Battery Rating

Rating of a battery is determined by the current it can produce and the time for which it can
sustain this current.

Common battery ratings in use are:

1. Cold Cranking Amperes (CCA)

2. Reserve Capacity (RC)
3. Amp-Hours (AH)
4. Power (Watts)

Cold Cranking Amperes (CCA)

This capacity rating applies to the ability of the battery to provide the required energy
to drive a prime mover e.g. car engine.
In this case, it refers to the ability of the battery to provide energy to crank an engine
during starting.
This will entail a large discharge in a short time.
The CCA rating of a battery specifies in amperes the discharge load a fully charged
battery at 0°F can deliver for 30 seconds while maintaining a voltage of at least 1.2
volts per cell

Reserve Capacity (RC)

This describes the ability of a battery to provide emergency energy for a given time to
meet certain load demands should the battery charging system fails.
This will require adequate battery capacity at normal temperatures for certain period
of time.
The RC rating of a battery specifies in minutes, the length of time a fully charged
battery at 80°F (26.7°C) can be discharged at 25 Amps while maintaining a voltage of
at least 1.75 volts per cell

Amp-Hours (AH)
The Amp-Hour (AH) rating of a battery is the most popular and commonly used
rating of a battery. It is often called the 20-hour discharge rating.
The Amp-Hour rating of a battery specifies in amp-hours, the current the battery can
provide in 20 hours at 80°F (26.7°C) while maintaining a voltage of at least 1.75 volts
per cell.
Amp-Hour (AH) = Current x Time (Hours)
A battery that delivers 10Amps for 20hrs has a capacity of = 10 x 20 = 200AH.

Power (Watts)
For prime mover applications where the power is required to provide cranking power,
its capacity can also be rated in watts.
The power rating of a battery in watt is determined by multiplying the current
available by the battery voltage at 0°F (-17.8°C)
The most common tests on batteries:

i. Voltage: Battery voltage reflects state-of-charge in an open circuit condition

when rested. Voltage alone cannot estimate battery state-of-health (SoH).
ii. Ohmic test: Measuring internal resistance identifies corrosion and mechanical
defects when high. Although these anomalies indicate the end of battery life, they
often do not correlate with low capacity. The ohmic test is also known as impedance
test.
iii. Full cycle: A full cycle consists of charge/discharge/charge to read the capacity of
the chemical battery. This provides the most accurate readings and calibrates the
smart battery to correct tracking errors, but the service is time consuming and causes
stress.
iv. Rapid-test: Common test methods include time domain by activating the battery
with pulses to observe ion-flow in Li-ion, and frequency domain by scanning a
battery with multiple frequencies. Advanced rapid-test technologies require complex
software with battery-specific parameters and matrices serving as lookup tables.
v. Battery Management Systems (BMS): estimate State of charging by monitoring
voltage, current and temperature. BMS for Li-ion also counts in coulombs.
vi. Coulomb counting: The Full Charge Capacity (FCC) of a smart battery provides
coulomb count that relates to SoH. FCC readout is instant but the data gets inaccurate
with use and the battery requires calibration with a full cycle.
vii. Read-and-Charge (RAC): A charger featuring RAC technology reads battery state
of Charge with a proprietary filtering algorithm and then counts the coulombs to fill
the battery. RAC requires a onetime calibration for each battery model; cycling a
good pack provides this parameter that is stored in the battery adapters
viii. State-of-Life-Indicator (SOLI): Estimates battery life by counting the total
coulombs a battery can deliver in its life. A new battery starts at 100%; delivered
coulombs decrease the number until the allotment is spent and a battery replacement
is imminent. The full scale is set by calculating the coulomb count of 1 cycle based on
the manufacturer’s specifications (V, Ah) and then by multiplying the number with
the given cycle count. SOLI can be used in wheelchairs, medical devices, traction and
UPS, installed when new or added as retrofit. Wireless connectivity provides fleet
management.
MAINTENANCE SAFETY AND OPERATIONAL FEATURES

Maintenance

It is common for industrial lead-acid batteries to function for periods of 10 years or longer.
Proper maintenance can ensure this extended useful life. Five basic rules of proper
maintenance are:

1. Match the charger to the battery charging requirements.

2. Avoid over discharging the battery.

3. Maintain the electrolyte at the proper level (add water as required).

4. Keep the battery clean.

5. Avoid overheating the battery.

In addition to these basic rules, as the battery is made of individual cells connected in series,
the cells must be properly balanced periodically.

(i) Charging Practice

Poor charging practice is responsible for short battery life more than any other cause.
If the battery is supplied with DC energy at the proper charging voltage, the battery
will draw only the amount of current that it can accept efficiently.
 Several types of devices can be used to ensure that the charge will terminate at the
proper time.
The specific gravity of the electrolyte should also be checked periodically.
(ii) Overdischarge.
Overdischarging the battery should be avoided.
These batteries can usually deliver more than rated capacity, but this should be done
only in an emergency and not on a regular basis.
Discharging cells below the specified voltage reduces the electrolyte to a low
concentration, which has a deleterious effect on the pore structure of the battery.
Battery life has been shown to be a direct function of the depth of discharge.
(iii) Electrolyte Level.
During normal operation, water is lost from a battery as the result of evaporation and
electrolysis into hydrogen and oxygen, which escape into the atmosphere.
Evaporation is a relatively small part of the loss, except in very hot, dry climates.
It is important that the electrolyte be maintained at the proper level in the battery.
The electrolyte not only serves as the conductor of electricity but is a major factor in
the transfer of heat from the plates. If the electrolyte is below the plate level, then an
area of the plate is not electrochemically active; this causes a concentration of heat in
other parts of the cell.
Periodic checking of water consumption can also serve as a rough check on charging
efficiency and may warn when adjustment of the charger is required.
Replacing water can be a major maintenance cost, water loss can be reduced by
controlling the amount of overcharge and by using hydrogen and oxygen recombining
devices in each cell where possible.
Addition of water is best accomplished after recharge and before an equalization
charge. Water is added at the end of the charge to reach the high acid level line.
Gassing during charge will stir the water into the acid uniformly.

A final check of specific gravity should be made after water has been added to ensure correct
acid concentration at the end of charge. A helpful approximation is

Specific gravity = cell open - circuit voltage x 0.845

which permits electrical monitoring of specific gravity on an occasional basis.

(iv) Cleanliness.
Keeping the battery clean will minimize corrosion of cell post connectors and steel
trays and avoid expensive repairs.
Batteries commonly pick up dry dirt, which can be readily blown off or brushed away.
This dirt should be removed before moisture makes it a conductor of stray currents.
The acid in this electrolyte does not evaporate and should be neutralized by washing
the battery with a solution of baking soda and hot water, approximately 1 kg of baking
soda to 4 L of water. After application of such a solution, the area should be rinsed
thoroughly with water.
(v) High Temperature—Overheating.
One of the most detrimental conditions for a battery is high temperature, particularly
above 55◦C, because the rates of corrosion, solubility of metal components, and self-
discharge increase with increasing temperature.
High operating temperature during cycle service requires higher charge input to
restore discharge capacity and local action (self-discharge) losses.
More of the charge input is consumed by the electrolysis reaction because of the
reduction in the gassing voltage at the higher temperature.
While a 10% overcharge per cycle maintains the state of charge at 25 to 35◦C, 35 to
40% overcharge may be required to maintain the state of charge at the higher (60 to
70◦C) operating temperatures.
On float service, float currents increase at the higher temperatures, resulting in
reduced life.
(vi) Cell Balancing.
During cycling, a high-voltage battery having many cells in a series string can become
unbalanced, with certain cells limiting charge and discharge.
Limiting cells receive more overcharge than other cells in the string, have greater
water consumption, and thus require more maintenance.
The equalization charge has the function of balancing cells in the string at the top of
charge.
The equalization charge should be continued until cell voltages and specific gravities
rise to a constant, acceptable value.
Frequency of equalization charge is normally a function of the accumulative
discharge output and will be specified by the manufacturer for each battery design and
application.