Communication Processes, Principles and Ethics

DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION

Etymology - “commun” implies that something is common

“-ication” suggests understanding

Thus, communication hints at the meaning “a common understanding of something” (Chase & Shamo, 2013).

Communication is the simultaneous sharing and creating of meaning through human symbolic interaction
(Seiler & Beall, 1999).

Communication is a systematic process in which individuals interact with and through symbols to create and
interpret meanings (Woods, 2004).

Generic Definition
Communication is the process of creating and sharing meaning by using verbal and non-verbal symbols in
varied contexts.

THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

1. SOURCE - The sender of the message.

2. MESSAGE - This is the information that you wanted to
convey; without it, you have no reason for communicating.
3. ENCODING - This is the process of converting your idea
or thoughts of the information into verbal or nonverbal
symbols that can be understood by the receiver.
4. CHANNEL- This is the manner in which the message or
information is conveyed.
5. DECODING - This is the receiver’s mental processing of
your message into the meaning suggested by the sender.
6. RECEIVER - This is the person who will get your
message.
7. FEEDBACK - This is the receiver’s response to the
message.
8. CONTEXT - This refers to the situation in which the
communication takes place. It includes the environment, relationship between communicators, respective cultural
backgrounds and past experiences and the topics/subjects of the communication (Hall, 1997 in Chase & Shamo,
2013).

COMMUNICATION MODELS

1. Aristotle’s Communication Model

SPEAKER SPEECH AUDIENCE

2. Laswell’s Communication Model

IN WHICH WITH WHAT

WHO SAYS WHAT CHANNEL
TO WHOM EFFECT

COMMUNICATOR MESSAGE MEDIUM RECEIVER EFFECT

3. Shannon-Weaver’s Communication Model

4. Berlo’s Communication Model

ENCODING DECODING

Source Message Channel Receiver

Communication Skills Content Hearing Communication Skills
Attitude Elements Seeing Attitudes
Knowledge Treatment Touching Knowledge
Social System Structure Smelling Social System
Culture Code Tasting Culture

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

1. Know your purpose in communicating.

2. Know your audience.
3. Know your topic.
4. Adjust your speech or writing to the context of the situation.
5. Work on the feedback given to you.

KEY PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION (King, 2000)

1. Interpersonal communication is inescapable.

2. Interpersonal communication is irreversible.
3. Interpersonal communication is complicated.
4. Interpersonal communication is contextual.
A. Psychological Context
B. Relational Context
C. Situational Context- “psycho-social where”
D. Environmental Context - “physical where”
E. Cultural Context

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE ORAL PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE

COMMUNICATION WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

1. Be clear with your purpose. 1. Be clear.

2. Be complete with the message you deliver. 2. Be concise.
3. Be concise. 3. Be concrete.
4. Be natural with your delivery. 4. Be correct.
5. Be specific and timely with your feedback. 5. Be coherent.
6. Be complete.
7. Be courteous.
COMMUNICATION MODES

1. Face to face
2. Video
3. Audio

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MORAL and ETHICS

Morals are personal codes while ethics are societal.

MORALS are our own set of rules, so others are neither expected nor required to follow them.
ETHICS are rules accepted and approved by society so they are imposed upon everyone.

ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION (Johnston, 1994)

1. MUTUALITY. Pay attention to the needs of others, as well as yours.

2. INDIVIDUAL DIGNITY. Do not cause another person embarrassment or a loss of dignity.
3. ACCURACY. Ensure that others have accurate information.
4. ACCESS TO INFORMATION. Allow communication to commence with one another.
5. ACCOUNTABILITY. Be responsible for the consequences of your relationships and communication.
6. AUDIENCE. Both the sender and receiver have 100% responsibility to ensure that message is understood.
7. RELATIVE TRUTH. Your point of view may not be shared by others.
8. ENDS vs. MEANS. Be sure that the end goal of your communication and the means of getting to that end are
both ethical
9. USE OF POWER. In situations where you have more power than others, you have more responsibility for the
outcome.
10. RIGHTS vs. RESPONSIBILITIES - Balance your rights against your responsibilities.

COMMUNICATION AND GLOBALIZATION

GLOBALIZATION AND THE GLOBAL VILLAGE

Globalization is the process of bringing people together and making them and exchange ideas in traditional
borders (Nowaczyk,2017).

“The world driven largely by advances in technology, has become inextricably interconnected across
distances and other boundaries (Downing, 2007).

Globalization is the increasing economic, political and cultural integration and interdependence of diverse
cultures (Gamble & Gamble, 2013).

Global village is one world interconnected by an electronic nervous system (media). McLuhan predicted that
this world has become a reality brought by globalization (Stewart, 2015).

Friedman (2005) coined globalization as the “flattening” of the world.

IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON COMMUNICATION

1. Virtual Interactions
2. Cultural Awareness in Speech
3. Cultural Awareness in Body Language
4. Time Differences
IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON GLOBAL COMMUNICATION

1. Availability of Information
2. Business Conduct
3. Social Awareness
4. The Problem

DEFINITION OF CULTURE

“the learned and shared behavior of a community of interacting human beings” (Useem & Useem, 1963).

“a system of beliefs, assumptions and values shared by a group of people (Fielding, 1996 in Singh &
Rampersad, 2010)

“shared patterns of behaviors and interaction, cognitive constructs and affective understanding that are
learned through a process of socialization” (Center for Advanced Research in Language Acquisition).

“learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values and norms that affect the behaviors of a relatively
large group of people (Lustig & Koestner, 2003)

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
1. Cultures are learned, not innate.
2. Cultures are shared.
3. Cultures are multifaceted.
4. Cultures are dynamic.
5. Cultural identities are overlapping.

ADAPTATION TO NEW CULTURES

1. Cultural Integration.
2. Cultural Assimilation (Multiculturalism)
3. Cultural Accommodation

THE NATURE OF COMMON CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

1. Leadership
2. Work Productivity
3. Group Allegiance
4. Task Commitment

COMMUNICATING WITHIN AND ACROSS CULTURES

Communication across cultures or intercultural communication takes place when individuals influenced by
different cultural communities negotiate shared meanings in interaction. Individuals who participate in
intercultural interactions gets benefits from these exchanges. Besides, being able to gain access to the experiences
of other human beings, they improve their communication skills, they develop empathy toward others and
openness to new ideas and they increase their likelihood to challenge personal beliefs and embrace new
perspectives.
Avoiding Accommodating Forcing Educating-Persuading
Negotiating-Compromising Collaboration- Problem-solving

GUIDELINES ON DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE

1. Widen you field of experience by making new contacts.

2. Learn about history and the experiences and aspirations of people from different cultures.
3. Examine yourself for possible stereotypes.
4. Look at the world from someone else’s way of looking at and thinking about something, not just yours.
5. Work on becoming more self-confident.
6. Appreciate cultural similarities and differences
7. Acknowledge the essential equality and value of all cultures.
8. Be sensitive and interpret cultural styles of communication.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION

(McKeiver, 2013; Chase & Shamo, 2013)

1. Ethnocentrism
2. Stereotypes and prejudices
3. Stereotypes
4. Prejudice
5. Assumed Similarities
6. Anxiety

IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON COMMUNICATION

1. Technology provides us with unlimited information.

2. It creates opportunities for meeting new people.
3. It helps us keep in touch with family and friends anywhere in the world.
4. It brings new diversity to our culture and our lives.
5. It foster better cooperation among different cultural groups.
6. It isolates us.
7. It can make us create second lives.

LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL

SETTINGS
“Every country has its own way of saying things. The important thing is which lies behind people’s words.”
-Freya Stark

Cultural differences result in misunderstanding, and “language more than anything else, is the heart of culture.”
-Stevenson in Lee (2017)

Being proficient in English does not guarantee our being able to fully understand what another speaker of
English is trying to say unless we become fully aware of how that speaker uses English based on his culture. To
illustrate:

VOCABULARY

American English British English

First floor Ground floor
Second floor First floor
Apartment Flat
Eggplant Aubergine
Hood Bonnet
Trunk (of a car) Hood (of a car)
Drugstore Chemist’s
Garbage can Dustbin
Parking lot Car park
Elevator Lift
 PRONUNCIATION

Word AmE BrE

vase /veIs/ /vɑ:z/
tomato təməItoʊ/ /təmɑ:təʊ/
garage garȃge gȃrage
ballet ballȇt bȃllet

SPELLING

1. Words ending in-re in BrE end in -er in AmE (centre-center; litre-liter)

2. Words ending in -our in BrE end in -or in AmE (colour-color; humour-humor)
3. Words ending in -ize or -ise in BrE end in -ize in AmE (organize/organise-organize)
4. Words ending in -yse in BrE end in -yze in AmE (paralyse-paralyze)
5. Words ending in-l in BrE end in -ll in AmE (traveller-traveler)
6. Words spelled with double vowels (ae or oe) are
just spelled with an e in AmE (manoeuver-manuever)
7. Nouns ending with -ence in BrE are spelled -ense in AmE (licence-license)
8. Nouns ending with -ogue in BrE end with either
-og or -ouge in AmE (catalogue-catalog/catalogue)

WORLD ENGLISHES AND ENGLISH AS INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE

English as a Foreign Language

(Expanding Circle) World Englishes are varieties of English
described in three identified “concentric circles”
of societies (Kachru, 1997 in Kilickaya, 2009).

Pidgins are used as lingua franca for trade or

any other practical interaction (Mooney and Evans, 2015).
It uses words from the languages of both
communicators to understand each other, but it
English as a Second is not the language of either communicator.
Language (Outer Circle) The language providing vocabulary is the
lexifier and the language that provides
Inner syntactic structure is called the substrate.
Circle
(Native After an extended use of a pidgin in a
Speakers)
community, it becomes a creole.

In the process of learning English as either a second language or a foreign language, people from the outer
and expanding circles develop an interlanguage, a “learner language (which is neither a pidgin or creole) that
deviates from the norms of the target language. This is a transitional linguistic system at all levels (phonology,
morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics). The interlanguage results from several language-learning processes
such as borrowing patterns from the mother tongue, extending patterns from the target language and expressing
meanings using the words and grammar that are already known (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1997).
 LINGUISTIC PREFERENCES AND NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR

Nonverbal behaviors, which Hall (1959) called the “silent language” are expressive human attributes that
impart feelings, attitudes, reactions and judgments which need to be given continued attention because they are
acquired mainly through acculturation (adopting the traits of another cultural group). Moreover, they are
unspoken and largely unconscious, so the implied meanings are more felt than understood. Take the following for
instances from International Etiquette (2017) and Dimensions of Body Language (2017):

Australia The “thumbs up” sign is considered obscene.

France Your hands should be visible at all times even when seated at a table.
Germany Gum chewing in public is rude. It is impolite to put your hands in your pocket.
Hongkong Maintain a two arm’s length distance with the person. Touching and patting are taboo.

Indonesia When you are in a private home or mosque, be sure to remove your shoes.
Hugging and kissing in public is inappropriate.
Japan Keep your shoes in good condition and spotlessly clean because a Japanese inspects them
as he bows. To the Japanese, laughter can mean confusion rather than reacting to
something funny.
Saudi Arabia Expect greetings to be very emotional. To show mutual respect, two men hold each
other’s hand in public. When reaching or offering something, be sure to use your right
hand. Using left hand is considered as a taboo.
Singapore Gesture with your entire hand in conversation. Your feet should be used for
walking---nothing else.
South Korea It is considered good manners to acknowledge an older person by standing when the
person enters the room.
United Kingdom When meeting someone, respect space by maintaining a two arm’s-length distance. Men
should wait for a British woman to extend her hand before shaking hands. When meeting
someone, rather than saying “It’s nice to meet you”, a more appropriate response is “How
do you do?”

LANGUAGE REGISTERS FOR MORE EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

The term “register” refers to particular varieties or styles of speaking and writing which vary in their degrees
of formality depending on the topic (what), purpose (why), context (where) and audience (who) (“Register”,
2017). For instance, there is a legal register, a register of advertising, registers of banking and a register of
weather forecasting.

FIVE VARIETIES OF REGISTERS (Politt, 2013; Montano-Harmon, 2017)

1. Very formal, frozen or static register- it rarely never changes (laws, policies)
2. Formal or regulated register- impersonal and one-way in nature (news reports, official speeches)
3. Neutral, professional or consultative register - This is the normal style of speaking between
communicators who use mutually accepted language that conforms to formal societal standards
(teacher and student, doctor and patient)
4. Informal, group or casual register- informal language between peers, friends which uses slang,
vulgarities and colloquialisms (conversations,chat, tweets, personal letters).
5. Very informal, personal or intimate register- This is the private intimate language reserved for family
members or intimate people (girlfriend and boyfriend, siblings, parent and child).

Very Formal Formal Neutral Informal Very Informal

How do you do? Hello! Hello! Hi! Hey! What’s up?

 EVALUATING MESSAGES AND/OR IMAGES
INCORRECT vs. CORRECT LANGUAGE USE

Prescriptivists are people who set down rules for correct language use. They are the educated members of
the society who have the power to sanction speakers for not following language rules. Prescriptivists equate
correctness to strict observance of the rules of grammar.

THE TEXT OR MESSAGE

 MESSAGE. It is the information conveyed in the communication process. It also pertains to any recorded
message (e.g. writing, audio-recording, audio- and video-conferencing) that is physically independent of its
sender or receiver. It is an “assemblage” of signs constructed (and interpreted) with reference to the
convictions associated with a genre and in a particular medium of communication (Chandler, 2017).
 MEDIUM. It includes broad categories as speech and writing or print and broadcasting, or relate to specific
technical forms within the mass media (radio, television, newspaper, magazines, books, photographs, films
and records) or the media of interpersonal communication (telephone, letter, fax, email, video-conferencing).
 In composing oral or written text, you have to consider the text type, its purpose and its intended audience.
 Structure refers to how the information is organized.
 Language is the means by which information is expressed verbally and/or nonverbally.
 Presentation covers the layout, format, length, oral delivery and any other conventions such as spelling and
referencing (Hoadley and Nixon. 2017).

SEMIOTICS AND TEXT ANALYSIS

 SEMIOTICS involves the study not only of what we refer as ‘signs in everyday speech, but of anything
which stands for something else; in a semiotic sense, signs take the form of images, sounds, gestures and
objects (Chandler, 2017).
 SIGNIFIERS (sounds and images)
 SIGNIFIEDS (concepts)
 SIGNIFICATION (relationship between the signifier and the signified.
 SEMIOSIS is the process by which a culture produces signs and/or assigns meaning to signs, but since
meaning production or semiosis is a social activity , subjective factors are involved in each individual act of
semiosis (Eco, 1976).

What is the role of semiotics in the world of messages and meanings?

Semiotics makes us realize and understand that information or meaning is not contained in the world or in
books, computers or audio-visual media. Meaning is not transmitted to us----we actively create it according to a
complex interplay of codes or conventions of which we are normally unaware. Becoming aware of such codes
is both inherently fascinating and intellectually empowering (Chandler, 2017). Moreover, semiotics can help us to
take “reality” for granted because reality does not have an objective existence; it is something that is subject to
human interpretation. Analyzing and questioning the realities of signs can reveal whose realities are privileged
and whose are suppressed.

MASS MEDIA AND MULTIMODAL TEXTS

MASS MEDIA refers to the type of communication that uses technology to simultaneously reach a wide
audience.

A MULTIMODAL TEXT combines two or more of the five semiotic systems---lingistic or textual system,
visual system, audio system, gestural system and spatial system (Anstey & Bull, 2010).
 COMMUNICATION AIDS AND STRATEGIES USING TOOLS OF
TECHNOLOGY
CREATION AND PRODUCTION OF MULTIMODAL TEXTS

Their creation can be of any medium

1. Paper- such as books, comics and posters

2. Digital- from slide presentations, e-books, blogs, social media to animation, films and video games
3. Live- like a performance or an event
4. Transmedia- where the story is narrated using “multiple delivery channels” by means of a combination
of media platforms. It is about the logical relations between these media extensions which seek to
add something to the story as it moves from one medium to another, not just adaptation or retelling.

 PATCHWORKING is when you exploit certain threads in the materials you have gathered from various
sources and stitch these together to create your own “patchwork” and your own particular understanding of
the materials (Godhe, 2014). “RECONTEXTUALIZATION”
 PLAGIARISM is the act of stealing and passing off as your own ideas, words or any other intellectual
property produced by another person.

THE ART OF MAKING POWERPOINT PRESENTATIONS

3 THINGS TO DO BEFORE STARTING THE POWERPOINT PRESENTATION (Kangas, 2012)

1. Determine your goal.

2. Convert your goal into one “big idea”.
3. Consolidate your idea into just three concepts.

5 DESIGN PRINCIPLES THAT CAN HELP IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE PRESENTATION

1. Outline first to control the number of the slides to provide balance.

2. Have only one message per slide to allow the audience to understand it more.
3. Pay attention to size.
4. Apply the principle of contrast.
5. Limit the number of objects/items per slide.

TIPS FOR THE PRESENTATION (NanoNerds, 2012)

1. Come prepared.
2. Get the set-up right.
3. Know your audience and adjust the content accordingly.
4. Go easy on fonts.
5. Go easy on logos.
6. Go easy on colors.
7. Make eye contact.
8. Be kind to questioners.
9. Be kind to folks in the back.
10. Design slides for distance.
11. Cellphone off.
12. Do not go crazy with the lazer pointer.
13. Do not cram too much in each slide.
14. Do not read from your notes and slides.
15. Do not spew jargon.
16. Do not demean audience members.
17. Do not turn your back.