CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The term Home economics means home training or skill training. It takes one on welfare of himself and

other families. It has been in existent hence mothers train their girls on how to cook and do other work at

home artworks, also mothers train their daughter on how to keep houses clean, hair plaiting, decorating

home with local paints, body painting, dressing during moon light and festivals also how to make up in

other to marry comfortably, while fathers train their son on how to farm and make crafts like baskets and

carving art works. As time goes on, it was introduced as domestic studying schools, later to domestic

science. On arrival of the white men called missionaries to Nigeria. Though there were no formal schools,

they introduced it to be called Home Home economics, no more domestic science. Since their arrival they

introduced it as formal education. It becomes more than cooking and craft making. And extended into

sewing, home management, clothing and textile, and within a short time Nigeria introduced it to primary

schools, junior and senior secondary level and today into higher institutions. Today, both sex study home

Home economics because it offer job opportunity. Obiakor (2006) stated that through this philosophy,

“home has become the most influential and sweetest of all human institution and organization in shipping

the destiny of man. Anyakoha (2010) stated that Home Home economics is a method of finding out the

need of individual families and finding way of meeting the needs of individuals and families, improving the

goods and services which families use, prepare people for family living and prepare people for

employment. To enhance an effective teaching and learning of  Home economics, teachers should apply the

desirable methodology in teaching Home economics especially the use of instructional materials, just as

Ezeugwu (2009) noted that no subject area which does not make use of instructional materials. These

materials enhance learning concepts and events in less time than mere verbalization by involving all the
senses. Obanya (1989) view instructional materials as  a didactic materials – things which is supposed to

make teaching and learning possible.

The role of instructional materials and its management towards the effective implementation of Universal

Basic Education (UBE) programme in Basic (primary) schools in Nigeria is indispensable. Thus,

instructional materials provide concrete and realistic experiences that make learners develop faster

understanding of the concepts to be learned. Instructional materials are those items which the teacher uses

to make his teaching and illustrations real and enjoyable. They refer to the totality of materials, devices and

real life objects, improvised or look – alike materials employed in teaching and learning to facilitate the

instructional process. Instructional materials are scattered everywhere even in our homes. It falls under

three major categories. They are:

 – Audio- Visual Material: This categories of instructional materials make use of both sight and hearing

senses. The audio-visual materials produce sound and motion. Examples are: televisions, videos, overhead

projectors, computers slides and film strip projectors with sound accompaniment and such like.

 – Audio materials: These are the second category of the instructional materials. The audio materials

stimulate the senses of hearing only in teaching and learning. Examples include, radios, cassette/tape

recorders and language laboratory.

 – Visual materials: This is the third and largest category of the instructional materials that largely appeal

to senses of touch and sight. These include; models, charts, maps, pictures, real objects, flannel boards,

posters, bulletin-boards, chalk boards and such like. The effectiveness of any of these instructional

materials depend largely on a number of factors such as relevance to the topic, appropriateness of

introduction and the teachers‟ resourcefulness in using them to accomplish his/her instructional objectives

among learners. Instructional materials bridge the gap between the teacher and the learner. It reduces the

chalk-talk syndrome that involves only the learner‟s sense of hearing which makes him loose interest after

sometime. However, utilization of instructional material during instructional process is necessary because

primary school pupils learn more by direct involvement with concrete materials than through abstraction.
This calls for adequate provision, availability as well as management of instructional materials at this level

of educational system. Instructional materials ensure effectiveness in teaching and learning since the learner

not only hears but also see and does. The effective implementation of UBE programme required proper

management of instructional materials by the school administrator and teachers in primary schools so as to

enhance teaching and learning process. It entails developing positive attitude towards the use of these

materials in the classroom for illustration and demonstration of concepts.

Instructional materials are the key for good implementation of the Universal Basic Education Programme.

Instructional materials help to present ideas, facts and information. It can arouse the enthusiasm of learners,

teach concepts and principles, impress pictures and images vividly in the minds and memory of learners

and also help in transfer of learning. The negligence of these instructional materials during learning process

may cause more harm than good to the future of learners. It is important to note that any established school

curriculum calls for ways or means of implementing it in order to reach the various levels because no

discussion of curriculum is complete without suggestion about methods and means of implementation.

Moreover, educational system especially at primary level faces some problems which range from high rate

of illiteracy, school dropout, poor teaching and learning environments, lack of educational facilities poor

maintenance and insecurity of science equipment (if any), to poor planning, lack of finance, lack of regular

supervision and monitoring, low curriculum implementation, lack of instructional materials to mention but

a few. The attempts at solving these problems lead to the use of innovative teaching-learning methods.

These innovative learning methods involve the use of organized combination and utilization of people,

materials, facilities, equipment and procedures to achieve the desired instructional objectives. The question

is; are these new innovations applicable in today’s educational system?

Infact, the condition of primary schools system (government owned) in Nigeria is not what to take home

about. These primary schools seem to be abandoned. Teaching and learning process is still going on

without instructional materials to the detriment of the learner. The level of 28 availability and the rate of

utilization, maintenance of these instructional materials in primary schools is greatly very insignificant.
This was affirmed by Akubue (1993) who noticed that most of these instructional materials mentioned are

not available in schools and even where they are available they are scarcely used. Classroom observation of

teachers while they teach revealed that Social Studies teachers do not use instructional materials. Thus,

primary schools in Enugu metropolis are not an exception. At the primary school levels, greater percentage

of instructional process is based on rote memorization. Many classroom teachers still prefer the traditional

chalk-talk or telling mode of instruction to concrete-oriented practical method of using instructional

materials during teaching and learning process. In Enugu metropolis, the adverse effect of non-availability

and application of these instructional materials is widely observed in the 68 government primary schools.

The researcher took time to visit some of these primary schools in Enugu metropolis and discovered that

the level of availability of these instructional materials is very scanty. Since this is the condition of the

primary schools, how can the curriculum of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) be well implemented for

the attainment of the already stated goals. How are these instructional materials acquired? Are they

effectively utilized during teaching-learning processes? Are they properly stored and maintained where

available? To what extent do teachers make improvisation of these materials when they are not available for

effective teaching learning to take place in their schools? These questions invoke the interest of the

researcher to embark on this research study.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

A close look at schools around its today goes to prove a popular opinion or view that the majority of

teachers do not use instructional materials effectively for teaching and learning of Home Home economics.

Tahir (2002) admitted that there is a general lack of instructional materials. Ekpo (2004) aptly declared that

instructional materials are often used to compensate for the inadequacies of sense organ or to reinforce the

capacity of the dominant organs. They must be relevance for the realization of the intensive of curriculum.

Thus there is a short fall in the availability of instructional materials and teachers are unable to improvise

with what is available in our environment in other to effectively derive home the lesson thought. Therefore,
the inadequacies of sense organs are not compensated. Oforah (2009) state that the outcome of committee

of STAN were pupils textbooks, teachers guides etc while Tauari (1998) states that the commission for now

can only supply exercise books, chalks and such minor things. Instructional materials are grossly

inadequate for effective teaching and learning. Furthermore, Tyler (1950) in his opinion explained that

Home economics Department should have a well organized instructional material corner, units or room

where some of the following could be found. Verbal symbols (oral or written), recordings, visual symbols

for stimulating interest, regalia the real thing or authentic materials Dale (1959), Television, it made

educational experiences which are beyond the reach of the classroom available to the students.

1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study are to:

1 Determine the extent of the use of instructional materials in effective teaching and learning of Home

economics in the study area.

2 Identify the problems associated with the use of instructional materials in teaching and learning of Home

economics in the study area.

3 Enlighten  people on the use of instructional materials in effective teaching and learning of Home

economics in the study area.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study will be of significance to the following:

1. It will serve as a reference point on the use of instructional materials in teaching and learning of Home
economics.

2. The study will bring awareness to the government curriculum planners and other stakeholders in the area

on the necessity in provision of adequate instructional materials for effective teaching and learning of

Home  economics.

3. It will  make  educational  experience which are beyond the reach of classroom available to student of

Home  economics.

4. It will provide a guide to the appropriate use of instructional materials in effective teaching and learning

of Home economics.

5. The study will also create awareness on the benefit of the use of instructional materials in effective

teaching and learning of Home economics.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. To what extent is the use of instructional materials effective for teaching and learning of Home

economics?

2. What are the problems that are associated with the use of instructional materials in the effective teaching

and learning of Home  economics?

3. How much awareness is being created for the people on the use of instructional materials in effective

teaching and learning of Home economics?

HYPOTHESES FOR THE STUDY

 The following null hypotheses were postulated to guide the conduct of this study;
 Ho1 there is no significant difference in the opinions of teachers and students on the instructional materials

that are available in teaching Home economics in senior secondary schools in Agwu local government area;

 Ho2 availability of instructional materials have no significant influence on the performance of students

Home economics in senior secondary schools in Agwu local government area;

 Ho3 there is no significant difference in the opinion of the respondent on the teachers use of instructional

materials in teaching Home economics in senior secondary schools in Agwu local government area;

 Ho4 there is no significant difference in the opinions of the respondents on the teachers‟ improvisation of

instructional material in teaching of Home economics in senior secondary schools in Agwu local

government area.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Few selected schools in Agwu Local Government area were studied. This will be made up of combination

of government owned schools. The names of the government owned schools includes: C.S.S. Mmaku,

Rosary High School Awgu and Boys Secondary School Awgu. While the private owned schools includes:

Presentation secondary school Awgu and Alpha secondary school Awgu. This scope of study are

selected/chosen so as to help solve financial limitation/problems.

1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Conceptual And Operational Definition

Instructional materials – conceptual – Teaching aids which can also be referred to as instructional aids,

teaching materials which appeal to all sense and felling and aid learning.

Operational – Course of study, syllabus, curriculum, bulletins, guides, handbooks, research reports, audio

visual aids and other materials which serve as a teacher’s educational function.
Home economics – Conceptual – An interdisciplinary field of study which help families and individuals to

understand and adopt to the social Home economics, culture and technological changes.
 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Review of related literature is organized under the following

sub-headings:-

 Concept of Instructional Materials

 Theoretical framework

 Improvisation of Instructional Materials

 Availability/Adequacy of Instructional Materials

 Utilization of Instructional Materials

 Problems on Improvisation of Instructional Materials

 Strategies for Enhancing the Improvisation of Instructional

 Materials

 Related Empirical Studies

 Summary of Literature Review

Concept of Instructional Materials

There are various concepts of instructional materials over the

years, instructional materials have been changing names. It has

been referred to as teaching aids, instructional or educational

facilities, learning resources, educational technology, media

materials and curriculum materials. Instructional materials

according to Ogwo and Oranu (2006), can be defined as any device

employed by teachers to transmit facts, facilitate skills/knowledge

acquisition, and improve on understanding of learners. According to

them, instructional materials include entirely of what is known as

models, objects, drawings, graphs and charts, pictures, films and

specimens. Dike (1988), refers to instructional materials as set of

materials which a classroom teacher can use to extend the various

experiences of his learners.

The concept of instructional materials is perceived differently

by various authors. According to Olaitan, Nwachukwu, Igbo,

Onyemaechi and Ekong (1990), instructional materials are those

device developed or acquired to assist teachers in transmitting

organized knowledge, skills and attitude to learners within an

instructional situation. In they explanation, instructional materials

in vocational technical education are those practical and skill

development resources which facilitate the process of

teaching/learning and evaluation of vocational technical skills.

Instructional materials include the electronic systems, tools,

equipment and other resource materials that could be utilized for

directing and controlling vocational technical operations and for

reinforcing the teaching and learning of specified skills. Mkpa (1998)

stated that instructional materials refer to the various information

carriers employed in instructional delivery. He identified Television,

radio, teaching machines, textbooks, computer, models and pictures

as some of them. He also concluded that other means of instruction

can exist beside teachers and that the students can learn without

the teacher if they have access to media capable of presenting viable

information. Ugonabo (1988), defined instructional materials as

those materials which maximize learning in the various area of

technology. He listed these materials as chalkboards, models,

charts, overhead projectors, maps and simulations.

Nwandu (1994), explained that instructional materials are the

resources which may be used by the teacher/learner in isolation or

in combination formally to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge,

skills and morals. Ike (1995) described instructional materials as

information carrying technologies that can be used for instruction.

He further explained that a teacher can describe a bucket but it is

very hard to tell the students exactly what a bucket looks like

without a picture for clarity. The picture of this bucket is an

instructional material which would help students understand the

lesson.

Ekong (1994), explained that the term instructional materials

comprise all available and accessible practical and skill oriented

resources which facilitate learning and acquisition of knowledge.

These materials also assist teachers in transmitting facts, skills,

attitude and knowledge to the learners within the instructional

system. Ekong (1994) asserted that they are materials or equipment

which is essential in teaching vocational technical subjects in

schools. Such materials must be utilized in the teaching process to

achieve the objectives of teaching. Olaitan (1992) warned that

without the use of some materials, tools and facilities in teaching

vocational technical subjects in schools, certain skills that might be

required for entry into some vocational occupational area might not

be imparted. It therefore means that these instructional materials

are necessary for vocational skills to be learned by students.

Azikiwe (1994), explained that instructional materials are those

devices used for the successful and maximal achievement of the

objectives of teaching. To her, they have been found to facilitate the

quality of instruction when used by teachers. Moore (1994),

described instructional materials as devices that are presented in

different varieties, they stimulate, motivate and arrest learner's

interest.

The term resource materials have also been used to refer to

instructional materials. Obianwu (1988), defined resource materials

as those devices, machines and resource materials to educational

technology which focuses on better ways of maximizing educational

input and output for the benefit of teachers and learners. Obianwu
asserted that resource persons invited to schools to deliver one or

two lessons to students are regarded as resource materials.

Real objects are so necessary that Mkpa (1989), stated that in

the absence of real life situations, teachers should use

representative of such real life situations. These real life

representatives as defined by Mkpa (1998) are materials, devices and

techniques that help the teacher to make realistic approach to

his/her teaching job. The representatives of real life situation are

made in the forms of models, diagrams, drawings, dioramas or

mock-ups. Mkpa (1998) further explained that the objective of

teaching resources is to help the teacher convey the intended

message effectively and meaningfully to the learner.

Writing on the importance of teaching aids in education, Egede

(2004), explained that there are many things which a dull student

cannot learn if they are presented only verbally to him and that

there are those things which the dull and bright students cannot

fully comprehend unless the teacher makes use of teaching aids.

Mkpa (1998), therefore defined teaching aids as those devices which

teachers employ when teaching to make the students understand

the lesson more. He asserted that they are devices or things, which

the students can either see, hear, touch or smell in the

teaching/learning process. Ike (1995), also defined teaching aid as

"something that aids the teaching of a topic". According to him, this

definition implies two things:

It does not do the whole job as part of the job is performed

by other methods usually a teacher. It is the teacher that

administers the aid.

The aid works because part of the teaching job entrusted to it

is performed satisfactorily.

Another term that can be used to refer to instructional materials

is educational media. Ukoha (1996), defined educational media as

the vehicle carrying the intended stimulus/knowledge, skills and

attitude to be presented to learners. He made a list of media to

include devices, equipment, machines and materials designed to

facilitate teaching/learning thereby fulfilling the stated objectives.

Some of these materials according to Ukoha are in the form of real

objects, specimen, motion and static pictures, photographs,

electronic equipment, mechanical devices, printed material and

other means of producing visual, aural and audio-visual sensations

to facilitate learning. Ukoha (1996), also stated that educational

media materials are used to record, preserve, retrieve and transmit

educational information especially the print media. In addition films,

slides, transparencies, microfilms, chart, pictures, videocassettes,

audio-visual cassettes, and computer diskettes can be used to store

and preserve educational information in resource centers and

libraries. Those educational media used to retrieve information

according to Egede (2004), include, opaque projectors, slide

projector, radio, cassette recorder and television.

Theoretical Framework

Theory of Anchored Instruction

Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for technology -

based learning that has been developed by the Cognition and

Technology Group of Vanderb ilt (CTGV, 1990) under the leadership

of John Branford. While many people have contributed to the theory

and research of anchored instruction, Branford is the principal

spokes person and hence the theory is attributed to him. The initial

focus of the work was on the development of interactive videodisc

tools that encouraged students and teachers to pose and solve

complex and realistic problems. The video materials serve as

"anchora" (macro-contexts) for all subsequent learning and

instructions. As explained by CTGV (1993), "the design of these

anchora was quite different from design of videos that were typically

used in education" The goal of using anchoras was to create

interesting, realistic contexts that encouraged the active

construction of knowledge by learners. Anchoras were stories rather

then lectures and were designed to be explored by the students and

teachers. "Hence learning and teaching activities should be designed

around an "anchor" which should be some sort of improvised

instructional material or problem situations and improvised

curriculum materials should allow exploration by the learning

(CTGV, 1993) and also related to the essence of improvisation of

instructional materials in Home Economics. Dewey (1929) asserted

that education is a lifelong process, a continuous reconstruction and

reorganization of experience, which adds to the meaning of

experience and increase the ability to direct the course of future

experiences. To this, anchoring teaching and learning of Home

Economics on the use of improvised materials is derived mainly from

the need for the provision of basic, functional and life-long education

to citizens.

In consideration of the importance of instructional materials, it is

believed that under normal condition, the objective of Home

Economics education should be established with due reference to

the facilities available for their achievement. Obanya (2002),

concluded by stating that an implementable curriculum of course is

one that provision are made for affordable materials and in

encouraging learners to avail themselves of the variety of improvised

instructional materials in the environment.

Cognitive Load Theory

This theory suggests that learning happen best under

condition that is aligned with human cognitive architecture. The

structure of human cognitive architecture, while not known

precisely, is discernible through the results of experimental research

showing that short term memory is limited in numbers of elements it

can contain simultaneously. Sweller (1988) built a theory that treats

schemas, or combination of elements, as the cognitive structures

that make up an individual's knowledge base. These structures

permit one to perceive, think, and solve problems, rather than a

group of rote learned facts. These structures are known as schemas.

They are the cognitive structures that make up the knowledge base.

Sweller's theory is best applied in the area of improvisation of

materials relating to instructional design of cognitive complex or

technically challenging material. His contention is that since

students have difficulty learning sophisticated material,

improvisation of such materials, might demystify the sophistication

and make it easier for learners to learn using them. Cognitive load

theory has many implications in the improvisation of instructional

materials which must, if they are to be effective, keep cognitive load

of learner at a minimum during the learning process. Hence, specific

 recommendations relative to the design of instructional materials

include.

 Change problem solving method to avoid means - ends

approaches that impose a heavy working memory load, by using

goal free problem or worked examples.

 Eliminate the working memory load associated with having to

mentally integrate several sources of information by physically

integrating those sources of information.

 Eliminate the working memory load associated with

unnecessarily processing repetitive information by reducing

redundancy.

 Increase working memory capacity by using authority as well as

visual information under conditions where both sources of

information are essential (that is non-redundant) to

understanding

Theory of Situated Learning

This theory was proposed by Lave and Wagner, (1991), who

argue that learning as it normally occurs is a function of the activity,

context and culture in which it occurs (that it is situated).

This contrasts with most classroom learning activities which

involve knowledge which is abstract and out of context. Social

interaction is a critical component of situated learning. Learners

became involved in a community of practice which embodies certain

beliefs and behaviours to be acquired. As the beginner or newcomer

moves from the periphery of this community to its centre they

become more active and engaged within the culture and hence

assume the role of expert or older timer. These ideas are what Lave

and Wagner (1991) called the process a legitimate peripheral

participation. Other researchers have further developed the theory of

situated learning.

Brown, Collin and Duighid (1989) stressed the idea of cognitive

apprenticeship: Cognitive apprenticeship supports learning in a

domain by enabling students to acquire, develop and use cognitive

tools in authentic domain activity. Learning, both outside and inside

school, advances through collaborative social interaction and the

social construction of knowledge. Brown et.al (1989) also

emphasized the need for a new epistemology for learning one that

emphasizes active perception over concepts and presentation. Such-

man (1988) explored the situated learning framework in the context

of artificial intelligence. Situated learning has antecedents in the

work of Gibson (theory of affordance) and Viygotsky (social learning).

In addition, the theory of schemed on mathematical problem solving

embodies some of the critical element of situated learning

framework.
 Situated learning is a general theory of knowledge acquisition.

It has been applied in the context of constructing instructional

materials for schools that focus on problems-solving skills. (CTGV,

1993). Olibie (2003:34) noted that using a model of situated

learning, students taught using improvised instructional materials

may learn to:-

 Reinforce verbal message of teachers.

 Focus more attention and become interested in
the subject under study.
 Motivate interest necessary to under stand the
lesson
 Provide sources of information and authority, and
 Provide experience not otherwise availed in
another medium,

Lave and Wagner (1991), provided an analysis of situated

learning in four different settings of Home Economics instruction,

polishing, hotel management, meat. Cutting and preparation of

juice. In all cases, there was a gradual acquisition of knowledge and

skill as novices learn from experts in the context of every day

activities.

Symbol System Theory

The symbol system theory developed by Salomon is intended to

explain the effects of instructional media on learning. Salomon

(1977), states that the symbol system of media affect the acquisition

of knowledge in a number of ways. First, they highlight different

aspects of content. Second, they vary with respect to ease of

receding. Third, specific coding element can save the learner from

difficult mental elaborations by overtly supplanting or short-

circuiting specific elaboration. Fourth, symbol systems differ with

respect to the kinds of mental processes they call on for receding

and elaboration. Thus, symbol systems partly determine who will

acquire how much knowledge from kinds of messages.

According to Salomon, each medium is capable of conveying

content via certain internet symbol systems. For example, Salomon

suggest that television require less mental processing than reading

(that is different levels of processing are involved). However, the

meaning extracted from a given medium depends upon the learner.

Thus, a person may acquire information about a subject they are

familiar with equally well from different media but be significantly

influenced by different media for novel information.

Salomon (1981), focuses on the reciprocal nature of

instructional communication, the instructional setting and the

learner. Salomon argues that schema plays a major role in

determining how message are perceived in terms of creating an

anticipatory bias that influence what information is selected and

how it is interpreted. Furthermore, media create new schema which

affect subsequent cognitive processing. Symbol theory is closely

related to aptitude-treatment interaction research, and Gardner's

theory of multiple intelligence.

Salomon's theory is supported primarily by research conducted with

film and television (especially "Sesame Street 7). More recent work

has extended the frame-work to computers (Salomon, Perkins and

Globesten, 1991). One of the critical concepts of Salomon's theory is

that the effectiveness of a medium depends upon its match with the

learner, the context and the task. Salomon (1977), explains that

learning can be facilitated to the extent that the activated skill are

relevant to the demands of the learning task. For effective

instructional communication, a mental link needs to be established

between the cognitive demands of a learning task, the skills that are

required by the codes of the message, and the learner's level of

mastery of these skills.

The principles inherent in this theory are:-

 The symbol, coding elements of particular improvised

instructional material require different mental transformation

and hence affect the mastery of specific skills.

 The level of knowledge and skill that an individual possesses in

improvising instructional materials will affect the impact of

specific media sequences.

 The nature of the learning information processing tasks can

affect the impact of specific use of instructional materials.

 The social context of improvisation and utilization of

instructional material can influence what message is

perceived.

 There is a reciprocal relationship between the teacher and the

learner as they improvise, each can influence the other.

As the preceding theories have shown, instructional material is

important in every learning situation. Hence, Bulls-lock and

Destefaro (2001), suggested that trying simple, inexpensive

techniques that are effective and take little to use. It is in line with

all the theories discussed that the Ministry of Education, Anambra

State is currently emphasizing Teaching and Learning using Locally

Available Resources (TALULAR), which some times may cost little

money. The use of local resources is usually associated with

improvisation where, when the material is not available, teacher

devices a substitute by making the instructional material by

themselves. When teachers make teaching aids with the help of the

pupils, they learn how they work by making them. Improvisation

promotes creativity and encourages other more practical skills, it

makes learning more relevant to learners and improvisation sets a

good example to pupils and teachers (Ogwo, 1996). It is therefore

important that Home Economics teachers and pupils can improvise

instructional materials for effective teaching and learning.

Improvisation of Instructional Material

Improvisation is usually associated with the use of local

resources, where and when professionally or commercially produced

materials are not available a teacher, devices a substitute.

Improvisation of instructional material is the imitation of those

teaching aids or resources which the teacher and in fact the entire

class utilize for the purpose of making teaching/learning more

effective. Stration (1994), noted that judicious improvisation and use

of improvised materials in presentation is essential to captivate the

audience and improve their perception of what the speaker is saying.

Improvisation of instructional materials refers to the invention,

construction, collection, modification, production and

substitution of materials for teaching in the absence of

professionally made ones, (Mogbo, 1994). It is a process whereby,

teachers and student gather objects from environments and use

those objects in either their original or reconstructed form, for

teaching/learning. The use of improvised instructional materials

in the classroom has the potential to help teachers explain

concepts being thought. Alterhaug (2004), noted that when

teachers improvise instructional materials, they generate new

processes in which learning, insight and knowledge acquisition

from part of a meta level and make up a platform for further

development in a variety of contexts By improvising and utilizing

instructional materials, more aspect of the national policy on

education will be met (Ogwo, 1996). Improvisation has to do with

the ability to make an item look like and function in the same

way that the real material does, which helps student to have a

true picture of the situation. In meeting the needed technological

development it becomes imperative that Home Economics teaches

should improvise instructional materials. Improvisation of

instructional materials in classes requires resourcefulness and

commitment on the part of teachers. The following principles

should guide the use of instructional materials in Home

Economics classes and form a basis for assessing their

utilization.

Relating Instructional Materials to a General Concept of Home

Economics Syllabus.

According to Ohatoronye (1998), this general concept of the

syllabus applies to what and how instructional materials are to the

content and the processes of teaching/learning involved. The

improvised instructional material should be used to illustrate

concept delineated in the syllabus.

 The Content: Nwafor (1995), noted that instructional material

may be poetry based, drama based, notional functional, situational

or thematic/topical. Anukam (1995), noted that with notional

functional facilities, the idea is to structure content around

functional categories such as "baking a bread, bargaining at the

market, keeping the home: preparing meal". A notional category

involves the selection of content that will demonstrate the Home

Economics concept well. For Nwafor (1995), in every learning

situation, instructional improvised materials should naturally be

relevant to the background and cultural environment of the learners.

In a rural environment, the learner may wish to read or watch a

drama exercise involving the need for nutritious meals. Such drama

must be carefully organized so as to give practices in using the

necessary courtesies in vocabulary.

Thematic/topical facilities should also be related to the

learner's experiential background. Ayogu (2002), opined that such

instructional materials present greater challenges since they consist

of a series of situation and topics in an expanded context. A number

of lesson units may be developed around a theme such as "Ada sews

her dress", this theme can have continuity of topics and situation for

example "ironing the dress", "keeping the needles safely", and

pictorials of fashion scenarios might be useful. To involve students

in the development of instructional materials, the class can be

divided into groups, each group being given an aspect of the theme

to develop in the form of a play, dialogue in improvising materials.

The teacher supervises and corrects the group projects, which are

finally put together as a theme, with samples and functions related

to each topic/situation in Home Economics theme.

Anaekwe (2004), noted that since neither the teacher nor the

textbook can exhaust all the Home Economics concepts, the notions

and functions, the situations, and themes for regular practice must

therefore be selected on the basis of criteria such as frequency of

use, level of learners competence and relevance to the social-cultural

environment.

The Process Nwafor (1995), noted that processes of learning

Home Economics are complex. The improvisation and use of

instructional materials should take this into account. No single

approach can cater for all learning styles or satisfy the requirements

of every situation in which the concept is acquired. The learner can

take a variety of decisions as to the most appropriate instructional

material. Ohatoronye (1999) presented two principles for learner

participation in improvisation of instructional materials thus:

The first principle is that the materials may be learner-centred.

The writer may use a didactic style in which the rule is first stated
and then illustrated by the appropriate demonstration of

forms/functions. The same content (that is expression of obligation)

may be presented in format that engages the learner in practical

work in Home Economics. What the learners do with the materials is

of utmost importance. David (1990), stated that in improvising any

instructional material for learners, activities should be provided for

practicing the concepts being studied in their integrative aspects.

For example, practical activities should accompany listening

activities.

The second principle is that instructional materials might be in

form of magazine collections. Charles and Senter (2002), wrote that

magazines collection comprises written presentation of sample of

activities in Home Economics concepts organized in sequential

units. Even where stretches of concepts are to be practiced orally,

such as drills and dialogues, they are presented in written forms.

Esim (2003) stated that learners can also improvised teaching

materials such as poster, wall charts, nature corner.

Audio Materials1. Ayogu (2002), noted that a resourceful

teacher could make recordings of plays, discussions and passages to

be read aloud for class work. The teacher could ask students to

obtain interesting materials from authentic sources such as taped

broadcast, speeches, lectures, debates, interviews, sketches.

 Visual Materials: According to Egede (2004), this can be

developed to accompany the textbook or to represent whole units in

themselves. Students can take part in developing materials. They

can be asked to bring to the class magazines, empty cans, food

stuffs, video films, folktales or newspaper features. Ayogu (2002),

stated that the teacher can draw from his own experiences in

developing supplementary materials. He can introduce new topics

and materials for practical work. He can also draw from his

knowledge nutritional problems of students from a particular

background. From such knowledge, he can develop his own resource

materials for remedying difficulties in nutrition, for instance, writing

a menu to ensure balance diet. Other materials may include films,

games, cartoons, word puzzle, advertisement and all sort of media

material. According to Esim (2003), such materials offer living

examples of or stimuli for the understanding of Home Economics

concepts in the real world.

The third principle is that no one set of material can suit all

learning purposes for all times (Romiszowski, 1996). When materials

are improvised to supplement the textbook, they must not be

regarded as permanent. The teacher should device a means of

adapting instructional materials. He should bear in mind that his

own supplementary materials will themselves be in need of constant

review and modification (Ohatoronye 1999; Anaekwe 2004).

Osasona (1995), asserted that an adequate instructional

materials for Home Economics teaching and learning must be

appropriate to the age of learners for whom they are meant. He

added that relevant improvised material should be relevant to the

lesson they are meant to serve, simple, clear in illustrations,

adequate in size, interesting, durable, and authentic.

Availability and Adequacy of Instructional Materials

The issue of availability and adequacy of instructional

materials is topical in vocational education. Adequate instructional

materials mean the state of being sufficient in terms of satisfying the

standard requirements to enhance effective instructional activities in

vocational education programme. The Federal Government of Nigeria

has also shown her appreciation and recognition of the need for

adequate provision of instructional materials by establishing the

National Education Technology centre at Kaduna. Many state of the

federation have also established curriculum or resource development

centers. The universities are not left out as most of them have

incorporated curriculum development programmes in their Faculties

of Education. A good example is the Curriculum Development And

Instructional Centre (CUDIMAC) in the Faculty of Education,

University of Nigeria Nsukka.

On the need for adequate provision of instructional materials

in schools, Nwoji (2006) stated that one major problems which could

mar the achievement of the goals of Home Economics in schools is

inadequate provision of instructional facilities such as laboratory

facilities, equipment and tools to facilitate learning. She further

buttressed this point when she asserted that the availability and

effective utilization of instructions materials, tools equipment and

facilities will help students to acquire manipulative skills required to

prepare them for immediate employment in the world of work.

The availability of adequate materials in the teaching/learning

process is very important. Olaitan et al (1990) lamented that without

the provision of adequate teaching materials in schools for teaching

Home Economics, the achievement of the Home Economics

curriculum objectives might be quite impossible. The view is shared

by Lemchi (2001) who warned that the use of inadequate materials

for teaching does more harm than good to the students. This is

because where materials that are supposed to go round the students

so that they will individually have close interaction with the

materials do not, student resort to making noise. There is nothing

the teacher teaches that the students can understand since they are
actually disorganized. Ezeji (2004) stated that as a rule, the number

of students enrolled per practical class should not exceed the

number of individual work space or equipment provided in the

laboratory. Thus instructional materials is said to be adequate when

the number of students in the laboratory per class is not more than

the work space, tools and equipment or any other practical

instructional materials that is supposed to go round in the

laboratory.

Consequent upon increased realization of the importance of

vocational education in the developing nations like Nigeria, there has

been proliferation of many technical and vocational institutions

including (secondary schools), with high rate of enrolment figure in

the past few years. However, it has been observed that there is no

commensurate increase in teaching resource to cope with the

increase in the number of enrolment in these schools over the years.

Enemali (1993) and Salami (1995) commenting on the issue, pointed

out that most technical and vocational institutions in Nigeria were

established without regards to the provision of tools, media,

equipment, laboratory and facilities for practical activities. Similarly,

Aina (2000) observed that the problems of vocational institution in

Nigeria are that of inadequate equipment, dilapidated workshop,

irregular operating fund, poor staffing, and in some cases the

institutions merely exist in order to keep the staff in employment.

The question of goals is therefore an academic exercise. Also, Okorie

(2001) noted that instructional facilities in consonance with the

industrial development in the country are grossly inadequate and

not only that they are few in number, but most of those installed are

out of date and need replacement. Hence, the desired goals of the

vocational education programme can hardly be attained.

From the above discussion, it is evident that, adequacy of tool

and equipment and their effective utilization in the instructional

process will actually determine the kind of product to be expected of

that educational system. If poor quality and insufficient tools are

used in the training process the consequence will be manifested in

the end product, that is, the students' performance. Equipment,

besides being of quality, must be adequate. Obsolete equipment or

narrowly build laboratories are retrogressive to training of students

and might hinder them from acquiring the right type of skill required

for job in the industry or for self-employment particularly in Home

Economics.

Utilization of Instructional Materials in Basic 7-9 Schools

There is no doubt that vocational education is an expensive

programme, especially the inevitable aspect of providing laboratories

and facilities. The programme is practical oriented, where emphasis

is on skill acquisition, therefore, the desired objectives cannot be

achieved without making provision for these basic facilities in the

right proportion. Writing on the utilization of appropriate facilities

for training in vocational education, Langkub and Luule (2001),

remarked that without equipment and tool, learning will not take

place. Amoo (2003) noted that with availability of equipment, it is

ensured that learner sees feels and hears, recognizes, appreciates

and utilizes the equipment for enhancement of learning.

Similarly, Ani (1998), observed that teachers teach better in a

well equipped laboratory where facilities reinforce instructional
activities. This view buttresses the fact that functional subject would
be result oriented only when there are provision for instructional
facilities. Gambo (2000), explained that to promote technological
development for self-reliance, there should be opportunities for
technical innovations. These innovations are only possible where
material resources are available, which reinforce learning and permit
high level creativity in the learners. Obunadike (2008) noted that
making provision for equipment and tools for practical oriented
subject like Home Economics is very necessary. Students always
remember what they have learnt. Using these facilities and it
enhances active participation since the trainees are actively involved
in the teaching/learning process. The importance of tools, machines,
and consumables in the teaching and learning of vocational subjects
like Home Economics, therefore cannot be over-emphasized.
Nwachukwu (2001), expressed the view tat availability of
instructional material can accomplish six objectives when properly
utilized. These include:
 They make learning more permanent.

 They help students develop interest in the subject

 The offer a reality of experience, which stimulates self-activity

on the part of the students.

 They develop a continuity of thought

 They contribute to growth, hence to vocabulary development.

 They provide experiences not easily obtained through other

material and contribute to the efficiency depth and variety of

learning.

Nwachukwu (2001) explained further that instructional

materials are essential for effective instruction in the technical and

vocational education. This is because vocational subjects like Home

Economics involve a lot of skills and practices, which the

teachers/instructor is bound to demonstrate. Besides, Amoo (2003)

remarked that what students hear, they often doubt, what they hear

and see, they accept, but what they hear, see and do they usually

accept and do not forget easily. Therefore, availability and effective

utilization of instructional tools, equipment and facilities will not

only increase the performance of the teachers but will also help the
students to acquire the manipulative skills required to prepare them

for immediate employment in the world of work.

It is therefore necessary that the products of secondary schools

offering Home Economics should be functional and practically skilled

in the subject. Adequate provision of the right type of instructional

materials should be made in the secondary schools. In realization of

the need for provision of the necessary teaching resources,

consequently, the federal government of Nigeria took up the

responsibility of making available sufficient teaching facilities for the

success of current educational system. Sequel to this, a large sum of

money was committed at both state and federal levels for the

procurement of introductory technology equipment from Hungary,

Britain, Bulgaria, and Canada, (Salami, 1995). However, Yahaya

(1999), observed that numerous tools and machines which were

purchased and distributed to most schools are yet to be installed.

Where temporary laboratories are available, the equipments are yet to

be installed and functional for lack of technical know-how. Where

equipment has been installed, they are yet to be functional consequent

upon lack of water or electricity. Another inhibiting factor is the

problem of dearth of qualified technical teacher in the area (Ivowi,

2004). The implication of this is that a lot of tools and machines

imported to accelerate technological education in this country have

remained un-installed and un-cared for. These factors in part are

responsible for lack of tools and equipment which is subsequently

responsible for improper utilization of instructional materials for the

teaching of vocational subjects in the secondary schools.

Adequately provided instructional materials, locked up and

un-utilized, can never make learning effective nor justify the effort

made to procure the facilities for workshop practice, towards

enhancing the much needed skill acquisition in technical subjects.

Olaitan (2008) pointed our that effective implementation of any

curriculum for the achievement of the desired outcome depends in

part on the teachers’ ability to effectively manipulate, operate, use

equipment, tools and materials to help the learners learn the content

of the curriculum. Besides, non-utilization of available resources

leads only to material wastage (Salami, 1995). Studies in Nigeria

have shown poor utilization and little improvisation of workshop

facilities in the teaching of technical subjects. Mkpa (1989) and

Nwafor (1995) noted that the lukewarm attitude to judicious and

proper usage of the laboratory and school shops facilities is of great

concern to the development of vocational education in Nigeria,

especially with the increasing foreign exchange on the purchase of

such equipment from abroad.

 The use of appropriate instructional materials during practical

lesson reduces time wastage in teaching; it reshapes the system of

delivery and understanding of the students, in the teaching and

learning process of home economics. Supporting this view, Suleiman

(1998) remarked that if the objectives of the lesson is the

development of skills, the instruction will unquestionably be better if

a method that will allow the learners to actually perform the skill is

employed using the available facilities. Emphasizing on the use of

teaching facilities or reinforce learning, Mushi (1989) and Nwankwo

(1997) opined that when instructional facilities are applied to

education, they would reshape both delivery system used to convey

instruction, and the subject matter of the curriculum. It is therefore

evident that the effective utilization for the right type of teaching

resources becomes inevitable in the teaching and learning of home

economics trades. This will facilitate acquisition of the desired

practical skills needed for the production of the required manpower

for technological development of this nation.

Problems Inherent in Improvisation of Instructional Materials

Technological development of any country is facilitated by a

sound education in technical vocational programmes. Vocational

Home Economics being part of technical education is concerned with

finding out about things in the environment, developing individual

for a well rounded life through well rounded education with

adequate resources. The use of resource person and industrial visits

are also dimensions of instructional improvisation. The teacher has

to plan and create conducive atmosphere that will enable the

resource person to assist in the instructional process either in the

teachers; classroom or in the person’s workplace.

Problem of improvisation includes over spending of public

funds or personnel salary, on seeming irrelevances, by public

officers, (Briggs and Bolanta, 1992). Onwuka (1991) stated other

problems to include teachers’ poor attitudinal disposition, lack of

prerequisite improvisation skills, arising from deficiencies in their

pre-service raining and student’s lack of interest in improvisation.

Amoo (2003) added problems in lack of government’s interest and

priory for instructional materials as one of the problems. Ogwo

(1996) noted that when the teacher believes that the government

truly possess the resources to equip the laboratory but prefers to

spend same on frivolities, that teacher may be unwilling to think out

alternative ways of presenting instrument.

Strategies for Enhancing the Improvisation of Instructional

Materials

It has been remarked by Olaitan (1992), that education in

general is expensive and that the situation is much more critical for
vocational and technical education whose programmes cut across

wild range of human endeavours. He also observed that the huge

capital outlay required establishing vocational technical programmes

calls for more aggressive solicitations for financial support from

sources other than the government. Salami (1995), suggested that

because of cost of some instructional materials and the need to

achieve the objective of vocational and technical education, teacher

should resort to improvisation.

Improvisation is a substitute for the commercially made or

manufactured materials which usually are imported. According to

Salami, improvisation will reduce the scarcity of teaching materials

in both Lower and Upper Basic Schools. Anaekwe (2004), noted that

teachers ought to know the procedures for designing alternative

instructional material with which they can help their learners to

visualize or form a mental picture of whatever topic they want to

teach. A classroom teacher must be conversant with types,

characteristics and advantage of instructional materials before he

could improvise.

Eshiet (1996) and Obunadike (2008) respectively, called for

creativity and the use of things in the environment in teaching

which he demonstrated by using a readily available material like

water in teaching the concept and application of energy. He stated

that teachers should use inexpensive materials in the locality to

produce some of the materials they need for teaching Home

Economic. Improvisation of adequate and right type of instructional

materials is inevitable for the development of vocational education

programme in Nigeria. Improvisation of instructional materials is

capital intensive and cannot be shouldered alone by the teachers.

Improvisation requires some involvement of the community and

some non-governmental organizations. Nwoji (2006) observed that

vocational education programme require much money in order to

make available the necessary materials needed to impart the desired

skills into the students. However (Enemali, 1993) noted that this is

more than what the teachers can shoulder alone.

Review of Related Empirical Studies

This section reviews some related studies on the problem

under study. Anyakoha and Arkhust (2004) conducted a study

titled; Availability and Adequacy of Educational Facilities for the

Implementation of the Senior Secondary School Clothing and Textile

Curriculum in the Southern Zone of Ghana. The study was designed

to find out which of the essential educational facilities for the

implementation of the senior secondary school clothing and textile

curriculum are available and also available in enough quantities in

the selected schools. The study’s population was the clothing and
textile teachers and the senior secondary schools clothing and textile

students during the 2001/2002 academic year. The total

respondents used were questionnaire, interview guided and

observation checklist. Frequency, percentages, and means were

used to answer the research questions and chi-square used to test

the hypotheses. The study showed that not all the needed facilities

are available. Most of the equipment available was not in sufficient

quantities, only 17 out of 43 are available in enough quantities. The

teachers were not enough to teach more of the practical curses

effectively.

This study was carried out in senior secondary schools but the

present study will be limited to Basic 7-9 schools. Since that study

observed insufficient instructional materials, the present study

study would go further to investigate the extent of improvisation and

utilization of instructional materials by Basic 7-9 Home Economics

teachers, in the absence of professionally made ones.

Nwoji (2006) conducted a study on the assessment of

resources available and utilize in Women Educational Centers in

Enugu State. The main purpose of this study was to find out

teachers’ qualifications and available learning resources in women

education centers in Enugu State. Populations of 350 women were

used for the study. Questionnaire was used for data collection. The
study revealed lack of full-time qualified teachers and lack of

learning resources (equipment and materials) in the centers.

Nworji’ s study is relevant to the present study because it

investigates that availability and utilization of resources for teaching,

among other things, Home Economics. This study was carried out in

Women Education Centres in Enugu State but the present study will

be limited to Basic 7-9 schools in Anambra State.

Another study conducted by Aquah (1998) focused on

Identification and Evaluation of Instructional Materials for Teaching

and Learning Business Subjects in Senior Secondary Schools in

Cross-River State. The purpose of the study was to identify and

evaluate the adequacy of the instructional materials available for

teaching and learning Business subjects. The population for the

study was 360 business subject teachers in all the senior secondary

schools in the state. Five research questions guided the study and

data were analyzed using Z-score statistics. (The instrument was a

structured questionnaire). The study revealed a paucity of

instructional materials and staff in the senior secondary schools.

The Federal Government Schools were better equipped than the

state schools.

Aquah’s study also provides useful insights for the present one

because it it focused on instructional materials. However, it was

carried out in Business Studies while the present study was in

Home Economics. It also compared Federal and State schools while

the present study will compare urban and rural Home economics

teachers.

Ekong (1996) carried out a study titled: The perception of

agricultural teachers on the criteria that could be employed in

selecting instructional materials and teaching major areas of

practical agricultural science curriculum. Three research questions

and three hypotheses guided the study. A structured questionnaire

was used to collect data and analyzed using mean, standard

deviation and t-test. The finding of the study revealed that thirteen

(13) criteria presently used for selection of instructional materials by

agricultural science teachers were valid.

Since the study identified some criteria for selecting

instructional materials in Agricultural Science, the present study

study used some of criteria in developing the instrument to be used

in investigating the extent of improvisation and utilization of

instructional materials by Basic 7-9 Home Economics teachers.

Summary of Literature Review

All the authors whose works were reviewed have the same view

about the concept of instructional materials. They are identifiable

physical objects which carry information that can promote learning.

These materials appeal to the senses of the body, vision and

auditory. Improvisation and utilization of instructional materials is

invaluable if effective teaching and learning will be achieved.

Adequate improvisation of instructional materials requires that

certain objectives be adhered. The Home Economics teachers should

be conversant with such plans and objectives. To enhance

improvisation and utilization of instructional materials, the related

literature review suggested that strategies included: involving

other bodies both community and non-governmental organizations

to support the improvisation of materials.

Financing Home Economics teachers to workshops and

seminars and giving them incentives by government were suggested

as one of the strategies for enhancing improvisation and utilization

of instructional materials.

The review of literature covered relevant theories: Theory of

Anchored Instruction, Cognitive Load Theory, Component Display

theory, Theory of Situated Learning, and Symbol Systems Theory.

The present study derives mainly from the Anchored Instruction and

situated learning theories. These theories has many implications for

the improvisation and utilization of suitable, stimulating

instructional materials, that help learners to become motivated,

eager to learn and be creative, in the process of learning. When

teachers improve and utilize instructional materials, they

help learners to create a situation or atmosphere, in

which curiosity is aroused, imaginations stimulated,

interests generated, viewpoint enlarge and attitudes

changed thereby attaining the basis for effective learning.

Finally, some relevant empirical studies were reviewed.

The empirical studies covered issues on effect of

instructional materials on students’ achievement and

interest, the availability of instructional materials in

secondary schools as well as teachers’ attitudes to the

use of instructional materials. Though several studies

had been conducted on the issue of instruction,

materials in Nigeria, no study known to the researcher

had been conducted on improvisation and utilization of

instructional materials for teaching Home Economics