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2 .
T r a n s m is s io n L in e
C ir c u it s a n d R F /M ic r o w a v e
N e t w o r k A n a ly s is
Theinformationinthisworkhasbeenobtainedfromsourcesbelievedtobereliable.
Theauthordoesnotguaranteetheaccuracyorcompletenessofanyinformation
presented herein, and shall not be responsible for any errors, omissions or damages
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August2008 ©2006byFabianKungWaiLee Chapter2 1
Agenda
• 1.0 – Terminated transmission line circuit.

• 2.0 – Smith Chart and its applications.
• 3.0 – Practical considerations for stripline implementation.
• 4.0 – Linear RF network analysis – 2-port network parameters.
August 2008 © 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee Chapter 2 2
1
References
• [1] R.E. Collin, “Foundation for microwave engineering”, 2nd edition,
1992, McGraw-Hill. A very advanced and in-depth book on microwave
engineering. Difficult to read but the information is
very comprehensive. A classic work. Recommended.
• [2] T. C. Edwards, “Foundations for microstrip circuit design”, 2nd

edition, 1992 John-Wiley & Sons (3rd Edition is also available).
Contains a wealth of practical microstrip design
information. A must have for every microwave
circuit design engineer.
• [3] D.M. Pozar, “Microwave engineering”, 2nd edition, 1998 John-Wiley

& Sons (3rd edition, 2005 from John-Wiley & Sons is also available).
Good coverage of EM theory with emphasis on
applications.
Review of Previous Lecture
• In previous lecture we have studied how a transmission line (Tline)

structure can guide a travelling EM wave.
• We covered the various type of propagation modes for EM waves, in
particular we are interested in TEM and quasi-TEM mode operation.
• Under these two modes, the Tline can be represented by distributed
circuit model consisting of RLCG network, the E field corresponds to the
transverse voltage Vt and the H field corresponds to the axial current It,
Vt and It are also propagating waves in the Tline.
• We have also covered how to derived the RLCG parameters under low
loss condition.
• Finally, in the last section of previous chapter, we also studied the
design procedure of stripline structures on printed circuit board.
• In this chapter, we are going to study the characteristics of Tline
terminated with impedance, and how to use Tline in RF/microwave
circuits and systems.
2
1.0 Terminated
Transmission Line Circuit
The Lossless Transmission Line

Circuit
• A transmission line circuit consists of source, load networks and the
Tline itself.
• We will use the coordinate as shown. Some basic parameters will be
derived in the following slides.
Source Network Load Network
Tline It(z) IL
Zs The
Vs Vt(z) ZL V L
schematic
+z
z = -l l z=0
The physical
system
3
Voltage and Current on Transmission
Line Circuit
• Assumption: Tline is Incident V and I waves
lossless (α=0), and Vo + e − jβz I o + e − jβz IL
supporting TEM mode. Towards
source Reflected ZL VL
• At a position z along the waves Vo −e + jβz - I o − e+ jβz
Tline:
+z
V (z ) = Vo + e − jβ z + Vo − e + jβz
(1.1a)
I ( z ) = I o + e − jβ z − I o − e + jβ z l Incident and
Z=-l z=0
reflected
waves combine
• At z=0: to produce load
voltage and
V (0 ) = Vo + + Vo − = VL current
I (0) = I o + − I o − = I L V + +V − 
V
Z L = L = Zc  o o 
IL =
1
Zc
(
Vo + − Vo − ) Using the definition
IL V + −V − 
 o o 
(1.1b)
of Zc
Reflection Coefficient (1)
• The ratio of Vo- over Vo+ is described by a voltage reflection coefficient

Γ. At the load end a subscript ‘L’ is inserted to denote that this is the
ratio at load impedance. :
Vo − (1.2a)
Γ L =
Vo− Vo+ ZL Vo +
 1 + ΓL  Z − Zc
• Using (1.1b): Z L = Z c   ΓL = L (1.2b)
 1 − ΓL  Z L + Zc
Z −1 Z
or ΓL = L ZL = L
ZL +1 Zc (1.2c)
• Similarly we could also derive the current reflection coefficient:
− Io−
ΓI = = −ΓL (1.2d)
Io+
4
• At a distance l from the load, the voltage reflection coefficient is given

by:
V − e − jβl Vo − − j 2 βl
Γ(l ) = o = e
Vo + e jβl Vo + (1.2e)
⇒ Γ(l ) = ΓL e − j 2 βl ΓL This product is usually called
electrical length, is given a
unit of radian or degree
Vo− Vo+ ZL
z
z = -l z=0
l
• Note that this equation is only valid when the z=0 reference is at the
load impedance, AND l is always positive.
• From now on we will deal exclusively with voltage reflection
coefficient.
• Reflection coefficient for various load impedance values. Make sure

you know the physical implication of these. Z L − Zc
ΓL =
Z L + Zc
Zc Zc ΓL = 0 ZL=R+jX
z=0 z Zc
Zc z=0 z
ZL=0
ΓL = −1
(R(ω )+ jX (ω ))− Z c
z=0 ΓL (ω ) =
z (R(ω )+ jX (ω ))+ Z c
(R(ω )− Z c )+ jX (ω )
=
Zc ZL→∞
(R(ω )+ Z c )+ jX (ω )
ΓL = 1
z=0 z
5
Why Do Reflection Occur? (1)
Vo+ V+
= Zc At z = 0: I L = Zo
I o+ L
Vo + e − jβ z I o + e − jβz IL If Zc ≠ ZL then I L ≠ I o+
ZL VL
Assuming that IL < Io+, electric

z=0 z
Vo − e + jβ z - I o − e + jβz charges pile up at theTline and load
intersection. Since like charges repel
each other, this force the excess
electric charge to flow back to the
Note that the total voltage at the Tline-load Tline. This constitutes the reflected
intersection is Vo+ + Vo- = VL. Thus the current current. From our understanding of
drawn by the load ZL will increase from Tline theory, if there is current, there
Vo+/ZL until and equilibrium is reached. is also associated voltage, hence
a reflected voltage and current
wave occur.
Why Do Reflection Occur? (2)
• We can visualize the current flow as due to positive charges

(conventional current).
The Tline supply more charges
Positive
When Io+ > IL per unit time than the load can absorb charge
so excess positive charges reflected back
Negative
Io + Load impedance charge
IL
Tline
-Io-
At the interface positive and negative charge pairs

are created. The positive charge flows into the
load, while the negative charge flows back to the
When Io+ < IL source, constituting the reflected current
with negative polarity. Of course there is only free
Io + electron in conductor. When
Load impedance a region is said to contain
positive charge, it actually
Tline IL has less free electrons as
-(-Io-) compare to equilibrium state.
6
Power Delivered to Load Impedance
• Power to load:

Let Zc be real ( 
) V + − Vo −
PL = 1 Re VL I L* = 1 Re Vo + + Vo − o ( )( )* 
2 2  Zc 
 
⇒ PL = 1
2Zc Vo
+ 2
(1 − Γ ) =
L
2 1
2Zc Vo
+ 2
− ΓL  21Z c Vo 
2

+ 2

(1.3)
Pincident Preflected
• Thus when ΓL = 0, all incident power is absorbed by ZL. We say that the
load is matched to the Tline. Otherwise there will be reflected power in
the form of: 2 2 2
Pr = 1 Yc Vo − = 1 Yc Vo + ΓL
2 2
• The maximum power to load is called the incident power Pinc:
2
Pr Pinc = 1 Yc Vo +
Pinc PL ZL 2
Impedance Matching
• Thus the purpose of impedance matching is to reduce reflection from

both the load and the source.
• We strive to get maximum power from the source and transport this
power (the available power) to the load.
Impedance matching - Make |ΓL | 0

• In other words impedance matching provides a ‘smooth’ flow of EM
wave along a system of interconnect.
7
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
(1)
• At any point z along the Tline: V (z )
ΓL ZL
V (z ) = Vo + e − jβ z + Vo − e jβz Argand
( ) (
⇒ V (z ) = Vo + e − jβ z 1 + ΓL e j 2β z = Vo + e jβl 1 + ΓL e − j 2 β l ) Diagram
• Expressing ΓLin polar form ΓL = ρe jθ Im 1 + ρe j (θ − 2 βl )
ρ
V (z ) = Vo + 1 + ρe j (θ − 2 βl ) (1.4) 0 Re
1
1+ ρ
1− ρ
• The ratio of maximum |V| to mininum |V| is known as VSWR.
V ( z ) max 1+ ρ
VSWR = = (1.5)
V ( z ) min 1− ρ
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (2)

• A similar expression can be obtained for I(z).
I ( z ) = I + 1 − ρe j (θ − 2 βl ) (1.6)
• VSWR measures how good the load ZL is matched to the Tline. For good
match, ρ = 0 and VSWR=1. For mismatch load, ρ >0 and VSWR >1.
• We can view the incident and reflected wave as interfering with each
other, causing standing wave along the Tline.
• A similar phenomenon also exist in waveguide, however it is the E and H
field standing wave the is being measured, so generally the alphabet ‘V’ is
dropped when dealing with waveguide.
• Why SWR is a popular ? - In the early days waveguides are widely used,
and a simple way to measure SWR is to use the slotted line waveguide
with diode detector.
8
Example 1.1
• A Tline with 2 conductors and filled with air. A sinusoidal voltage of
magnitude 2V and frequency 3.0GHz is launched into the Tline. The
characteristic impedance of the Tline is 50Ω and one end of the Tline is
terminated with load impedance ZL=100+j100 @3.0GHz. Assume
phase velocity = C, the speed of light in vacuum.
– Find the load reflection coefficient ΓL.
– Find the power delivered to the load ZL.
– Plot |V | and |I | versus l, the distance from ZL.
– Determine the VSWR of the system.
Zc
2<0o Zc=50 ZL
l z=0 z
Example 1.1 Cont...
• The solution (as calculated using MathCAD):
9
Example 1.1 Cont...
• Plotting out the voltage and current phasor along the transmission line:
λ o
↔ 180
2 |I(l)| |V(l)|
2
1.62
Voltage phasor
magnitude 1.5
V( i⋅ ∆z )
Normalized current I( i⋅ ∆z ) ⋅ Zc
1 ZL
phasor magnitude
0.5
Note that |V | and |I | are0.38 0

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
always quarter wavelength λ
−1
↔ 90o i⋅ ∆z
l
0
or 90o out of 4 λ
phase. The values of |V | Zc=50 ZL

and |I | repeat themselves
every half z
Distance in terms Magnitudes of V and I
wavelength or 180o. of wavelength λ are plotted using (1.4) and
August 2008 © 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee (1.6) Chapter 2 19
Input Impedance of a Terminated Tline
• At any length l from the termination impedance, we can compute the

impedance looking towards the load:
V (l ) Vo + e jβ l + Vo − e − jβ l Zin(l)
Z in (l ) = = Zc ZL
I (l )
o
Zc
(
1 V + e jβ l − V − e − jβ l
o ) l
Use (1.2b)
e jβl + ΓL e − jβl Z + jZ c tan (βl )

Z in (l ) = Z c Z in (l ) = Z c L (1.7a)
e jβl − ΓL e − jβl Z c + jZ L tan (βl )
e jβl = cos(βl ) + j sin (βl )

Z L − Zc
ΓL = Y + jYc tan (β l )
Z L + Zc Yin (l ) = Yc L (1.7b)
Yc + jYL tan (β l )
10
Special Cases of Terminated Lossless Tline
(1)
• When ZL=0:
Zc ZL=0
l z=0 z
ZL=0
 0 + jZ c tan (βl ) 
Z in (l ) = Z c   = jZ c tan (βl )
 (1.8a)
 Zc + 0 
• When ZL→∞
Zc
l z=0 z
 ZL 
Z in (l ) Z → ∞ → Z c   = − jZ c cot (βl ) (1.8b)
L  jZ L tan (βl ) 

(2)
Reactance
Z in (l ) = jZ c tan ( βl ) = jX
Z = jωL = jX
X
Zc
L
0 π π 3π 2π βl
2 2
Susceptance
1
Yin (l ) = = jYc tan (βl ) = jB
− jZ c cot (βl ) Y = jωC = jB
B
Zc
0 π
2
π 3π 2π βl
2
A length of shorted Tline can be used to
synthesize an inductor or reactance, while
This area corresponds to a length of opened Tline can be used to
βl < π/2, or l < λ/4 synthesize a capacitor or susceptance.
11
(3)
Z in (l ) = jZ c tan ( βl ) = jX
X Z
Cp Lp
Zc
0 π π 3π 2π βl
2 2
Cs
1
Yin (l ) = = jYc tan (βl ) = jB
− jZ c cot (βl ) Z
Ls
B
Zc
0 π
2
π 3π
2
2π βl
A length of shorted Tline can be used to
approximate a parallel LC resonator, while
a length of opened Tline can be used to
approximate series LC resonator.
Example 1.2
• A lossless Tline of length l = 10 cm supports TEM propagation mode.

The per unit length L and C are given as L = 209.4 nH/m, C =
119.5pF/m. The Tline is terminated with a series RL load impedance:
2.5nH
120
10 cm ZL
• Plot the real and imaginary part of Zin from f = 1.0 GHz to 4.0 GHz.
12
Example 1.2 Cont...
L
Zc = = 41.86 Note that the pattern of the waveform repeat
C
1
at an interval of close to 1GHz, this is due to
vp = = 1.999 × 108 the periodic nature of tan(βl) function.
LC β l = nπ
β=
vp
ω
(
Z L = 120 + jω 2.5 ×10 −9 ) 2πf
⇒ v l = nπ
p
n=1,2,3,4…
vp
⇒ f = n 2l
Z L + jZ c tan (β l )
Z in (l ) = Z c f = 0.9995GHz, 1.999GHz, 2.999GHz ...
Z c + jZ L tan (β l )
150
100
Re Zin 2 .π .f 50
i
Im Zin 2 .π .f
i
0
50
100
9 9 9 9 9 9 9
1 .10 1.5 .10 2 .10 2.5 .10 3 .10 3.5 .10 4 .10
f
August 2008 i
© 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee frequency Chapter 2 25
Cascading Transmission Lines -

Transmission Coefficient
V1+ e − jβz I1+ e − jβz Zc2 V2 + e − jβz I 2 + e = jβz
V1− e + jβz - I1− e + jβz ZL=Zc2
Zc1 Zc2 Matched termination

z=0
At z = 0:
transmitted voltage V2+ Zc2I 2+
T≡ = = V1+ + V1− = V2 +
incident voltage V1+ Zc1I1+
V + V−
⇒ T (0 ) = 2 = 1 + 1 = 1 + Γ (0 )
V1+ V1+
Using Z − Z c1 2Z c 2
Γ(0 ) = c 2 T (0 ) = (1.9)
Z c 2 + Z c1 Z c 2 + Z c1
13
Relationship between Reflection and
Transmission Coefficient
ZL
V1-
Tline1 Tline2 or a load Impedance
Zc V2+
V1+
TL =1 + ΓL (1.10)
Z (ω ) − Z c 2 Z L (ω )
ΓL = L TL =
Z L (ω ) + Z c Z L (ω ) + Z c
Power Relations
Pinc Ptr
Zc1 Zc2
Pref
+ 2
1 V1
Pinc =
2 Z c1 Pinc = Pref + Ptr
2
1V1−
2
Pref = = Γ Pinc
2 Z c1
+ 2
1 V2 2 Z
Ptr = = T Pinc c1
2 Zc2 Z c2
14
Return Loss and Insertion Loss
• Sometimes both voltage reflection and transmission coefficient are

expressed in dB, these are then termed return loss (RL) and
insertion loss (IL).
RL = −20 log Γ dB (1.11b)

IL = −20 log T dB (1.11a)
Vs Zc1
Zc1 Zc2
2 – Port Zc2
Example 1.3
• Find the return loss (RL) and insertion loss (IL) at the intersection
between the Tlines. Assume TEM propagation mode at f = 1.9 GHz for
both Tlines, Z1 =100, Z2 =50.
Interface
Z2 Z1 Z1
z=0 z
Zin 0.05
z = -0.05
15
Example 1.3 Cont...
Z2 Z1 Z1
z=0 z
Zin 0.05
Z − Z2
Γ z =−0.05 = 1 = 0.3333
Z1 + Z 2
− 20 log10 Γ z =−0.05 = 9.542
2Z1
T z =−0.05 = = 1.3333
Z1 + Z 2
− 20 log10 T z = −0.05 = −2.499
Exercise 1.1
• We would like to use a short length of transmission line to implement a

reactance of X = 60 at 2.4GHz. Show how this can be done using the
microstrip line of Example 5.1, Chapter 1 – Advanced Transmission
Line Theory. Hint: use equation (1.8a).
From Example 5.1,
For a transmission line terminated with short circuit: Chapter 1:
2.86mm
Z in (l ) = jZ c tan (βl ) = j 60
From Example 5.1 (Chapter 1):

9
β = vω = 2π ⋅2.4×108 = 94.781 εr=4.7 µr=1.0
p 1.591×10 1.57 mm
l = 1 tan −1 60  = 1 ⋅ 0.876 = 0.00924m

Zc ≅ 50
vp = 1.591x108
β  Z c  94.781
A number of plated through
Top
hole to reduce the parasitic
View
9.24 mm inductance of the short.
16
Terminated Lossy Tline (1)
• In the case of a lossy Tline we replace jβ with γ = α + jβ in equations

(1.2) to (1.9). As seen from equation (2.7) (Advanced Transmission
Line Theory), the characteristic impedance Zc becomes a complex
value too.
• Furthermore: 1 + jΓ e −2αl − j 2 βl Z + Z tanh( jβl + αl )
Zin (l ) = L = L c
(1.12)
1 − jΓL e − 2αl − j 2 βl Z c + Z L tanh( jβl + αl )
• The losses have the effect of reducing the standing-wave ratio SWR
towards unity as the point of observation is moved away from the load
towards the generator.
• Most of the time the losses are so small that for short length of Tline,
the neglect of α is justified. However as frequency increases beyond
3 GHz, the skin effect and dielectric loss become important for typical
PCB dielectric and conductor.
Terminated Lossy Tline (2)
• At some point z = -l from the load-Tline interface, the power directed

towards the load is:
P(l ) =
1
2
( ) 1
2
2
Re VI * = Yc V +  e 2αl − ΓL e − 2αl 

2
 (1.13)
2
⇒ P(l ) = 1 Yc V + 1 − Γ(l ) e 2αl
2
Power delivered increases as we
2   proceed towards the generator!
• Of the power given by (1.11), the power dissipated by the load is

given by (1.3), the remainder is dissipated by the lossy line.
1 2 1 2
P(l ) − PL = Yc V + 1 − Γ(l ) e 2αl − Yc V + 1 − Γ 2 
2
L
2   2  
1 2
(
= Yc V +  e 2αl − 1 + ΓL 1 − e − 2αl
2 
2
) ( )
Loss due to incident wave Loss due to reflected wave
17
Exercise 1.2
• Consider a transmission line circuit below, determine Vin and VL.
l
0 z
Tline It(z) IL
+
Vs Zs Zc , β ZL V L
- Vin Vt(z)
Zin
Z in = Z c [ Z L + jZ c tan ( βl )
Z c + jZ L tan ( βl )
] ΓL = Z L − Zc
Z L + ZC
Thus Vin = Z in
Z s + Z in
(
Vs = Vo+ e jβl + ΓL e − jβl )
Solving for Vo+: Vo+ = [Zc [Zc + jZVLstan ( βl ) ]+1] ⋅ [e jβl + ( ZL1−Zc )e − jβl ]
Z s Z L + jZ c tan ( βl ) Z L + Zc
Exercise 1.2 Cont…
• Knowing Vo+ , we can find Vin and VL:
Vin = V ( z = −l ) = Vo+ e jβl + ΓL e − jβl ( )

VL = V ( z = 0) = V (1 + ΓL ) o
+
18
Demo – Transmission Line Simulation
Exercise
TRANSIENT MSub
Tran MSUB
Tran1 MSub1
StopTime=100.0 nsec H=1.57 mm
MaxTimeStep=1.0 nsec Er=4.6
Mur=1
Cond=5.8E+7
Var
Eqn VAR Hu=3.9e+034 mil
VAR1 T=1.38 mil
Trise=200.0 TanD=0.02
Rough=0 mil
Vin VL
R
Vs R MLIN RL
Rs TL1 R=100 Ohm
R=10 Ohm Subst="MSub1"
VtPulse W=2.9 mm
SRC1 L=100.0 mm
Vlow=0 V Mod=Kirschning
t
Vhigh=1 V
Delay=0 nsec
Edge=linear
Rise=Trise psec
Fall=Trise psec
Width=6 nsec
Period=1000 nsec
2.0 Smith Chart and Its

Applications
19
Introduction (1)
• In analyzing electrical circuits, one very important parameter is the

impedance Z or admittance Y seen at a terminal/port.
• For time-harmonic circuits Z or Y is dependent on frequency and a
complex value.
• To visualize arbitrary Z or Y value, we would need an infinite 2D plane:
X
Z = R + jX Z = V/I = R + jX
R
Resistance
Reactance
0
Y = I/V = G + jB
Conductance Susceptance
Introduction (2)
• In RF circuit design, we can represent an impedance Z = R+jX in terms
of its reflection coefficient with respect to a reference impedance (Zo):
Z − Zo Y −Yo
Γ= =− Z o = 1 = reference impedance
Z − Zo Y +Yo Yo
• Usually we would take Zo = Zc , the characteristic impedance of a Tline

in the system.
• Γ is also a complex value, however we have learnt that its magnitude is
always < 1 for passive impedance value.
• Effectively if reflection coefficient is plotted, all possible passive Z and Y
values can be fitted into a finite 2D area. Im(Γ)
Region for 1
passive Z or Y
Re(Γ)
-1 0 1
August 2008 © 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee -1 Chapter 2 40
20
Introduction (3)
• To facilitate the evaluation of reflection coefficient, a graphical

procedure based on conformal mapping is developed by P.H. Smith in
1939.
• This procedure, now known as the Smith Chart permits easy and
intuitive display of reflection coefficient Γ as well as impedance Z and
admittance Y in one single graph.
Introduction (4)
21
Formulation (1)
 Z 
  −1
Z − Z o  Z o  z −1 1+ Γ
Γ= = = z= = normalized impedance
Z + Zo  Z  z +1 1− Γ
  + 1
 Zo 
Let z = r + jx and Γ = U + jV:
Then 1 + U + jV
r + jx =
1 − U − jV
Equation of circles for U and V:
Equating real and imaginary part: 2
 r  2 1
Depends only on r (r circle) U −  +V =
 1 + r  (1 + r )2
2
Depends only on x (x circle) (U − 1)2 + V − 1  =
1
 x x2
Formulation (2)
Imaginary axis
The complex plane
for reflection coefficient Γ: jV
r circles
1 x circles
U
-1 1
Real axis
|Γ|=1
-1
22
Formulation (3)
Note that:
1 1 − Γ 1 + e jπ Γ
y= = =
z 1 + Γ 1 − e jπ Γ
Let y = g + jb and Γ = U + jV: 1 − U − jV

g + jb =
1 + U + jV
Again proceeding as before we obtain:

2
 g  1
Depends only on g (g circle) U +  + V 2 =
 1+ g  (1 + g )2
2
Depends only on b (b circle)
(U + 1) + V + 1  = 12
2
 b b
Formulation (4)
jV
g circles
1
b circles
U
-1 1
-1
23
The Complete Smith Chart with r,x,g
and b circles
X=30 R=50
R and X R=100
circles
X=10 R=200
G circles
- B circles
X=-10
X=-30 + B circles
Smith Chart Example 1
• Zo = 50Ohm.
• Z = 50 + j0
24
• Zo = 50Ohm.
• Z = 50 + j30
R=50 circle
j30
X=30 circle
50
Z
• Z = 50 - j30
j30 X=-30 circle
50
Z
• Zo = 50Ohms
• Z = 100 + j30
j30
100
Z
Question: What would

you expect if the real part
of Z is negative ?
25
• Zo = 50Ohm
• Z = 50//(-j40) or
• Y = 0.020 + j0.025
Z R 50
-j40 X
G =0.02 circle
Y B G 0.02 B =0.025 circle

j0.025
• Zo = 50Ohm
• Z = 50//(j40) or B = -0.025 circle
• Y = 0.020 - j0.025
G =0.02 circle
Z R 50
X
j40
Y B G 0.02
-j0.025
26
Smith Chart Summary (1)
• Thus a point on a Smith Chart Z=30 +j20

can be interpreted as reflection Y=0.023-j0.015
coefficient Γ. Γ=0.34<2.11
• It can also be read as
impedance Z = R + jX.
• It can also be read as
admittance Y = G + jB.
Smith Chart Summary (2)

• When we add a reactance in
series with Z, the point on the
Smith Chart will move in such a
way that it remains on the +X Z = 30+j20 ± jX
constant R circle. -B
Z = 30+j20
jX Y = 0.023-j0.015
Zin = ZL + jX
= RL + j(XL + X) Z
Y = 0.023-j0.015
-X +B ± jB
• When we add a susceptance in

parallel to Y, the point on the
Smith Chart will move in such a
Yin = YL + jB
way that it remains on the jB Y
= GL + j(BL + B)
constant G circle.
27
• In this example we would like to observe the locus of impedance Zin as l

is changed for ZL = 200 + j0 (say at certain operating frequency fo).
• Recall equations (1.2d) and (1.7) in this chapter:
Z + jZ c tan (βl )
Z in (l ) = L Γin = Γ(l ) = ΓL e − j 2 βl
Z c + jZ L tan (βl ) 2π
with β= λ
where λ is the wavelength
200 −50
ΓL = 200 + 50 = 150
250 = 0.6
Zc Tline with β and Zc=50
Vs<0o Zin , Γin ZL
l z=0 z
Smith Chart Example 6 Cont...
βl = 3π
or l = 3λ Direction
4 8
away from
Γin = ΓL e − j 2 βl generator
or towards load
Locus for Γin
(the SWR circle) βl = 0 , Γin = ΓL
The locus in which

|Γin| is constant is also
known as constant β l = π2 or l = λ
4
SWR circle (as the

SWR depends on the Direction
magnitude of reflection away from
coefficient). load or towards
β l = π4 or l = λ
8 generator
28
Typical Applications of Smith Chart (1)
• Smith Chart is used in impedance transformation and impedance

matching. Although this can be performed using analytical method,
using graphical tool such as Smith Chart allows us to visualize the
effect of adding a certain element in the network. The effective
impedance of a load after adding series, shunt or transmission line
section can be read out directly from the coordinate lines of the Smith
Chart.
• Smith Chart is used in RF active circuits design, such as when
designing amplifiers. Usually certain contours in the form of circles
are plotted on the Smith Chart.
• 2-port network parameters such as s11 and s22 are best viewed in
Smith Chart.
Typical Applications of Smith Chart (2)
• Classically Smith Chart can also be used to find the position along the
transmission line with maximum and minimum voltage or current.
Zc When voltage has
maximum magnitude
Zc , β V (z ) ZL
ΓL θ − 2 β l = 2 nπ
V ( z = −l ) = Vo (1 + ρ )
+
z
z=-l z=0
(
V ( z = −l ) = Vo e jβl 1 + ΓL e − j 2 βl
+
)
⇒ V ( z = −l ) = Vo e
+ jβl
(1 + ρe θ − j 2 βl
)
j (θ − 2 β l )
⇒ V (z = −l ) = Vo 1 + ρe
+
V ( z = −l ) = Vo (1 − ρ )
+
When voltage has ΓL

minimum magnitude
θ − 2βl = nπ
29
Exercise 2.1 - Impedance
Transformation
• Employing the software fkSmith (http://pesona.mmu.edu.my/~wlkung/),
find a way of transforming a load impedance of ZL = 10 + j75 into Z = 50
using either lumped L, C or section of Tline. Assume an operating
frequency of 1.8GHz.
Zc
Vs<0o 2 - port network ZL=10+ j75
Z = 50
3.0 Practical Considerations

for Stripline Implementation
30
Practical Transmission Line Design and
Discontinuities
• Discontinuities in Tline are changes in the Tline geometry to
accommodate layout and other requirements on the printed circuit
board.
• Virtually all practical distributed circuits, whether in waveguide, coaxial
cables, microstrip line etc. must inherently contains discontinuities. A
straight uninterrupted length of waveguide or Tline would be of little
engineering use.
• The following discussion consider the effect and compensation for
discontinuities in PCB layout. This discussion is restricted to TEM or
quasi-TEM propagation modes.
Practical Transmission Line

Discontinuities Found in PCB (1)
plane
bend
trace trace Here we illustrate the
gap
discontinuities using
Ground plane gap microstripline. Similar
Bend ground plane
structures apply to
pad
socket
other transmission line
trace
cylinder pin configuration as well.
plane via
trace
Via
Socket-trace interconnection
Junction
Open Step Line to Component

Bend Interface
31
Practical Transmission Line
Discontinuities Found in PCB (2)
• Further examples of microstrip and co-planar line discontinuities.
Gap Pad or Stub Coupled lines
Examples of bend and via

on co-planar Tline.
Discontinuities and EM Fields (1)
• Introduction of discontinuities will distort the uniform EM fields present

in the infinite length Tline. Assuming the propagation mode is TEM or
quasi-TEM, the discontinuity will create a multitude of higher modes
(such as TM11 , TM12 , TE11 , …) in its vicinity in order to fulfill the
boundary conditions (Note - there is only one type of TEM mode !!).
• Most of these induced higher order modes are evanescent or non-
propagating as their cut-off frequencies are higher than the operating
frequency of the circuit. Thus the fields of the higher order modes are
known as local fields.
• The effect of discontinuity is usually reactive (the energy stored in the
local fields is returned back to the system) since loss is negligible.
• The effect of reactive system to the voltage and current can be
modeled using LC circuits (which are reactive elements).
• For TEM or quasi-TEM mode, we can consider the discontinuity as a
2-port network containing inductors and capacitors.
32
• Modeling a discontinuity using circuit theory element such as RLCG is a
good approximation for operating frequency up to 6 – 20 GHz. This upper
limit will depends on the size of the discontinuity and dielectric thickness.
• The smaller the dimension of the discontinuity as compared to the
wavelength, the higher will be the upper usable frequency.
• As a example, the 2-port model for microstrip bend is usually accurate up
to 10GHz.
Minimum distance See Chapter 5, T.C. Edwards, “Foundation
for microstrip circuit design” [4], or Chapter 3 [F. Kung]
A 0.25λ
A 0.25λ B
0.25λ Two port

networks
A’
B’ B A’ B’
• For instance for a microstrip bend, a snapshot of the EM fields at a

particular instant in time:
Non-TEM mode *This field can be decomposed into

field here* TEM and non-TEM components
E field
H field
Direction of propagation
Quasi-TEM
field
33
Microstrip Line Discontinuity Models
(1)
Open: The open end of a stripline contains fringing E field.
This is manifested as capacitor Cf . The effect of Cf
Cf is to slightly increase the phase of the input
impedance.
The approximate value of Cf have been derived by Silvester and Benedek from the
EM fields of an open-end structure using numerical method and curve fitted as follows:
Cf  5
 W 
i −1 
= exp 2.2036 ∑ K εi  log   pF/m (3.1)
W  i =1  h  
ε r 1.0 2.5 4.2 9.6 16.0 51.0

h=dielectric thickness
i
1 1.110 1.295 1.443 1.738 1.938 2.403 W=width
2 - 0.2892 - 0.2817 - 0.2535 - 0.238 - 0.2233 - 0.2220
P. Silvester and P. Benedek,”Equivalent capacitances
3 0.1815 0.1367 0.1062 0.1308 0.1317 0.2170
of microstrip open circuits”, IEEE Trans. MTT-20, No. 8
4 - 0.0033 - 0.0133 - 0.0260 - 0.0087 - 0.0267 - 0.0240
August 1972, 511-576.
5 - 0.0540 - 0.0267 - 0.0073 - 0.0133 - 0.0147 - 0.0840

(2)
• Assuming the effect of Cf can be represented by a short length of
Tline:
Zc Cf
Zf cZ c C f
leo ≅ (3.2)
ε eff
Zc
Zeo le
o
• Thus in microstrip Tline design, we need to fore-shorten the actual

physical length by leo to compensate for fringing E field effect.
34
(3)
Shorted via or through-hole:   4h  
Ls ≅ 0.2h ln  + 1 (3.3a)
  d  
Ls ε hd
C p ≅ 0.056 r N (3.3b)
d2 −d
Cp/2 Cp/2
This is the capacitance between the via and
internal plane. If there are multiple internal
d = diameter of via conducting planes, then there should be one
Cp corresponding to each internal plane.
GND planes Ls in nH
Cp in pF
d2 h in mm
d and d2 in mm
εr = dielectric constant of PCB
h Cross section N = number of GND planes
of a Via

(4)
Gap:
C2
T1 T2
C1 C1
See Chapter 5, T.C. Edwards, “Foundation

for microstrip circuit design” [4], or
B. Easter, “The equivalent circuit of some microstrip
discontinuities”, IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory and Techniques
vol. MTT-23 no.8 pp 655-660,1975.
35
(5)
90o Bend:
L L
T1
C
w
T2 See Edwards [4], chapter 5
Approximate quasi-static expressions for L1, L2 and C:

C (14ε r +12.5) wd −(1.83ε r −2.25 ) for w <1
w
= pF/m d
w/ d
w
(3.4)
C
w
= (9.5ε r + 1.25) w
d
+ 5.2ε r + 7.0 pF/m for d
>1
εr = dielectric constant of substrate,
L = 100 4 w − 4.21 nH/m assume non-magnetic.
d  d 
d = thickness of dielectric in meter.
Example 3.1 - Microstrip Line Bend

• For a 90o microstrip line bend, with w=2.8mm, d=1.57mm, εr = 4.2. Find the
value of L and C.
C
w
= (9.5 × 4.2 + 1.25)1.834 + 5.2 × 4.2 + 7.0
w = 1.834
= 104.309 pF/m d
⇒ C = 104.309 × 0.00288 = 0.30pF
18.05pH 18.05pH
L
d
[
= 100 4 1.834 − 4.21 = 120.701 nH/m ] 0.30pF
⇒ L = 18.95pH
Typically the effect of bend is not
At 1GHz: important for frequency below 1 GHz
Reactance of C X c = 2π1fC ≅ 530.5 This is also true for discontinuities like
step and T-junction.
Reactance of L X L = 2πfL ≅ 0.119
36
(6)
Step: L1 L2
T1 T2 C
w1 w2 See Edwards [4] chapter 5
Approximate quasi-static expressions for L1, L2 and C:
w w2
C = (10.1log ε r + 2.33) w1 − 12.6 log ε r − 3.17 pF/m for ε r ≤ 10 ; 1.5 ≤
w1
≤ 10
w1w2 2
= 130 log w2  - 44 pF/m

C w w
for ε r = 9.6 ; 3.5 ≤ w2 ≤ 10
w1w2  1 1
2 (3.5)
= 40.5 w1 − 1.0  − 75 w1 + 0.2 w1 − 1.0 
L w w w
nH/m
d  2  2  2 
Lm1 Lm 2 Lm1 and Lm2 are the per unit length
L1 = L L2 = L
Lm1 + Lm 2 Lm1 + Lm 2 inductance of T1 and T2 respectively.

(7)
T-Junction:
T1 L1 L1
T1 T2
C
T3 1
T3
L3
T2
See Edwards [4], chapter 5
for alternative model and
further details.
37
Effect of Discontinuities
• Looking at the equivalent circuit models for the microstrip
discontinuities, the sharp reader will immediately notice that all these
networks can be interpreted as Low-Pass Filters. The inductor
attenuates electrical signal at high frequency while the capacitor shunts
electrical energy at high frequency.
• Thus the effect of having too many discontinuities in a high-frequency
circuit reduces the overall bandwidth of the interconnection.
• Another consequence of discontinuity is attenuation due to radiation
from the discontinuity.
|H(f)|
|H(f)|
0 f
0 f
Some Intuitive Concepts on

Discontinuities
• Seeing the equivalent circuit models on the previous slides, one can’t
help to wonder how does one knows which model to use for which
discontinuity?
• The answer can be obtained by understanding the relationship
between electric charge, electric field, current, magnetic flux linkage
and quantities such as inductance and capacitance.
• A few observations are crucial:
– As current encounter a bend, the flow is interrupted and the current
is reduced. Moreover there will be accumulation of electric
charges at the vicinity of the bend because of the constricted flow.
– As current encounter a change in Tline width, the flow of charge
either accelerate or decelerate.
38
Intuitive Concepts (1)
• Excess charge - whenever there is constricted flow or a sudden

enlargement of Tline geometry, electric charge will accumulate. The
amount of charge greater than the charge distribution on an infinite
length of Tline is known as excess charge. The excess charge can be
negative. Associated with excess charge is a capacitance.
• Excess flux - similarly constricted flow or ease of flow, change in Tline
geometry also result in excess magnetic flux linkage. The amount of
flux linkage greater than the flux linkage on an infinite length of Tline is
known as excess flux. This excess flux is associated with an
inductance, again the excess flux can be negative although it is usually
positive (inductance is always corresponds to resistance in current
flow, recall V=L(di/dt)).
• Both excess charge and excess flux can be computed from the higher
order mode EM fields in the vicinity of the discontinuity. For instance
by subtracting the total E field from the normal E field distribution for
infinite Tline, we would obtain the higher order modes E field (or local
E field). From the boundary condition of the local E field with the
conducting plate, the excess charge can be calculated. Similar
procedure is carried out for the excess flux.
• This argument although presented for stripline, is also valid for coaxial
line and waveguide in general.
• Usually numerical methods are employed to determine the total E and
H field at the discontinuity, and it is assumed the fields are quasi-
static.
39
• For instance in a bend. As current approach point B, the current density

changes. We can imagine that current flow easily in the middle as
compared to near the edges. As a result the flux linkage at B for both T1
and T2 increases as compared to the flux linkage when there is no bend.
Associated with the excess flux we introduce two series inductors, L1 and
L2 . The inductance are similar if T1 and T2 are similar in geometry.
• Also at B, more positive electric charges (we think in terms of
conventional charge) accumulate as compared to the charge distribution
for infinite Tline. Thus we associate a capacitance C1 at B.
L1 L2
B
T1
Easier to flow
C1
harder to flow
Constricted flow - L
Increase flow - C
T2 Charge accumulation - C
Exercise 3.1
• What do you expect the equivalent circuit of the following discontinuity

to be ?
40
Methods of Obtaining Equivalent
Circuit Model for Discontinuities (1)
• 3 Typical approaches…
• Method 1: Analytical solution - see Chapter 4, reference [3] on Modal
Analysis for waveguide discontinuities.
• Method 2: Numerical methods such as Agilent’s Momentum
– Method of Moments (MOM).
Ansoft’s HFSS •CST’s Microwave
– Finite Element Method (FEM). Studio
– Finite Difference Time Domain Method (FDTD). •Sonnet
– And many others.
• Numerical methods are used to find the quasi-static EM fields of a 3D
model containing the discontinuity. The EM field in the vicinity of the
discontinuity is split into TEM and non-TEM fields. LC elements are
then associated with the non-TEM fields using formula similar to (3.1)
in Part 3.
Methods of Obtaining Equivalent Circuit

Model for Discontinuities (2)
• Method 3: Fitting measurement with circuit models. By proposing an
equivalent circuit model, we can try to tune the parameters of the
circuit elements in the model so that frequency/time domain response
from theoretical analysis and measurement match.
• Measurement can be done in time domain using time-domain
reflectometry (TDR) and frequency domain measurement using a
vector network analyzer (VNA) (see Chapter 3 of Ref [4] for details).
41
Radiation Loss from Discontinuities
• At higher frequency, say > 5 GHz, the assumption of lossless

discontinuity becomes flawed. This is because the higher order mode
EM fields can induce surface wave on the printed circuit board, this wave
radiates out so energy is loss.
• Furthermore the acceleration or deceleration of electric charge also
generates radiation.
• The losses due to radiation can be included in the equivalent circuit
model for the discontinuity by adding series resistance or shunt
conductance.
Reducing the Effects of Discontinuity

(1)
• To reduce the effect of discontinuity, we must reduce the values of the
associated inductance and capacitance. This can be achieved by
decreasing the abruptness of the discontinuity, so that current flow will
not be disrupted and charge will not accumulate.
Chamfering of bends
W 1.42W
For 90o bend:
b
It is seen that the optimum
chamfering is b=0.57W
W (see Chapter 5, Edwards [4]) W
For further examples see
Chapter 2, Bahl [7]. W
42
Reducing the Effects of Discontinuity
(2)
Mitering of junction Mitering of step

T1
≅ 0.7W 1
T3
T1 T2
W2
W1
T2
T1 For more details of compensation for discontinuity,

please refer to chapter 5 of Edwards [4] and
≅ 2W 2 Chapter 2 of Bahl [7].
T3 0.5W 2 or
W2 smaller
W1
T2
Connector Discontinuity: Coaxial -

Microstrip Line Transition (1)
• Since most microstrip line invariably leads to external connection from
the printed circuit board, an interface is needed. Usually the microstrip
line is connected to a co-axial cable.
• An adapter usually used for microstrip to co-axial transistion is the SMA
to PCB adapter, also called the SMA End-launcher.
43
Connector Discontinuity: Coaxial -
Microstrip Line Transition (2)
• Again the coaxial-to-microstrip transition is a form of discontinuity,
care must be taken to reduce the abruptness of the discontinuity. For
a properly designed transition such as shown in the previous slide, the
operating frequency could go as high as 6 GHz for the coaxial to
microstrip line transition and 9 GHz for the coaxial to co-planar line
transition.
Exercise 3.2
• Explain qualitatively the effect of compensation on the equivalent

electrical circuits of the discontinuity in the previous slides.
44
Example 3.2
• A Zc = 50Ω microstrip Tline is used to drive a resistive termination as

shown. Sketch the equivalent electrical circuit for this system.
VIAHS VIAHS VIAHS
V3 V2 V1
D=20.0 mil D=20.0 mil D=20.0 mil
MSub H=0.8 mm H=0.8 mm H=0.0 mm
T=1.0 mil T=1.0 mi l T=1.0 mi l
MSUB
MSub1
H=0.8 mm
Er=4.6 R
R1
Mur=1
R=100 Ohm
Cond=5.8E+7
Hu=3.9e+034 mil
T=1.38 mil
TanD=0.02
Rough=0 mil
MLIN C
TL3 C1
MSOBND_MDS Subst="MSub1" C=0.47 pF
Bend2 W=1.45 mm R
Top view Subst="MSub1"
W=1.45 mm
L=15.0 mm R2
R=100 Ohm
MLIN
TL2
Subst="MSub1"
W=1.45 mm VIAHS VIAHS
VIAHS
L=10.0 mm V4 V5
D=20.0 mil D=20.0 mil V6
H=0.8 mm H=0.8 mm D=20.0 mil
H=0.8 mm
T=1.0 mil T=1.0 mil
L MSOBND_MDS T=1.0 mil
Port MLIN
LSMA1 Bend1
P1 TL1
L=1.2 nH Subst="MSub1"
Num=1 Subst="MSub1"
R= W=1.45 mm
W=1.45 mm
C C L=25.0 mm
CSMA1 CSMA2
C=0.33 pF C=0.33 pF
4.0 Linear RF Network

Analysis – 2-Port Network
Parameters
45
Network Parameters (1)
• Many times we are only interested in the voltage (V) and current (I)
relationship at the terminals/ports of a complex circuit.
• If mathematical relations can be derived for V and I, the circuit can be
considered as a black box.
• For a linear circuit, the I-V relationship is linear and can be written in
the form of matrix equations.
• A simple example of linear 2-port circuit is shown below. Each port is
associated with 2 parameters, the V and I.
Convention for positive
R polarity current and voltage
I1 I2
+
Port 1 V1 C V2 Port 2
-
• For this 2 port circuit we can easily derive the I-V relations.
R I1 I2
I1 I1 + I 2 = jωCV2
I1 = 1 (V1 − V2 )
R
V1 V2 R
(R
⇒ I 2 = − 1 V1 + 1 + jωC V2 jωCV2 ) C V2
• We can choose V1 and V2 as the independent variables, the I-V

relation can be expressed in matrix equations. Network parameters
(Y-parameters)
 I1   R  V 
1 −1
R  1  I1   y11 y12  V1 
I  =  1 1 + jωC  V 
 2  − R ( R
)
 2 
I  =  y
 2   21 y 22  V2 
R
I1 I I1 I2
2
Port 1 V1 C V Port 2
V1 2 - Ports V2
2
46
• To determine the network parameters, the following relations can be

used:
I I
 I1   y11 y12  V1  y11 = 1 y12 = 1
V1 V = 0 V 2 V =0
I  =  y y 22  V2 
2 1
 2   21 I
y 21 = 2 I
y 22 = 2
V1 V = 0 V 2 V =0
or 2 1
I = Y ⋅V This means we short circuit the port
• For example to measure y11, the following setup can be used:

I1 I2
Short circuit
V1 2 - Ports V2 = 0
• By choosing different combination of independent variables, different

network parameters can be defined. This applies to all linear circuits
no matter how complex.
• Furthermore this concept can be generalized to more than 2 ports,
called N - port networks. I1 I 2
I1 I2 V1 2 - Ports V2
V1 V2 Z-parameters
V1   z11z12   I1 
V  =  z z22   I 2 
 2   21
H-parameters
Linear circuit, because all V1   h11 h12   I1 
elements have linear I-V relation  I  = h  
 2   21 h22  V2 
47
ABCD Parameters (1)
• Of particular interest in RF and microwave systems is ABCD

parameters. ABCD parameters are the most useful for representing
Tline and other linear microwave components in general.
Take note of the
direction of positive current!
V1   A B  V2  I1 I2
 I  = C D   I 
 1   2  (4.1a)
⇒ V1 = AV2 + BI 2 V1 2 -Ports V2
I1 = CV2 + DI 2
V V I I1
A= 1 B= 1 C= 1 D= (4.1b)
V2 I = 0 I 2 V =0 V2 I = 0 I 2 V =0
2 2 2
2
Open circuit Port 2 Short circuit Port 2

ABCD Parameters (2)
• The ABCD matrix is useful for characterizing the overall response of 2-

port networks that are cascaded to each other.
I1 I2 ’ I2 I3
V1   A1 B1   A2 B2  V3 
 A1 B1   A2 B2 
 I  = C D1  C2 D2   I 3 
V1 C D  V2 C D  V3  1  1
 1 1  2 2
V   A B3  V3 
⇒  1 =  3
 I1  C3 D3   I 3 
Overall ABCD matrix
48
ABCD Parameters of Some Useful 2-
Port Network
A =1 A =1
Z
B=Z B=0
Y
C=0 C =Y
(4.2a) D =1
(4.2b) D =1
I1 I2
V1 2 -Ports V2
A = cos βl
B = jZ c sin βl
β , Zc (4.2c)
1
C= j sin βl
Zc
l D = cos βl
Example 4.1
• Derive the ABCD parameters of an ideal transformer.
Hints: for an ideal transformer, the following

relations for terminal voltages and currents
apply:
1:N V2 = NV1
V2 I 2 = V1I1
Port 1 Port 2
V1   1 0  V2 
I  =  N  
 1  0 N I2 
49
Exercise 4.1
• Derive equations (4.2a), (4.2b) and (4.2c).

• Hint : For the Tline, assume the voltage and current on the Tline to be
the superposition of incident and reflected waves. And let the
terminals at port 2 corresponds to z = 0 (assuming propagation along
z axis).
Partial Solution for Exercise 4.1

For (4.2c)…
First we note that for terminated Tline, voltage and current along z axis are given by:
V ( z ) = Vo + e − jβz + ΓLVo+ e + jβz V+ V+
I (z ) = Zo e − jβz − ΓL Zo e + jβz
c c
Case1: For I2= 0 (open circuit port 2), ΓL= 1, thus:
(
V1 = V (z = −l ) = Vo+ e jβl 1 + e − j 2 βl = Vo+ (2 cos βl ) ) y
V2 = V (z = 0) = Vo+ (1 + 1) = 2Vo+ Vs
β , Zc
V+
(
I1 = I (z = −l ) = Zo e − jβz 1 − e − j 2 β l
c
) V2
z
V1
Vo+
= Zc
( j 2 sin βl ) l z=0
Vo+
Thus V1 Vo+ 2 cos(β l ) j 2 sin (β l )
A= = = cos(β l ) C = V1
I
=
Zc
= jYc cos(β l )
V2 I =0 2Vo+ 2 2Vo+
2 I 2 =0
50
Partial Solution for Exercise 4.1 Cont…
Case 2: For V2= 0, ΓL = -1. Vs

Proceeding in a similar β , Zc
manner, we would be able
to obtain B and D terms.
l
Exercise 4.2
• Find the ABCD parameters of the following network:
Z1 Z2
Y
Hint: Consider each element as a 2-port network.
51
S-Parameters - Why Do We Need
Them?
• Usually we use Y, Z, H or ABCD parameters to describe a linear two
port network.
• These parameters require us to open or short a network to find the
parameters.
• At radio frequencies it is difficult to have a proper short or open
circuit, there are parasitic inductance and capacitance in most
instances.
• Open and short conditions lead to standing wave, which can cause
oscillation and destruction of the device.
• For non-TEM propagation mode, it is not possible to measure voltage
and current. We can only measure power from E and H fields.
S-parameters
• Hence a new set of parameters (S) is needed which

– Do not need open/short condition.
– Do not cause standing wave.
– Relates to incident and reflected power waves, instead of voltage
and current.
• As oppose to V and I, S-parameters relate the reflected and incident

voltage waves.
• S-parameters have the following advantages:
1. Relates to familiar measurement such as reflection coefficient,
gain, loss etc.
2. Can cascade S-parameters of multiple devices to predict system
performance (similar to ABCD parameters).
3. Can compute Z, Y or H parameters from S-parameters if needed.
52
Normalized Voltage/Current Waves (1)
• Consider an n – port network:

Each port is considered to be
connected to a Tline with
specific Zc.
Reference plane Port 1
for local z-axis Zc1
(z = 0) Port n
Zcn
Port 2
Linear
Zc2 n - port
network
z
z=0
T-line or
waveguide
• There is a voltage and current on each port.

• This voltage (or current) can be decomposed into the incident (+) and
reflected (-) components.
+ V1+
V ( z ) = V1+ e − jβz + V1− e jβz V1+ V1-
Port 1 I1 V1 = +
V (0 ) = V1 = V1+ + V1−
- V1-
I ( z ) = I1+ e − jβz − I1− e jβz Port
V1 n
I (0 ) = I1 = I1+ − I1− V1 = V1+ + V1−
+z
z=0
I1 = I1+ − I1−
Port 2
Linear
n - port
Port 1
(
= 1 V1+ − V1−
Z c1
)
Network
53
• The port voltage and current can be normalized with respect to the
impedance connected to it.
• It is customary to define normalized voltage waves at each port as:
Vi+
Normalized ai =
incident waves Z ci (4.3a) i = 1, 2, 3 … n
+
ai = I i Z ci
Vi− Normalized
bi = reflected waves
Z ci
− (4.3b)
bi = I i Z ci
• Thus in general:
a1 b1
Port 1
Zc1 an
bn Port n
Zcn Vi+ and Vi- are propagating

Port 2 voltage waves, which can
Linear
a2 be the actual voltage for TEM
b2 n - port
modes or the equivalent
Zc2 Network
voltages for non-TEM modes.
(for non-TEM, V is defined
T-line or proportional to transverse E
waveguide field while I is defined propor-
tional to transverse H field, see
[1] for details).
54
Scattering Parameters (1)
• If the n – port network is linear (make sure you know what this means!),
then there is a linear relationship between the normalized waves.
• For instance if we energize port 2:
b1
Port 1
Zc1 bn
Port n
b1 = s12 a2
Zcn
b2 = s22 a2
Port 2 Linear
a2 n - port
bn = sn 2 a2
Network
Zc2
b2
Constant that
depends on the
network construction
Scattering Parameters (2)
• Considering that we can send energy into all ports, this can be
generalized to: b1 = s11 a1 + s12 a 2 + s13 a 3 + L + s1n a n
b2 = s 21 a1 + s 22 a 2 + s 23 a 3 + L + s 2 n a n
(4.4a)
bn = s n1a1 + s n 2 a 2 + s n 3 a 3 + L + s nn a n
• Or written in Matrix equation:
 b1   s11 s12 ... s1n   a1 

b   s  
b = Sa or  2  =  21 s22 ... s2 n   a2 
:  : : O :  :  (4.4b)
    
bn   sn1 sn 2 ... snn   an 
• Where sij is known as the generalized Scattering (S) parameter, or just
S-parameters for short. From (4.3), each port i can have different
characteristic impedance Zci.
55
Linear Relation Between ai and bi
• That ai and bi are related by linear relationship can be proved using
Green’s Function Theory for partial differential equations.
• For a hint on proof of this, you can refer to the advanced text by R.E.
Collins, “Field theory of guided waves”, IEEE Press, 1991, or you can
see F. Kung’s detailed mathematical proof.
S-parameters for 2-port Networks
• For 2-port networks, (4.4) reduces to:
 b1   s11 s12   a1  a 
b  =  s    = S 1 (4.5a)
 2   21 s22  a2  a2 
b b b b
s11 = 1 s21 = 2 s22 = 2 s12 = 1
a1 a = 0 a1 a = 0 a2 a = 0 a2 a = 0 (4.5b)
2 2 1 1
• Note that ai = 0 implies that we terminate i th port with its characteristic

impedance.
• Thus zero reflection eliminates standing wave.
• Good termination can be established reliably for RF and Microwave
frequencies in a number of transmission system. This will be illustrated
in the following slides.
56
Measurement of S-parameter for 2-port
Networks
a1 b2
Vs Zc1
Zc1 Zc2
2 – Port Zc2
b1
Measurement of s11 and s21: b b

s11 = 1 s21 = 2
a1 a =0 a1 a =0
2 2
b1 a2
Zc2 Vs
Zc1 Zc2
Zc1 2 – Port
b2
Measurement of s22 and b b

s22 = 2 s12 = 1
s12: a 2 a =0 a2 a =0
1 1
Example of Terminations
2 × 100Ω SMT resistor
(0603 package, 1% tolerance)
0dB
-20dB
DIY 50Ω Termination for grounded

co-planar Tline
Another example OSL calibration

of broadband performed on Port 1
50Ω co-axial Measured s11 from 10 MHz to 3 GHz
termination using Agilent’s 8753ES VNA
57
Practical Measurement of S-
parameters
• Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) - an instrument that can measure the
magnitude and phase of S11, S12, S21, S22.
An example of VNA by
Agilent Technologies.
Other manufacturers
of VNA are Advantek,
Wiltron, Anritsu, Rhode &
Schwartz etc.
Port 1
Device under test

(DUT)
Port 2
General Vector Network Analyzer

Block Diagram
Measuring s11and s21:
Directional coupler
Port 1 Port 2
DUT
LO1
Signal
Reference Separation Incident (R) Transmitted (B)
Oscillator
Reflected (A) Sampler

+
ADC
Receiver /
Detector
Processor and Display
58
Relationship Between Port Voltage/Current
and Normalized Waves
• From the relations: V1 = V1+ + V1− I1 = I1+ − I1− = 1 V1+ − V1−
Z
( )
• One can easily obtain a and b from the port voltages andc currents (for
instance a 2-port network):
I1 I2
a1 2-ports a2
V1 V2 Usually Zc1 = Zc2 = Zc
b1 network b2
Zc1 Zc2
1 1
a1 = (V1 + Z c1I1 ) a2 = (V2 + Z c 2 I 2 )
2 Z c1 (4.6a) 2 Z c2 (4.6b)
1 1
b1 = (V1 − Z c1I1 ) b2 = (V2 − Z c 2 I 2 )
2 Z c1 2 Z c2
• This shows that S-parameters can be computed if we know the port’s

voltage and current (take note these are phasors).
• Most RF circuit simulator software uses this approach to derive the S-
parameters.
Example 4.2 - Measuring Normalized

Waves
• This setup shows how one can measure a1 and b1 with oscilloscope.
• It can be done for frequency < 1 MHz where parasitic inductance and
capacitance are not a concern.
Assume Zc1 = Zc2 = 50

Channel 2
Rtest should
be as small
Signal generator as possible
Channel 1
Zc = 50 Rtest = 1
I1 To oscilloscope
V1
2-ports
V2 Zc = 50
network
59
Example 4.3 - S11 Measurement
Example in Time-Domain (1)
• This experiment is done using a signal generator and Agilent
Technologies Infiniium Digital Sampling Oscilloscope.
TRANSIENT We would like to find what is
Tran s11 at 10 kHz
Tran1
StopTime=5 msec
MaxTimeStep=1.0 usec Sample RLC network
V2 V1
R R L
Rs Rtest L1 C R
VtSine R=50 Ohm R=10 Ohm L=47.0 uH C1 R2
SRC1 R= C=50.0 nF R=180 Ohm
Vdc=0 V
Amplitude=0.5 V
Freq=10 kHz
Delay=0 nsec
Damping=0
Phase=0
Test resistor, as small
Signal generator model as possible, (V2-V1)/Rtest
gives the current flowing
into the network

• Experiment setup.
From signal
generator
60
To = 1/10000 = 100usec V2 – V1
(16x averaging
10mV per
division)
V2 waveform
(200mV per
division)
V2 – V1 peak-to-peak
Frequency ≅ 10 kHz V2 peak-to-peak
amplitude ≅ 40.0mV
amplitude ≅ 668mV

• Zooming in to measure the phase angle.
Phase = positive
if voltage leads
current, zero if
Voltage leads current both voltage and
V2 – V1 current same
10mV/division phase, and negative
V2 otherwise.
∆t
≅ 8us Phase calculation:
θ = ∆t ⋅ 2π = 0.503 radian
To
61
0.668 0.04
Zc := 50 Rtest := 10 V2amp := V21amp:=
2 2
fo := 10000
Voltage and ‘current’
1 −4 −6 magnitude
To := To = 1 × 10 ∆t := 8⋅ 10
fo
∆t V21amp
I1phase := ⋅ 2⋅ π I1amp := I1phase = 0.503
To Rtest
−3
I1amp = 2 × 10
Converts into current phasor
I1 := I1amp⋅ exp( i⋅ I1phase )
e.g. I1 = Iamp ejθ , where θ = phase
−3 −4
I1 = 1.753 × 10 + 9.635i× 10
V1 is used as the reference for
V1 := V2amp
phase measurement, hence V1 = Vampej0
V1 + I1⋅ Zc V1 − I1⋅ Zc where Vamp = Vpeak
a1 := b1 :=
2⋅ Zc 2⋅ Zc
b1
s11 := s11 = 0.564 − 0.179i Measured results
a1
s11 + 1
VSWR := VSWR = 3.896
1 − s11

S-PARAMETERS
VSWR
S_Param
SP1 VSWR
Start=10.0 kHz VSWR1
Stop=10.0 kHz VSWR1=vswr(S11)
Step=1.0 kHz
V2 V1
R L
Rtest L1
Term R=10 Ohm L=47.0 uH
Term1 R= R
C R21
Num=1 C1
Z=50 Ohm R=180 Ohm
C=50.0 nF
freq S(1,1) VSW R1 Compare this with

10.00kHz 0.554 - j0.168 3.755
measured results
62
Power Waves
• Consider port i, since (assuming z = 0):

Vi = Vi+ + Vi− = Z ci (ai + bi )
1
I i = I i+ − I i− = (ai − bi )
Z ci
• Power along a waveguide or transmission line on Port i :

1
( 1
)
Pi = Re Vi I i * = ai − bi
2
2
2
2
( (4.7) )
• Because of this, ai and bi are sometimes refer to as incident and
reflected power waves. S-parameters relate the incident and reflected
power of a port.
More on S Parameters
• S parameters are very useful at microwave frequency. Most of the
performance parameters of microwave components such as
attenuators, microwave FET/Transistors, coupler, isolator etc. are
specified with S parameters.
• In fact, theories on the realizability of 3 ports and 4 ports network such
as power divider, directional coupler are derived using the S matrix.
• In the subject “RF Transistor Circuits Design or RF Active Circuit
Design”, we will use S parameters exclusively to design various small
signal amplifiers and oscillators.
• At present, the small signal performance of many microwave
semiconductor devices is specified using S parameters.
63
Extra Knowledge 1 - Sample Datasheet
of RF BJT
Extra Knowledge 2
• We can actually use S matrix to relate reflected voltage waves to
incident voltage waves. Call this the S’ matrix to distinguish from the
S matrix which relate the generalized voltage waves.
• The reason generalized voltage and current are used more often is the
ratio of generalized voltage to current at a port n is always 1. This is
useful in deriving some properties of the S matrix.
V −   S ' S12' S1n '  V1+ 

...
 1 −   11'  
V2  =  S 21 S 22' ... S 2n '  V2 +   Vi+ 
 
+
( Z ci Ii+ ) = VIi+ ⋅ Z1 =1
 :   :  Z 
: O :  :   ci  i ci
 −  '  
Vn   S n1 S n 2 ... S nn '  Vn + 
'
• Of course when the characteristic impedance of all Tlines in the

system are similar, then S’ = S.
64
Example 4.4 – S-parameters for Series
Impedance
• Find the S matrix of the 2 port network below.
Z
Zc1 Zc2
See extra notes for solution.
Example 4.5 – S-parameters for

Lossless Tline Section
• Derive the 2-port S-matrix for a Tline as shown below.
a1 a2
z β , Zc
Zc Zc
l b2
b1
Case 1: Terminated Port 2 Since V2− e jβ l = V1+
a1 β , Zc b2 V2−
V2− Zc b
Zc ⇒ = = e − jβ l = 2 = s21
V + V + a1 a = 0
b1 1 1 2
+z
Zc
l
Zin = Zc z=0 Case 2: from symmetry, s11 = s22 = 0, s12=s21=ejβ:l
V1−
b Zc Z −Z  b1   0 e − jβl   a1 
s11 = 1 = Γ1 = 1 c = 0
a1 a = 0
=
V1+ Z1 + Z c b  =  − jβl  
2  2  e 0  a2 
Zc
65
Exercise 4.3 – Conversion Between
Impedance and S Matrix
• Show how we can convert from Z matrix to S matrix and vice versa.
hint: use equations (4.4) and (4.6) and the fact that:
+ − + −
V +V = V I −I = I
• For a system with Zc1= Zc2 = … = Zcn = Zc:
−1
1 0 L 0 S =  Z − Z c E  Z + Z c E 
0
  
1 L 0
E= −1
M M O M
  Z = Z c  S + E  E + S 
0 0 L 1   
S Matrix for Reciprocal Network –

Symmetry (1)
• A linear N-port network is made up of materials which are isotropic and
linear, the E and H fields in the network observe Lorentz reciprocity
theorem (See Section 2.12, ref [1]).
• A special condition arises when the linear N-port network does not contain
any sources (electric and magnetic current densities, J and M), the
network is called reciprocal. Port 1
Port n
* See for instance the book by D.J. Griffith, Linear
“Introductory electrodynamics”, Prentice Hall, n - port
or any EM book for further discussion on Port 2 Network
r
J =0
magnetization and µ (permeability) r
M =0
• Reciprocal network cannot contain active devices, ferrites or plasmas.

• Active devices such as transistor contains equivalent current and source in
the model, while in ferro-magnetic material, the bound current due to
magnetization* constitutes current source. Similarly the ions moving in a
plasma also constitute current source.
66
S Matrix for Reciprocal Network –
Symmetry (2)
• Under reciprocal condition, we can show that the S Matrix is symmetry,
i.e. sij = sji .
t (4.8)
This is achieved by using Reciprocity Theorem
S=S in Electromagnetism, and using the definition

of V and I from EM fields, one can show that
the Z matrix is symmetrical. Then using the
relationship between S and Z matrices, we
• For example for a 3-port reciprocal network: can show that S matrix is also symmetry.
 s11 s12 s13   s11 s21 s31 

t
S =  s21 s22 s23  =  s12 s22 s32  = S
 s31 s32 s33   s13 s23 s33 
• Many types of RF components fulfill reciprocal and linear conditions, for

example passive filters, impedance matching networks, power
splitter/combiner etc.
• You can refer to Section 4.2 and 4.3 of Ref. [3] or extra notes from F.
Kung for the derivation.
S Matrix for Lossless Network - Unitary

• When the network is lossless, then no real power can be delivered to
the network. By considering the voltage and current at each port, and
equating total incident power to total reflected power, we can show
that:
2 2 2 2 2 2
a1 + a2 + K + an = b1 + b2 + K + bn
1 0 .. 0
t * 0 1 .. 0t *
t *     =U (4.9)
 *  t  −1 S
  S = S S
  =
S  = S  = S      : : O 0 
     
0 0 .. 1 
• Again you can refer to Section 4.3 of Ref. [3] or extra note from F.Kung
for the derivation.
• Matrix S of this form is known as Unitary.
67
Reciprocal and Lossless Network
• Thus when the network is both reciprocal and lossless, symmetry and
unitary of the S matrix are fulfilled.
t
 * *
S ⋅  S  = S ⋅ S = U
 
• This is the case for many microwave circuits, for instance those
constructed using stripline technology.
Conversion Between ABCD and S-

Parameters
• For 2-port networks, with Zc1 = Zc2 = Zo:
A + B / Z o − CZ o − D
A=
(1 + S11 )(1 − S22 ) + S12 S21 S11 =
2 S 21 A + B / Z o + CZ o + D
(1 + S11 )(1 + S 22 ) − S12 S21 2( AD − BC )
B = Zo S12 =
2 S 21 A + B / Z o + CZ o + D
1 (1 − S11 )(1 − S 22 ) − S12 S 21 2
C= S 21 =
Zo 2 S 21 A + B / Z o + CZ o + D
D=
(1 − S11 )(1 + S22 ) − S12 S 21 − A + B / Z o − CZ o + D
S 22 =
2 S 21 A + B / Z o + CZ o + D
(4.10a) (4.10b)
68
Shift in Reference Plane (1)
V’1+ V’1-
z=-l1
z=-ln Let:
V1+ V1- V 'i+ V 'i−
0 ai ' = bi ' =
0 Z ci Z ci
V’2+ V 2+ V’n+
V’2- V 2- V’n- i = 1,2,…n
Linear Vn+
N - port Vn-
Network b' = A ⋅ S ⋅ A ⋅ a ' (4.11)
z=-l2 0
e − jβ1l1
0 ... 0 
 − jβ 2l 2 
0 e ... 0 
+ve z direction A=
 : : O : 
Note: For a wave propagating in  
+ve z direction, Vi+ e-jβl  0 0 ... e − jβ nln 
Shift in Reference Plane (2)
• For 2-port network:
 b1 '   a1 '  e − jβ1l1 0 

b ' = S '  a ' , A =  
 2  2  0 e − jβ 2l2 
(4.12)
 s e − j 2 β1l1
11 s12e − j (β1l1 + β 2l2 ) 
S ' = AS A =  − j ( β1l1 + β 2l2 ) 
 s21e s22 e − j 2 β 2l2 
69
Cascading 2-port Networks
a1A b2A a1B b2B
A B
b1A a2A b1B a2B

a1A a2B
 b1B   a1B   b1 A   a1 A 
Let: b  = S B  a  b  = S A  a 
 2B   2B   2A  2A
b1A b2B
 b1A   a1A 
New S matrix: b  = S a 
 2B   2B  (4.13)
1  S11A − S11B D A S12 A S12 B 
S=  S S
1 − S11B S 22 A  21B 21 A S 22 B − S 22 A DB 
THE END
70

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2 .

August2008 ©2006byFabianKungWaiLee Chapter2 1

• 1.0 – Terminated transmission line circuit.

August 2008 © 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee Chapter 2 2

• [2] T. C. Edwards, “Foundations for microstrip circuit design”, 2nd

• [3] D.M. Pozar, “Microwave engineering”, 2nd edition, 1998 John-Wiley

August 2008 © 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee Chapter 2 3

Review of Previous Lecture

• In previous lecture we have studied how a transmission line (Tline)

August 2008 © 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee Chapter 2 5

The Lossless Transmission Line

August 2008 © 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee Chapter 2 6

Reflection Coefficient (1)

• The ratio of Vo- over Vo+ is described by a voltage reflection coefficient

• At a distance l from the load, the voltage reflection coefficient is given

Reflection Coefficient (3)

• Reflection coefficient for various load impedance values. Make sure

Assuming that IL < Io+, electric

Why Do Reflection Occur? (2)

• We can visualize the current flow as due to positive charges

At the interface positive and negative charge pairs

August 2008 © 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee Chapter 2 12

August 2008 © 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee Chapter 2 13

• Thus the purpose of impedance matching is to reduce reflection from

Impedance matching - Make |ΓL | 0

August 2008 © 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee Chapter 2 14

• Expressing ΓLin polar form ΓL = ρe jθ Im 1 + ρe j (θ − 2 βl )

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (2)

August 2008 © 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee Chapter 2 16

August 2008 © 2006 by Fabian Kung Wai Lee Chapter 2 17

Example 1.1 Cont...

• The solution (as calculated using MathCAD):

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Note that |V | and |I | are0.38 0

phase. The values of |V | Zc=50 ZL

Input Impedance of a Terminated Tline

• At any length l from the termination impedance, we can compute the

e jβl + ΓL e − jβl Z + jZ c tan (βl )

e jβl = cos(βl ) + j sin (βl )

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Special Cases of Terminated Lossless Tline

• A lossless Tline of length l = 10 cm supports TEM propagation mode.

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Cascading Transmission Lines -

V1− e + jβz - I1− e + jβz ZL=Zc2

Zc1 Zc2 Matched termination

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• Sometimes both voltage reflection and transmission coefficient are

RL = −20 log Γ dB (1.11b)

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• We would like to use a short length of transmission line to implement a

From Example 5.1 (Chapter 1):

l = 1 tan −1 60  = 1 ⋅ 0.876 = 0.00924m

• In the case of a lossy Tline we replace jβ with γ = α + jβ in equations

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Terminated Lossy Tline (2)

• At some point z = -l from the load-Tline interface, the power directed

• Of the power given by (1.11), the power dissipated by the load is

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Exercise 1.2 Cont…