Lithium Ion Battery

Background
Lithium ion (Li-Ion) batteries are one of the most potent sources of energy, which are used to
produce and back up electrical energy. Their high energy and power densities make them ideal
to power high performance machines and devices [1]. Li-Ion batteries are already used in
modern electrical vehicles, cellphones, laptop computers and many other devices [2]. However,
substantial safety issues were faced during the operations of systems using Li-Ion batteries [3].
These issues were generally related to thermal behavior of these batteries [3, 4]. While even
today’s Li-Ion batteries cannot be used as completely safe equipment, the higher performance
batteries of the future will possibly create more safety problems due to their higher energy and
power densities. Therefore, understanding and modeling of thermal behavior of Li-Ion batteries
is essential.

Source: THERMAL MODELING OF LITHIUM ION BATTERIES by EMRE GÜMÜŞSU

Terminology

Battery Basics

 Cell, modules, and packs – Hybrid and electric vehicles have a high voltage battery pack
that consists of individual modules and cells organized in series and parallel. A cell is the
smallest, packaged form a battery can take and is generally on the order of one to six
volts. A module consists of several cells generally connected in either series or parallel.
A battery pack is then assembled by connecting modules together, again either in series
or parallel.

 Battery Classifications – Not all batteries are created equal, even batteries of the same
chemistry. The main trade-off in battery development is between power and energy:
batteries can be either high-power or high-energy, but not both. Often manufacturers
will classify batteries using these categories. Other common classifications are High
Durability, meaning that the chemistry has been modified to provide higher battery life
at the expense of power and energy.

 C- and E- rates – In describing batteries, discharge current is often expressed as a C-rate

in order to normalize against battery capacity, which is often very different between
batteries. A C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is discharged relative to its
 maximum capacity. A 1C rate means that the discharge current will discharge the entire
battery in 1 hour. For a battery with a capacity of 100 Amp-hrs, this equates to a
discharge current of 100 Amps. A 5C rate for this battery would be 500 Amps, and a C/2
rate would be 50 Amps. Similarly, an E-rate describes the discharge power. A 1E rate is
the discharge power to discharge the entire battery in 1 hour.

 Secondary and Primary Cells – Although it may not sound like it, batteries for hybrid,
plug-in, and electric vehicles are all secondary batteries. A primary battery is one that
cannot be recharged. A secondary battery is one that is rechargeable.

Battery Condition
This section describes some of the variables used to describe the present condition of a battery.

 State of Charge (SOC)(%) – An expression of the present battery capacity as a

percentage of maximum capacity. SOC is generally calculated using current integration
to determine the change in battery capacity over time.

 Depth of Discharge (DOD) (%) – The percentage of battery capacity that has been
discharged expressed as a percentage of maximum capacity. A discharge to at least 80 %
DOD is referred to as a deep discharge.

 Terminal Voltage (V) – The voltage between the battery terminals with load applied.
Terminal voltage varies with SOC and discharge/charge current.

 Open-circuit voltage (V) – The voltage between the battery terminals with no load
applied. The open-circuit voltage depends on the battery state of charge, increasing
with state of charge.

 Internal Resistance – The resistance within the battery, generally different for charging
and discharging, also dependent on the battery state of charge. As internal resistance
increases, the battery efficiency decreases and thermal stability is reduced as more of
the charging energy is converted into heat.

Battery Technical Specifications

This section explains the specifications you may see on battery technical specification sheets
used to describe battery cells, modules, and packs.

 Nominal Voltage (V) – The reported or reference voltage of the battery, also sometimes
thought of as the “normal” voltage of the battery.
 Cut-off Voltage – The minimum allowable voltage. It is this voltage that generally
defines the “empty” state of the battery.

 Capacity or Nominal Capacity (Ah for a specific C-rate) – The coulometric capacity, the
total Amp-hours available when the battery is discharged at a certain discharge current
(specified as a C-rate) from 100 percent state-of-charge to the cut-off voltage. Capacity
is calculated by multiplying the discharge current (in Amps) by the discharge time (in
hours) and decreases with increasing C-rate.

 Energy or Nominal Energy (Wh (for a specific C-rate)) – The “energy capacity” of the
battery, the total Watt-hours available when the battery is discharged at a certain
discharge current (specified as a C-rate) from 100 percent state-of-charge to the cut-off
voltage. Energy is calculated by multiplying the discharge power (in Watts) by the
discharge time (in hours). Like capacity, energy decreases with increasing C-rate.

 Cycle Life (number for a specific DOD) – The number of discharge-charge cycles the
battery can experience before it fails to meet specific performance criteria. Cycle life is
estimated for specific charge and discharge conditions. The actual operating life of the
battery is affected by the rate and depth of cycles and by other conditions such as
temperature and humidity. The higher the DOD, the lower the cycle life.

 Specific Energy (Wh/kg) – The nominal battery energy per unit mass, sometimes
referred to as the gravimetric energy density. Specific energy is a characteristic of the
battery chemistry and packaging. Along with the energy consumption of the vehicle, it
determines the battery weight required to achieve a given electric range.

 Specific Power (W/kg) – The maximum available power per unit mass. Specific power is
a characteristic of the battery chemistry and packaging. It determines the battery
weight required to achieve a given performance target.

 Energy Density (Wh/L) – The nominal battery energy per unit volume, sometimes
referred to as the volumetric energy density. Specific energy is a characteristic of the
battery chemistry and packaging. Along with the energy consumption of the vehicle, it
determines the battery size required to achieve a given electric range.

 Power Density (W/L) – The maximum available power per unit volume. Specific power is
a characteristic of the battery chemistry and packaging. It determines the battery size
required to achieve a given performance target.
  Maximum Continuous Discharge Current – The maximum current at which the battery
can be discharged continuously. This limit is usually defined by the battery manufacturer
in order to prevent excessive discharge rates that would damage the battery or reduce
its capacity. Along with the maximum continuous power of the motor, this defines the
top sustainable speed and acceleration of the vehicle.

 Maximum 30-sec Discharge Pulse Current –The maximum current at which the battery
can be discharged for pulses of up to 30 seconds. This limit is usually defined by the
battery manufacturer in order to prevent excessive discharge rates that would damage
the battery or reduce its capacity. Along with the peak power of the electric motor, this
defines the acceleration performance (0-60 mph time) of the vehicle.

 Charge Voltage – The voltage that the battery is charged to when charged to full
capacity. Charging schemes generally consist of a constant current charging until the
battery voltage reaching the charge voltage, then constant voltage charging, allowing
the charge current to taper until it is very small.

 Float Voltage – The voltage at which the battery is maintained after being charge to 100
percent SOC to maintain that capacity by compensating for self-discharge of the battery.

 (Recommended) Charge Current – The ideal current at which the battery is initially
charged (to roughly 70 percent SOC) under constant charging scheme before
transitioning into constant voltage charging.

 (Maximum) Internal Resistance – The resistance within the battery, generally different
for charging and discharging.

Source: A Guide to Understanding Battery Specifications; MIT Electric Vehicle Team, December
2008
Different Shapes of Lithium Ion Battery

Cylindrical cells have spiral wound structure and are easier to manufacture with
a good mechanical stability. However, they have relatively a low packing energy density.
Prismatic cells have jelly roll or stacked layer structures with high packing efficiency and are
more expensive to manufacture. Pouch cells, which could be considered as thin prismatic cells
within a flexible enclosure. They have stacked layer structure with higher energy density than
the prismatic and cylindrical cell, and provide more flexibility of the design aspect and are
relatively less expensive. However, they remain mechanically vulnerable, and require a strong
case for the module packaging
Composition Details a cylindrical lithium-ion cell
The components in the cylindrical cell can be classified into three major groups: a jellyroll,
current connectors, and safety devices. Figure 3 demonstrates a structure of a cylindrical lithium-ion
battery cell.

Figure 3: A structure of a cylindrical lithium-ion battery cell

A Jellyroll
A jellyroll design is used to fabricate a positive electrode, a negative electrode, and two separators into a
cylindrical can. After finish electrode sheet preparations, the jellyroll fabrication begins with layering
down a separator sheet then a layer of a negative electrode, a separator sheet and a positive electrode,
respectively. Then, the sandwich is rolled up to make an electrochemical cell for a cylindrical cell. More
details of each layer are provided below:

 Positive electrode
The positive electrode or the cathode is a compound of materials coating on an aluminum foil.
Common cathode materials are Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2), Lithium Manganese Oxide
(LiMnO2), Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4), Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (or NMC)
and Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (or NCA).

 Negative electrode
The negative electrode or the anode is a compound of carbon materials coating on a copper foil.
Graphite is the most popular use for the carbon materials.
  Separators
A separator is a very thin porous plastic sheet used to insulate between two electrodes. The
separator allows lithium-ion atoms pass through but does not allow electrons pass through it.
The separator is required to have high porosity, thin sheet, as well as the ability to be soaked in
electrolyte. The thickness of separators is typically on the order of 20 micrometer. A separator
can be made of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), or composite materials of PE and PP.

Current Connectors
Current connectors are conductive materials used to transmit electrons from a device to another device.
A cylindrical lithium-ion battery cell consists of four current connectors:

 Positive terminal
A positive terminal is a conductive material used to connect the positive terminal of the
cylindrical cell to the positive terminal of a device. The positive terminal is the projection at the
top of the battery. Most positive terminal materials are stainless steel. The stainless steel has
high strength and high corrosion resistant.

 Negative terminal
A negative terminal is a conductive material used to connect the negative terminal of the
battery cell to the negative terminal of a device. The negative terminal is located at the bottom
of the battery cell. Stainless steel is often used for manufacturing the negative terminal.

 Positive terminal lead

A positive terminal lead is a thin strip of metal used to connect the positive electrode with the
positive terminal. The positive terminal lead is made from aluminum alloys.

 Negative terminal lead

A negative terminal lead is a thin strip of metal used to connect the negative electrode with the
negative terminal. Many manufacturers often use a can case as a negative terminal. Hence, the
negative terminal lead typically is welded to the cylindrical can. Nickel alloy typically is used for
fabricating the negative terminal lead.

Safety Devices
Safety devices are very important for using any types of lithium-ion batteries because lithium is highly
energetic materials and electrolyte is flammable. Therefore, manufacturers implement several safety
devices into cylindrical lithium-ion battery cells.

 Case
A case is a portable container for carrying and covering the jellyroll. The electrodes and the
separators are very thin and soft materials. They can be deformed easily by applying small
forces. The can must have ability to withstand external forces and internal pressures without
deforming. Stainless steel is typically used for manufacturing a can.
  Insulation plate
An insulation plate is a thin circular plastic sheet used to prevent short circuit between two
conductors. There are two insulation plates in the cylindrical cell. The first plate is located
between the bottom of the jellyroll and the bottom of the can. The second plate is located
between the top of the jellyroll and the gasket.

 Gasket
A gasket is an insulating material used to tightly fill a space between the can and the positive
terminal. At the final step of the cylindrical cell fabrication, the cap of the cell is compressed by
high compression load to seal the can with the cap. Because the can is connected to the
negative terminal lead, the gasket is used to prevent the transmission of electricity between the
positive terminal and the negative terminal. The gasket is also required to have ability to
withstand high compressive loads.

 Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) element

A positive temperature coefficient element is a conductive composite material used to protect
the batteries by limiting current at high temperatures. When the temperature of the batteries is
above the cut-off temperature, the resistance of the PTC will be increased significantly. The
current going in or out of the batteries will be decreased. The PTC element is located between
the positive terminal and the anti-explosive valve.

 Anti-explosive valve
An anti-explosive valve is a mechanical device used to prevent an explosion of the batteries.
When the pressure inside the can is increased dramatically, the anti-explosive valve will be
broken by the internal pressure force. The internal circuit of the batteries will be opened.
Therefore, the batteries cannot be used anymore. The anti-explosive valve is located between
the PTC element and the insulation plate.

 Exhaust gas hole

Exhaust gas holes are a venting mechanism used to releases excess gases when the anti-
explosive valve is opened. The holes are located at the positive terminal of the battery. Gasses
inside the cylindrical cell are generally generated from unusual operation, for example,
overcharging, physical cell damage, and internal short-circuits.

Source: http://sites.psu.edu/pxp940/wpcontent/uploads/sites/14275/2014/08/Poowanart Assignment

4 revised.pdf

Poowanart_Assign
ment_4_revised.pdf
18650 Lithium-ion battery thermal property

Source#1:
Safety Study of Three Types of Lithium Ion Batteries (07771723 IEEE)
Rui Zhao, Sijie Zhang, Junjie Gu, and Jie Liu, Senior Member, IEEE
Dept of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Source: Tools for Designing Thermal Management of Batteries in Electric Drive Vehicles by:
Ahmad Pesaran, Ph. D., Matt Keyser, Gi-Heon Kim, Shiram Santhanagopalan, Kandler Smith
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Golden Colorado
Presented in Pasadena, CA Feb 2013
Source: A Three-Dimensional Thermal-Electrochemical Coupled Model For Wound Large-
Format Lithium-Ion Batteries by: Kyu-Jin Lee, Kandler Smith, Gi-Heon Kim
Source: Three-Dimensional Lithium-Ion Battery Model by:
Gi-Heon Kim and Kandler Smith
NREL

THERMAL MODELING OF LITHIUM ION BATTERIES by Emre GÜMÜŞSU

aafe563956b94dee9
7c719a4a05498ac457d.pdf
Positive temperature coefficient (PTC)

Battery Loss calculation

Thermal simulation result

Table of property and sources

 Source Thermal Conductivity Density, kg/m3 Specific Heat
In-plane Through Plane
1 3 3 2400
2 1 10-100
3 0.8-1.1 28-35 1105
4 3.4 25.1 2118 1240
5

Thermal Simulation

Thermal considerations for BMS

Impact of temperature on the battery behaviors
A thermal management system for batteries is needed because of the best optimal
temperatures of the batteries do not comply completely with the possible operating
temperatures of the vehicle. The best temperature range of ambient temperature for Liion
batteries is situated between 25°C and 40°C [39], while the operation range of a vehicle is
possible between -30°C and 60°C depending on the geographic regions and climatic zones.
Phenomena that occur when the temperature exceeds the prescribed limits are briefly
summarized in Table 2.1 [39]. Global trends of battery behaviors are related to the
chemistry, design and manufacturer of the battery package. Low temperature induces to the
capacity drop and internal resistance increase due to the lower chemical activity. The increase
in resistance will result in a higher heat generation. However, high temperature leads to an
increase of the internal resistance, to self-discharge and in worst case to thermal runaway.
These phenomena may reduce battery performance and lifetime [40]􀂲
[42].
Table 2.1: Influence of temperature on working principle of batteries: global trends

Source: Battery Electrical Vehicles- Analysis of Thermal Modelling and Thermal Management by
Ahmadou Samba
Source:
Designing Safe Lithium-Ion Battery Packs Using Thermal Abuse Models
Ahmad A. Pesaran, Gi-Heon Kim, Kandler Smith
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Eric C. Darcy
NASA Johnson Space Center

Panasonic specs

Charging operating temp: 10°C to 45°C

Discharging operating temp: -10°C to 60°C

Storage temp: -20°C to 50°C

Industry Application

Reference

http://sites.psu.edu/pxp940/wpcontent/uploads/sites/14275/2014/08/Poowanart Assignment 4
revised.pdf
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Comsol White paper

Most of the losses, for example ohmic losses and activation overpotentials, generate heat in the battery. In addition,
in cold weather and during startup, the battery system may require heating in order to work. The cooling and heating
of the battery system require thermal management.
Using a physics-based model, the different sources of heat are directly available from the model, see Figure 5.
When designing a battery cell or pack, the heat dissipation must be fast enough to avoid that the battery reaches
temperatures where decomposition reactions of the electrode and electrolytes start (> 80°C). The decomposition
reactions are exothermic, which implies that the temperature will continue to increase when decomposition starts.
This event is called thermal runaway and it leads to the destruction of the cell. The temperature on the surface of
cells can be monitored during experimental testing. The advantage of using a thermal model is that the
temperature inside the cell can be estimated from the measurement at the surface. This allows for studying
unwanted effects such as internal short circuits, where hot spots may be the cause of thermal runaway.

Finite Element Thermal Model and Simulation

for a Cylindrical Li-Ion Battery
ZHENPO WANG, JUN MA, AND LEI ZHANG, (Member, IEEE)