CREATIVE ENGINEERING

Lecturer 2: Introduction to Photovoltaic (PV) Systems

Lecturer: Felkin MASHA, MSc

TUM

Battery
A solar PV system can only generate power during daytime. Therefore, it is essential to store the
generated energy for use at night. Rechargeable batteries are used for this purpose, and the lead-
acid battery is commonly used in solar PV systems.
A rechargeable battery does two primary things:
Changes electricity to chemical form (Charging)
Changes chemical form to electricity (Discharge)
The other secondary role of a battery is to stabilise fluctuating output from PV modules.

Solar cell modules generate electricity only when the sun is shining. They do not store energy. A
few applications, such as attic fans or pumps, do not need batteries because the appliances only
need to work when the sun is shining.
Battery is like a tank for electric energy. The solar array produces an electric charge as long as the
sun is shining. The charge travels through wires into the battery where it is converted to stored
chemical energy.
Batteries make up the largest component cost over the lifetime of a solar system. Good batteries
are expensive, but worth the investment.
Try to ensure batteries get a full charge regularly (and, for flooded-cells batteries, are occasionally
equalized).
Batteries wear out. No matter the type, batteries eventually wear out and need to be replaced. Find
out how long your battery is expected to last from the supplier. Plan for the replacement of your
battery.
Most batteries need to be maintained. Keep acid/electrolyte levels topped up and all surfaces clean.
Do not mix battery types in your battery bank. All your batteries should be of the same type and
manufacturer, and about the same age. Old or poorly performing batteries decrease the
performance of those to which they are connected.
Terminologies

Sulfation
Sulfation is a normal process that occurs in lead acid batteries resulting from prolonged operations
at partial state of battery charge. During sulfation lead sulfate crystals grow up on the positive
plates, and reduce the chemically active area and thus capacity of the cell. if a lead-acid battery is
left at less than full state of charge for prolonged period (say days or weeks) the lead sulfate
crystallizes on the plate and retards the conversion back to active material during recharge.
Sulfation also causes higher internal resistance within the battery making it more difficult to
recharge.

Stratification
Stratification indicates the condition of a flooded lead-acid battery in which the specific
gravity/concentration of the electrolyte increases from the bottom to the top of the cell.
Undercharging or not providing enough overcharge to gas and agitate the electrolyte during
finishing charges can cause stratification. Prolonged stratification can result into the bottom of the
plate being consumed, while the upper portion remaining in relatively good shape. Periodic
equalization charges can prevent stratification and sulfation problems.
Ampere-Hour (Ah)
An ampere-hour is equal to the transfer of 1 amp over a period of 1 hour and is equal to 3,600
coulombs of charge. For example a battery, which delivers 7 Amperes for a period of 10 hours is
said to have delivered 70 Ampere-hours.

Capacity
Capacity refers to the ability of a battery to store or deliver electrical energy. It is commonly
expressed in Ampere-hours. Usually the capacity of a battery in Ah.There are 8 models of batteries
in the table at different discharge rates. A, B and C indicate these three models have the same
capacity of 150Ah. At A, however, the discharge rate is 120 hours which means the discharge
current is 1.25A (150Ah/120h) [150Ah(C120)]. On the other hand, at B, the discharge current is
7.5A (150Ah/20h), [150Ah(C20)] and it is 15.0A (150Ah/10h) [150Ah(C10)] at C. Also
important to note still is that while comparing the 3 batteries at the same discharge rate (C20), their
capacities are 120Ah, 150Ah and 180Ah respectively.

Open Circuit Voltage

Open circuit voltage is the voltage of the battery at rest or in steady state and which is not in the
charge or discharge cycle.

Cut-off Voltage
Cut-off voltage is the lowest voltage, which a battery system is allowed by the manufacturer to
reach in operation.

Terminal Voltage
Terminal voltage is the voltage between the positive and negative terminals of a battery either
during charge or discharge cycle.
Cycle
Cycle refers to a discharge to a given depth of discharge followed by a complete recharge. Life of
the battery is measured in number of cycles.

State of Charge
The state of charge (SOC) refers to the amount of energy in a battery expressed as a percentage of
the total energy stored in a fully charged battery. A battery that has been discharged 60% is said
to be at 40% state of charge.

Depth of Discharge
The depth of discharge (DOD) is the percentage of capacity that has been withdrawn from a battery
compared to its total fully charged capacity. By definition the depth of discharge and the state of
charge of a battery total 100 percent.

Allowable Depth of Discharge

The maximum percentage of full rated capacity that could be withdrawn from a battery is known
as its allowable depth of discharge. Allowable DOD depends upon the design cut-off voltage and
discharge rate. In stand-alone PV systems the low voltage load disconnect set point of the battery
charge controller dictates the allowable DOD limit at a given discharge rate.

Autonomy
In a stand-alone PV system autonomy refers to the time a fully charged battery can supply required
energy to the system loads when there is no energy supplied by the PV modules. For common and
less critical PV systems the autonomy period ranges from two to five days.

Self-discharge Rate
Even in open circuit mode (i.e., without any charge or discharge cycle) a battery undergoes
reduction in its state of charge primarily due to the internal mechanisms and losses within the
battery itself.
To minimize self-discharge:
• store the battery off the floor in a wooden battery box or non-metallic tray;
• keep the top surface of the battery clean;
• keep the terminals clean and greased.

Temperature Effects
Higher operating temperatures accelerate corrosion of the positive plate grids causing greater
gassing and electrolyte loss in the battery. Lower operating temperature generally increases the
battery life; however the battery capacity is significantly reduced at lower temperatures,
particularly for the lead-acid batteries.

Battery Gassing
Gassing takes place during recharging when the battery is nearly fully charged. At this point the
cell voltage rises sharply. In flooded type lead-acid batteries the gasses are releases from the cell
vents and contribute to water loss. In sealed or valve regulated (i.e. maintenance-free) batteries
however an internal recombinant process causes the reformation of water from the hydrogen and
oxygen gasses generated under normal charging condition; as such no electrolyte maintenance is
required
Battery Test Equipment
Hydrometer
Hydrometer is used to measure the specific gravity of electrolyte of lead-acid batteries. As
mentioned earlier the specific gravity of electrolyte is closely related to the state of charge of the
battery. If possible properly calibrated and tested battery hydrometers only should be used in
PV systems. When measurements are taken from the electrolyte at other temperatures
a correction factor must be applied.

Voltmeter
Analog or digital type voltmeter (or multimeter) is generally used to measure the terminal voltages
of batteries.

Load Tester
A battery load tester is an instrument, which draws current from a battery with an electric load,
while recording the voltage.

Battery Safety Considerations

Handling Electrolyte
Sulfuric acid of the electrolyte can destroy clothing and burn the skin. For these reasons protective
clothing such as acid-proof apron, and face shields should be worn by personnel working with the
battery, If required acid should be poured slowly into the water while mixing. The water should
never be poured into the acid. Appropriate non-metallic funnels and containers should be used
when mixing electrolyte solution.To neutralize sulfuric acid spills or splashes on clothing, the spill
should be rinsed immediately with a solution of baking soda and water. If electrolyte is accidentally
splashed in the eyes, the eyes should be forced open and flood with clean water for at least 15
minutes. If necessary a doctor should be consulted.

Personnel Protection
When performing battery maintenance, personnel should wear protective clothing such as aprons,
ventilation masks, goggles or face shields and acid-proof gloves to protect from acid spills or
fumes. Jewelry on the hands and wrists should be removed and properly insulted tools should be
used to protect against inadvertent battery short-circuits.

Dangers of Explosion
During operation batteries may produce explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases. Keep
spark, flames, burning cigarettes, kerosene lamps or other ignition sources away from the batteries
at all times. While making or breaking connections to a battery from a charging source or electrical
load, it should be checked and ensured that the charger or load is switched off so as not to create
sparks or arcing during the connection.

Battery Disposal
Batteries are considered as hazardous item as they contain toxic materials such as lead, acids and
plastics that can harm human beings and the environment. If recycling facilities exist, deliver the
complete battery with electrolyte to the recycling organization or to their scrap dealers. Under no
circumstances should the batteries be disposed off in the landfills or near the water springs and
resources. The electrolyte should not be allowed to seep into the ground and the battery should not
be burned.

Technical Specifications of Batteries

The important points to note when procuring batteries are quality, type (flooded or sealed),
capacity and discharge rate. Batteries are the key device in solar PV systems. If good batteries are
obtained, the system will last longer.

Tasks involved in maintaining and managing batteries include:

Regular checking of state of charge to ensure that the battery is performing well; keeping state of
charge records may help to detect when a battery is getting too old to use or when a cell has gone
bad.

For flooded-cell batteries, checking electrolyte levels in each cell; replacing electrolyte lost during
gassing with de-ionized water. The plates should always be below the level of the electrolyte to
avoid damage to the battery. De-ionized water, available at battery shops and garages, is used
instead of tap water because it does not contain any impurities that could damage the cells. Never
add tap water or acid to batteries.

Cleaning the top of the battery. This avoids high rates of self-discharge caused by electrical
conduction through acid mist accumulating on top of the battery.

Cleaning terminals and contacts. Cleaning the terminals ensures a good electrical contact with the
solar array and load. Application of petroleum jelly or grease to the terminals prevents them from
becoming corroded.

Giving the battery equalizing charges to mix up the electrolyte four to six times a year. Equalizing
charges are charges well above the normal ‘full’ charge which cause the electrolyte in the cells to
bubble and get mixed up and reduce risk of stratification or sulphation. Preferably, these charges
should be done in the cloudy season or when the solar radiation is low.
CHARGE CONTROLLERS
DC electricity generated by a solar PV module flows through a charge controller if the system has
batteries. Charge controllers are often also called regulators. However, this device is just a
switching device to connect a PV module and a battery for charging purposes, and to connect load
and the battery for the use of electricity. The switch on the PV module side is used for over charge
protection, while the switch on the load side is used for over discharge protection.
The basic mechanism of over charge protection is simple. When the battery is fully charged, the
PV module is disconnected from the battery so that further charging (over charging) can be
avoided.

The charge controller has a number of primary functions.

• Provides a central point for connecting the load, the module and the battery.
• Manages the system so that the optimum charge is provided to the batteries.
• Ensures that components (especially batteries and lights) are protected from damage due
to overcharge, deep discharge and changing voltage levels.
• Enables the end-user to monitor the system and identify potential system problems.

The basic mechanism of over discharge protection is simple. Before the battery is discharged
completely, the load is disconnected from the battery so that further discharging (over discharging)
can be avoided.
The CR is broadly subdivided into two categories: the shunt regulator (SHR) or the series regulator
(SR).

The Shunt Regulator

The SHR bypasses the module or array current through an active load (other than the actual load).
In this case the bypass load is connected parallel to the module

In normal charging mode, i.e. when the battery is not fully charged, the switch is in OFF position
and the entire module current is passed to the battery via blocking diode. When the state of the
charge of the battery reaches pre-determined level, as indicated by the voltage level of the battery,
the control circuit turns ON the switch. In this case the entire module current is passed to a very
low resistance active load, which dissipates all the module power. In fact the active load could be
any other usable device or the second set of battery that needs charging. When the battery charge
level drops below module reconnect level, the control circuit turns the switch OFF and the module
current is again passed to the battery. Note that when the switch is in ON position, the current from
the battery does not flow to the active load because of the blocking diode. Hence the blocking
diode has two-fold application in case of use of shunt regulators. The SHR are simple in design,
cost effective but are not suitable for large power applications. In large power application, the active
load has to dissipate large power as heat. Therefore for small PV applications, like solar home systems,
shunt regulators are preferred over series regulators

Series Regulators

Series regulators (SR) operate in entirely different principle that the shunt regulator. In SR the path
between the module and the battery is simply disconnected by a switch when the charge level of
the battery is over the preset level
In normal charging condition the switch is in ON position and the current from the modules is
passed to the battery through the blocking diode. When the state of charge of the battery reaches
the pre-set level, the control circuit turns the switch OFF blocking passage of current to the battery.
SR is more suitable for large power PV application as there is no need to dissipate the module
power in the form of heat. The module is simply disconnected and remains idle. The CR also
disconnects the load from the battery when the discharge level is below the set point. The control
circuit senses the battery voltage level and when it falls below certain set point, the circuit turns
OFF the switch (load switch) inserted in series between the battery and the load. When the battery
state of charge is increased by charging, the load switch is turned ON by the circuit and power is
available for use by load.

PWM MPPT explanation.

Charge controllers and the stages of battery charging.

Different types of controllers change the rate at which they supply power to the battery over the
course of charging. Common charging stages are bulk, absorption, float and equalization.

Bulk Charge. During the ‘bulk’ stage of charging, which lasts until approximately 80 per cent
state of charge, all of the power from the module is supplied directly into the battery.

Absorption Charge. During the ‘absorption’ stage, the charge is gradually reduced until the
batteries reach a 100 per cent state of charge.

Float Charge. When the battery is full, the ‘float’ stage is reached and only enough power is
supplied to maintain full charge of the batteries (also known as a ‘trickle’ charge).

Equalization Charge. The ‘equalization’ stage, used only by some types of controllers (and
utilized once a month or so), provides a short, high charge designed to reduce acid stratification,
battery sulphation and to equalize voltages across battery cells.

Set Point Voltages

Charge controllers sense battery voltage to recognize if the battery is full or becoming empty.
These judgment voltages are called set point voltages. On the other hand, the battery voltage at
fully charged state differs with the type of battery. There is no standard value about set point
voltages as they depend on manufacturers of batteries and charge controllers. Always refer to the
data sheet of charge controllers and batteries you use.

Other Charge Controller Features and Load Management Devices.

Controllers may include other features to enhance the system’s performance

Temperature compensation
Some charge controllers have ‘temperature compensation’ features. The controller then
automatically adjusts the charging voltage to the optimum charging level for a given temperature.
Load timers
‘Load timers’ are switches that connect and disconnect loads, making system management easier.
They automatically turn loads on, limit the amount of time that the loads are kept on and prevent
overuse of the battery.

Battery monitors and amp-hour meters

‘Battery monitors’ measure the current and voltage of the load, batteries and modules, allowing
end-users to determine exactly how their system has been performing

MANAGING SYSTEMS WITHOUT CONTROLLERS

Sometimes consumers, suppliers or designers of small PV systems omit charge controllers or

choose not to install one in their system (this is usually for cost reasons). Without a controller,
however, the battery is not protected against deep discharging. The result is often a battery that
lasts for a very short time and a poor experience with solar energy.
system owners should:
• learn to manage and maintain the systems (perhaps with a low-cost multimeter);
• install safety devices such as main switches and fuses;
• protect the battery through careful energy management, so that the investment is not ruined; and
The guidelines below suggest ways by which a system can be effectively managed without a
controller.
Check the battery state of charge regularly with a multimeter. Even without measuring, you can
often tell when a battery’s state of charge is getting low.
For example, when battery voltage is low, fluorescent lamps take time to light up when turned on
(or they may flicker). If the television picture gets dim and does not fill the whole screen or if
music systems run slowly, this is a sign that the battery may be low!
Calculate the approximate energy harvest of the module and adjust energy use so that it is
approximately the same as energy harvest. Reduce this during cloudy weather.
When the battery state of charge is low, limit the use of appliances.
Charge the battery by other means at least once every two months when it is being overused and
more often during cloudy weather

Connecting Sequence
Charge controllers have an electronic control circuit inside. The circuit must always be activated
for the charge controller to perform its functions. To connect charge controllers to other devices
therefore, you must follow a connecting sequence. First, connect the battery to the charge
controller to activate the electronic control circuit of the charge controller. Secondly, connect the
PV module to the charge controller. The load should be connected last.
On the other hand, the disconnecting sequence is done in reverse way. First, disconnect the load
from the charge controller. Second, disconnect the PV module from the charge controller. The
battery should be disconnected last.
Technical Specifications of Charge Controllers
The important points to consider when procuring charge controllers are quality, capacity, set point
voltages and temperature compensation. The role of charge controllers is to protect batteries from
overcharge and over discharge. This means that charge controllers must detect voltage precisely.
If the quality of charge controller is not good, set point voltages may drift often and that will
damage the battery. Therefore, the use of good brands is important, especially when using a sealed
battery.
If a conventional fuse is used for protection in the charge controller, it is not advisable to buy such
charge controller, and instead buy another charge controller which has electronic protection instead
of conventional fuses. Fuses are often blown and they are replaced with metal wires as fuses are
difficult to obtain in the rural areas.
The factory setting of set point voltages is for flooded batteries. If a sealed battery is used, the
charge controller has to have a selector or a programmable function to change set point voltages.