly decrease the generator
frequency as you observe a decrease in the voltage across the LC tank circuit. Stop when the
voltage equals your calculated value of V–3dB ( Vpk-pk [Step 6, Recall Value 3]).
২ 8. Determine the lower cutoff frequency (f1) by using an oscilloscope (CH 1) to measure the
period (T) at VRESON.
1
f1 =
T
Student Manual
২ 9. To determine the upper cutoff frequency (–3 dB point), slowly increase the generator frequency
from f1 past fr. As the voltage decreases from resonance, stop increasing the generator
frequency when the voltage equals your calculated value of V–3dB ( Vpk-pk [Step 6,
Recall Value 3]).
২ 10. Determine the upper cutoff frequency (f2) by using an oscilloscope (CH 1) to measure the
period (T) at VRESON.
1
f2 =
T
Student Manual
of the circuit.
B = f2 – f1
২ 12. Is the selectivity of this resonant circuit determined by the bandwidth (B)?
a. yes
b. no
২ 13. Calculate the circuit Q using your values of fr and B.
fr
Q=
B
২ 14. Compare your value of Q (41.8) for the individual coil (L2) with that of your measured circuit
Q ( [Step 13, Recall Value 7]). Does the Q of the coil or the circuit Q determine
selectivity?
a. Q of the coil
b. circuit Q
Student Manual
CONCLUSION
• The selectivity of a parallel LC circuit determines which frequencies pass and which are rejected.
• The bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies (B = f2 – f1).
• The circuit Q is lowered by any parallel shunting resistance, such as the generator impedance
(Q = RE/XL).
• The circuit Q is usually lower than the Q of the coil. Circuit Q determines selectivity.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Place the CM switch 12 in the ON position to change the value of C2.
Increase the frequency of the generator to tune for parallel resonance, as determined by a voltage
peak across the tank circuit. With the circuit tuned at resonance, measure the voltage drop across the
LC tank circuit (VRESON).
Student Manual

Use your measured value of VRESON (Recall Value1) to calculate the –3 dB point. The lower cutoff
frequency is approximately
a. 20 kHz.
b. 33.9 kHz.
c. 29 kHz.
d. 10 kHz.
2. The selectivity of a practical LC resonant tank circuit is determined by the Q of the

a. coil.
b. circuit.
c. capacitor.
d. coil and capacitor.
3. The bandwidth (B) of a circuit with a lower cutoff frequency of 12 kHz and an upper cutoff frequency
of 35 kHz is
a. 12 kHz.
b. 35 kHz.
c. 47 kHz.
d. 23 kHz.
4. At a resonant frequency of 50 kHz, the Q of the coil is 80 and the circuit Q is 5. The bandwidth
(B = fr /Q) is
a. 625 Hz.
b. 400 Hz.
c. 10 kHz.
d. 18 kHz.
Student Manual
5. Use the values in the response curve shown to determine the overall circuit Q
(Q = fr /B).
a. 1.20
b. 16
c. 2.06
d. 5.00
Student Manual
UNIT TEST
1. The resonant frequency of a parallel LC circuit can be increased by
a. increasing inductance.
b. increasing capacitance.
c. decreasing capacitance.
d. decreasing coil resistance.
2. At parallel resonance, the total line current (IT)

drawn from the generator is
a. maximum.
b. minimum.
c. 0.
d. infinite.
3. A tank circuit is
a. a parallel resonant circuit.
b. a series resonant circuit.
c. any LC resonant circuit.
d. a purely resistive circuit.
4. Which of the following reduces the circuit Q of a parallel resonant circuit the most?
a. a large parallel resistor across the LC tank
b. no parallel resistor across the LC tank
c. a large generator impedance
d. a small parallel resistor across the LC tank
5. In a parallel resonant circuit, the circulating current

has what relationship to the line current?
a. less than
b. more than
c. same as
d. minimum
Student Manual
6. A parallel LC circuit is resonant at 20 kHz. Its bandwidth is 5 kHz. The circuit Q

(Q = fr /B) is
a. 15.
b. 4.
c. 25.
d. 0.250.
7. The upper and lower cutoff frequencies of a parallel resonant circuit are 97.6 kHz and 95.4 kHz,
respectively. The bandwidth is
a. 3.2 kHz.
b. 2.2 kHz.
c. 2.2 MHz.
d. 3.2 Hz.
8. To determine the V–3dB point of a parallel resonant

circuit, multiply the resonant peak voltage (VRESON) by
a. 0.707.
b. 0.0707.
c. 10.707.
d. 1.707.
9. At resonance, the parallel LC tank circuit acts like a(n)

a. coil.
b. inductor.
c. capacitor.
d. resistor.
10. To increase the circuit bandwidth (B) of this

circuit,
a. increase the generator impedance (RGEN).
b. increase R1.
c. add a parallel resistor across the tank.
d. decrease the amplitude of VGEN.
Student Manual
TROUBLESHOOTING I
RLC/Resonance/Power I
২ 1. Locate the RLC/RESONANCE/POWER circuit block and connect the circuit shown.
২ 3. Increase the frequency of the generator to tune for parallel resonance as determined by a
voltage peak across the tank circuit.
২ 4. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the parallel resonant circuit is working properly
by doing a performance check. Check the value of the resonant frequency (fr).
1
fr =
T
২ 6. Measure the voltage drop across the tank circuit at resonance.
VA = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 2)
Student Manual
VA 5.0 Vpk-pk, ±30%*
IL2 2.4 mApk-pk, ±30%*
IC2 2.4 mApk-pk, ±30%*
IT 1.3 mApk-pk, ±30%*
qVR1 (Ref VGEN) 0° +5°, –5°*
fr 33.7 kHz ±30%*
R1 4.7 kΩ, ±20%
RL2 45 Ω, ±20%
R6 3.9 kΩ, ±20%

* At resonance

a. L2 (shorted).
b. L2 (open).
c. C2 (shorted).
d. C2 (open).
Student Manual
TROUBLESHOOTING II
RLC/Resonance/Power II
২ 3. Increase the frequency of the generator to tune for parallel resonance as determined by a
voltage peak across the tank circuit.
২ 4. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the parallel resonant circuit is working properly
by doing a performance check. Check the value of the resonant frequency (fr).
1
fr =
T
২ 6. Measure the voltage drop across the tank circuit at resonance.
VA = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 2)
Student Manual
VA 5.0 Vpk-pk, ±30%*
IL2 2.4 mApk-pk, ±30%*
IC2 2.4 mApk-pk, ±30%*
IT 1.3 mApk-pk, ±30%*
qVR1 (Ref VGEN) 0° +5°, –5°*
fr 33.7 kHz ±30%*
R1 4.7 kΩ, ±20%
RL2 45 Ω, ±20%
R6 3.9 kΩ, ±20%

* At resonance

a. L2 (shorted).
b. L2 (open).
c. C2 (shorted).
d. C2 (open).
Student Manual
Student Manual
AC 2 Fundamentals Power in AC Circuits
Unit 4: Power in AC Circuits

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to calculate and measure the apparent power, real power,
reactive power, and power factor in ac circuits.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Power is the rate at which work is done. Power is energy expended over a period of time to accomplish
useful work. In an electrical circuit, energy moves electrons. This energy is dissipated in the form of
heat when electrons flow through a resistance. A watt is the unit of electrical power. Real power (P) is
dissipated only in a resistance.
Three basic formulas are used to compute real power in a resistance.
E2
P = I x E P = I2 x R P=
R
In these formulas, P is power in watts, I is the current through the resistance in amperes, E is the voltage
across the resistance in volts, and R is the resistance in ohms.
These relationships of current, voltage, resistance, and power hold true for
a. ac only.
b. dc only.
c. ac and dc.
In this circuit, the sine wave of voltage (VGEN) produces a sine wave of current (I) through the resistor (R).
Are the current and voltage, as shown by the plot, in phase or out of phase?
a. in phase
b. out of phase
Student Manual
Power in AC Circuits AC 2 Fundamentals
Multiplying the instantaneous current value by the corresponding voltage produces the power curve
shown.
Is the power curve twice the frequency of the basic voltage and current sine waves?
a. yes
b. no
The average power is indicated by the horizontal dashed line. When calculating the average power, use
the rms values of current and voltage.
E2
P = I x E P = I2 x R P=
R
An ideal capacitor or inductor does not convert energy to heat. The reactive component stores the energy
delivered to it from the generator (VGEN), then returns that energy to the circuit.
Student Manual
For one half-cycle of the generator’s (VGEN) sine wave, the reactive component draws energy from the
generator.
During the other half-cycle, the reactive component returns power to the generator.
The power consumption of the reactive component exactly equals the amount of power returned to the
circuit.
Is real power consumed by an ideal reactive component?

a. yes
b. no
Power not converted into another form of energy, such as heat, is called reactive power (Q). Reactive
power is the product of the voltage across and the current through a reactive component. The unit for
reactive power is the volt-ampere reactive (var).
NOTE: The unit for real power is the watt (W).
Student Manual
In the circuit shown, the reactive power (Q) of the capacitor (C) is
a. 5 mW.
b. 10 mvar.
c. 10 var.
In circuits containing resistance and reactance (XL or XC), the generator must supply both the real power
(P) and the reactive power (Q).
To determine this generator power, called the apparent power (S), multiply the generator voltage (VGEN)
by the circuit current (I).
S = VGEN × I
Only a percentage of the generator’s apparent power (S) is converted to real power (P) and is dissipated
in the circuit resistance as heat.
Student Manual
The generator also supplies reactive power (Q) to the reactive components, which alternately consume
and supply power (Q).
The ratio of real power (P) to apparent power (S) is the power factor (PF).
PF = P/S
The power factor (PF) is a measure of the real power (P) actually delivered to the circuit from the
generator.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

real power (P) – power that is converted from one form of energy to another; the power dissipated in a
resistor as heat; the product of the applied voltage and circuit current in a resistance, expressed in watts;
also called true power.
reactive power (Q) – power not converted into another form of energy; the product of the voltage across
and the current through a reactive component such as an inductor or a capacitor. The unit of measure for
apparent power (S) – the product of an rms voltage across and an rms current through an impedance
(Z). The unit of measure for apparent power is the volt-ampere (VA).
power factor (PF) – the ratio of the true power to the apparent power in a circuit; the cosine of the phase
angle between circuit current and applied voltage.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
Student Manual
Exercise 1: Power Division
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine ac power division among the
components of an RLC circuit by using standard power formulas. You will verify your results with an
oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
In this circuit, the total real power (PT) dissipated as heat is in the resistance (R1 and R2).
The reactive components draw apparent power (S) from the generator (VGEN) during one half-cycle and
supply reactive power (Q) during the other half.
The apparent power (S) supplied by the generator is computed from the generator voltage (VGEN) and the
circuit current (I).
S = VGEN x I
Student Manual
Due to the phase shift introduced by the reactive components, the apparent power (S) is greater than the
real power (P).
In this series circuit, the circuit current (I) is common to all components.
Can you determine the power value of each component by multiplying the rms current (I) by each rms
component voltage drop?
a. yes
b. no
The total real power (PT) dissipated as heat in this circuit is

a. 3 W.
b. 1.5 W.
c. 4.5 W.
To find the total reactive power (QT) delivered by VGEN, total the reactive power from each reactive
component (+ for inductive and – for capacitive).
QT = +QL1 + (–QC1)
In the circuit shown above, the total reactive power (QT) introduced by C1 and L1 is
a. 1 var.
b. 2 var.
c. 3 var.
To determine the apparent power (S), which is the power supplied by the generator, multiply the rms
circuit current by the rms generator voltage (VGEN).
In the circuit shown above, the apparent power (S) is

a. 4.5 W.
b. 1 var.
c. 9.5 VA.
Student Manual
PROCEDURE
২ 3. With the oscilloscope probe as shown, slightly adjust the frequency of the generator so that
circuit current is 6 mApk-pk (I = VR3 /R3). If necessary, readjust VGEN to 15 Vpk-pk.
২ 4. The rms value of the 6 mApk-pk circuit current is 2.1.

6 mA pk-pk
Irms = × 0.707
2
Irms = 2.1 mArms
Student Manual
In the following steps, you will use the ADD-INVERT method to measure the voltage drop across R2.
You will then convert your peak-to-peak measurement to an rms value and calculate the real power
dissipated in the circuit.
২ 5. With the circuit current (I) adjusted to 2.1 mArms and the oscilloscope probes as shown,
use the ADD-INVERT method to measure the peak-to-peak voltage drop across R2. Then
convert your measurement to an rms value.
VR2(rms) = Vrms (Recall Value 1)
Student Manual
২ 6. Using the rms value of circuit current (I) and your calculated rms voltage drop across R2
(VR2(rms)), compute the real power (P) in R2.
Irms = 2.1 mArms
VR2(rms) = Vrms (Step 5, Recall Value 1)

PR2 = Irms x VR2(rms)
PR2 = mW (Recall Value 2)
In the following steps, you will measure the individual voltage drops across L1 and C1.
You will then convert your peak-to-peak measurements to rms values and calculate the reactive power
(Q) in L1 and C1.
Student Manual
২ 7. With the circuit current adjusted to 2.1 mArms and the oscilloscope probes as shown, use the
ADD-INVERT method to measure the peak-to-peak voltage drop across L1. Then convert
your measurement to an rms value.
VL1(rms) = Vrms (Recall Value 3)
২ 8. Using the rms value of circuit current and your calculated rms voltage drop across L1,
compute the reactive power (Q) in L1.
Irms = 2.1 mArms
VL1(rms) = Vrms (Step 7, Recall Value 3)
QL1 = Irms x VL1(rms)
QL1 = mvar (Recall Value 4)
Student Manual
২ 9. With the circuit current adjusted to 2.1 mArms and the oscilloscope probe as shown, measure
the peak-to-peak voltage drop across C1. Then convert your measurement to an rms value.
VC1(rms) = Vrms (Recall Value 5)
২ 10. Using the rms value of circuit current and your calculated rms voltage drop across C1,
compute the reactive power (Q) in C1.
Irms = 2.1 mArms
VC1(rms) = Vrms (Step 9, Recall Value 5)
QC1 = Irms x VC1(rms)
QC1 = mvar (Recall Value 6)
২ 11. Using your values of reactive power, determine the total reactive power (QT) delivered by the
generator.
QL1 = mvar (Step 8, Recall Value 4)
QC1 = mvar (Step 10, Recall Value 6)
QT = QL1 + (–QC1)
QT = mvar (Recall Value 7)
Student Manual
২ 12. Using your values of circuit current and generator voltage, calculate the apparent power (S)
delivered by the generator.
VGEN = 15 Vpk-pk
Irms = 2.1 mArms
S = Irms x VGEN(rms)
S = mVA (Recall Value 8)
২ 13. Compare your value of real power (P) to your value of apparent power (S). Is all the power
delivered by the generator dissipated in R2 as heat?
a. yes
b. no
P = mW (Step 6, Recall Value 2)
S = mVA (Step 12, Recall Value 8)
CONCLUSION
• Three types of power are associated with ac circuits: real power (P), reactive power (Q), and apparent
power (S).
• Real power (P) is the average power dissipated as heat in a resistance. It is measured in watts (W).
• Reactive power (Q) has no power dissipated as heat. It is measured in volt-amperes reactive (var).
• Apparent power (S) of the generator is the total rms circuit current multiplied by the rms generator
voltage. It is measured in volt-amperes (VA).
Student Manual
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Place the CM switch 9 in the ON position to change the value of R2 from 1 kΩ to 3.2 kΩ.
With the oscilloscope probes as shown, use the ADD-INVERT method to measure the peak-to-peak
voltage drop across R2. Then convert your measurement to an rms value.
Student Manual
VR2(rms) = Vrms (Recall Value 1)
Use your value of VR2(rms) (Recall Value 1) and

the new value of resistance (3.2 kΩ) to determine
the real power (P) dissipated in R2.
a. 45.8 mW
b. 5.7 mW
c. 18.3 mW
d. 5.8 mVA
2. Real power (P) is dissipated as heat in

a. resistance.
b. reactance.
c. capacitance.
d. inductance.
3. The unit of measure for apparent power (S) is the

a. watt.
b. volt-ampere reactive.
c. volt.
d. volt-ampere.
4. To calculate the average power in ac circuits, use

a. rms values of current and voltage.
b. peak-to-peak values of current and voltage.
c. peak values of current and voltage.
d. average values of current and voltage.
5. A circuit consisting of three series resistors dissipating 6 W each has a total circuit dissipation of
a. 6 W.
b. 2 W.
c. 18 W.
d. 36 W.
Student Manual
Exercise 2: Power Factor
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to determine the power factor of ac circuits by
using standard electronic formulas. You will verify your results with an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
Real power (P), reactive power (Q), and apparent power (S) can be drawn on a power triangle.
Real power is drawn along the horizontal axis and represents the total real power in watts.
The vertical leg of the triangle represents the reactive power (difference between QL and QC) in var.
Student Manual
The resultant, or hypotenuse, of the triangle represents the apparent power in VA.
The relationship (ratio) of a circuit’s real power (P) to apparent power (S) is the power factor (PF).
In ac circuits containing resistance and reactance, can the real power ever be greater than the apparent
power?
a. yes
b. no
The cosine of the angle shown (θ) equals the ratio of real power (P) to apparent power (S).
Real Power P
PF = =
Apparent Power S
PF = cos q
This angle (θ) equals the phase angle between the voltage and current of an ac circuit.
Multiply the power factor (cos θ) by the apparent power (S) to calculate real power (P) of an ac circuit.
P = cos θ x S
Student Manual
In this circuit, the phase angle between the generator voltage and circuit current is 45°. The real power
(P) dissipated as heat in the resistor is
NOTE: S (in VA) = VGEN × IT
a. 20 W.
b. 14.1 W.
c. 7.07 W.
The power factor (PF = cos θ) of a circuit simply states what part of the apparent power (S) is real power
(P).
P = cos θ x S
PROCEDURE
২ 3. With the oscilloscope probe as shown, slightly adjust the frequency of the generator so that
circuit current is 6 mApk-pk (I = VR3/R3). If necessary, readjust VGEN to 15 Vpk-pk.
Student Manual
২ 4. The rms value of the 6 mApk-pk circuit current is 2.1.

6 mA pk −pk
Irms = x 0.707
2
Irms = 2.1 mArms
In the following steps, you will measure the voltage drops across R2, L1, C1, and VGEN.
Your peak-to-peak voltage measurements will automatically be converted to rms values. The real,
reactive, and apparent powers associated with this series ac circuit will be given to you.
Using the power triangle, you will determine the power factor (PF = cos θ).
Student Manual
ADD-INVERT method to measure the peak-to-peak voltage drop across R2.
VR2(pk-pk) = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 1)
২ 6. From the circuit current and your voltage drop across R2, the real power R2 dissipates as
heat can be determined.
PR2 = Irms x VR2(rms)
PR2 = 2.1 x [ Vpk-pk (Step 5, Recall Value 1)/ 2 ) x 0.707] mW
*PR2 = mW
Student Manual
ADD-INVERT method to measure the peak-to-peak voltage drop across L1.
২ 8. The reactive power introduced by the inductor can be determined from the circuit current
and your voltage drop across L1.
QL1 = Irms x VL1(rms)
QL1 = 2.1 x [ Vpk-pk (Step 7, Recall Value 2)/ 2 ) x 0.707] mvar
*QL1 = mvar
২ 9. With the circuit current adjusted to 2.1 mArms and the oscilloscope probe as shown, measure
the peak-to-peak voltage drop across C1.
VC1(pk-pk) = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 3)
Student Manual
২ 10. The reactive power introduced by the capacitor can be determined from the circuit current
and your voltage drop across C1.
QC1 = Irms x VC1
QC1 = 2.1 x [ Vpk-pk (Step 9, Recall Value 3)/ 2 ) x 0.707] mvar
*QC1 = mvar
২ 11. Determine the total reactive power (QT) delivered by the generator (VGEN).
QL1 = 2.1 x [ Vpk-pk (Step 7, Recall Value 2)/ 2 ) x 0.707] mvar
QC1 = 2.1 x [ Vpk-pk (Step 9, Recall Value 3)/ 2 ) x 0.707] mvar
QT = QL1 + (–QC1)
QT = mvar (Recall Value 4)
Student Manual
২ 12. The apparent power (S) supplied by the generator is 11.1 mVA.
S = Irms x VGEN(rms)
S = 11.1 mVA
২ 13. Determine the power factor (PF) from your values of real power (P) and apparent power (S).
PR2 = 2.1 x [ Vpk-pk (Step 5, Recall Value 1)/ 2 ) x 0.707] mW

S = 11.1 mVA
PR2
PF =
S
PF = (Recall Value 5)
২ 14. The angle (θ) shown in the power triangle equals the phase angle between the generator
voltage and circuit current.
In the next few steps, you will measure this angle and use your
measurement to determine what part of the apparent power (S)
is dissipated as heat in resistor R2.
Student Manual
২ 15. With the oscilloscope probes as shown, measure the phase angle (θ) between VGEN and IT.
২ 16. Use the cosine (cos) function on your calculator, and determine the power factor (PF) from
your phase angle measurement (−65.00°).
PF = cos –65.00°
PF = (Recall Value 7)
Student Manual
২ 17. Determine what part of the apparent power delivered by the generator is real power
dissipated as heat in resistor R2.
cos θ = (Step 16, Recall Value 7)
S = 11.1 mVA
PR2 = cos θ x S
PR2 = mW (Recall Value 8)
CONCLUSION
• Apparent power (S), reactive power (Q), and real power (P) can be drawn on a power triangle.
• The cosine of the angle between the apparent power and real power is the power factor (PF = cos q).
• The power factor of a circuit simply states what part of the apparent power is real power.
• In an ac circuit with reactive components (inductors and capacitors), the generator has to be capable
of supplying more power than is actually consumed.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Place the CM switch 9 in the ON position to change the value of R2 from 1 kΩ to 3.2 kΩ.
Student Manual
With the oscilloscope probes as shown, measure the phase angle (q) between VGEN and IT.
q = degrees (Recall Value 1)
Student Manual
Using the cosine function on your calculator, determine the power factor (PF) from your phase angle
measurement (Recall Value 1).
a. 0.500
b. 0.819
c. 0.125
d. 0.050
2. The power factor (PF = cos θ) can be determined from the ratio of
real power (P) to the
a. reactive power (Q).
b. phase angle (θ).
c. circuit current (I).
d. apparent power (S).
3. When you multiply the cosine of the angle (PF = cos θ) by the
apparent power (S), you obtain the
a. real power of the circuit (P).
b. reactive power of the circuit (QT).
c. reactive power of the inductor (QL).
d. reactive power of the capacitor (QC).
4. In this circuit, the phase angle between VGEN and I is 45°. The power factor (PF = cos θ) is
a. 1.707.
b. 0.707.
c. 45.
d. 55.
5. In this circuit, the apparent power supplied by the generator (S = I x VGEN) is

a. totally consumed by the resistor.
b. lower than the power consumed by the resistor.
c. equal to the power consumed by the resistor.
d. higher than the power consumed by the resistor.
Student Manual
UNIT TEST
1. The unit of measurement for real power (P) is the
a. VA.
b. var.
c. watt.
d. PF.
2. An ac circuit having an inductive reactive power (QL1) of 38 var and a capacitive reactive power (QC1)
of 16 var has a total reactive power of
a. 38 var.
b. 16 var.
c. 54 var.
d. 22 var.
3. Real power (P) is dissipated as heat in a(n)

a. inductance.
b. resistance.
c. capacitance.
d. reactive component.
4. The phase angle (θ) between the voltage and current in an ac circuit is 40°. The power factor (PF =
cos θ) is about
a. 1.0.
b. 0.05.
c. 0.95.
d. 0.77.
5. An ac circuit draws 0.7 Arms of current from a 48 Vrms source. The power factor is 0.6. The apparent
power (S) is
a. 33.6 W.
b. 33.6 VA.
c. 20.2 VA.
d. 20.2 W.
Student Manual
6. Apparent power (S) is measured in

a. VA.
b. var.
c. W.
d. kW.
7. In this circuit, R is 1 Ω. The real power (P) dissipated as heat in R is

a. 4 W.
b. 20 W.
c. 5 W.
d. 50 VA.
8. The power factor (PF = cos θ) states what part of the apparent power (S) is
a. total reactive power (QT).
b. inductive reactive power (QL1).
c. capacitive reactive power (QC1).
d. real power (P).
9. Real power (P) equals apparent power (S) when the circuit is
a. capacitive.
b. inductive.
c. resistive.
d. reactive.
10. When working with power values, what kind of values should you use for current and voltage?
a. peak-to-peak values
b. average values
c. rms values
d. peak values
Student Manual
Student Manual
AC 2 Fundamentals Low- and High-Pass Filters
Unit 5: Low- and High-Pass Filters

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to determine the cutoff frequencies and attenuations of RC
and RL low-pass and high-pass filters by using test circuits.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
A filter is a frequency-selective circuit that permits signals of certain frequencies to pass while it rejects
signals at other frequencies.
A low-pass filter, as its name implies, passes low frequencies but rejects high frequencies.
The dividing line between the passing of low frequencies and the rejecting of high frequencies is the cutoff
frequency (fc), or –3 dB point.
In a low-pass filter, signals lower than the cutoff frequency pass essentially unmodified. Frequencies
higher than the cutoff frequency are greatly attenuated, or reduced.
Student Manual
Low- and High-Pass Filters AC 2 Fundamentals
Another type of filter, called a high-pass filter, passes

a. low frequencies but rejects high frequencies.
b. high frequencies but rejects low frequencies.
In a high-pass filter, signals higher than the cutoff frequency pass essentially unmodified.
Signals lower than the cutoff frequency are greatly attenuated, or reduced.
Student Manual
A low-pass filter has a cutoff frequency (fc) of 10 kHz. A band of frequencies ranging from 20 kHz to
100 kHz is
a. passed essentially unmodified.
b. greatly attenuated.
The cutoff frequency (fc) is the point where the output voltage (Vo) drops to 70.7% of, or 3 dB down from,
the input voltage.
Frequency response data may be expressed in terms of output voltage but is usually expressed in
decibels (dB).
Decibels are units that express or measure the gain or loss (attenuation) in a circuit. The decibel can be
based on the ratio of the output voltage (Vo) to the input voltage (Vi).
Vo
Attenuation (dB) = 20 log10
Vi
NOTE: In the type of filters studied in this course, the output voltage (Vo) is always less than the input
voltage (Vi).
Student Manual
In this filter circuit, the output voltage (Vo) is

a. greater than the input voltage (Vi).
b. smaller than the input voltage (Vi).
The rate of attenuation, or loss, beyond the cutoff frequency (fc) is highly predictable.
This attenuation is 6 dB per octave or 20 dB per decade. An attenuation rate of 6 dB per octave is the
same rate as 20 dB per decade.
Student Manual
In this response curve, the rate of attenuation between a frequency of 1 kHz and 2kHz (an octave) is
a. 12 dB.
b. 6 dB.
c. 18 dB.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

band – a range of frequencies.
dB per octave – decibels per octave (dB/octave); a 1 dB increase or decrease over a two-to-one
frequency range.
dB per decade – decibels per decade (dB/decade); a 1 dB increase or decrease over a ten-to-one
frequency range.
octave – a two-to-one or one-to-two ratio; a frequency factor of two. One octave is the doubling or halving
of a frequency.
decade – a ten-to-one or one-to-ten ratio; a frequency factor of ten.
rolled off – gradually attenuated, or decreased. A filter attenuates when its rejected frequencies are rolled
off.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
Student Manual
Exercise 1: Low-Pass Filters
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to calculate the cutoff frequencies and
attenuations of RC and RL low-pass filters. You will verify your results with an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
There are several ways to implement a low-pass filter with various combinations of inductors, capacitors,
and resistors.
In each case, the filter is really a voltage divider made of two components: a resistor and a frequency-
varying component such as an inductor or a capacitor.
The output voltage (Vo) from each filter is tapped off from a voltage divider. Will Vo be less than the input
voltage (Vi)?
a. yes
b. no
Student Manual
As the frequency of the driving generator (VGEN) changes, the circuit reactance (XL or XC) changes. Does
this change in reactance cause Vo to change as the generator frequency is varied?
a. yes
b. no
In this low-pass RC filter, the capacitive reactance (XC) is high (compared to the resistance, R) at low
frequencies. Most of the input voltage (Vi) appears across the output capacitor (C).
As the generator (VGEN) frequency increases, the capacitive reactance (XC) decreases. As a result, more
and more voltage is dropped across R and less appears across output capacitor C.
Low-pass filters are designed so that frequencies lower than the cutoff frequency (fc) are passed while
frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency (fc) are attenuated, or rolled off.
NOTE: Frequencies below the cutoff frequency are low; frequencies above the cutoff frequency are high.
Student Manual
In this low-pass RL filter, the inductive reactance (XL) is small (compared to the resistance, R) at low
frequencies. Does most of the input voltage (Vi) appear across the inductor (L) or the resistor (R) at low
frequencies?
a. inductor
b. resistor
As the generator frequency increases, XL increases. As a result, more and more voltage is dropped
across L and less appears across the output resistor R.
At the cutoff frequency, the output signal is 3 dB (0.707 x Vo) down from the output signal at lower
frequencies.
To calculate the cutoff frequency (fc), apply one of the following equations.
1
RC CIRCUITS: fc =
2πRC
R
RL CIRCUITS: fc =
2πL
Student Manual
Calculate the cutoff frequency (fc) of this RC low-pass filter.

1
fc =
2πRC
f = Hz (Recall Value 1)
c
PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the LOW PASS FILTER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown.
২ 2. Adjust VGEN for a 15 Vpk-pk, 100 Hz (10 ms) sine wave.
Student Manual
২ 3. While observing the output (Vo) of the filter, vary the generator frequency over a 100 Hz to
50 kHz range. Does the filter’s output voltage (Vo) increase or decrease with frequency?
a. increase
b. decrease
২ 4. Again adjust VGEN for a 15 Vpk-pk, 100 Hz (10 ms) sine wave.
২ 5. Measure the filter’s output voltage (Vo). Is your measured value of Vo approximately equal to
the input voltage (Vi) of 15 Vpk-pk?
a. yes
b. no
২ 6. The dB value of the ratio of output voltage (Vo) to input voltage (Vi) at 100 Hz is 0 dB.
Vo
dB = 20 log10
Vi
dB = 0 dB
Student Manual
২ 7. This response curve is typical for the circuit you connected in step 1. 0 dB indicates the
maximum output voltage of the filter.
২ 8. The value of output voltage at 100 Hz (Vo(100Hz)) is used to calculate the –3 dB output voltage
point (Vo(–3dB)).
Vo(100Hz) = 15 Vpk-pk
Vo (–3dB) = Vo(100Hz) x 0.707
Vo (–3dB) = 15 x 0.707
Vo (–3dB) = 10.6 Vpk-pk
NOTE: 70.7% (0.707) of Vo(100Hz) expressed in decibels is –3 dB.
Student Manual
২ 9. To determine the cutoff frequency (fc) of VGEN, slowly increase VGEN as you observe a
decrease in Vo. Stop when Vo equals 10.6 Vpk-pk, the –3 dB point.
২ 10. Determine fc by measuring the period (T) of the 10.6 Vpk-pk output signal.
1
fc =
T
fc = kHz (Recall Value 1)
Student Manual
২ 11. Adjust VGEN for a 15 Vpk-pk, 40 kHz (25 ms) sine wave.
২ 12. Measure the filter’s output at 40 kHz (Vo(40kHz)).
Vo(40kHz) = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 2)
২ 13. The dB value of the ratio of output voltage (Vo(40kHz)) to input voltage (Vi) at 40 kHz is
determined as shown.
Vo( 40kHz )
dB = 20 log10
Vi
Vo(40kHz) = Vpk-pk [Step 12, Recall Value 2])
Vi = 15 Vpk-pk
*dB =
Student Manual
২ 14. Compare your value of dB at 40 kHz calculated in Step 13 ( dB) with the –3 dB
value at the cutoff frequency ( kHz [Step 10, Recall Value 1]).
২ 15. Are frequencies greater than fc essentially passed or greatly reduced in this RC low-pass
filter?
Vo( 40kHz )
dB = 20 log10
Vi
a. passed
b. reduced
২ 16. Connect the RL low-pass circuit shown.
২ 17. Adjust VGEN for a 15 Vpk-pk, 1000 Hz (1 ms) sine wave.
২ 18. While observing the output (Vo) of the filter, vary the generator frequency over a 1 kHz to 50
kHz range. Does Vo increase or decrease with an increase in frequency?
a. increase
b. decrease
Student Manual
২ 19. Calculate the cutoff frequency (fc) of this RL low-pass circuit.

R
fC =
2πL
২ 20. This response curve is typical for the RL low-pass filter circuit you connected in step 16.
২ 21. If the frequency of the generator were adjusted to [ kHz(Step 19, Recall Value 3)
x 2], the attenuation would be
fc = kHz (Step 19, Recall Value 3)

a. –3 dB.
b. –6 dB.
c. –9 dB.
Student Manual
২ 22. Compare the RC and RL filter response curves. Do both filters have the same roll-off rates?
a. yes
b. no
CONCLUSION
• Low-pass filters essentially pass signals lower than the cutoff frequency (fc).
• Low-pass filters greatly reduce (attenuate) signals higher than fc.
• The roll-off rate of an RC or RL filter is nearly constant at 6 dB per octave, or 20 dB per decade.
• The cutoff frequency (fc) depends on the RC and RL values.
Student Manual
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Locate the LOW PASS FILTER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown. Adjust VGEN for a
15 Vpk-pk, 100 Hz (10 ms) sine wave.
Slowly increase the frequency of VGEN as you observe a decrease in Vo. Stop when Vo equals
10.6 Vpk-pk, the –3 dB point. This is the cutoff frequency. Note fc by measuring the period (T) of the
10.6 Vpk-pk output signal (fc = 1/T).
Place the CM switch 6 in the ON position to change the value of R1. Again, adjust VGEN for a
15 Vpk-pk, 100 Hz (10 ms) sine wave.
Slowly increase the frequency of VGEN as you observe a decrease in Vo. Stop when Vo equals
10.6 Vpk-pk, the –3 dB point. Note fc by measuring the period (T) of the 10.6 Vpk-pk output signal
(fc = 1/T).
Based on the new value of cutoff frequency (fc), R1

a. decreased in value, increasing fc.
b. did not change in value.
c. increased in value, decreasing fc.
d. had no effect on fc.
Student Manual
2. Low-pass filters essentially pass signals that are

a. greater than the cutoff frequency (fc).
b. equal to fc.
c. 6 dB greater than fc.
d. lower than fc.
3. The roll-off rate of an RC or RL filter is nearly constant at 6 dB per octave, or

a. 6 dB per decade.
b. 20 dB per decade.
c. 3 dB per decade.
d. 20 dB per octave.
4. If the cutoff frequencies of an RC and an RL low-pass filter are 10 kHz, the two filters have which of
the following relationships?
a. Both greatly attenuate a 100 kHz signal.
b. Both pass a 100 kHz signal.
c. The RC filter passes a 100 kHz signal; the RL filter attenuates a 100 kHz signal.
d. The RC filter attenuates a 100 kHz signal; the RL filter passes a 100 kHz signal.
5. Low-pass filters greatly reduce (attenuate) signals that are

a. greater than the cutoff frequency (fc).
b. equal to fc.
c. 1 dB less than fc.
d. lower than fc.
Student Manual
Exercise 2: High-Pass Filters
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to calculate and measure the cutoff frequencies
and observe the attenuation rates of RC and RL high-pass filters. You will verify your results with an
oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
As with low-pass filters, there are several ways to implement a high-pass filter with various combinations
of inductors, capacitors, and resistors.
In each circuit, a series resistor and a reactive component (L or C) form a voltage divider across the
generator (VGEN).
Does the filter’s output voltage (Vo) change as the generator frequency (VGEN) is varied?
a. yes
b. no
In this high-pass RC filter, the capacitive reactance (XC) is low (compared to the resistance, R) at
frequencies above the cutoff frequency (fc).
Most of the input voltage (Vi) appears across the output resistor (R).
Student Manual
As the generator frequency decreases below the cutoff frequency (fc), the capacitive reactance (XC)
increases. As a result, more and more voltage is dropped across C and less appears across output
resistor R.
In this high-pass RL filter, the inductive reactance (XL) is large (compared to the resistance, R) at high
frequencies. Does most of the input voltage (Vi) appear across the resistor (R) or inductor (L) at high
frequencies?
a. resistor
b. inductor
As the generator (VGEN) frequency decreases, XL decreases. As a result, more and more voltage is
dropped across R and less appears across output inductor L.
Student Manual
At the cutoff frequency, the output signal is 3 dB down (0.707 x Vo) from the output signal at higher
frequencies.
As with low-pass filters, fc for high-pass filters is calculated from one of the following equations.
1
RC CIRCUITS: fC =
2πRC
R
RL CIRCUITS: fC = 2πL
PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the HIGH PASS FILTER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown.
Student Manual
২ 3. While observing the output (Vo) of the filter, vary the generator frequency from 100 kHz
to 100 Hz. Does the filter’s output voltage (Vo) increase or decrease with a decrease in
frequency?
a. increase
b. decrease
২ 4. Again adjust VGEN for a 15 Vpk-pk, 100 kHz (10 ms) sine wave.
২ 5. Connect the oscilloscope as shown. Measure the filter’s output voltage (Vo) across R2.
Student Manual
২ 6. The value of output voltage at 100 kHz ( Vpk-pk [Step 5, Recall Value 1]) is
used to calculate the –3 dB output voltage point (Vo(–3dB)).
Vo(–3dB) = Vo(100kHz) x 0.707
Vo(–3dB) = Vpk-pk (Step 5, Recall Value 1) x 0.707
*Vo(–3dB) = Vpk-pk
NOTE: 70.7% (0.707) of Vo(100kHz) expressed in decibels is –3 dB.
২ 7. To determine the voltage level (Vo(–3dB)) at cutoff (fc), slowly decrease the generator
frequency as you observe a decrease in Vo. Stop when Vo equals ( Vpk-pk [Step
5, Recall Value 1] x 0.707) the –3 dB point.
Student Manual
২ 8. Determine fc by measuring the period (T) of the ( Vpk-pk [Step 5, Recall

Value 1] x 0.707) output signal.
1
fC =
T
২ 10. Measure the filter’s output voltage at 5 kHz (Vo(5kHz)).
Student Manual
২ 11. The dB value of the ratio of output voltage (Vo(5kHz)) to input voltage (Vi) at 5 kHz is
determined as shown.
Vo(5kHz) = Vpk-pk [Step 10, Recall Value 3])

VO(5kHz)
dB = 20 log 10
Vi
VO(5kHz)
dB = 20 log10
15 Vpk− pk
*dB =
২ 12. Compare your value of dB at 5 kHz calculated in Step 11 ( dB) with the –3 dB
value at the cutoff frequency ( kHz [Step 8, Recall Value 2]).
২ 13. Are frequencies smaller than fc essentially passed or greatly reduced in this RC high-pass
filter?
a. passed
b. reduced
Student Manual
২ 14. Connect the RL high-pass circuit shown.
২ 16. While observing the output (Vo) of the filter, vary the generator frequency from 100 kHz to
1000 Hz. Does Vo increase or decrease with a decrease in frequency?
a. increase
b. decrease
২ 17. The fc for this RL high-pass circuit is 23.8 kHz.

R
fC =
2πL
1.5
fC =
6.28 x (10 x 10-3 )
fc = 23.8 kHz
Student Manual
২ 18. If the generator frequency were adjusted for a frequency of 2.38 kHz, the attenuation would
be
a. –3 dB.
b. –23 dB.
c. 6 dB.
CONCLUSION
• High-pass filters essentially pass signals that are greater than the cutoff frequency (fc).
• High-pass filters greatly reduce (attenuate) signals lower than the cutoff frequency.
• The roll-off rate of a high pass RC or RL filter is nearly constant at 6 dB per octave, or 20 dB per
decade.
• The cutoff frequency of a high-pass filter depends on the RC and RL values.
Student Manual
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Locate the HIGH PASS FILTER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown. Adjust VGEN for a
15 Vpk-pk, 100 kHz (10 ms) sine wave.
Place the CM switch 17 in the ON position to change the value of R2.
Slowly decrease the frequency of VGEN as you observe a decrease in Vo. Stop when Vo equals
10.6 Vpk-pk, the –3 dB point.
Determine the cutoff frequency (fc = 1/T) by measuring the period (T) of the 10.6 Vpk-pk output signal.
a. 340 Hz
b. 1.1 kHz
c. 3.4 kHz
d. 8.1 kHz
2. High-pass filters essentially pass signals that are

a. lower than the cutoff frequency (fc).
b. greater than fc.
c. 6 dB lower than fc.
d. equal to fc.
Student Manual
3. A high-pass filter has a cutoff frequency (fc) of 50 kHz. At which frequency is the output voltage
greatest?
a. 50 kHz
b. 500 kHz
c. 5 kHz
d. 500 Hz
4. As the frequency decreases, XL1 decreases; therefore, Vo

a. increases.
b. peaks.
c. remains the same.
d. decreases.
5. High-pass filters greatly reduce (attenuate) signals that are

a. lower than the cutoff frequency (fc).
b. greater than fc.
c. 1 dB lower than fc.
d. equal to fc.
Student Manual
UNIT TEST
1. The cutoff frequency of a low-pass filter is 10 kHz. A frequency one decade lower is
a. 5 kHz.
b. 1 kHz.
c. 20 kHz.
d. 100 kHz.
2. The output of a low-pass filter is 9 dB down at a

frequency of 15 kHz. The output at 30 kHz (an
octave higher) is
a. 3 dB down.
b. 12 dB down.
c. 15 dB down.
d. 29 dB down.
3. The cutoff frequency (fc) of a low-pass filter with R equal to

600 Ω and C equal to 100 pF is 2.65 kHz. This frequency is
attenuated by approximately
a. –10 dB.
b. –6 dB.
c. –20 dB.
d. –3 dB.
4. A high-pass filter output is 10 dB down at a

frequency of 100 kHz. What is the output at
10 kHz?
a. 12 dB down
b. 20 dB down
c. 16 dB down
d. 30 dB down
Student Manual
5. As the frequency of the signal applied to a low-pass RL filter

increases, Vo
a. decreases.
b. increases.
d. approaches Vi.
6. A high-pass RC filter has a cutoff frequency (fc) of 10 kHz.

Decreasing the frequency from fc causes Vo to
a. decrease.
b. increase.
c. remain the same.
d. approach Vi.
7. The rate of attenuation, or loss, beyond fc is

a. not predictable.
b. predictable for RC filters only.
c. highly predictable.
d. predictable for RL filters only.
Student Manual
8. Which two circuits are low-pass

filters?
a. (1) and (2)
b. (1) and (4)
c. (2) and (3)
d. (2) and (4)
9. Which two circuits are high-pass

filters?
a. (1) and (2)
b. (1) and (4)
c. (2) and (3)
d. (2) and (4)
10. When the output voltage of an RL or RC filter is attenuated, the voltage

a. increases.
b. peaks.
d. decreases.
Student Manual
TROUBLESHOOTING I
Low-Pass Filter I
২ 3. Vary the frequency above or below 24 kHz to adjust the output voltage across R2 for a value
of 10.6 Vpk-pk, the –3 dB point.
২ 4. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the RL low-pass filter circuit is working properly
by doing a performance check. Check the value of the cutoff frequency (fc).
২ 5. Measure the period (T) of the 10.6 Vpk-pk output signal across R2.
1
fC =
T
২ 6. Have your instructor insert a fault into the LOW PASS FILTER circuit block. Select an item to
begin troubleshooting your circuit. Enter your observed values in the table.
VR2 10.6 Vpk-pk, ±30%*
VL1 10.6 Vpk-pk, ±30%*
VR2 (Ref VGEN) 45° +5°, –5°*
fC 23.90 kHz ±30%
R2 1500 Ω, ±20%
RL1 45 Ω, ±20%
* At resonance
Student Manual

a. R2 (open).
b. VGEN.
c. L1 (open).
d. L1 (shorted).
Student Manual
TROUBLESHOOTING
Low-Pass Filter II
২ 3. Vary the frequency above or below 24 kHz to adjust the output voltage across C1 for a value
২ 4. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the RC low-pass filter circuit is working properly
by doing a performance check. Check the value of the cutoff frequency (fc).
২ 5. Measure the period (T) of the 10.6 Vpk-pk output signal across C1.
1
fC =
T
২ 6. Have your instructor insert a fault into the LOW PASS FILTER circuit block. Select an item to
begin troubleshooting your circuit. Enter your observed values in the table.
VR1 10.6 Vpk-pk, ±30%*
VC1 10.6 Vpk-pk, ±30%*
fC 10.60 kHz ±30%
R1 1500 Ω, ±20%
* At the cutoff frequency (fc)
Student Manual

a. R1 (open).
b. C1 (open).
c. R1 (shorted).
d. C1 (shorted).
Student Manual
TROUBLESHOOTING III
High-Pass Filter
২ 1. Locate the HIGH PASS FILTER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown.
২ 3. Vary the frequency above or below 24 kHz to adjust the output voltage across L1 for a value
২ 4. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the RL high-pass filter circuit is working
properly by doing a performance check. Check the value of the cutoff frequency (fc)
২ 5. Measure the period (T) of the 10.6 Vpk-pk output signal across L1.
1
fC =
T
২ 6. Have your instructor insert a fault into the HIGH PASS FILTER circuit block. Select an item
to begin troubleshooting your circuit. Enter your observed values in the table.
VL1 10.6 Vpk-pk, ±30%*
fC 23.8 kHz ±30%
R1 1500 Ω, ±20%
RL1 45 Ω, ±20%
* At the cutoff frequency (fc)
Student Manual

a. L1 (open).
b. L1 (shorted).
c. R1 (open).
d. R1 (shorted).
Student Manual
AC 2 Fundamentals Bandpass and Bandstop Filters
Unit 6: Bandpass and Bandstop Filters

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to analyze the operation of bandpass and bandstop filters
by using standard electronics formulas.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Various combinations of inductors, capacitors, and resistors can be used to produce low-pass, high-pass,
bandstop, and bandpass filters.
Bandpass filters and bandstop filters select a specific range of frequencies. The types of bandpass and
bandstop filters studied in this unit use resonant circuits.
Bandpass filters can be implemented by connecting a series or parallel resonant circuit with a resistor.
This combination forms a voltage divider across the generator (VGEN).
A bandpass filter allows a narrow band of frequencies to pass but rejects frequencies above and below
that band.
The range of frequencies passed by a bandpass filter is the bandwidth (B), which depends on the upper
(f2) and lower (f1) cutoff frequencies.
Student Manual
Bandpass and Bandstop Filters AC 2 Fundamentals
The center frequency of a bandpass filter equals the

a. cutoff frequency.
b. resonant frequency.
Like bandpass filters, bandstop filters can be implemented by connecting a series or parallel resonant
circuit with a resistor.
A bandstop filter, or band reject filter, rejects a narrow range of frequencies but passes frequencies above
and below that range.
The range of frequencies rejected by a bandstop filter is the bandwidth (B), which depends on the upper
Student Manual
Resonant bandpass and bandstop filters select a specific range of frequencies. A high circuit Q results in
which range of bandwidth (B)?
a. narrow
b. wide
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

bandpass filters – a circuit that passes frequencies over a narrow range, or band, of frequencies and
rejects those above and below this range.
bandstop filters – a circuit that rejects frequencies within a narrow band and passes those above or
below this band; also called a band reject filter.
center frequency – resonant frequency.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
Student Manual
Exercise 1: BandPass Filters
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to calculate and measure the center frequency
and bandwidth of series and parallel bandpass filters. You will verify your results with an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
In this bandpass circuit, a series LC resonant circuit is connected in series with an output resistor (R).
The input voltage is applied across this voltage divider, and the output is taken across resistor R.
At the resonant frequency of this series RLC circuit, the inductive (XL) and capacitive (XC) reactances
cancel one another, leaving only the circuit resistance (R) to oppose current flow.
VGEN
IT =
R
At series resonance, the circuit current (IT) is

a. maximum.
b. minimum.
Student Manual
The response curve shows that the output voltage (Vo) is maximum at the resonant frequency (fr) of the
bandpass filter circuit. This point is called the center frequency.
The center, or resonant, frequency (fr) of the bandpass circuit shown is

a. 1.59 kHz.
b. 15.9 kHz.
The series RLC bandpass filter acts capacitively at frequencies below resonance (fr), causing the output
voltage (Vo) across the resistor (R) to decrease.
Student Manual
At frequencies above resonance (fr), the series RLC bandpass filter acts inductively, causing Vo to
decrease.
The range of frequencies passed by a bandpass filter is the bandwidth (B), which depends on the upper
To pass only a very few frequencies, the bandwidth (B) is

a. wide.
b. narrow.
To construct a bandpass filter another way, connect a resistor (R) in series with a parallel LC resonant
circuit.
Student Manual
The input voltage is applied across this voltage divider, and the output is taken across the parallel LC
resonant tank circuit.
At resonance, the parallel tank circuit appears as an extremely high resistance.
Is the output voltage (Vo) across the LC tank circuit maximum or minimum at resonance?
a. maximum
b. minimum
As in the series RLC bandpass circuit, the center, or resonant, frequency of a parallel RLC circuit is
computed as follows.
1
fr =
2π LC
Student Manual
The parallel bandpass filter acts inductively at frequencies below resonance (fr). This inductance causes
the output voltage (Vo) across the LC tank circuit to decrease.
At frequencies above resonance (fr), the parallel bandpass filter acts capacitively. This capacitance
causes Vo to decrease.
In either type of bandpass filter, the voltage divider provides maximum output voltage (Vo) at the resonant
frequency (fr) and provides a decreasing output above or below resonance.
Student Manual
PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the PARALLEL BANDPASS FILTER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown.
২ 3. With the oscilloscope probes as shown, use the ADD-INVERT method to monitor the circuit
current (IT) through R1.
NOTE: Monitor IT by observing the voltage drop across R1.
২ 4. Increase the frequency of the generator (VGEN) to tune for the resonant frequency (fr) as
determined by a current null across R1.
Student Manual
২ 5. Determine fr by using the oscilloscope to measure the period (T) at the output of the bandpass
filter (Vo).
1
fr =
T
২ 6. With the circuit still tuned at resonance, measure the amplitude of the output voltage across
the LC tank circuit.
Vo = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 2)
২ 7. As determined from your measured value of Vo at fr, the V–3dB cutoff point is 0.707 x Vo Vpk-pk.
Student Manual
২ 8. Determine the lower cutoff frequency (f1) by slowly decreasing the generator frequency as
you observe a decrease in Vo. Stop when Vo is 0.707 * Vo Vpk-pk. Measure the period (T) of Vo.
1
f1 =
T
২ 9. To detemine the upper cutoff frequency (f2), slowly increase the generator frequency from the
lower cutoff frequency (f1) past resonance (fr). As the voltage decreases from resonance, stop
increasing the generator frequency when Vo equals 0.707 x Vo Vpk-pk. Measure the period (T)
of Vo.
1
f2 =
T
২ 10. Using your values of lower (f1) and upper (f2) cutoff frequencies, compute the bandwidth (B) of
the bandpass filter.
B = f2 – f1
Student Manual
২ 11. Is the range of frequencies selected by the bandpass filter determined by the bandwidth (B)?
a. yes
b. no
২ 12. Locate the SERIES BANDPASS FILTER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown.
২ 14. Place CM switch 2 in the ON position to decrease the value of R2 to 470 Ω.
Student Manual
২ 15. With the oscilloscope probes as shown, use the ADD-INVERT method to monitor the voltage
drop across series combination L1 and C1.
২ 16. Increase the frequency of the generator (VGEN) to tune for the resonant frequency (fr), as
determined by a voltage null across series combination L1 and C1.
২ 17. Determine fr by using the oscilloscope to measure the period (T) at the output of the
bandpass filter (Vo).
1
fr =
T
২ 18. While observing the output voltage across R2, vary the generator frequency several kilohertz
above and below the center frequency of ( kHz [Step 17, Recall Value 6])
Student Manual
২ 19. Does the output amplitude (Vo) of this series bandpass filter increase or decrease at
frequencies above and below the center frequency?
a. increase
b. decrease
২ 20. Which curve (A or B) shows the correct response for either a series or parallel bandpass
filter?
a. Curve A
b. Curve B
CONCLUSION
• Bandpass filters can be constructed by connecting a series or parallel resonant circuit with a resistor.
• In a series bandpass filter, a series LC resonant circuit is connected in series with an output resistor.
• In a parallel bandpass filter, a parallel LC resonant output circuit is connected in series with a resistor.
• A bandpass filter allows a narrow band of frequencies to pass but rejects (attenuates) frequencies
above and below that band.
• In a bandpass filter, the output is maximum at the center frequency and decreases above and below
the center frequency.
Student Manual
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Locate the SERIES BANDPASS FILTER circuit block and connect the circuit shown. Adjust VGEN for a
With the oscilloscope probes as shown, use the ADD-INVERT method to monitor the voltage drop
Student Manual
Increase the frequency of the generator (VGEN) to tune for the resonant frequency (fr) as determined
by a voltage null across series combination L1 and C1.

Measure the period (T) at the output of the bandpass filter (Vo). The resonant frequency (fr = 1/T) is
approximately
a. 112.4 µs.
b. 8.9 kHz.
c. 15.9 kHz.
d. 62.9 µs.
2. The range of frequencies passed by a bandpass filter is the

a. lower cutoff frequency (f1).
b. upper cutoff frequency (f2).
c. center, or resonant, frequency (fr).
d. bandwidth (B).
3. In this series bandpass filter, the output voltage (Vo) is maximum

a. at the resonant frequency (fr).
b. at the upper cutoff frequency (f2).
c. at the lower cutoff frequency (f1).
d. below fr.
Student Manual
4. In a bandpass filter, the output is maximum at the center frequency and decreases above and
below the
a. center frequency (fr).
b. lower cutoff frequency (f1).
c. upper cutoff frequency (f2).
d. –3 dB point.
5. In a parallel bandpass filter, a parallel LC resonant output circuit is connected in series with a(n)
a. capacitor.
b. inductor.
c. resistor.
d. inductor and a capacitor.
Student Manual
Exercise 2: BandStop Filters
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to calculate and measure the center frequency
and bandwidth of series and parallel bandstop filters. You will verify your results with an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
In this bandstop circuit, a resistor (R) is connected in series with a series LC resonant circuit.
The input voltage (Vi) is applied across this voltage divider, and the output is taken across the series LC
circuit.
At fr, the impedance of the RLC series circuit is

a. maximum.
b. minimum.
Student Manual
The R and LC series combination form a voltage divider. At resonance, most of the input voltage (Vi) is
dropped across the resistor (R) and very little is dropped across the LC tuned circuit.
At resonance, is the output voltage (Vo) across the series LC circuit greatly attenuated?
a. yes
b. no
The response curve of the bandstop filter circuit shows that Vo is minimum at fr. This point is called the
center frequency.
You determine the center, or resonant, frequency (fr) of the bandstop filter from the standard resonant
frequency equation.
Student Manual
At frequencies below fr, the series bandstop filter acts capacitively. This capacitance causes Vo across the
LC circuit to increase.
At frequencies above fr, the series bandstop filter acts inductively. This inductance causes Vo across the
LC circuit to increase.
Will the output signal (Vo) increase or decrease off resonance?

a. increase
b. decrease
Student Manual
The range of frequencies passed by a bandstop filter is the bandwidth (B), which depends on the upper
To reject or greatly attenuate a small band of frequencies, the bandwidth is

a. wide.
b. narrow.
Student Manual
To construct a bandstop filter another way, connect a parallel LC resonant circuit in series with a resistor
(R).
The input voltage (Vi) is applied across this voltage divider, and Vo is taken across the resistor (R).
At fr, the impedance of the parallel tuned circuit is very high compared to R.
Is Vo across the resistor (R) maximum or minimum at resonance?

a. maximum
b. minimum
Student Manual
As in a series bandstop filter, fr of a parallel bandstop filter is computed as follows.

1
fr =
2π LC
The parallel bandstop filter acts inductively at frequencies below resonance (fr). This inductance causes
Vo across the resistor to increase.
At frequencies above resonance (fr), the parallel bandstop filter acts capacitively. This capacitance causes
Vo to increase.
Student Manual
In either type of bandstop filter, the voltage divider provides minimum Vo at fr and increases output above
and below resonance.
PROCEDURE
২ 1. Locate the SERIES BANDSTOP FILTER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown.
২ 3. With the oscilloscope probe as shown, measure the output voltage.
Student Manual
২ 4. With the oscilloscope probe as shown, monitor the output voltage (Vo) across the series LC
combination.
২ 5. Increase the frequency of the generator (VGEN) to tune for fr as determined by a voltage null
across Vo.
২ 6. Remove the oscilloscope probe and connect it to the output of the generator (VGEN) as
shown.
Determine fr by using the oscilloscope to measure the period (T).
fr = 1/T = kHz (Recall Value 2)
২ 7. This response is typical of the circuit you connected in step 1 of this procedure.
By adjusting the generator frequency for a voltage null across the output, you determined a
resonant frequency of 16.1 kHz for your circuit.
Student Manual
২ 8. As determined from your measured value of output voltage at 1 kHz (Vo(1kHz)), the V–3dB
cutoff point is Vpk-pk (0.707 x Vo(1kHz)).
*Vo(1kHz) = Vpk-pk (Step 3, Recall Value 1)
২ 9. Determine the lower cutoff frequency (f1) by slowly decreasing the generator frequency. Stop
when Vo equals Vpk-pk (0.707 x Vo(1kHz)). Measure the period (T) of Vo.
f1 = 1/T = kHz (Recall Value 3)
Student Manual
২ 10. To determine the upper cutoff frequency (f2), slowly increase the generator frequency from
the lower cutoff frequency (f1) past resonance (fr). As the voltage increases from resonance,
stop increasing the generator frequency when Vo equals Vpk-pk (0.707 x
Vo(1kHz)). Measure the period (T) of Vo.
f2 = 1/T = kHz (Recall Value 4)
of the bandstop filter.
f1 = kHz(Step 9, Recall Value 3)
fr = kHz(Step 6, Recall Value 2)
f2 = kHz(Step 10, Recall Value 4)
B = f2 – f1
২ 12. Is the range of frequencies rejected by the bandstop filter determined by the bandwidth?
a. yes
b. no
২ 13. Locate the PARALLEL BANDSTOP FILTER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown.
Student Manual
২ 15. With the oscilloscope probe as shown, increase the frequency of the generator (VGEN) to
tune for fr as determined by a voltage null across output resistor R2.
২ 16. Remove the oscilloscope probe and connect it to the output of the generator (VGEN) as
shown.
Determine fr by using the oscilloscope to measure the period (T) of the output.
২ 17. While observing the output voltage across R2, vary the generator several kilohertz above
and below the center frequency kHz (Step 16, Recall Value 6).
Student Manual
২ 18. Does the output amplitude (Vo) of this parallel bandstop filter increase or decrease at
frequencies above and below fr?
a. increase
b. decrease
২ 19. Which curve (A or B) shows the correct response for either a series or parallel bandstop?
a. Curve A
b. Curve B
CONCLUSION
• Bandstop filters can be constructed by connecting a resistor with a series or parallel resonant circuit.
• In a series bandstop filter, a resistor is connected in series with an output series LC resonant circuit.
• In a parallel bandstop filter, a parallel LC tank circuit is connected in series with an output resistor.
• A bandstop filter rejects (attenuates) a narrow band of frequencies but passes frequencies above and
below the center frequency.
• In a bandstop filter, the output is minimum at the center frequency and increases above and below
the center frequency.
Student Manual
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Locate the SERIES BANDSTOP FILTER circuit block and connect the circuit shown. Adjust VGEN for a
With the oscilloscope probe as shown, decrease the frequency of the generator (VGEN) to tune for fr
as determined by a voltage null across Vo.
Student Manual
Remove the oscilloscope probe and connect it to the output of the generator (VGEN) as shown.

Using the oscilloscope, measure the period (T) of the generator output (VGEN). The resonant
frequency (fr = 1/T) is approximately
a. 26.3 µs.
b. 15.9 kHz.
c. 62.9 µs.
d. 3.8 kHz.
2. In a series or parallel bandstop filter, the output voltage level at fr is

a. maximum.
b. minimum.
c. equal to V–3db.
d. constant throughout the band.
3. In the bandstop response curve, frequencies less than f1 and greater than f2 are
a. greatly attenuated.
b. rejected.
c. passed.
d. greatly reduced in amplitude.

4. In a series bandstop filter, a series LC resonant output circuit is connected in series with a(n)
a. capacitor.
b. resistor.
c. inductor.
d. inductor and a capacitor.
Student Manual
5. In this parallel bandstop filter, an increase in the value of C1

a. increases fr.
b. increases f1.
c. decreases f2.
d. decreases fr.
Student Manual
UNIT TEST
1. In either series or parallel bandpass filters, the output voltage is maximum at the
b. V–3dB point.
d. resonant, or center, frequency (fr).
2. To select a range of frequencies from 1 kHz to 2 kHz and to reject all others, which kind of filter would
you use?
a. low-pass
b. high-pass
c. bandpass
d. bandstop
3. What kind of filter would remove a frequency range of 3 kHz to 4 kHz from an audio tape unit?
a. bandpass
b. bandstop
c. low-pass
d. high-pass
4. In a parallel bandpass filter, f1 = 5 kHz and f2 = 28 kHz. What is the bandwidth (B)?
a. 23 kHz
b. 33 kHz
c. 28 kHz
d. 5 kHz
5. In this series LC bandpass filter, a decrease in R causes the center frequency (fr)
a. to increase.
b. voltage (Vo) to increase.
c. to remain the same.
d. to decrease.
Student Manual
6. Which circuit represents a series bandpass filter?

a. 4
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3
7. Which circuit represents a

series bandstop filter?
a. 4
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3
8. The resonant frequency of a bandpass filter is also called the

a. lower cutoff frequency.
b. center frequency.
c. f2.
d. upper cutoff frequency.
9. In this parallel bandpass filter, the –3 dB voltage point equals

a. Vo at resonance.
b. 0.707 x VGEN.
c. 0.707 x Vo at resonance.
d. 0.5 x Vo at resonance.
10. In either series or parallel bandstop filters, the output voltage is minimum at the
b. V–3dB point.
d. resonant, or center, frequency (fr).
Student Manual
TROUBLESHOOTING I
Series Bandpass Filter
২ 1. Locate the SERIES BANDPASS FILTER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown.
২ 3. Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 and channel 2 probes as shown. Using the ADD-
INVERT method to monitor the voltage drop across series combination L1 and C1, increase
the frequency of VGEN to tune for resonance (fr) as determined by a voltage null.
২ 4. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the series bandpass filter is working properly
by doing a performance check.
Check the value of the resonant frequency (fr).
Student Manual
২ 5. Measure the period (T) of the output signal across R2.
২ 6. Measure the voltage drop across R2 at resonance.
২ 7. Have your instructor insert a fault into the SERIES BANDPASS FILTER circuit block. Select
VR2 14.7 Vpk-pk, ±20%*
VL1 9.7 Vpk-pk, ±30%*
VC1 9.7 Vpk-pk, ±30%*
IT 9.8 mApk-pk, ±30%*
fr 15.90 kHz ±30%*
R2 1500 W, ±20%
RL1 45 W, ±20%
* At resonance

a. C1 (shorted).
b. C1 (open).
c. L1 (shorted).
d. L1 (open).
Student Manual
TROUBLESHOOTING II
Parallel Bandpass Filter
২ 1. Locate the PARALLEL BANDPASS FILTER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown.
২ 3. Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 and channel 2 probes as shown. Using the ADD-
INVERT method to monitor the circuit current (IT) through R1 (and observing the voltage
drop across R1), increase the frequency of VGEN to tune for resonance (fr) as determined by
a current null.
২ 4. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the parallel bandpass filter circuit is working
properly by doing a performance check.
Check the value of the resonant frequency (fr).
Student Manual
২ 5. Measure the period (T) of the output signal across the LC tank circuit (Vo).
২ 6. Measure the output voltage across the LC tank circuit (Vo) at resonance.
২ 7. Have your instructor insert a fault into the PARALLEL BANDPASS FILTER circuit block.
Select an item to begin troubleshooting your circuit. Enter your observed values in the table.
Vo 14.4 Vpk-pk, ±20%*
fr 15.90 kHz ±30%*
R1 1500 W, ±20%
RL1 45 W, ±20%
* At resonance

a. R1 (open).
b. L1 (open).
c. C1 (open).
d. C1 (shorted).
Student Manual
TROUBLESHOOTING III
Series Bandstop Filter I
২ 3. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the series bandstop filter circuit is working
Check the value of the output voltage (Vo) at 1 kHz. Measure Vo.
২ 4. Increase the frequency of the generator (VGEN) to tune for resonant frequency (fr) as
determined by a voltage null across Vo.
২ 5. Connect the oscilloscope probe across VGEN and measure the period (T) of VGEN.
২ 6. Have your instructor insert a fault into the SERIES BANDSTOP FILTER circuit block. Select
Vo 14.90 Vpk-pk, ±15%*
fr 14.90 kHz ±30%
R1 1500 W, ±20%
RL1 45 W, ±20%
* At 1 kHz
Student Manual

a. R1 (shorted).
b. C1 (shorted).
c. R1 (open).
d. L1 (shorted).
Student Manual
TROUBLESHOOTING IV
Series Bandstop Filter II
২ 3. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the series bandstop filter circuit is working
Check the value of the output voltage (Vo) at 1 kHz. Measure Vo.
২ 4. Increase the frequency of the generator (VGEN) to tune for the resonant frequency (fr) as
২ 5. Move the oscilloscope probe and measure the period (T) of VGEN.
২ 6. Have your instructor insert a fault into the SERIES BANDSTOP FILTER circuit block. Select
Vo 14.90 Vpk-pk, ±15%*
fr 14.90 kHz ±30%
R1 1500 W, ±20%
RL1 45 W, ±20%
* At 1 kHz
Student Manual

a. R1 (shorted).
b. C1 (shorted).
c. R1 (open).
d. L1 (shorted).
Student Manual
TROUBLESHOOTING V
Parallel Bandstop Filter
২ 1. Locate the PARALLEL BANDSTOP FILTER circuit block, and connect the circuit shown.
২ 3. Before a circuit fault is introduced, verify that the parallel bandstop filter circuit is working
properly by doing a performance check. Check the value of the output voltage (Vo) at 1 kHz.
Measure Vo.
২ 4. Increase the generator frequency (VGEN) to tune for the resonant frequency (fr) as
২ 5. Move the oscilloscope probe and measure the period (T) of VGEN.
২ 6. Have your instructor insert a fault into the PARALLEL BANDSTOP FILTER circuit block.
Select an item to begin troubleshooting your circuit. Enter your observed values in the table.
Vo 14.70 Vpk-pk, ±15%*
fr 14.70 kHz ±30%
R1 1500 W, ±20%
RL1 45 W, ±20%
* At 1 kHz
Student Manual

a. C1 (open).
b. C1 (shorted).
c. L1 (open).
d. R2 (open).
Student Manual
Appendix A – Safety
Safety is everyone’s responsibility. All must cooperate to create the safest possible working environment.
Students must be reminded of the potential for harm, given common sense safety rules, and instructed to
follow the electrical safety rules.
Any environment can be hazardous when it is unfamiliar. The FACET computer-based laboratory may
be a new environment to some students. Instruct students in the proper use of the FACET equipment
and explain what behavior is expected of them in this laboratory. It is up to the instructor to provide the
necessary introduction to the learning environment and the equipment. This task will prevent injury to both
student and equipment.
The voltage and current used in the FACET Computer-Based Laboratory are, in themselves, harmless
to a normal, healthy person. However, an electrical shock coming as a surprise will be uncomfortable
and may cause a reaction that could create injury. The students should be made aware of the following
electrical safety rules.
1. Turn off the power before working on a circuit.

2. Always confirm that the circuit is wired correctly before turning on the power. If required, have your
instructor check your circuit wiring.
3. Perform the experiments as you are instructed: do not deviate from the documentation.
4. Never touch “live” wires with your bare hands or with tools.
5. Always hold test leads by their insulated areas.
6. B
e aware that some components can become very hot during operation. (However, this is not a normal
condition for your FACET course equipment.) Always allow time for the components to cool before
proceeding to touch or remove them from the circuit.
7. D
o not work without supervision. Be sure someone is nearby to shut off the power and provide first aid
in case of an accident.
8. Remove power cords by the plug, not by pulling on the cord. Check for cracked or broken insulation on
the cord.
Student Manual
Student Manual
Appendix B – Answer Key

UNIT 1 RLC CIRCUITS
Unit Fundamentals
Varying the frequency of the applied voltage (VGEN) causes both the inductive (XL) and capacitive (XC)
reactances to change. Will this cause the total circuit current (IT) to change?
a. yes
In a series circuit, the same current flows in all three components. Given the current (IT), can you use
Ohm’s law to calculate the voltage drops across the individual circuit components?
a. yes
In a parallel circuit, VGEN appears across each of the components. Given VGEN, can you use Ohm’s law to
calculate the current through each of the three circuit branches?
a. yes
EXERCISE 1 SERIES RLC CIRCUITS
Exercise Discussion
This series RLC circuit acts like a 100 Ω resistor in series with an equivalent
b. inductor.
In a series RLC circuit, does the sum of the component voltage drops equal the applied source voltage
(VGEN)?
b. no
VGEN = 5.000 Vpk-pk ± 2%
b. capacitor.
θ = 53.1 degrees ± 5%
Exercise Procedure
3. VC1 = 21.1 Vpk-pk ± 30% Recall Value 1
4. VL1 = 7.26 Vpk-pk ± 30% Recall Value 2
5. VR2 = 5.8 Vpk-pk ± 30% Recall Value 3
6. b. no
7. a. capacitor.
9. a. lead
10. a. capacitive
15. b. inductor.
16. θ = 59.6 degrees ± 3% Recall Value 7
18. b. lag
Student Manual
Review Questions
1. d. remain capacitive.
2. c. VL is greater than VC.
3. d. like a resistor is in series with a capacitor.
4. b. leads the applied voltage.
5. c. are out of phase with one another.
EXERCISE 2 PARALLEL RLC CIRCUITS
Exercise Discussion
IT is the total circuit current drawn from the generator source (VGEN). Can the individual branch currents
be added directly to obtain IT?
b. no
IT = 2.11 mA ± 3%
This circuit acts like a circuit with a resistor in parallel with an equivalent
a. capacitor.
C = 0.001 µF ± 20%
Exercise Procedure
3. IC2 = 3.4 mApk-pk ± 30% Recall Value 1
4. IL2 = 1.6 mApk-pk ± 30% Recall Value 2
5. IR6 = 1.28 mApk-pk ± 30% Recall Value 3
6. IT = 2.209 mA ± 5% Recall Value 4
7. b. no
8. b. capacitively.
9. θ = 54.58 degrees ± 3% Recall Value 5
11. b. leading capacitive
13. IC2 = 1.38 mApk-pk ± 30% Recall Value 6
15. a. inductively.
17. a. lagging inductive
18. b. inductive
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. c. IR
2. c. inductively.
3. d. IC is greater than IL.
4. a. 180º out of phase.
5. d. No, because they are out of phase.
Student Manual
UNIT 2 SERIES RESONANCE
Unit Fundamentals
Do the inductive and capacitive reactances in an RLC circuit vary with frequency?
a. yes
A decrease in frequency (f) causes the capacitive reactance (XC) to increase. An increase in frequency
causes the capacitive reactance (XC) to
b. decrease.
At the resonant point (fr), total circuit current (IT) is
b. maximum.
EXERCISE 1 SERIES RESONANT CIRCUITS
Exercise Discussion
At what frequency are the inductive and capacitive reactances equal in a series RLC circuit?
b. resonant frequency
fr = 33.95 kHz ± 1% Recall Value 1
XC1 = 2132.0 Ω ± 1%
Z = 1000.0 Ω ± 1%
VC1 = 31.98 V ± 1%
Are the voltage drops across the inductor and capacitor significantly higher than the applied voltage
(VGEN)?
a. yes
Exercise Procedure
4. fr = 33.65 kHz ± 30% Recall Value 1
5. IT = 14.3 mApk-pk ± 30% Recall Value 2
6. b. yes
9. a. in phase
11. b. lead
15. a. yes
17. b. larger
20. b. no
21. a. yes
Review Questions
1. d. 48 kHz.
2. b. at the resonant frequency.
3. b. maximum and in phase with the applied voltage.
4. c. equal to XC, and the circuit acts resistively.
5. a. resonant frequency remains the same.
Student Manual
EXERCISE 2 Q AND BANDWIDTH OF A SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
Exercise Discussion
Would a response curve of a highly selective series RLC circuit have a narrow (sharp) bandwidth (B) or
broad (wide) bandwidth?
a. narrow
Would this type of response curve make a highly selective tuning circuit for a radio?
b. no
IRESON = 15.0 mApk-pk ± 1%
I-3dB = 10.6 mApk-pk ± 1%
The bandwidth (B) of this response curve is
c. 17.0 kHz.
Which curve displays the lower circuit Q?
b. B
With a circuit Q of 3, the resonant step-up voltage across either L1 or C1 equals
b. 45 Vpk-pk.
Exercise Procedure
5. IRESON = 14.3 mApk-pk ± 30% Recall Value 2
6. I-3dB = 10.11 mApk-pk ± 1% Recall Value 3
8. f1 = 26.5 kHz ± 30% Recall Value 4
11. B = 16.7 kHz ± 1% Recall Value 6
12. a. yes
13. Q = 2.015 ± 3% Recall Value 7
16. Q = 0.667 ± 3% Recall Value 9
17. a. increase
Review Questions
1. a. 1.3
2. b. 6.0
3. c. 6.00 mApk-pk.
4. b. step-up voltage across the inductor.
5. b. 70 kHz.
UNIT 3 PARALLEL RESONANCE
Unit Fundamentals
In the ideal circuit shown, are IC and IL equal at resonance?
a. yes
In the ideal circuit shown, the line current (IT) is
b. 0 at resonance.
Student Manual
In the ideal circuit shown, the circuit impedance (Z) is

At the resonant frequency (fr), total circuit, or line current (IT) is
b. minimum.
EXERCISE 1 PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS
Exercise Discussion
fr = 33.95 kHz ± 3% Recall Value 1
Does a decrease in the value of C to 0.0011 µF result in a higher or lower value of fr?
a. higher
In this circuit, is the voltage across the tank circuit (VRESON) maximum or minimum at the resonant
frequency?
a. maximum
The total circuit current (IT) drawn from the generator is
At resonance, the circuit current (IT) and the generator voltage (VGEN) are
a. in phase.
Exercise Procedure
6. VRESON = 13.97 Vpk-pk ± 15% Recall Value 2
7. IT = 219.1 µApk-pk ± 3% Recall Value 3
8. a. maximum at resonance.
13. a. yes
17. a. in phase
18. b. out of phase
Review Questions
1. b. 48 kHz.
2. a. was added in parallel.
3. c. maximum.
4. c. larger than IT.
5. d. for resonance.
EXERCISE 2 Q AND BANDWIDTH
Exercise Discussion
For the same resonant frequency (fr), which Q results in a greater bandwidth (B)?
b. 40
Q = 41.8 ± 3% Recall Value 1
Does the Q of the coil or the Q of the circuit determine bandwidth?
b. circuit Q
Student Manual
The bandwidth is determined by the difference between

b. the upper (f2) and lower (f1) cutoff frequencies.
V-3dB = 10.6 V ± 3%
The bandwidth (B) shown by this response curve is
c. 16 kHz.
Exercise Procedure
6. V-3dB = 9.877 Vpk-pk ± 3% Recall Value 3
12. a. yes
13. Q = 2.069 ± 3% Recall Value 7
14. b. circuit Q
Review Questions
a. 20 kHz.
2. b. circuit.
3. d. 23 kHz.
4. c. 10 kHz.
5. c. 2.06
UNIT 4 POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
Unit Fundamentals
These relationships of current, voltage, resistance, and power hold true for
c. ac and dc.
Are the current and voltage, as shown by the plot, in phase or out of phase?
a. in phase
Is the power curve twice the frequency of the basic voltage and current sine waves?
a. yes
Is real power consumed by an ideal reactive component?
b. no
In the circuit shown, the reactive power (Q) of the capacitor (C) is
b. 10 mvar.
EXERCISE 1 POWER DIVISION
Exercise Discussion
Can you determine the power value of each component by multiplying the rms current (I) by each rms
component voltage drop?
a. yes
Student Manual
The total real power (PT) dissipated as heat in this circuit is

c. 4.5 W.
In this circuit, the total reactive power (QT) introduced by C1 and L1 is
a. 1 var.
In this circuit, the apparent power (S) is
c. 9.5 VA.
Exercise Procedure
5. VR2(rms) = 2.1 Vrms ± 30% Recall Value 1
6. PR2 = 4.452 mW ± 3% Recall Value 2
7. VL1(rms) = 2.7 Vrms ± 30% Recall Value 3
8. QL1 = 5.67 mvar ± 3% Recall Value 4
9. VC1(rms) = 7.57 Vrms ± 30% Recall Value 5
10. QC1 = 15.9 mvar ± 3% Recall Value 6
11. QT = –10.2 mvar ± 3% Recall Value 7
12. S = 11.2 mVA ± 30% Recall Value 8
13. b. no
Review Questions
1. VR2(rms) = 4.28 Vrms ± 30% Recall Value 1
b. 5.7 mW
2. a. resistance.
3. d. volt-ampere.
4. a. rms values of current and voltage.
5. c. 18 W.
EXERCISE 2 POWER FACTOR
Exercise Discussion
In ac circuits containing resistance and reactance, can the real power ever be greater than the apparent
power?
b. no
In this circuit, the phase angle between the generator voltage and circuit current is 45°. The real power
(P) dissipated as heat in the resistor is
b. 14.1 W.
Exercise Procedure
5. VR2(pk-pk) = 6.0 Vpk-pk ± 30% Recall Value 1
9. VC1(pk-pk) = 21.4 Vpk-pk ± 30% Recall Value 3
11. QT = –10.2 mvar ± 3% Recall Value 4
13. PF = 0.401 ± 3% Recall Value 5
15. θ = –65.0 degrees ± 30% Recall Value 6
16. PF = 0.4226 ± 5% Recall Value 7
17. PR2 = 4.662 mW ± 3% Recall Value 8
Student Manual
Review Questions
1. θ = –35.0 degrees ± 30% Recall Value 1
b. 0.819
2. d. apparent power (S).
3. a. real power of the circuit (P).
4. b. 0.707.
5. d. higher than the power consumed by the resistor.
UNIT 5 LOW AND HIGH-PASS FILTERS
Unit Fundamentals
Another type of filter, called a high-pass filter, passes
b. high frequencies but rejects low frequencies.
A low-pass filter has a cutoff frequency (fc) of 10 kHz. A band of frequencies ranging from 20 kHz to
100 kHz is
b. greatly attenuated.
In this filter circuit, the output voltage (Vo) is
b. smaller than the input voltage (Vi).
In this response curve, the rate of attenuation between a frequency of 1 kHz and 2 kHz (an octave) is
b. 6 dB.
EXERCISE 1 LOW-PASS FILTERS
Exercise Discussion
Will Vo be less than the input voltage (Vi)?
a. yes
Does this change in reactance cause Vo to change as the generator frequency is varied?
a. yes
Does most of the input voltage (Vi) appear across the inductor (L) or the resistor (R) at low frequencies?
b. resistor
fc = 9646 Hz ± 3%
Exercise Procedure
3. b. decrease
5. a. yes
10. fc = 10.6 kHz ± 40% Recall Value 1
12. Vo(40kHz) = 3.8 Vpk-pk ± 30% Recall Value 2
15. b. reduced
18. b. decrease
21. c. –9 dB.
22. a. yes
Student Manual
Review Questions
1. c. increased in value, decreasing fc.
2. d. lower than fc.
3. b. 20 dB per decade.
4. a. Both greatly attenuate a 100 kHz signal.
5. a. greater than the cutoff frequency (fc).
EXERCISE 2 HIGH-PASS FILTERS
Exercise Discussion
Does the filter’s output voltage (Vo) change as the generator frequency (VGEN) is varied?
a. yes
Does most of the input voltage (Vi) appear across the resistor (R) or inductor (L) at high frequencies?
b. inductor
Exercise Procedure
3. b. decrease
13. b. reduced
16. b. decrease
18. b. –23 dB.
Review Questions
1. c. 3.4 kHz
2. b. greater than fc.
3. b. 500 kHz
4. d. decreases.
5. a. lower than the cutoff frequency (fc).
UNIT 6 BANDPASS AND BANDSTOP FILTERS
Unit Fundamentals
The center frequency of a bandpass filter equals the
b. resonant frequency.
Resonant bandpass and bandstop filters select a specific range of frequencies. A high circuit Q results in
which range of bandwidth (B)?
a. narrow
EXERCISE 1 BANDPASS FILTERS
Exercise Discussion
At series resonance, the circuit current (IT) is
a. maximum.
Student Manual
The center, or resonant, frequency (fr) of the bandpass circuit shown is

b. 15.9 kHz.
To pass only a very few frequencies, the bandwidth (B) is
b. narrow.
Is the output voltage (Vo) across the LC tank circuit maximum or minimum at resonance?
a. maximum
Exercise Procedure
6. Vo = 14.4 Vpk-pk ± 30% Recall Value 2
11. a. yes
19. b. decrease
20. a. Curve A
Review Questions
1. b. 8.9 kHz.
2. d. bandwidth (B).
3. a. at the resonant frequency (fr).
4. a. center frequency (fr).
5. c. resistor.
EXERCISE 2 BANDSTOP FILTERS
Exercise Discussion
At fr, the impedance of the RLC series circuit is
b. minimum.
At resonance, is the output voltage (Vo) across the series LC circuit greatly attenuated?
a. yes
Will the output signal (Vo) increase or decrease off resonance?
a. increase
To reject or greatly attenuate a small band of frequencies, the bandwidth is
b. narrow.
Is Vo across the resistor (R) maximum or minimum at resonance?
b. minimum
Exercise Procedure
Student Manual
12. a. yes
18. a. increase
19. b. Curve B
Review Questions
1. d. 3.8 kHz.
2. b. minimum.
3. c. passed.
4. b. resistor.
5. d. decreases fr.
Student Manual
Student Manual
Appendix C – Measurement Techniques

Whenever you take a measurement, use the test points provided on the circuit board. Do not connect any
instrument directly to a component on the FACET circuit board.
AC Point Voltage
To measure the ac voltage at a particular point in a circuit, refer to the figure above and follow these
steps:
1. Make sure all variable controls on the oscilloscope are in the calibrated position. If the circuit has a
current-sensing resistor, short it out with a two-post connector.
2. Connect the ground clip on the X10 probe to circuit common.
3. Connect the X10 probe to the test point you are going to measure.
4. Adjust the vertical attenuator and time base controls so that the largest possible trace of one
complete cycle of the waveform you are going to measure is displayed.
5. Determine the peak-to-peak amplitude by measuring from the top of a peak to the top of a valley (see
figure below). This method subtracts the thickness of the trace from the measurement.
AC Voltage Drop (ADD-INVERT Method)
Use the ADD-INVERT Method to measure the ac voltage drop across an individual component in a circuit.
Refer to the figure above and follow these steps:
1. Make sure all variable controls on the oscilloscope are in the calibrated position. If the circuit has a
current-sensing resistor, short it out with a two-post connector.
2. Connect the ground clips on the X10 probes of both channels to circuit ground.
3. Connect the channel 1 X10 probe to the side of the circuit component with the greater potential.
Student Manual
4. Connect the channel 2 X10 probe to the side of the circuit component with the lesser potential.
5. Place the vertical mode switch on the oscilloscope in the ADD position.
6. Activate the channel 2 INVERT function.
7. Set the vertical attenuator and the time base controls so that the largest possible trace of one cycle
of the waveform is displayed without exceeding the height of the graticule. Make sure both channel
vertical attenuator controls are on the same setting.
8. Determine the peak-to-peak amplitude by measuring from the top of a peak to the top of a valley. This
method subtracts the thickness of the trace from the measurement.
AC Current
Use the current-sensing resistor to measure ac current.

Refer to the figure above and follow these steps:
1. Make sure all variable controls on the oscilloscope are in the calibrated position. Remove the two-
post connector that shorts out the current-sensing resistor.
2. Connect the ground clip of the X10 probe to circuit ground.
3. Connect the X10 probe to the side of the current-sensing resistor with the higher potential.
4. Adjust the vertical attenuator and the time base controls so that the largest possible trace of one cycle
of the current-sensing resistor voltage is displayed without exceeding the height of the graticule.
5. Determine the peak-to-peak amplitude by measuring from the top of a peak to the top of a valley (see
figure above). This method subtracts the thickness of the trace from the measurement.
6. Calculate the circuit current by dividing the measured resistor voltage by the resistor value.
Student Manual
Measuring Frequency
Frequency should always be measured and set with the oscilloscope. To measure frequency, refer to the
figure above and follow these steps:
1. Make sure all variable controls on the oscilloscope are in the calibrated position.
2. Apply the ac waveform to the X10 probe.
3. Adjust the vertical attenuator and time base controls so that the largest possible trace of one cycle of
the waveform is displayed without exceeding the height of the graticule.
4. Determine the period (T) of the waveform by measuring the time of one wave cycle.
5. The frequency equals the reciprocal of the period (1/T).
Setting Frequency
Frequency should always be measured and set with the oscilloscope. To set frequency, refer to the figure
above and follow these steps:
1. Make sure all variable controls on the oscilloscope are in the calibrated position.
2. Apply the ac waveform to the X10 probe.
3. Calculate the period (T) by finding the reciprocal of the frequency desired (T = 1/f).
4. Adjust the generator frequency so that the period of the waveform equals the calculated period of the
desired frequency.
Student Manual
Measuring Phase Angle
Phase angles are usually measured in reference to the input voltage. To measure phase angle, refer to
the figure above and follow these steps:
1. Make sure that the INVERT function on channel 2 is not active and that the oscilloscope is triggered
on channel 1.
2. Set the vertical mode switch to the ALT position for higher frequencies and to CHOP position for lower
frequencies.
3. Apply the reference waveform to the channel 1 X10 probe.
4. Apply the waveform you are going to measure to the channel 2 X10 probe.
5. Adjust the variable time base control so that one cycle of the waveform is exactly 8 divisions wide.
Each division then equals 45 degrees (360°/8 div = 45°/div).
6. Measure the horizontal distance (d) between the two waveforms (d is measured in divisions, not
time).
7. Calculate the phase angle by multiplying the measured distance by 45 degrees per division.
Measuring DC Voltage and Current with a Multimeter
To measure the dc voltage level at a particular point in a circuit, refer to the figure above and follow these
steps:
1. If the circuit has a current-sensing resistor, short it out with a two-post connector.
Student Manual
2. Set the multimeter function for dc voltage measurement.
3. Set the range.
4. Connect the minus probe (black) to circuit ground.
5. Connect the plus probe (red) to the test point in the circuit to be measured.
6. Adjust the range for the most accurate measurement without exceeding the range limit.
DC Voltage Drop
To measure the dc voltage drop across a particular circuit element, refer to the figure above and follow
these steps:
1. If the circuit has a current-sensing resistor, short it out with a two-post connector.
2. Set the multimeter function for dc voltage measurement.
3. Set the range.
4. Connect the minus probe (black) to the side of the component with the lower potential.
5. Connect the plus probe (red) to the side of the component with the higher potential.
DC Current
To measure dc current, refer to the figure above and follow these steps:
1. If the circuit contains a current-sensing resistor, short it out with a two-post connector. Current-
sensing resistors are used only when measuring current with an oscilloscope.
Student Manual
2. Set the multimeter function for dc current measurement.
3. Set the range.
4. Because the multimeter must be placed in series with the circuit in order to measure current, it
replaces the two-post connector that normally connects the dc power supply to the circuit. Connect
the plus probe (red) to the point closest to the supply source. Connect the minus probe (black) to the
point closest to the circuit.
Student Manual
Appendix D – Measurement Tolerances

You will be asked to make many measurements as you progress through the exercises in this volume.
Sometimes you might find that a careful measurement produces a value that differs from the result you
expected. How do you know if your answers are correct?
Many factors affect the accuracy of measurements. In this section, you will examine several things that
may cause your readings to vary from expected values. You will also learn the definitions of the terms
used to describe these differences in measurements.
Instrument Accuracy
No measuring instrument is perfect. If there were a perfect instrument, it would be extremely expensive.
It would also not remain perfect for very long. The effects of temperature, aging, humidity, and so forth
would steadily lessen the accuracy of the device.
A carpenter’s 20-foot steel tape measure, for example, gradually stretches from repeated use. It becomes
longer during a hot summer day than during the freezing cold of winter. Electronic measuring instruments
are similarly degraded by aging and physical wear and tear. For these reasons, carpenters replace their
tape measures frequently, while electronic measuring instruments must regularly go through a process
called calibration.
All measuring instruments have some tolerance. For a specific reading, you see a range of meter
indications. The problem is in knowing when the meter readings are acceptable.
For example, suppose a particular voltmeter has a specified accuracy of ±3% of full scale when set to the
10 Vdc full-scale range. If you use this meter to measure an exact voltage source known to be 9.50 Vdc,
the meter may not indicate exactly 9.50 Vdc. However, based on the known meter tolerance, readings
between 9.2 Vdc and 9.8 Vdc are accepted as correct measurements from this meter.
In this example, you measured the voltage source of 9.50 Vdc using the 10 V full-scale range of the
meter. Good practice dictates selecting a range greater than the expected voltage or current value when
you are using an analog (pointer-type) meter. This practice avoids damage to the meter should the actual
value be greater than expected. When you have determined that a lower range may be used safely,
select the range that displays current or voltage values as closely as possible to the full-scale end of the
meter.
When making resistance measurements, always be certain that current from a source other than the
meter cannot flow in the circuit. If you are using an analog meter, select the range that displays the
resistance value in a scale area where the graduations are farthest apart.
Another source of error when you use analog meters results from the separation between the pointer and
the scale. If you view the meter at an angle and the pointer is not properly aligned with a scale graduation,
you may misread the indication. This error is called parallax error and can be avoided by reading the
meter “straight on.” Some analog meters have a mirrored scale to help you avoid parallax errors. When
using this type of meter, move your eye or the meter until the pointer’s reflection is hidden by the pointer
itself. The disappearance of the reflected pointer assures that you are viewing the instrument correctly
and that your measurements are accurate.
Component Accuracy
Electronic components such as resistors and capacitors also have some tolerance. Component tolerance
results from slight variations in the parts’ manufacturing process. Current production techniques are
quite good, so a manufacturer attempting to produce a batch of 1000 Ω resistors finds that the majority
of parts are between 950 Ω and 1050 Ω. These parts are marked to indicate that they are within ±5% of
the nominal value (1000 Ω in this case). Most electronic circuits are designed to function properly with
resistors that are within ±5% of nominal.
The manufacturer also finds a smaller number of parts whose values lie between 990 Ω and 1010 Ω,
or within ± 1% of nominal. These parts are marked to indicate their higher accuracy. Generally, these
Student Manual
parts (or parts with even higher accuracies) are used only in very demanding applications. If you are
called upon to replace components during your career in electronics, you may use high precision parts to
replace components of lower accuracy; however, you should never use lower accuracy parts to replace
components of higher accuracy.
The measurements you make will produce typical values if you have connected everything correctly and
if your circuit and instruments are within tolerance. Because some circuit values are slightly high while
others are slightly low, typical values are usually well within the worst case limits, or the absolute limits of
measurement for a normal circuit.
Worst case values are computed by design engineers who first assume all components and instruments
to be at one tolerance limit, then at the other. The resulting upper and lower (or maximum and minimum)
values are usually equally above and below the nominal value (such as ±11%), but sometimes they are
unequal (such as +11%, –8%). Any of your measurements that produce readings outside of the worst
case limits indicate an improper circuit connection, an incorrect power supply adjustment, or a faulty
instrument. If you recheck these items and still have measurement errors, notify your instructor.
Power Source Accuracy
All electronic equipment requires a source of power, and power sources also have tolerances.
Experienced electronics troubleshooters usually check power sources before anything else when they
attempt to locate and repair problems.
In your work with the training system, you will frequently be instructed to set power supply voltages to
specific values. You will do so by adjusting controls on the power supplies and on the base unit. Take the
time to perform these adjustments carefully, for a voltage error may cause errors in many of the circuit
measurements you take.
Dual-control adjustments are provided on the base unit for setting both positive and negative levels. The
larger knob is a coarse adjustment, whereas the smaller knob produces a smaller change per unit of
rotation and permits a fine adjustment. The best way to use these controls is as follows.
1. Set the small knobs on the base unit near the center of their range. (Turn a knob counterclockwise
until it stops, then clockwise until it stops. Set the knob about halfway between these limits.)
2. Adjust the large (COARSE control) knob until the level (as indicated on your meter and connected as
directed in the exercise) is very close to the value required by the exercise.
3. Now adjust the small (FINE control) knob for the required level until it is exactly correct.
To ensure that your measurements produce readings within expected ranges, set the power voltages as
follows.
POWER SUPPLIES (Tolerance ±3%)

Nominal Value Minimum Value Maximum Value
+15 Vdc +14.55 Vdc +15.45 Vdc
-15 Vdc -14.55 Vdc -15.45 Vdc
BASE UNIT REGULATOR (Required Setting, ±0.2 Vdc)
Required Setting
(Examples) Minimum Value Maximum Value
+10 Vdc +9.8 Vdc +10.2 Vdc
-6 Vdc -5.8 Vdc -6.2 Vdc
Student Manual
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

calibration – the process of comparing an instrument against a “standard” and adjusting the instrument
until it indicates the correct value. Values displayed by uncalibrated instruments should not be trusted!
nominal – the value you measure if everything is perfect. When a measured value is the same as the
ideal, or perfect, value, the reading is nominal. The ideal value is the result of mathematical calculations,
not measurements. Figure D-1 illustrates the relationship between nominal and several other terms.
Figure D-1. Measurement relationships.
parallax – a measurement error resulting from an angular view of pointer-type meters.

tolerance – the amount an instrument, component, or power value can vary from ideal without being in
error. The tolerance for instruments and components is part of their specification. The tolerance for circuit
measurements is defined by worst case limits and is usually expressed as a percentage or a permissible
deviation.
typical – the actual value measured in a circuit.
Student Manual
Student Manual
Appendix E – The Generator Buffer

Some of the exercises you perform with this board require the use of a waveform generator. If your signal
generator has a 50-ohm output impedance, the GENERATOR BUFFER is not required. Simply connect
the generator common lead (black) directly to the lower GEN (common) terminal of the circuit block
you are studying. Also connect the signal output lead (red) to the upper GEN (signal) terminal. These
connections should be indicated in an illustration that accompanies the exercise.
If your generator does not have a 50-ohm output impedance, you need to use the GENERATOR
BUFFER, which is optionally supplied with the trainer. Before applying power, plug the GENERATOR
BUFFER into the area of the circuit board labeled FOR GENERATOR BUFFER. Connect your signal
generator leads to the black (common) and blue (signal) terminals marked IN on the module. Use two
of the connecting wires supplied with the trainer to connect the black OUT terminal to the indicated
generator common point of the circuit block you are studying. Connect the blue (signal) OUT terminal to
the upper GEN terminal of the circuit block. When you have made these connections, you may ignore the
buffer and adjust the signal generator controls as directed in the exercise.
Please contact Lab-Volt for ordering information.
Student Manual
Student Manual
Appendix F – Electrical Units and Symbols

Quantity Symbol Basic Unit Basic Unit Symbol
current I ampere A
voltage E volt V
resistance R ohm Ω
capacitance C farad F
inductance L henry H
frequency f hertz Hz
period T second s
power P watt W
impedance Z ohm Ω
reactance X coulomb C
charge Q siemens* S**
conductance G siemens* S**
admittance Y siemens* S**
susceptance B
* Also called mho (an outdated term).

** Also symbolized as mho.
Student Manual
Student Manual
Appendix G – Scientific Notation and Electronic Calculations
Appendix G – Scientific Notation and Electronic

Calculations
During your work in electronics, you will be required to perform calculations with numbers that may be
very large or very small. An example follows.
1,500,000 x 0.0000013
For dealing with such numbers, a system called scientific notation has been devised. Scientific notation
is simply a shorthand method for writing numbers without all the leading or trailing zeros, and it also
provides an easier way to calculate when you must deal with a wide range of numbers.
When a number is written in scientific notation, it is written as a number times a power of 10. Powers of
10 work as follows.
1 = 100 1/1 = 1 = 100

10 = 10 1
1/10 = 0.1 = 10-1
100 = 102 1/100 = 0.01 = 10-2
1000 = 103 1/1000 = 0.001 = 10-3
10,000= 104 1/10,000 = 0.0001 = 10-4
100,000 = 105 1/100,000 = 0.00001 = 10-5
1,000,000 = 106 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6
To write a large number in scientific notation, shift the decimal point toward the left, usually until only
one significant digit remains to the left of the decimal point. The number of places the decimal point is
shifted equals the power (or exponent) of 10 needed to produce the correct multiplier for the number. For
example, to convert the number 1,500,000 to scientific notation, shift the decimal point 6 places to the left
and use 6 as the exponent.
1 , 5 0 0 0 0 0 = 1.5 x 106 = 1.5 x 1,000,000
654321
The number could also be written correctly as 0.15 x 107, but moving the decimal point one more place
than necessary sometimes complicates rather than simplifies the arithmetic.
To write a small number in scientific notation, shift the decimal point toward the right until one significant
digit lies to the left of the point. The number of places the decimal point is shifted equals the negative
power of 10 needed to produce the correct multiplier for the number. For example, to convert the number
0.0000013 to scientific notation, shift the decimal point 6 places to the right and use -6 as the exponent.
0. 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 = 1.3 x 10-6 = 1.3 x 0.000001
123456
Another way of expressing a number in scientific notation is to replace the x 10 portion of the expression
with the capital letter E for exponent. For instance, the two examples used above can also be written as
follows.
1,500,000 = 1.5 x 106 = 1.5 E+6
0.0000013 = 1.3 x 10-6 = 1.3 E-6
Many pocket calculators (especially scientific calculators) use this form of notation, often with a key
labeled EE. If you have a calculator of this type, you should study the manufacturer’s instructions for
performing calculations in scientific notation.
Student Manual
Performing calculations on numbers expressed in scientific notation with pencil and paper requires that
you remember a few simple rules.
1. When you multiply numbers expressed in scientific notation, multiply the numbers and algebraically
add the exponents.
EXAMPLES: 1.9 E +4 x 3.3 E-5 = 6.27 E-1
(2.45 x 10-6) x (4.0 x 109) = 9.8 x 103
2. When you divide numbers expressed in scientific notation, divide the numbers, then algebraically
subtract the divisor’s exponent from the dividend’s exponent.
EXAMPLES: (9.6 x 10-4)/(3.2 x 104) = 3.0 x 10-8
2.2 E+5/4.0 E+3 = 0.55 E+2 = 5.5 E+1
3. When you add or subtract numbers expressed in scientific notation, you must adjust one of the
numbers by moving the decimal point and increasing or decreasing its exponent until the exponents
for both numbers are equal.
EXAMPLES:
3.3 E+4 = 3.3 E+4

(point shifted left by 2 places,
+1.5 E+2 = +0.015 E+4
exponent up 2)
3.315 E+4
9.1 x 109 = 9100.0 x 106

(point shifted right 3 places,
+4.5 x 106 = + 4.5 x 106 exponent down 3)
9104.5 x 106
As shown in Table G-1, many frequently used powers of 10 are represented by a prefix. For example,
instead of writing a resistor value as “1.5 x 106 Ω” and stating it as “one point five times ten to the sixth
ohms,” it is usually written “1.5 MΩ” and stated “one point five megohms.” A current of 1.3 x 10-6 A is
written “1.3 µA” and stated “one point three microamperes.”
Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation

10 12
tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro µ
10 -9
nano η
10-12 pico p
Table G-1. Common unit multipliers.
Student Manual
Shortcuts
The basic units used in most electronic calculations are volts, amperes, ohms, henries, farads, and hertz.
Many times you must perform calculations with values that are not expressed in basic units. The following
shortcuts can sometimes be helpful in such electronic calculations.
Shortcut 1
If current is measured in milliamperes and resistance is in kilohms, the following Ohm’s law formula
applies.
E (V) = I (mA) x R (kΩ)
For example, suppose you must calculate the voltage drop across a 6.8 kΩ resistor with a measured
current flow of 2.3 mA.
Ohm’s law for basic units follows.
E = l x R or E (volts) = I (amperes) x R (ohms)
You could convert the resistance to ohms and the current to amperes.
R = 6.8 kΩ = 6800 Ω
I = 2.3 mA = 0.0023 A
The equation would be as follows:
E = 0.0023 x 6800 = 15.64 V
You could save the bother of converting the measured values into basic units by using shortcut 1.
E (V) = I (mA) x R (kΩ) = 2.3 x 6.8 = 15.64 V
Shortcut 2
If current is measured in microamperes and resistance is in megohms, the following Ohm’s law formula
applies.
E (V) = I (µA) x R (MΩ)
These shortcuts also apply to the other forms of Ohm’s law.
E (V) E (V)
I (mA) = I (µA) =
R (kΩ) R (MΩ)
E (V) E (V)
R (kΩ) = R (MΩ) =
I (mA) I (µA)
Shortcut 3
Similar rules can help for inductive reactance problems. The basic unit formula for inductive reactance
follows.
XL (ohms) = 2π x f (hertz) x L (henries)
If frequency is expressed in kilohertz, and if inductance is in millihenries, then the following equation
applies.
XL (ohms) = 2π x f (kHz) x L (mH)
Student Manual
Shortcut 4
If frequency is expressed in megahertz, and if inductance is in microhenries, then the following equation
applies.
XL (ohms) = 2π x f (MHz) x L (μH)
Shortcut 5
You can also simplify capacitive reactance problems. The basic unit formula for capacitive reactance
follows.
1
XC (ohms) =
2π × f (hertz) × C(farads)
Because 1/2 = 1/6.28 = 0.159, the basic unit formula can be simplified.
0.159
XC (ohms) =
f (hertz) × C(farads)
Shortcut 6
If frequency is expressed in megahertz, and if capacitance is in microfarads, then the following equation
applies.
0.159
XC (ohms) =
f (MHz) × C(µF)
Student Manual
Appendix H – Schematic Symbols

Symbol Description Symbol Description
4-Conductor Cable PBNO Switch
Shielded 4-Conductor
Cable with Shield Switch, SPST
Connected to Chassis
A A
B B A and B Connected Switch, DPDT
A A
B B
A and B Not Connected Multiposition Switch
Wire, Conductor Diac, Bidirectional Switch
Earth Ground Triac, Bidirectional Switch
Chassis or Generator, AC Source

Frame Connection GEN (no active connection)
Coaxial Cable with Shield

Connected to Chassis
GEN Generator, DC Source
Common Connections,
Ground
MOT Motor, DC Type
A
Antenna MOT Motor, AC Type
PBNC Switch Meter, Generic
Student Manual

Meter, Specific:
A Ammeter Rheostat, Variable Resistor
V Voltmeter Relay, Contacts
Ohmmeter Relay, Coil
Constant Current Source, Crystal, Piezoelectric

DC Source Crystal, Quartz Crystal
Inductor;
Battery, DC Source
Tapped Inductor
Cell, DC Source Capacitor:

Generic; Non-polarized;
Variable DC Voltage Polarized; Variable
Source, Positive (+)
A K
Variable DC Voltage
Diode, Generic
Source, Negative (–)
A K
A K
Transformer with Magnetic
Diode, Photodiode
Core
A K
Transformer with Magnetic

Core and Electrostatic A K
Shield between Windings, Diode, PIN Type
Shield Connected to
A K
Frame
A K
Resistor
Diode, Zener, Voltage
A K Regulator
Potentiometer
A K
Thermistor, Thermal
Resistor, RTD (Resistance
Varactor (Capacitive Type
t° Temperature Detector),
Diode)
Temperature Transducer
(sensor)
A K
Student Manual

B
Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Transistor, Darlington

C
E
G
Thyristor, SCR B
K (Silicon Controlled Transistor, PNP Bipolar
Rectifier)
A K
E
Thyristor, GTO B
Transistor, NPN Bipolar
(Gate Turn-Off)
E
Thyristor, Triac
B
(gate triggered, 3-terminal Transistor, Phototransistor
thyristor)
E
G
Transistor, IGBT
LED (Light-Emitting Diode) (Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistor)

E
D B2
E
Transistor, JFET (Junction
G Transistor, UJT
Field-Effect Transistor),
(Unijunction Transistor)
N Type
S B1
D A
G A
G Transistor, JFET (Junction G Transistor, PUT
Field-Effect Transistor), (Programmable Unijunction
P Type Transistor)
S K K
D
G2 MOSFET, N Type, Dual
Solar Cell, Photovoltaic
Gate, Insulated Gate
Transducer
Depletion Type
G1
S
D
MOSFET, N Type, Single Photo Cell,
G Gate, Insulated Gate Photoconductive
Depletion Type Transducer
S
Student Manual

Thermocouple,
Temperature Transducer XOR Gate
(sensor)
Amplifier, Op Amp
XNOR Gate
(Operational Amplifier)
Inverter, NOT Gate Speaker
Buffer Gate (non-inverting) Microphone
Buffer Gate (with Schmitt Sine Wave Generator/

Trigger Input) Oscillator, AC Source
Square Wave Generator/

AND Gate
Oscillator, AC Source
AND Gate (with Schmitt Pulse Generator/Oscillator,

Trigger Inputs) AC Source
NAND Gate Fuse
OR Gate
Lamp, Indicating Lamp,
Pilot Lamp, Indicator Light
NOR Gate
Student Manual
Appendix I – Reference Charts
Appendix I –
Reference Charts
Student Manual
Appendix I – Reference Charts
Student Manual
Appendix J – New Terms and Words

RLC Circuits
RLC circuits – networks created by resistors (R), inductors (L), and capacitors (C) connected in various
ways to perform some useful function such as filtering, phase shifting, or impedance matching; also called
RLC circuits.
Series Resonance
resonant frequency (fr) – the frequency at which the inductive and capacitive reactances in an RLC
circuit are equal.
resonance – the condition where the inductive and capacitive reactances in any RLC circuit are equal
and cancel one another.
tuning – varying the inductance or capacitance in an RLC circuit in order to set the resonant frequency
and select or reject specific signals.
filtering – the process of either passing or rejecting specific frequencies.
selectivity – the measure of the ability of a tuned circuit to pass selected frequencies or bands of
frequencies and reject all others.
bandwidth (B) – the range of frequencies that will be passed or rejected by a resonant circuit; the
difference between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies.
cutoff frequencies – the frequencies above and below the resonant frequency of a tuned series circuit
where the current is 70.7% of, or 3 dB down from, its peak value; also known as the half power points.
Q – the ratio of inductive reactance to resistance (Q = XL/R).
Parallel Resonance
line current – the combined total current drawn by the inductor, capacitor, and resistor in a parallel
resonant RLC circuit.
circulating current – the tank circuit current that flows in the inductor and capacitor as they exchange
energy.
tank circuit – a parallel resonant LC circuit that stores energy in the form of an electric field in the
capacitor and a magnetic field in the inductor.
Power in AC Circuits
real power (P) – power that is converted from one form of energy to another; the power dissipated in a
resistor as heat; the product of the applied voltage and circuit current in a resistance, expressed in watts;
also called true power.
reactive power (Q) – power not converted into another form of energy; the product of the voltage across
and the current through a reactive component such as an inductor or a capacitor. The unit of measure for
apparent power (S) – the product of an rms voltage across and an rms current through an impedance
(Z). The unit of measure for apparent power is the volt-ampere (VA).
power factor (PF) – the ratio of the true power to the apparent power in a circuit; the cosine of the phase
angle between circuit current and applied voltage.
Student Manual
Low- and High-Pass Filters

band – a range of frequencies.
dB per octave – decibels per octave (dB/octave); a 1 dB increase or decrease over a two-to-one
frequency range.
dB per decade – decibels per decade (dB/decade); a 1 dB increase or decrease over a ten-to-one
frequency range.
octave – a two-to-one or one-to-two ratio; a frequency factor of two. One octave is the doubling or halving
of a frequency.
decade – a ten-to-one or one-to-ten ratio; a frequency factor of ten.
rolled off – gradually attenuated, or decreased. A filter attenuates when its rejected frequencies are rolled
off.
Bandpass and Bandstop Filters

Bandpass filters – a circuit that passes frequencies over a narrow range, or band, of frequencies and
rejects those above and below this range.
bandstop filters – a circuit that rejects frequencies within a narrow band and passes those above or
below this band; also called a band reject filter.
center frequency – resonant frequency.
Student Manual
Appendix K – Using the Base Unit

The base unit contains CM and fault toggle switches, power supply controls, LEDs, and a Zero Insertion
Force (ZIF) connector that accepts circuit boards.
Faults toggle
switches
CM toggle
switches
Zero Insertion Force

(ZIF) connector
Power is applied to the base unit when the AC cord is plugged in and the power switch is on.
The base unit’s power switch should be in the off position when inserting circuit boards.
Power switch
On the base unit are LEDs (light-emitting diodes) indicating the presence of the plus and minus 15 Vdc
internal supplies. The LEDs are located above the control knobs of the negative and positive variable sup-
plies.
When power is applied to the base unit, the LEDs illuminate.
One or both LEDs will be off should a base unit protective circuit activate (to crowbar the base unit’s
power source).
To remove the crowbar condition on a base unit, turn off the POWER switch on the base unit, correct the
problem, and turn the POWER switch on.
If you cannot solve the problem, ask your instructor for help.
Student Manual
Each of the internal variable power supplies are adjusted with COARSE and FINE knobs (concentric
shaft) located on either end of the base unit.
Coarse Fine
There are twenty CM toggle switches, numbered 1 through 20, in the base unit.
The tolerances of acceptable answers in this course are based on an accuracy of these voltages to within
±3% (0.45 Vdc).
Variable 0 to –10 Vdc Variable 0 to +10 Vdc

power source power source
Student Manual
We Value Your Opinion!
Your comments will allow us to produce better manuals and develop new systems in order to better meet
the needs of our users. Please contact us by e-mail at services@labvolt.com
For further information, visit our website at www.labvolt.com

AC 2 Fundamentals - Student Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AC 2 Fundamentals - Student Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Basic Electricity & Electronics

© 2014 Lab-Volt Systems, Inc.

Lab-Volt recognizes product names as trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective

Appendix A – Safety......................................................................................................................... 231

Connecting the Circuit Board to the Base Unit

3. Turn off the power sources.

8. Turn on the power sources.

Circuit Modification Switches

2. Confirm Fault Exists

4. Make Performance Measurements

5. Identify Faulty Circuit Section

7. Verify the Repair

2. Make performance checks to confirm that a fault exists.

3. Visually inspect the circuit.

5. Make a fault assumption based on the performance measurements.

6. Confirm the fault assumption by circuit continuity or component resistance measurements.

7. Repeat steps 4, 5, and 6 if the fault is not located.

8. Repair the fault and do a performance check to confirm proper operation.

Circuit Performance Check

Real-Number Questions and Recall Values

Example of inputting a measured value

8. After modifying the circuit, measure its total circuit current.

Example using recalled measured values

Example using calculations with recalled values

Measurements and Measurement Tolerances

Unit 1: RLC Circuits

Another way to arrange these three components is in parallel.

NEW TERMS AND WORDS

Exercise 1: Series RLC Circuits

VL1 = IT x XL1 = 5.85 x 10–3 x 1256 = 7.35 V

VC1 = IT x XC1 = 5.85 x 10–3 x 3619 = 21.2 V

VR12 + ( VC1 − VL1 )

VGEN= Vpk-pk (Recall Value 1)

VR12 + ( VC1 − VL1 )

This circuit acts like a resistor in series with an equivalent

θ = degrees (Recall Value 2)

VC1 = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 1)

VL1 = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 2)

VR2 = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 3)

২ 7. Compare your measured values of VC1 and VL1.

VC1 = Vpk-pk (Step 3, Recall Value 1)

VL1 = Vpk-pk (Step 4, Recall Value 2)

This circuit acts like a resistor in series with an equivalent

VC1 = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 4)

VL1 = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 5)

VR2 = Vpk-pk (Recall Value 6)

২ 15. Compare your measured values of VC1 and VL1.

VC1 = Vpk-pk (Step 12, Recall Value 4)

VL1 = Vpk-pk (Step 13, Recall Value 5)

This circuit acts like a resistor in series with an equivalent

VC1 = Vpk-pk (Step 12, Recall Value 4)

VL1 = Vpk-pk (Step 13, Recall Value 5)

VR2 = Vpk-pk (Step 14, Recall Value 6)

θ = degrees (Recall Value 7)

3. Based on the given values, the circuit acts

4. In this series RLC circuit, VC is greater than VL.

5. In a series RLC circuit, the component voltage drops

Exercise 2: Parallel RLC Circuits

Calculate IT from the following equation.

This phasor diagram shows the relationship of the branch currents.

Calculate the equivalent capacitance from the following equation.

IL2 = mApk-pk (Recall Value 2)

IR6 = mApk-pk (Recall Value 3)

IR6 = mA (Step 5, Recall Value 3)