Condensers and Evaporators
Introduction
Condensers and evaporators are basically heat
exchangers in which the refrigerant undergoes a
phase change. Next to compressors proper
design and selection of condensers and
evaporators is very important for satisfactory
performance of any refrigeration system.
Condensers and Evaporators
In evaporators, the liquid refrigerant evaporates
by extracting heat from an external fluid (low
temperature heat source). The external fluid
may not undergo phase change, for example if
the system is used for sensibly cooling water, air
or some other fluid.
In condensers the refrigerant vapour condenses
by rejecting heat to an external fluid, which acts
as a heat sink.
Normally, the external fluid does not undergo
any phase change, except in some special cases
such as in cascade condensers, where the
external fluid (another refrigerant) evaporates.
Condensers
condenser is an important component of any
refrigeration system. In a typical refrigerant
condenser, the refrigerant enters the condenser
in a superheated state. It is first de-superheated
and then condensed by rejecting heat to an
external medium. The refrigerant may leave the
condenser as a saturated or a sub-cooled liquid,
depending upon the
temperature of the external medium and design
of the condenser.
Classification of Condensers
Based on the external fluid, condensers can be
classified as:
a) Air cooled condensers
b) Water cooled condensers, and
c) Evaporative condensers
Air-cooled condensers
As the name implies, in air-cooled condensers
air is the external fluid, i.e., the refrigerant
rejects heat to air flowing over the condenser.
Air-cooled condensers
can be further classified into natural convection
type or forced convection type.
Natural Convection Type
In natural convection type, heat transfer
from the condenser is by buoyancy induced
natural convection and radiation. Since the flow
rate of air is small and the radiation heat
transfer is also not very high, the combined heat
transfer coefficient in these condensers is small.
As a result a relatively large condensing surface
is required to reject a given amount of heat.
Hence these condensers are used for small
capacity refrigeration systems like household
refrigerators and freezers. The natural
convection type condensers are either plate
surface type or finned tube type
Forced Convection Type
In forced convection type condensers, the
circulation of air over the
condenser surface is maintained by using a fan
or a blower. These condensers
normally use fins on air-side for good heat
transfer. The fins can be either plate
type or annular type.
Forced convection type condensers are
commonly used in window
air conditioners, water coolers and packaged air
conditioning plants. These are
either chassis mounted or remote mounted. In
chassis mounted type, the
compressor, induction motor, condenser with
condenser fan, accumulator, HP/LP cut- out
switch and pressure gauges are mounted on a
single chassis. It is called condensing unit of
rated capacity.
Water Cooled Condensers:

In water cooled condensers water is the

external fluid. Depending upon the
construction, water cooled condensers can be
further classified into:
1. Double pipe or tube-in-tube type
2. Shell-and-coil type
3. Shell-and-tube type
Double Pipe or tube-in-tube type
Double pipe condensers are normally
used up to 10 TR capacity. capacity. Figure
shows the schematic of a double pipe type
condenser. As shown in the figure, in these
condensers the cold water flows through the
inner tube, while the refrigerant flows
through the annulus in counter flow. Headers
are used at both
the ends to make the length of the
condenser small and reduce pressure drop.
Shell-and-Coil Type
Evaporative Condensers
In evaporative condensers, both air and water
are used to extract heat from the condensing
refrigerant.Evaporative condensers combine the
features of a cooling tower and water-cooled
condenser in a single unit. In these
condensers,the water is sprayed from top part
on a bank of tubes carrying the refrigerant and
air is induced upwards. There is a thin water
film around the condenser tubes from which
evaporative cooling takes place. The heat
transfer coefficient for evaporative cooling is
very large.
Air-cooled vs Water-cooled
Advantages and Disadvantages
Air-cooled condensers are simple in
construction since no pipes are required for air.
The disposal of warm air is not a problem
and it is available in plenty.

These condensers are used in systems up Low maintenance cost

to 50 TR capacity. The water
The air-cooled condensers cost two to three
flows through multiple coils, which may times more than water-cooled condensers
have fins to increase the heat transfer
Large volume flow rates are required
coefficient. The refrigerant flows
The water-cooled condenser requires cooling
through the shell. In smaller capacity
tower since water is scarce in municipality areas
condensers, refrigerant flows through and has to be recycled.
coils while water flows through the shell.
Increased first cost and maintenance cost of
Shell-and-tube type cooling tower offsets the cost advantage of
water-cooled condenser.
This is the most common type of
condenser used in systems from 2 TR upto Evaporators
thousands of TR capacity. In these condensers
Classification of evaporator based on
the refrigerant flows through the shell while
construction
water flows through the tubes in single to four
passes. The condensed refrigerant collects at Bare Tube Evaporators
the bottom of the shell. The coldest water
The bare tube evaporators are made up of
contacts the liquid refrigerant so that some
copper tubing or steel pipes.The bare tube
subcooling can also be obtained. The liquid
evaporator comprises of several turns of the
refrigerant is drained from the bottom to the
tubing, though most commonly flat zigzag and
receiver. There might be a vent connecting the
oval trombone are the most common shapes.
receiver to the condenser for smooth drainage
of liquid refrigerant.
The bare tube evaporators are usually used for
liquid chilling.
Plate Type
In the plate type of evaporators the coil usually
made up of copper or aluminum is embedded in
the plate so as so to form a flat looking surface.
Externally the plate type of evaporator looks
like a single plate, but inside it there are several
turns of the metal tubing through which the
refrigerant flows. The advantage of the plate
type of evaporators is that they are more rigid
as the external plate provides lots of safety. The
external plate also helps increasing the heat
transfer from the metal tubing to the substance
to be chilled.
Finned Evaporator
The finned evaporators are the bare tube type
of evaporators covered with the fins. When the
fluid (air or water) to be chilled flows over the
bare tube evaporator lots of cooling effect from
the refrigerant goes wasted since there is less
surface for the transfer of heat from the fluid to
the refrigerant. The fluid tends to move
between the open spaces of the tubing and
does not come in contact with the surface of
the coil, thus the bare tube evaporators are less
effective.
Shell and Tube Type
The shell and tube types of evaporators are
used in the large refrigeration and central air
conditioning systems. The evaporators in these
systems are commonly known as the chillers.
The chillers comprise of large number of the
tubes that are inserted inside the drum or the
shell.
Control Valves
Types and Examples of Common Valves
Valves are devices that regulate, direct, or
control the flow of a fluid by opening, closing, or
partially obstructing passageways. In
refrigeration, valves start or stop the flow of
refrigerant, regulate the pressure, temperature,
and modulation of refrigerant flow.
Types of Control Valves
1. Solenoids – are used for controlling
refrigerants in liquid lines, suction lines or in
hot-gas lines.
Types of Solenoid Valves
Direct Acting Solenoid Valves – are valves
that have a direct connection with the opening
and closing armature.
Piloted Solenoid Valves – also known as
servo-assisted solenoids, these valves use the
differential pressure of the medium over the
valve ports to open and close.
Gas Powered Solenoid Valves – are designed to
control the flow of refrigerant in large industrial
and commercial applications. They remain open
via a spring and require no pressure drop to
operate.
Motorized Solenoid Valve – is a valve that uses
an electric motor to open or close its
mechanism. Its function is to close the valve
that are in remote or inaccessible locations.
2. Pressure Regulators – are control valves that
reduce the input pressure of a fluid to a desired
value at its output. The pressure regulator
includes a restricting element that provides a
variable restriction to the flow, a loading
element that applies force, and a measuring
element that the determine when the inlet flow
is equal to the outlet flow
Types of Pressure Regulators
Direct-Operated Regulators – respond directly
to the variations in downstream pressure to
provide the necessary flow and pressure
needed by the system
Pilot Operated Regulators – consist of the same
essential components of direct operated
regulators with the addition of a pilot that
separates the outlet pressure and the
diaphragm. This allows the regulator to be more
responsive to condition changes.
Check Valve – assures that there will be no back
flow of fluid. In other words, it ensures that the
fluid flows only in one direction.
COMPRESSORS
COMPRESSOR

Motorized Pressure Regulator – same with 1. Centrifugal compressor

solenoid valve, this pressure regulator uses an
electric motor to control the pressure. Centrifugal compressor

Centrifugal compressors, sometimes

3. Expansion Valves – remove pressure from the
liquid refrigerant to allow expansion or change
of state from a liquid to a vapor in the
evaporator. The high pressure liquid entering
the expansion valve is quite warm while the
liquid leaving is quite cold. These valves does
not remove heat but reduce pressure.
called radial compressors, are a sub-class of
dynamic axisymmetric work absorbing
turbomachinery.
It increases the pressure of fluid by decreasing
its volume by centrifugal force.

Types of Expansion Valves

PARTS OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
Pulse-Width Expansion Valves – use a simple
solenoid valve circuit to control the refrigerant
flow. These valves open or close for a set period
of time upon receiving a signal from the STATIONARY CASING
controller. The casing is the pressure containing
component of the centrifugal compressor.

Motorized Expansion Valve – uses an electric

motor to control how the expansion valve
closes or opens.
Common Valves used in Industrial Refrigeration
Stop Valve/Isolation Valve – this valve isolates
the system or part of the system during
servicing.
The casing houses the stationary internal
components as well rotating components.
IMPELLER ROTOR
The compressor rotor is an assembly of
impellers mounted on a steel shaft

Impeller consists of sets of a set of blades.

Regulating Valve – this valve filters dirt and
other unwanted solid particles that could
damage the other valves, serving as a
protection for pumps, compressors, and other
components of the refrigeration system. VANE

are a series of blades circumferentially arranged

at the inlet of compressor, driven electronically
A different kind of regulating valve also
or pneumatically.
regulates the injection of the refrigerant
through manual throttling.
By adjusting the orientation of vanes, the air
flow enters the impeller at a different direction
therefore changing the flow behavior while
affecting the passing mass flow rate (throttling).
DIFFUSER
It can be vaned, vaneless or combination.
The fluid exits impeller vanes at very high
velocity and enters to the diffuser.
The kinetic energy of the gas is converted into
pressure as it passes the diffuser.
2. SCREW COMPRESSOR
Screw Compressor
Comprise of the pairs of meshing screws
between which the refrigerant gets
compressed.
They can produce high pressure for small
quantity of gas.
They consume less power than reciprocating
compressors and used widely.
PARTS
Rotors/Rollers
They are the centralized component to the
compression process
Compression cylinder
Rotary screw air compressors include mainline
compression cylinders that houses their
all-important rollers.
Air filters
The inlet air filter rests just inside the
compressors opening valve.
Oil filters
For oil-lubricating rotary screw air-compressor,
oil filters will be placed both within rotating
chamber walls and near discharge valves.
PARTS
Bearings
Sit on rotor ends and help rotors stay securely
in place, rotating evenly and maintaining their
load balance and in proper capacity.
Suction valve
Sits atop most compressing units and is
responsible for raw initial gas retrieval.
Discharge valve.
Sit on the opposite end of the suction valve and
cue the end of the compression cycle.
3. SCROLL COMPRESSORS
SCROLL COMPRESSORS
A scroll compressor (also called spiral
compressor, scroll pump and scroll vacuum
pump) is a device for compressing air or
refrigerant. It is used in air conditioning
equipment, as an automobile supercharger
(where it is known as a scroll-type supercharger)
and as a vacuum pump.
Many residential central heat pump and air
conditioning systems and a few automotive air
conditioning systems employ a scroll
compressor instead of the more
traditional rotary, reciprocating, and
wobble-plate compressors.
PROS
Very quiet. Really very quiet!
Compact. It is very small
Simple design, not so many parts
Low maintenance (hardly any) Pistons

Oil-free design Slide up and down in the cylinder

CONS Used to compress and expand the refrigerant

Low capacity (flow, liters/minute or cfpm).

Relatively expensive

When the compressor-element fails, there’s a Refrigerant cylinder valves (suction)

very big chance you just have to buy a whole
Durable, flexible steel
new element.
Located on the bottom of the valve plate
The compressed air gets very hot! Much hotter
than compared to other types of compressors Open when refrigerant is introduced to the
pump

Refrigerant cylinder valves (discharge)

END
Durable, flexible steel
Reciprocating Compressor
Open when refrigerant is discharged from the
pump
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
Located on the top of the valve plate
In a reciprocating compressor, a volume of gas
is drawn into a cylinder, it is trapped, and
compressed by piston and then discharged into
the discharge line. The cylinder valves control
the flow of gas through the cylinder; these
valves act as check valves. There are two types
of reciprocating compressor.
Compressor head
Two Types of Reciprocating Compressor:
Holds the top of the cylinder and its
Single – Acting compressor
components together
It is a compressor that has one discharge per
Contains both high and low pressure refrigerant
revolution of crankshaft.
Mufflers
Double – Acting Compressor
Designed to reduce compressor noise
It is a compressor that completes two discharge
strokes per revolutions of crankshaft. Most Compressor housing
heavy-duty compressors are double acting..
Encases the compressor and sometimes the
motor

COMPONENTS OF RECIPROCATING
COMPRESSOR:

Crankshaft
Four processes take place during the
Transfers motor motion to the piston compression process

Creates the back and forth motion of the piston Expansion (re-expansion)

Connecting rods Suction (Intake)

Connects the crankshaft to the pistons Compression

Discharge
COMPRESSION PROCESS - EXPANSION
Piston is the highest point in the cylinder
Referred to as top dead center
Both the suction and discharge valves are closed
Cylinder pressure is equal to discharge pressure
As the crankshaft continues to turn, the piston
moves down in the cylinder
The volume in the cylinder increases
The pressure of the refrigerant decreases
COMPRESSION PROCESS - SUCTION
As the piston moves down, the pressure
decreases
When the cylinder pressure falls below suction
pressure, the suction valve opens
The discharge valve remains in the closed
position
As the piston continues downward, vapor from
the suction line is pulled into the cylinder
Suction continues until the piston reaches the
lowest position in the cylinder (bottom dead
center)
At the bottom of the stroke, suction valves close
COMPRESSION PROCESS - COMPRESSION
Piston starts to move upwards in the cylinder
The suction valve closes and the discharge valve
remains closed
As the piston moves upwards, the volume in the
cylinder decreases
The pressure of the refrigerant increases
Compression continues until the pressure in the
cylinder rises just above discharge pressure
COMPRESSION PROCESS - DISCHARGE
When the cylinder pressure rises above
discharge pressure, the discharge valve opens
and the suction valve remains closed
As the piston continues to move upwards, the
refrigerant is discharged from the compressor
Discharge continues until the piston reaches top
dead center
HISTORY OF REFRIGERANTS
BESANA, ALJON H
GARCIA, ANGEL GLENN A.
REFRIGERANTS
Refrigerant may be defined as “any body or
substance that acts as a cooling medium by
extracting heat from another body or
substance”.
The development of refrigeration and air
conditioning industry depended to a large
extent on the development of refrigerants to
suit various applications and the development
of various system components.
At present the industry is dominated by the
vapour compression refrigeration systems. The
success of vapour compression refrigeration
systems owes a lot to the development of
suitable refrigerants and compressors.
Desired Properties of Refrigerants
Vapor Density
Enthalpy of Vaporization
Thermal Conductivity Low Toxicity

Dielectric Strength Atmospheric Boiling Point between -40oC & 0oC

Critical Temperature Common Refrigerants in 1920s

Ammonia (R-717) NH3

Carbon Dioxide CO2

Specific Heat Sulfur Dioxide SO2

Leak of Tendency Hydrocarbons CnHm

Toxicity Methyl Choride CH3Cl

Cost Of Refrigerants Water H2O

Availability

History of Refrigerants

HISTORY OF REFRIGERANTS Midgley Selections

1750 – Benjamin Franklin-(vacuum to evaporate

liquid ether)

1830s - Jacob Perkins - Vapor Compression

(ether)
refrigerant
1851 - John Gorrie - Patent for Air Cycle

1859 - R-717 / R-718 (Ammonia / Water)

A refrigerant is a substance or mixture, usually a
1866 - CO2 - Marine Applications fluid, used in a heat pump and refrigeration
cycle.

1873 - R-717 (Ammonia) Commercial

Refrigeration Carl Linde In most cycles it undergoes phase transitions
from liquid to a gas and back again.
1875 - R-764 (Sulfur dioxide)

1920s -R-600a (Isobutane) & R-290 (Propane)

1922 - Willis Carrier - R-1130 (Dielene)
1926 - R-30 (Methylene Chloride)
Chloroflurocarbon
Refrigerant is a compound typically found in
either a fluid or gaseous state. It readily absorbs
heat from the environment and can provide
refrigeration or air conditioning when combined
with other components such as compressors
and evaporators.

In 1920’s hazardous refrigerant had

become a major issue so all the industries and
companies look for something safer
Challenged to Find Refrigerant:
Refrigerant is a chemical used in a cooling
mechanism, such as an air conditioner or
refrigerator, as the heat carrier which changes
from liquid and back to the gas in the
refrigeration cylce.

Non-flammable Properties of Refrigerant

Good Stability Favorable thermodynamic properties

Non-corrosive to mechanical components
Safe including freedom form toxicity and
flammability
Would not cause ozone depletion or climate
change
Commonly Used Refrigerants
CFCs – ChloroFluoroCarbons
Contains chlorine, fluorine and carbon
Can be used for commercial to even daily
purposes
They are also commonly known by
the DuPont brand name Freon
1930s
Was deemed revolutionary compared to other
natural substances of its time
Was even used as foam-blowing agents, aerosol
propellants, and cleaning solvents.
Was regarded for its complete safety and
harmlessness
Early 70s – late 80s
it was proven that it is hazardous for the layer
of ozone and unfriendly for the environment.
Chlorine released from synthetic CFCs migrates
to the stratosphere and destroys ozone
molecules hence to ozone layer and ozone
depletion
Was later banned due to that.
Common CFC Refrigerants
Natural Refrigerants
They are alternatives
to hydrofluorocarbon (HFC), hydrochlorofluoroc
arbon (HCFC) and chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
based refrigerants.
They are not synthetic chemicals and can
sometimes be found in nature.
Common Natural Refrigerants
Carbon dioxide (CO2) [R-744] - used in the
automotive industry, an asphyxiate gas that has
to operate at the highest pressure of all
commonly used refrigerants
Ammonia (NH3) [R-717] - the refrigerant most
used in industrial refrigeration and absorption
refrigerators, formerly the primary refrigerant in
home refrigerators, a highly toxic gas
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
It contains hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine, and
carbon
HCFCs were referred to as the substitute of
CFCs
Life CFCs, HCFCs are non-toxic, cheap, and
competent
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
They decompose in the troposphere more
readily than CFCs, and because of this do not
accumulate to the extent CFCs do in the
stratosphere
However, HCFCs still have potential to be
damaging to the ozone and are seen as only
interim solutions to the problem of rapid ozone
depletion.
Common Hydrochlorofluorocarbon Refrigerants
R22
R123
R124
R401A
R401B
R402A
R403B
R408A
R409A
R414B
R416A
HYDROFLUORO-OLEFINS
Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) are unsaturated
organic compounds composed of hydrogen,
fluorine and carbon. These organofluorine
compound are of interest as refrigerants. Unlike
traditional hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are saturated,
HFOs are olefins, otherwise known as alkenes.
HFO refrigerants are categorised as having zero
ODP (Ozone Depletion Potential) and low GWP
and so offer a more environmentally friendly
alternative to CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs.
HFOs are being developed as "fourth
generation" refrigerants with 0.1% of the
global-warming potential of HFCs.[1][2][3] HFOs
currently in use include
2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene (HFO-1234yf) and
1,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene (HFO-1234ze).[1][4]
1-chloro-3,3,3-trifluoropropene (HFO-1233zd) is
also under development.[5]
Same operating conditions as 134a (similar P
vs T curve
Capacity and efficiency similar to HFC-134a
HFO-1234yf
is a hydrofluoroolefin (HFO) with the formula
CH2=CFCF3. It is marketed under the name
Opteon YF by Chemours and as Solstice YF by
Honeywell.
HFO-1234yf has a global warming potential
(GWP) of less than 1,[3][4] compared to 1,430
for R-134a[5] and 1 for carbon dioxide. This
colorless gas is being used as a replacement for
R-134a as a refrigerant in automobile air
conditioners. As of 2018, 50% of new vehicles
from "original equipment manufacturers"
(OEMs) are estimated to use HFO-1234yf.[6]
R449A (Opteon XP40)
Opteon® XP40 (R449A) is a next-generation
HFO-based refrigerant that combines excellent
cooling performance with improved energy
efficiency and environmental properties. With a
GWP of just 1397, it provides a long-term
refrigerant solution. R449A is designed for use
in positive displacement direct expansion low
and medium temperature commercial and
industrial applications. It is suitable for new
installations and the straightforward retrofit of
existing systems.
HYDROCARBON
Hydrocarbon Refrigerants are natural, nontoxic
refrigerants that have no ozone depleting
properties and absolutely minimal global
warming potential. The most efficient and
environmentally safe refrigerants in the world
are the five natural refrigerants which are Air,
Water, Carbon Dioxide, Ammonia and
Hydrocarbons. We call them ‘The Famous Five’.
All existing Fluorocarbon Refrigerants will be
phased out in some shape or form over the
coming years because of their ozone depleting
properties or global warming potential.
However, there is an answer created by nature,
not by a chemical company — Hydrocarbon
Refrigerants.

HYDROCARBON
Hydrocarbon Refrigerants are not just good for
the environment; they can also save you up to
54% on your energy costs. Air-conditioning
systems are the largest consumers of electricity
for any building. The energy used in cooling
generally accounts for 60% of buildings total
energy consumption. By converting to
hydrocarbon refrigerants, substantial energy
savings can become a reality.
Hydrocarbon Refrigerants are 50% more
efficient conductors of heat than Fluorocarbon
Refrigerants and their operating pressures are
about 20% lower than that of Fluorocarbon
Refrigerants. These lower operating discharge
pressures reduce the work that the compressor
has to do thus reducing wear and tear. There is
less pressure on pipe work, joints, hoses, fittings
and the like reducing the likelihood of leaks.
This can and will extend the working life of your
equipment.
HYDROCARBON
The following types of hydrocarbons are
commonly used as refrigerants:
R290 Propane
R600a Isobutane
R1270 Propylene
A number of other hydrocarbons, such as
blends containing ethane, propane or butane,
are also used as refrigerants.
Which synthetic refrigerants can be replaced?
The following refrigerants (HFC) can be replaced
by hydrocarbons (HC):
Carbon Dioxide (R744)
In the early days of refrigeration the two
refrigerants in common use were ammonia and
carbon dioxide. Both were problematic -
ammonia is toxic and carbon dioxide requires
extremely high presures (from around 30 to 200
atmospheres!) to operate in a refrigeration
cycle, and since it operates on a transcritical
cycle the compressor outlet temperature is
extremely high (around 160°C). When Freon 12
(dichloro-diflouro-methane) was discovered it
totally took over as the refrigerant of choice. It
is an extremely stable, non toxic fluid, which
does not interact with the compressor lubricant,
and operates at pressures always somewhat
higher than atmospheric, so that if any leakage
occured, air would not leak into the system,
thus one could recharge without having to apply
vacuum.
Carbon Dioxide (R744)
Unfortunately when the refrigerant does
ultimately leak and make its way up to the
ozone layer the ultraviolet radiation breaks up
the molecule releasing the highly active chlorine
radicals, which help to deplete the ozone layer.
Freon 12 has since been banned from usage on
a global scale, and has been essentially replaced
by chlorine free R134a (tetraflouro-ethane) -
not as stable as Freon 12, however it does not
have ozone depletion characteristics.
Recently, however, the international scientific
consensus is that Global Warming is caused by
human energy related activity, and various man
made substances are defined on the basis of a
Global Warming Potential (GWP) with reference
to carbon dioxide (GWP = 1). R134a has been
found to have a GWP of 1300 and in Europe,
within a few years, automobile air conditioning
systems will be barred from using R134a as a
refrigerant.
Carbon Dioxide (R744)
The new hot topic is a return to carbon dioxide
as a refrigerant. The previous two major
problems of high pressure and high compressor
temperature are found in fact to be
advantageous. The very high cycle pressure
results in a high fluid density throughout the
cycle, allowing miniturization of the systems for
the same heat pumping power requirements.
Furthermore the high outlet temperature will
allow instant defrosting of automobile
windshields (we don't have to wait until the car
engine warms up) and can be used for
combined space heating and hot water heating
in home usage.
Solutions for CO2 in industrial refrigeration
Industrial refrigeration is the first area where
CO2 has made a successful comeback. CO2 in
industrial refrigeration is used either as the
low-stage refrigerant in cascade installations, or
as a secondary coolant. Danfoss has more than
15 years of experience in developing
components for sub-critical CO2 systems and
offers a complete range of valves for those
applications, including:Control valves
Line components
Complete valve stations
Filter-driers
Sensors (temperature, pressure, level, gas
detectors)
AMMONIA (R717)
Ammonia has widely been used in refrigeration
equipment for more than a
century and has been employed in a large range
of industrial activities . It is one of the oldest
refrigerants and it is very commonly used in
industrial processing and storage of food.
The GWP and ODP of ammonia is zero.
Although it is toxic, it has been safely used on a
large scale throughout the world in applications
such as food processing and air conditioning.
Ammonia has also been employed in confined
systems in various commercial applications and
water chillers. The thermodynamic
characteristics of ammonia make it a very
efficient refrigerant in vapour compression
systems.
AMMONIA (R717)
Despite the fact that it is very poisonous at
relatively low concentrations, fatal accidents
resulted
from ammonia are not common, because even
at very low concentrations it can be easily be
identified
by its pungent smell. With the introduction of
the screw compressors, which overcomes the
problem
of the high discharge temperature and the
advent of plate thermal exchangers operating
on volumes of
refrigerant, production of simple systems
operating on ammonia has been made
achievable.
Owing to its environment friendly properties,
ammonia is a candidate for much wider use if
safety
measures and training of technicians are well
implemented. The RAC sector especially in
Northern
Europe is showing new interest in ammonia
applications for its market .
However, due to its flammability and
corrosiveness to skin, its usage in warmer
regions which
commonly use bigger chillers close to highly
populated areas is limited [16]. In Mauritius,
only a few
minor accidents concerning ammonia have
been reported.
HFO BLENDS
R134a is used in medium temperature
refrigeration, chillers, and automotive air
conditioning.
The application range is approximately +20 °C to
–20 °C. R134a was introduced
as the most suitable replacement for R12.
The HFC blends are designed as replacements
for R22 and R502, since no single-compound
synthetic refrigerant has comparable properties.
R502 is an azeotropic blend
with properties similar to those of a
single-compound refrigerant. It is mainly being
replaced by zeotropic HFC blends
HFO BLENDS
R404A and R507
These are blends intended to replace R22,
primarily for medium- and
low-temperature refrigeration. The application
range is approximately –5 °C to
–45 °C. R404A is a zeotropic ternary blend,
while R507 is a binary azeotropic blend.
HFO BLENDS
R407C
This a ternary zeotropic blend intended to
replace R22, primarily in air conditioning and
heat pump equipment. The application range is
approximately +10 °C to –15 °C. It is popular due
to its good match with the pressure and
refrigeration capacity
characteristics of R22.
HFO BLENDS
R410A
This is a binary HFC blend that at present is
primarily used as a replacement for R22 in
new air conditioning and heat pump systems.
The application range is approximately
+10 °C to –45 °C. Additionally R410A has been
used successfully in industrial applications
down to -60°C.
Thisrefrigerant offerssignificant cooling capacity,
but at the price of high system pressure,
so the cooling system and the various
components must be designed for high
pressure. As a consequence, R410A cannot be
used for retrofits. The use of R410A for
air conditioning is growing rapidly. R410A is also
now being considered for refrigeration
use. R32 is becoming a moderate GWP
alternative to R410A. It is less expensive
than R410A and production capacities are high.
R32 is a mildly flammable refrigerant
and must be handled according to this.
WATER (R718)
Water as a refrigerant is the unrivalled
alternative. None of the environmental and
safety regulations relating to the current and
future operation and maintenance of
refrigeration units apply to water (R718). That
lowers the equipment, operating and
maintenance costs, secures your investment,
and has a positive effect on the future of our
global climate.
After a lifetime of use in the eChiller, the water
contained in its closed-loop system can be
released back into the environment.
There is simply no better solution –
economically or environmentally – to your
cooling applications.
Water has further outstanding properties
Refrigerant Derivatives
Capanay, Jomar E.
Perez, Mhon Aldrin H.
Zara, Ramil S.

The figure shows the classification of fluids used
as refrigerants in vapour compression
refrigeration systems. Since a large number of
refrigerants have been developed over the
years for a wide variety of applications, a
numbering system has been adopted to
designate various refrigerants. From the
number one can get some useful information
about the type of refrigerant, its chemical
composition, molecular weight etc. All the
refrigerants are designated by R followed by a
unique number.
Designation of refrigerants:
Fully saturated, halogenated compounds:
These refrigerants are derivatives of
alkanes (CnH2n+2) such as methane (CH4),
ethane (C2H6). These refrigerants are
designated by R XYZ, where: X+1 indicates the
number of Carbon (C) atoms Y-1 indicates
number of Hydrogen (H) atoms, and Z indicates
number of Fluorine (F) atoms.
ii) Inorganic refrigerants:
These are designated by number 7
followed by the molecular weight of the
refrigerant (rounded-off).
iii) Mixtures:
Azeotropic mixtures are designated by
500 series, where as zeotropic refrigerants (e.g.
non-azeotropic mixtures) are designated by 400
series.
PARAMETERS FOR HEAT LOAD CALCULATIONS
INTRODUCTION
The primary intent
of this chapter is to examine procedures for
evaluating the impact of the thermal
characteristics of the building envelope on the
design of HVAC systems used to maintain
comfort. As the objective of the system is to
provide comfort, however, it is advisable to
begin woth a brief discussion of the factors
which influence comfort.
HEALTH AND COMFORT CRITERIA
The human body is an amazingly
adaptable organism. With long-term
conditioning the body can function under quite
extreme thermal conditions. Variations in
outdoor temperature and humidity, however,
often go beyond the normal limits of
adaptibility, and it becomes necessary to
provide modified conditions indoors in order to
maintain healthy, confortable environment.
THERMAL COMFORT
The figure illustrates the factors that
influence thermal comfort. First, body heat is
generated by metabolic processes to maintain
body temperature. MEtabolic processes are
influenced by such factors as age, health, and
level of activity.
The body is continuously
generating heat, which must be dissipated to
maintain a constant body temperature.
Four environmental
fctors influence the body's ability to dissipate
heat: air temperature, the temperature of the
surrounding surface, humidity, and air velocity.
The amount and type of clothing and the
activity levels of the occupants interct with
these factors. In designing an air-conditioning
system we turn our attention to the control of
these four factors. If a person is wearing
appropriate clothing, the following ranges
should be acceptable.
Operative temperature: 20 to 26 C
Humidity, a dew-point temperature of 2 to 17 C
Average air velocity, up to 0.25 m/s
AIR QUALITY
Air quality must also be maintained to
provide a healthy, comfortable indoor
environment. Sources of pollution exist in both
the internal and external environment.
 Indoor air quality is controlled by
removal of the contaminant or by dilution.
Ventilations plays an important role in both
process.
Ventilation is defined as supplying air by natural
or mechanical means to a space. Normally,
ventilation air is made up of outdoor air
andreticulated air.
If the level of contaminants in outdoor
air exceeds that for minimum air-quality
standards, extraordinary measures beyond the
scope of this text must be used. For the present
discussion it will be presumed that the
outdoor-air quality is satisfactory for dillution
purposes.
Table 4-1
presents outdoor-air requirement for
ventilation for three occupancy types listed in
the standard. As noted in the table, much larger
quantities of air are required for dillution in
areas where smoking is permitted.
The ASHRAE standard provides the
following procedure for determining the
allowabel rate for recirculation
Example: Determine the ventilation rate,
outdoor-air rate, and recirculated-air for an
office-building meeting room if smooking is
permitted. An air-cleaning device with E=60
percentfor removal of tobacco smoke is
available.
Solution: Table 4-1 indicates that 17.5 L/s of
outdoor air per person would be required to
ventilate the space without any recirculation
and air cleaning. The table also indicate that 3.5
L/s per person is the required outdoor-air rate
for non-smoking spaces and may be assumed,
for purposes of this exmple, to be the minimum
rate. There are two possible solution for this
design problem: (a) supply 17.5 L/s of outdoor
air per person or (b) calculate the allowable
recirculation rate and corresponding ventilation
rate as follows:
ESTIMATING HEAT LOSS AND HEAT GAIN
Heat transfer through a building
envelope is influenced by the materials used; by
geometric factors such as size, shape, and
orientation; by the existence of internal heat
sources; and by climatic factors. System design
requires each of these factors to be examined
and the impact of their interactions to be
carefully evaluated.
The primary function of heat-loss and
heat-gain calculations is to estimate the
capacity that will be required for the various
heating and air-conditioning components
necessary to maintain comfort within a space.
These calculations are therefore based
on peak-load conditions for heating and cooling
and correspond to environmental conditions
which are near the extremes normally
encountered.
A number of load-calculations
procedures have been developed over the years.
Those developed y ASHRAE will be used here.
Although others differ in some respects, they
are all beased on systematic evaluation of
components of heat loss and heat gain.
Transmission - Heat loss or heat gain due to
temperature difference across a building
element.
Solar - heat gain due to transmission of solar
energy through a transparent building
component or absorption by an opaque building
component.
Infiltration - heat loss or heat gain due to
infiltration of outside air into a conditioned
space.
Internal - heat gain due to the release of energy Solution: From table 4-3 the summer design
within a space (lights, people, equipment, etc.) conditions are given as

DESIGN CONDITION Summer design dry-bulb temperature = 33 C

The design condition usually specified Coincident wet-bulb temperature = 15 C

for estimating heating loads are the inside and
outside dry-bulb temperatures. For heating
operation an indoor temperature of 20 to 22 C
is generally assumed, and for cooling operation
24to 26 C is typical.
A minimum relative humidity of 30% in
the winter and a maximum of 60% n the
summer is also assumed. For heating operation
of 97.5% value of the outside dry-bulb
temperature is usually chosen.
Assuming that no special requirement
exist, an inside design temperature of 25 C and
60% realtive humidity is chosen. The winter
design outside temperature is -17 C from table
4-3 and if no special requirement exist, an inside
design temperature of 20 C and 30% relative
humidity is chosen.

It should be noted tht the inside design

temperature only limits the conditions that can
The set of conditions specified for
be maintained in extreme weather. During
cooling-load estimates is more complex and
heating operation, when the outside
includes dry-bulb temperature, humidity, and
temperature is above the outside design value,
solar intensity. Peak-load conditions during the
an inside temperature greater than 20 C can be
cooling season usually corresponds to the
maintained if desired.
maximum solar conditions rather than to the
peak outdoor-air temperature. Thus, it is often THERMAL TRANSMISSION
necessary to make several calculations at
ifferent times of the day or times of the year to The general procedure for calculating
fix the appropriate maximum-cooling-capacity heat loss or heat gain by thermal transmission
requirements. is:

Table 4-3 provides outdoor design

temperature data for a number of locations.
The overall heat-transfer coefficient U is
The table provides the 97.5% dry-bulb
a function of the thermal resistances. Table 4-4
temperature for the winter and 2.5% dry-bulb
provides values of thermal resistances
and coincident wet-bulb temperature for
applicable to 1 m2 of surface for commonly
summer. The 2.5% dry-bulb temperature is the
used building materials, enclosed air spaces,
temperature exceeded by the 2.5% of the hours
and building envelope boundaries.
during Jun to September.
The example illustrate determination of
Mean coincident wet-bulb
the U value of a typical wall cross section. The
temperature is the mean wet-bulb temperature
areas used in the transmission calculations are
occuring at that 2.5% dry-bulb temperature.
nominal inside areas of the spaces.

Example: Determine the total resistance of a

Example: Select outside and inside design unit area of the wall section shown in the figure.
temperatures for a building to be constructed in
Denver, Colorado.
 For slab-on grade-construction the heat
loss is more nearly proportional to the length of
the parameter of the slab (in meters) than its
area. Thus
INFILTRATION AND VENTILATION LOADS
The entry of outside air into the space
influences both air temperaure and the
humidity level in the space. Usually a distinction
is made between the two effects, referring to
the temperature effect as sensible load and the
humidity effect as latent load.
This applies to other load component.
For example, transmission and solar loads are
sensible, as they affect only temperature, while
internal loads arising from occupancy have both
sensible and latent component. Heat loss or
heat gain due to entry of outside air is expresses
as:
For our purposes we define ventilation as
the air intentionally brought into the building by
mechanical means.
Of course, the air entering must also leave by
natural means, i.e., exfiltration, or be exhausted
by mechanical means.
The number of air changes per hour for
a smaller building with no internal
pressurization can be estimated as a function of
wind velocity ans temperature difference
SUMMARY OF PROCEDURE FOR ESTIMATING
HEATING LOADS
Select design values for outdoor winter design
(97.5% value) from table 4-3.
Select an indoor design temperature
appropriate to the activities to be caiired out in
the space and a minimum acceptable realtive
humidity.
Determine whether amy special conditions will
exist, such as adjacent unconditioned spaces.
Estimate temperatures in the unconditioned
space necessary.
On the basis of building plans and specifications,
calculate heat-transfer coefficients and areas
for the building components in each enclosing
surface. Any surfaces connecting with with
spaces to be maintained at the same
temperature may be omitted i.e., interior walls
On the basis of building components, system
design and operation, wind velocity, and
indoor-outdoor temperature difference,
estimate the rate of infiltration and/or
ventilation outside air. Note that the latent
component of the infiltration and/or ventilation
load is included only if the conditioned air is to
be humidified to maintain a specified minimum
indoor humidity level. Humidification is often
omitted from air-conditioning systems in mild
climates.
Using the above design data, compute
transmission heat losses for each surface of the
building envelope and the heat loss from
infiltration and/or ventialtion. Sum these values
to determine the total estimated heat loss and
the required capacity of the heating equipment
Consider any special circumstances that might
influence equipment sizing. Three
circumstances may influence equipment
capacity
a.) If a building and its heating system are
designed to take advantage of passive
solar gain and thermal storage, heating
capacities should be based on dynamic rather
than static heat-loss analysis.
b.) In a building that has an appreciable steady
internal load (heat release) at the time of the
maximum transmission and ventilation heat loss,
heating-equipment capacity may be reduced by
the amount of the internal heat release. An
example would be a hospital or industrial
building which operates on a 24-h basis.

c.) A building that does not operate on a

continuous basis and indoor temperatures are
allowed to drop over a lengthy unoccupied
period, additional capacity may be required to
bring the air temperature and building indoor
surface temperatures back to an acceptable
level in a short time. An alternative to the
additional capacity is to bring the heating
system into operation earlier and allow the
building to heat more gradually.