COMMUNICATION AS A MANAGEMENT TOOL FOR CRISIS

RESOLUTION IN SELECTED TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS IN

DELTA STATE NIGERIA
 ABSTRACT
Crises of different types occur between managements and students of tertiary institutions
in Delta State, Nigeria. Communication is all embracing as far as crisis resolution is
concerned. Communication is very vital to life and effective communication has the
ability to resolve crises of all sorts amicably. This is why communication is seen as
important aspect of crisis resolution between managements and students of tertiary
institution. This is what motivated this study to assess communication as a tool for crisis
resolution in selected tertiary institutions in Delta State, Nigeria. Social Judgment and
Frustration Theories were used as the theoretical perspectives. Delta State has 15
institutions of higher learning with a total population of 77,600. Out of the 15
institutions, the multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 20 percent from the
institutions, faculty/schools, departments and class level. As a result, Delta State
University, Abraka, Delta State Polytechnic Ogwashi-Uku and Delta State Polytechnic,
Ozoro were selected. Therefore, the total number of sampled students were 1,720.
The survey research design was adopted with questionnaire and interview as instruments
of gathering quantitative and qualitative data respectively. Quantitative data were
analyzed using parametric and non parametric method. The qualitative data on the other
hand was analyzed using content analysis to report the interview responses. The study
answered the five research questions and one hypothesis raised for the study. Some of the
findings of the study included a very high level of information flow and usage between
managements and students of tertiary institutions in Delta State. Some of the respondents
757 (56%) which are above average said that information flow and usage was very high.
Also 679 (50.9) said that information flow regularly from management to students.
Findings also revealed that managements employed good communication strategies in
resolving crises between them and the students. Majority of the respondents 911 (68.3)
strongly agreed that managements employed communication strategies in the resolution
of crises between them and students. This is in tandem with the data generated from the
students which confirmed that the institutions’ managements employed different
communication strategies in resolving crises between managements and students.
Findings also revealed that the state of peace in any institution of higher learning are due
to lack of effective information management between management and students.
It was concluded that communication is a very viable tool for the resolution of crisis,
between managements and students of tertiary institution in Delta State. Therefore all
tertiary institutions should always endevour to use appropriate and effective
communication in resolving crisis between managements and students. The managements
of tertiary institutions should envolve the use of communication rather than force.
Communication strategies that are favourable to both the managements and the students
should be used in resolving crisis between them.
Keywords: Communication, Crisis, Management, Institution, Resolution

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Content
Page
Title page
i
Certification
ii
Dedication
iii
Acknowledgements
iv
Abstract
v
Table of Contents
vi
List of Tables
ix
List of Figures
x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
1
1.2 Statement of the Problem
2
1.3 Objective of the Study
3
1.4 Research Questions
4
1.5 Hypotheses
4
1.6 Significance of the Study
4
1.7 Scope of the Study
5
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms
5
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.0 Introduction
7
2.1 Conceptual Review
7
2.1.1 Definition, Nature and Types of Communication
8
2.1.2 Definition, Nature and Types of Crises
16
2.1.3 Methods or Stages in Crisis Resolution
23
2.1.4 Role of Communication in Crisis Resolution in Tertiary Institutions
26
2.1.5 Crisis Management in Nigeria Tertiary Institutions
33
2.1.6 Factors Responsible for Communication Effectiveness in the
Management and Resolution of Crisis
37
2.1.7 Peace Building, Empowerment and Communication between
Management and Students of Tertiary Institutions
40

Content
Page
2.1.8 Some Crises, their Causes and Effects in Nigeria Tertiary Institutions
47
2.1.9 The Implication of Information Flow between Management and
Students of Tertiary Institutions
57
2.1.10 Approaches/Participatory Communication Strategies for Crisis
Management in Tertiary Institutions
60
2.1.11 Applying ACADA Planning Model to Crisis Management/ Resolution
in Tertiary Institutions
65
2.1.12 Galtung’s Crisis Triangle in Crisis Resolution
69
2.1.13 Analysis of Examples of Crises and how Communication was used in
Managing General Crisis in Tertiary Institutions in Delta State
71
2.2 Theoretical Framework
76
2.3 Empirical Review
78
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
88
3. 1 Research Design
88
3.2 Population
88
3.3 Sample size and sampling Technique
89
3.4 Research Instrument
93
3.5 Validity of the Instrument
93
3.6 Reliability of the Instrument
94
3.7 Data Collection Procedure
94
3.8 Data Analysis and Presentation
95
3.9 Ethical Consideration
95
3.10 Post-Research Benefits
95
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
OF FINDINGS
4.0 Introduction
97
4.1Presentation of Results
97
4.1.2Analysis of Research Questions 98
4.2 Test of Hypothesis
105
4.3 Discussion of Findings
110

Content
Page
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary
115
5.2 Conclusion
117
5.3 Recommendations
118
5.4 Contribution to Knowledge
119
5.5 Limitations of the Study
120
5.6 Suggestion for Further Studies
121
REFERENCES
122
APPENDIX A
134
APPENDIX B
135
APPENDIX C
138
 LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
3.2 Summary of Sampled Institutions, Faculties, Schools,
Departments and Students
90
4.1.1 Demographic Features of Respondents
97
4.1.2 Level of Information Flow and Usage between Management and Students
98
4.1.3 Communication Strategies Employed by Management in Crisis
Resolution between Management and Students
100
4.1.4 Level of Communication Usage in Crisis Resolution between
Management and Students
101
4.1.5 Extent of Usage of Inter-personal Channel of Communication for
Crisis Resolution between Management and Students
103
4.1.6 Effect of Inefficient and Ineffective Information Management on the
Relationship between Management and Students
105
4.2.1 Pearson Product Moment Correlation Showing the Relationship between
Level of Information Flow between Management and Students and
Effective Relationship between Management and Students
107
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
1 Conceptual Model
8
2 Adapted from: Communication for Peace Building: Practices, Trends
and Challenges by United States Institute of Peace
45
3 Diagram of the ACADA Communication Model
66
4 Communication Handbook for Polio Eradication and Routine EPI
69
5 Galtung’s (1969) Conflict Triangle
70
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.9 Background to the Study

Communication is indispensable to human existence, it is central to all aspects of life,
hence, it occupies a vital parts of our everyday living. Communication has the ability to
change behaviour of aggrieved person from negative to positive. This is why it is
regarded as a useful tool in crisis management between management and students of
institutions of higher learning. There are different types of communication which mainly
include intra-personal communication, inter-personal communication, group
communication, extra-personal communication, public communication, traditional
communication, cultural communication, international communication and mass
communication.

The different types of communication can be used at various times for various purposes
to manage and resolve crisis between the management and students of institutions of
higher learning. At any point in time, the use of traditional, interpersonal and mass
media (newspaper, magazine, radio, television and the internet), have been acknowledged
by communication scholars such as Nwabueze (2014), (Daramola, 2003), Dike (1988) as
playing crucial roles in providing information or messages that can shape or change
people perceptions. Crisis has been defined as a struggle or contest between people with
opposing needs, ideas, beliefs, values or goals ((Foundation Coalition, 2001)

Crisis management is the ability to put crisis under control or the handling of a crisis
situation with the intention of achieving peaceful co-existence between the parties
involved in the crisis. According to Olajide (2011), crisis management is the process of
reducing the negative and disruptive capacity of crisis through communication.
Communication plays a number of roles in crisis management such as helping to calm
fray nerves, educating parties involved in crisis, establishing and interpreting meanings,
information exchange, instrument for growth and development, social transformation
during crisis, promote better teamwork, stimulating debate and sensitization of people
amongst others. Crisis between management and students of Colleges of Education,
Polytechnics and Universities in Nigeria is at alarming rate especially with government
institutions of higher learning. Some of the crises in the institutions of higher learning are
caused by a number of factors ranging from struggle for political participation, contest
for access to resources, struggle for identity, welfare problem in the institutions, lack of
respect for constituted authorities, etc. Crises between management and students occur
on regular basis in institutions of higher learning in Delta State and this tend to disrupt
academic activities in the institutions. For instance, in March 2016 a Higher National
Diploma Student of the Delta State Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku was arrested by the Police
due to cult related issue. Based on this, the Student Union Government in company of
other students chased away the security men and locked the school gate as early as 6.30
a.m. It took the timely intervention of the Commissioner for Education and Senior
Special Assistance to the Governor on Education for the gate to be opened.

The absence of communication or ineffective use of communication may result to a state

of unrest in higher institutions of learning. Communication is the grease that keeps social
relationship in motion or ongoing without or with minimal frictions. Once there is a
breach or non-functionality of communication between management and students of
higher institutions of learning, such may trigger crises or result to a state of unrest.
Communication is very vital to crisis management and resolution in higher institutions of
learning. Benard (1978) posits that in any exhaustive theory of organizations,
communication occupies a central place because the structure, extensiveness and scope of
every organization are almost entirely determined by the communication techniques
employed.
Communication tools can be used to incite violence as well as carry messages that could
help to prevent or manage unrest in higher institutions of learning. Recognizing the
importance and potential of communication as instrument for crisis prevention,
management, resolution and peace building field, The United States Institute of Peace
(USIP) has planned to launch a new grant program, on communication which is designed
to support learning and improved practice in the area of crisis resolution. USIP is
interested in exploring ways that communication can be used to support the creation of
new horizontal and vertical communication to assist in improving crisis monitoring,
management, resolution, community-based responses to crisis, and participatory peace
building.

1.10 Statement of the Problem

This research is on the use of communication as a management tool for crisis resolution
in selected tertiary institutions of learning in Delta State. Institutions of higher learning in
Delta State experience crisis between management and students on regular basis despite
the good roles of communication in crisis resolution. In 2011 the students of the Delta
State University, Abraha went on rampage because of increase in school fees. The
Student Union Government (SUG) who led the riot claimed that the students were not
consulted before the increment. Similarly, in 2012, the students of the College of
Education, Agbor, Delta State went on rampage due to increase in school fees. Also, in
November, 2013, the students went on another riot because of blackout in the
institution’s hostels for 9 months. In 2014, the students of the Delta State Polytechnic,
Ogwashi-Uku went on rampage during the first semester’s examination. The rampage
was caused due to the fact that one of the students was asked to stand-up during one of
the papers because he was cheating. In addition, the staff and students were locked
outside the gate in 2015 based on the fact that management arrested one of the students
for cult related activity. Most of these crises disrupted academic calendars in one way or
the other. These crises could have been prevented and better managed with the use of
communication. This goes to show that the use of communication in the resolution of
crisis in the institutions is not effective or out rightly neglected. There are also indications
that the channels and strategies employed in the resolution of crises were in appropriate.
As a result, the advantages that emanate from effective use of communication tools in the
management and resolution of crisis between managements and students in tertiary
institutions of learning are not attained by the institutions’ authorities. This therefore
means that there could be lack of effective dissemination of information between
management and students of institutions of higher learning which may invariably affect
their cordial relationship on campus.

1.3 Objective of the Study

The general objective of the study was to determine the role of communication in the
resolution of crises between managements and students of tertiary institutions of learning
in Delta State. The specific objectives are to:

1. determine the level of information flow and usage between managements and
students of tertiary institutions in Delta State;
2. ascertain the communication strategies that managements of Delta State
institutions of higher learning employ in crises resolution between the
managements and students;
3. determine the level of communication usage in crisis resolution between
managements and students of tertiary institutions in Delta State;
4. determine the extent of usage of inter-personal channel of communication by
managements in the resolution of crises between the managements and students in
institutions of higher learning in Delta State and
5. find out the effectiveness of information management on the relationship between
managements and students of tertiary institutions in Delta State
1.4 Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study
1. What is the level of information flow and usage between managements and
students of institutions of higher learning in Delta State?
2. What are the communication strategies employed by managements in crisis
resolution between managements and students of tertiary institutions in Delta State?
3. What is the level of communication usage in crisis resolution between
managements and students of tertiary institutions in Delta State?
4. What is the extent of usage of inter-personal channel of communication in crisis
resolution between managements and students in tertiary institutions of learning in Delta
State?
5. How effective is information management on the relationship between
managements and students of tertiary institutions in Delta State?

1.5 Hypothesis

The following hypothesis was tested at 0.05

Ho1: There is no significant relationship between the level of information flow and
effective relationship between managements and students in institutions of higher
learning in Delta State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study is geared towards creating the consciousness of the importance of

communication for a peaceful co-existence between managements and students of
tertiary institutions. The study would enable managements of higher institutions to
determine communication strategies and approaches that can be used to ensure peace on
campuses. Apart from higher institutions of learning, it would serve as essential tool for
different organizations to know the importance of effective channels and process of
communication in ensuring peace between organizations and workers. The study would
also make management of higher institutions of learning to be conversant with the
communication strategies to be employed between it and the students.

In summary, the study would provide a working guide to the management of every
higher institution or the communication patterns between it and students as a panacea for
peace on campuses.

1.7 Scope of the Study

This study deals with the use of communication as a tool by management in resolving
crisis in tertiary institutions of learning in Delta State. The work covers all the institutions
of higher learning in Delta State. Meanwhile, the entire institutions of higher learning in
Delta State are 15, namely: Delta State University (DELSU), Abraka, Federal University
of Petroleum Resources, Effurun (FUPRE), Western Niger Delta University, Oghara,
Novena University, Ogume, Celilia and Micheal Ibru University, Agbara-Otor, Edwin
Clark’s University, Kiagbodo, College of Education, Warri, College of Education
Agbor, College of Physical and Health Education, Mosogar, College of Education
(Technical), Asaba, College of Health Technology, Ofuoma, Ughelli, Delta State
Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku (DSPG), Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro (DSPZ) and Delta
State Polytechnic, Otefe-Oghara (DSPO). The time frame for the study is between June
2016 to March 2017.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

The following terms were defined in accordance to how they were used in the study:

1. Peace: A state of harmony, smooth and uninterrupted operation of laid down plan
to maintain its academic calendars in higher institutions of learning.
2. Conflict or Crisis: Crisis is a dispute; an argument; a struggle; a fight, a serious
divergent of opinions, wishes and anger that occur between managements and
students of tertiary institutions of learning.
3. Communication: Communication is the exchange of information, ideas, figures
between two or more persons. It is also the sharing of meanings between two or
group of persons.
4. Crisis Resolution: This is settlement of dispute between two persons, groups or
among communities or between communities in order to ensure peace and
harmony.
5. Management Tools: These are those tools that management used in the process
of maintaining cordial relationship between her and the students of higher
institutions of learning.
6. Communication Strategy: This refers to communication plans of higher
institutions. It is the communication plan that management of institutions of
higher learning employ in dealing or relating with the students.
7. Tertiary Institutions: This refers to as third stage, third level and post secondary
education.
8. Communication Channels: This refers to the way information flows within
tertiary institutions between their managements and students and with other
institutions. It is also a medium through which a message is transmitted to its
intended audience.
9. Communication System: This refers to as a collection of institutions’
communication networks, transmissions etc within the institution.
 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.0 Introduction

This study adopts organized empirical and systematic multi-disciplinary approaches in

exposing and analyzing relevant sub-headings, concepts and constructs. The review also
dwells on the theoretical perspectives and assumptions which are within Mass
Communication discipline and other related fields. This is germane in order to
appropriately situate the study within theoretical constructions that address the research
problem of the study. The review entails the analysis of the dependent and independent
variables in different sub-headings.

Thus, in this chapter, scholars’ phenomena were examined from the perspectives and
approaches of renowned scholars in the field of communication and Mass
Communication and crises management, which are geared towards the goal of richer
exposition. Consequently, by adopting a holistic approach distilled from concepts,
construct, ideas and theoretical submission that have evolved the field of communication
and related fields among others, there was an attempt at filling the gap that
communication can be used as tool for managing and resolving the numerous and
incessant crises in tertiary institutions of learning in Nigeria and the world at large. Thus,
this approach brought about a prescription of well substantiated recommendations that
could result in workable solutions to the problems arising from the study.

2.1 Conceptual Review

The key concepts in this study are:

Communication, crises, management, resolution, peaceful co-existence, participatory
communication, peace building, planning. Under these key concepts, various sub-
headings that are related emanated to enable indebt and holistic review of the study.
 Communication Independent
Variable

Frequent Communication Communication Interpersonal Efficient Dependent

Information Strategies usage Channels Information Variables
Flow (Interpersonal (Frequency, Management
Mediated) Extent)

Crisis Resolution

Figure 1: Conceptual Model

Source: Researcher, 2016

Conceptual Model showing Communication and Crisis Resolution between

Managements and Students of Institutions of High Learning in Delta State Nigeria.

The model assumes that frequent information flow; communication strategies,

communication usage; inter personal channels; efficient information management are
what that can be manipulate by communication to either resolve or institute crises.
Therefore, communication as the independent variable has relationship with the
dependent variables as shown in the conceptual model. All these dependent variables can
be manipulated by the independent variable (communication) to either achieve a state of
peace or result to crisis between the managements and students of tertiary institutions in
Delta State.
2.1.1 Definitions, Nature and Types of Communication

The word communication is broad as it encompasses all spheres of message exchange

both human and technological. As there are different scholars in the field of
communication, so are there different definitions of communication.

MacBride Commission explains communication as “not only exchange of news and

messages but as an individual and collective activity enhancing all transmission and
sharing of ideas, facts and data ….” Fiske (1990, p. 1) sees communication as an
interaction through messages which are both human and technological. Mowlana &
Wilson (1988, p.9), Okunna (1999, p. 5) summed up the various definitions of
communication given by various authors as “something transferred or transmitted from
one person to another during the communication process”. To communicate simply refers
to share ideas, information, opinions, and feelings or experience among and between
people. This is confirmed by Mekenna (1988) when he opines that communication means
to make common or to share. The basic issue in communication is enshrined in the
message exchange which may be verbal or non-verbal, personal or non-personal

Communication is both a fundamental and an indispensable vehicle for the growth,

development, sustenance and continuous survival of any society (MacBride, 1981,
Watzlawick, 1986). This is supported by Akpan (1987) when he considers that “society
arises and exists through communication” (p. 1). Paramount to this argument is the
suggestion that communication and society are not only inseparable, but also usually
inclusive entities. Communication can also be regarded as the principal instrument in the
advancement of human civilization. Akpan (1987) says that:

The ability to communicate to others, one’s experiences is

essentially what made human civilization possible. . When
man become able to transit orally his knowledge –the sum
of his stored up experience – to his children and so on,
human civilization had begun (p.12),
Eyre (1983) opines that communication is the transmitting or sharing of a message to
another party so that it can be understood and acted upon. It is transactional in nature and
operates in an environment whereby each participant is both a source and receiver.
Interpretations are given to the cues, verbal and non verbal ones which are sent by each
participant and who thereafter encodes a set of cues and transmit same back to the
initiator. In this wise, communication is seen as all embracing in nature. Non-verbal
communication modes are considered as the most basic forms of all communication
bearing in mind that it is quite reflective and tell a lot more of what a party feels is than
the verbal type. The varieties include facial expression, eye movements, gestures,
postures, personal appearances and the use of time and space (Ajala, 2001, p. 54).

On the other hand, the verbal (and written forms) are better controlled, and these come
out as symbols that are easily understood by the parties involved in the communication
activity. These symbols are arranged in meaningful patterns whereby past events, ideas or
abstractions would be discussed to achieve meaning. Most forms of communication are
aimed at persuading the receiver. In communication, there is the need to influence, and
some instance where this is seen mostly used is during crisis resolution, advertising and
public relations. Communication here is intended to persuade and aim at attitude change
in people and their behaviour. This shows that communication is quite pivotal, and plays
a central role in the co-existence of one person with another, and vice versa.

Communication is fundamental and is vital to every institution in society. Baran (2002)

sees communication as the sharing of information between source and receiver which is
expressed in terms of the basic element of the communication process (pp. 4-5).
Communication takes place when a source sends a message by means of a channel
resulting to an effect” from the perspective of the communicator. The main goal of
communication is the transmission of messages to one or more other persons by means of
symbols. As a social action, it allows individuals, groups and institutions to share one
form of ideas or another. Hence, Tubbs and Sylvia (1986) posit that:

Communication is the sharing of what makes human

communication unique is the superior ability to create
and to use symbols, for it is this ability that enables the
Communication is dynamic, complex, consumatory, continuous, personal and
irreversible. It is all about humans interaction with the entire world through spoken
words, written words, gestures, music, painting, photographs or dance. Hassan (2005)
and West and Turner (2004) supported this when they said that communication is a social
process in which individuals employ symbols to establish and interpret meanings in their
environment.

Sannie (2000) sees communication as “a relationship, an interaction, the process by

which messages (codes) are transferred from a source to the receiver” (p. 25). This shows
that communication is a means of establishing a relationship or interaction to make
something known by means of understood symbols between people or groups that have
something in common with each other. It is not enough to communicate, the purpose and
intention of the communication must unveil its mission to achieve the intended
objectives. All obstacles obstructing the mission have to be surmounted if
communication is to make its full meaning. It is beyond the traditional news values of
5W’s and H and the process include people, message, channel, feedback code, encoding
and decoding, noise and context (Lustung& Koester, 2003, Njoku, 2006, Pearson, et al
2003).

Most times, communication is given a larger than life posture as cure to all ailments of
society. This is why Goldhaber (1990) variously calls communication as “the life blood
of the institution or organization”, “the threat that ties the system together” and the
“binding agent that cement relationship” (p. 5). All these buttress the ability of
communication to be a tool of integration or that of disintegration, a soothing balm to
calm frayed nerves or a keg of gum powder that can set forest ablaze.

Communication scholars like Emery, Ault and Agee (1969) define communication as “an
act of transmitting information, idea and attitude from one person to another” (p. 29).
Moemeka (1995) submitted that “communication is the exchange of ideas or opinion or
message between and among two or more persons” (p. 239). Communication is a social
feature of interactions, it is a social interactions between two or more persons with the
objective of exchanging opinions, ideas, messages or information. Information is a very
vital element in communication because it provides the facts and figures that make
meaningful communication possible. Communication can be viewed from two
perspectives, traditional and modern angles. Traditional communication is the beliefs,
system, opinions, actions, culture and customs that are local to the given society.
According to Sinha (1986) “traditional communities have their own in-built
communication system which is verbal, face-to-face, expressed through gestures and
symbols, codified and decoded by those sharing the same culture” (p. 60). He explained
further that cultural communication involves various levels of communication within the
village structure and in a cluster of villages that are inter-linked and inter-connected by
various kinships, political and socio-economic obligations. Traditional communication
also involves several forms of non-verbal communication through which important
messages are conveyed within the society using objects, acts and symbols.

According to Nwabueze (2004), the communication process today ensures society’s

survival and growth, and is also the medium through which social activities and
civilization are expressed. In fact, we communicate to live and live to communicate. He
opines further that communication is everyday activity involving the transfer,
transmission and sharing of ideas, experience, information and data of all kinds between
a sender and receiver. It is the exchange or sharing of meanings, messages, opinions and
facts of all kinds between two entities or within a person. Baran (2004) sees
communication as the transmission of a message from a source to a receiver. It is a
process that involves the sharing of meaning between a sender and receiver within a
common frame of reference (p. 4).

Communication can take place either through intrapersonal or interpersonal.

Intrapersonal communication is defined as communication that takes place within one
person while interpersonal communication is the one between two or more persons.
Communication takes place when meaning has been expressed, a message is passed and
understood, and response activated (Nwabueze, 2014, p. 4). The sender and receiver must
have a common frame of reference for the communication processes to be meaningful.
Frame of reference here means that the sender and receiver should exist in an
“atmosphere” of understanding (having shared experiences) that makes the messages
meaningful so that the receiver can make sense out of the message and give sensible
feedback to the sender. For instance, the language used should be understood by both the
sender and the receiver, also, if it is a discussion, both the sender and receiver should be
familiar with the topic of discussion. This invariably shows that the frame of reference is
absolutely necessary for the message content or entire communication process
meaningful. Okunna (1999) summarizes the meaning of communication in the following
words:
The connecting thread appears to be idea of something being
transferred from one person to another. We use the word
communication sometimes to refer to what is to be transferred,
sometimes the means by which it is transferred and sometimes to
the whole process of what is being transferred, to the content or
message; it is the constant principle of communication. (p. 5).

Communication keeps the society moving. In fact, life thrives on communication.

Effective communication is required to ensure order and co-existence between and
among people in the society, together with other organizations, living and non-living
things. Effective use of communication is meant to achieve these and many more
objectives requires an understanding of the communication process. Nwabueze (2014)
sees communication process as the mechanism or activity circuit which characterizes the
transmission of a message from a source or sender to a receiver (p. 6). He explains
further that, it is the process of conceptualizing, initiating, transmitting, receiving
understanding and reacting to a message. It is the transferring of information from the
sender through a channel, to the receiver and possibly back to sender (feedback).

Communication is vital to life and effective communication enhances one’s physical and
psychological health. Communication experts believe that poor communication is at the
core of many problematic or dysfunctional behaviour and that effective communication
can help solve these problems (Pearson, Nelson, Titsworth & Harter, 2003). Okoro and
Barikui (2006) see communication as the process of exchanging information, ideas and
feelings between a source and a receiver. Communication is considered a means of
exchange because it is an activity , or a set of behaviour. Communication involves
meaning which is shared in understanding of the message. The message comprised verbal
and non-verbal form of the , thought, idea or feelings that one person (the source) wants
to transmit to another person (the receiver) (Pearson et al, 2003). According to Akpan
(1987):

Man lives a communication dependent life; he relies on

communication to see his way through the heap of uncertainty in
which he lives. The whole of life is uncertain and chaotic.
Communication helps to reduce the chaos and uncertainty in
which man finds himself. (P. 14)
Man transfer knowledge, symbols and feelings from one person to another through
communication. It is the transfer or sharing of common values, information, ideas and
cultural heritage from one person who is the sender to another person refers to as the
receiver. Communication is about more than just exchanging information. It is about
understanding the emotion and intentions of others. According to Verberder and
Verberder (2002) communication is a mean of creating and transferring meanings in a
non formal conversation, interaction with group of people or public speaking (p. 6). Our
world is socially constructed and maintained through communication. Therefore,
communication limits as well as liberates us. It distinguish as well as helps to bring unity
among people (Baran, 2001). Carey (1975) points out that communication is a symbolic
way producing and maintaining cordial relation. Eyre (1983) views communication as
involving the giving of understandable information; it is the exchange of message among
and between persons that is capable of being understood and acted upon. In a similar
vein, James, Ode and Soola (1990) look at communication as the dissemination of,
thoughts, idea and information between a sender and receiver.

Communication can also be conceived of as a social – psychological process relevant in

the functioning of any group, organization, or institution or society. It is in this regard
that Katz and Kahn (1971) view communication as a system of exchange of information
which is primarily the thrust of a social system or an organization. This information
exchange could be between the management and students of tertiary institutions of
learning in order to foster a harmonious relationship. Hence, effective communication
between management and students of institutions of higher learning is the panacea to
crises of different kinds. Udall & Udall (1979, p. 5) and Devito (1988, p.27) see
communication in a similar manner as the mutual sharing of ideas, messages, values,
attitudes through a channel to produce a degree of understanding between the sender and
receiver. The reason for understanding is one of the reasons for communication between
management and students of tertiary institutions of higher learning. This is why
communication is seen as crucial aspect of crises management in tertiary institutions of
learning. Effective communication can therefore lead to increase in knowledge awareness
and the best possible means of creating understanding on an issue. This makes
communication to be seen as tool for the crises resolution in institutions of higher
learning.
Communication is regarded as relevant to the management of crises because of the
crucial role it perform. The role of communication can be seen from that of MacBride et
al (1980, p. 14) Thus:

(a) Information: The gathering, storage, processing and transferring of information,

data, pictures, facts and messages, opinions and comments that are pre-requisite to
understanding and reacting knowledgeably to personal, environmental, natural and
international conditions. This will assist in taking viable decision that can move the
organization and institution forward.
(b) Socialization: This availability of knowledge that assists people to be part and
parcel members of the society in which they live and which facilitate social relations
and awareness thereby permitting active involvement in public life.
(c) Motivation: The facilitation of the immediate and ultimate aims of each society,
and the stimulation of personal choices and aspirations; the fostering of individual or
community activities, focusing the profitability of the group.
(d) Database and Discussion: The provides the exchange of facts required for the
facilitation of agreement or to promote popular interest and involvement in local, national
and international matters of common interest.
(e) Education: The imparting of knowledge that promotes intellectual growth and
development, the formation of character and acquisition of skills and capacities at all
aspect of human existence.
(f) Cultural Promotion: This is the transferring of ways of life from one generation to
another; the development of ways of life by increasing the individual’s horizons,
awakening the imagination and stimulating his aesthetic needs and creativity.
(g) Entertainment: The diffusion, through signs, symbols, sounds and images of
drama, dance, art, literature, music, comedy, sports, games etc, for individual and total
recreation of the human being.
(h) Integration: The provision to all personal and group access to variety of messages,
which is a requirement for understanding one another and to appreciate others living
conditions, viewpoints and aspirations.
Communication at which ever level it occurs whether through interpersonal, group or
mass communication plays a significant role in human development. Riley (1994, p. 56),
Ajibade (2003, p. 27) summarized the roles of communication in today’s social change
and resolution of crises in a similar manner as follows:
(i) To facilitate and help in sensitizing people for participatory and important
decision-making and action.
(ii) To help the individuals in obtaining new knowledge and the skills required to live
well.
(iii) To use communication to facilitate unity, co-operation and co-ordination of
various establishment or institutions involved in multi-disciplinary development
programmes.
(iv) To increase empowerment efforts at the local level, every communication
channels must be utilized to the maximum.
All these roles of communication assist in changing attitude, spur action and encourage
team work and brotherhood between management and students of tertiary institutions of
learning. Management of tertiary institutions through these roles cement relationship with
the students. Some tertiary institutions of learning management manipulate these roles
for the achievement of peaceful and harmonious relationship between institution
authorities and the students. These roles can only be effective through interconnectivity
between the management and students. Such interconnectivity or continuous circuit in the
realm of information generation sets of discursive form of message, which is guided by
the rules of language (Babatunde & Salihu, 2014).
Hall (2006) says that:
 Before the message can have “effect” (however defined), satisfy
a “needs” or be put to “use” it must be appropriated as a
meaningful discourse and be meaningfully decoded. It is this set
of decoded meanings which “have an effect”, influence,
entertainment, instruct or persuade, with very complex
perceptual, cognitive, emotional, ideological or behavioural
consequences (p. 18)
This shows that information experiences passage of forms before its intent can actually
be actualized. The determinant moment of the sender spells out articulation of language
with consideration for the audience’s social and cultural instances, the social and political
consequences of the intended message in relation to audience real life configuration.
What is carefully taken care of at the encoding moment is the problem of asymmetry of
intended meanings of a given message in as much as receivers are assumed not only to be
differentiation in decoding a message, but also to decode such message out of the context
of its intended meanings.

There are different forms of communication that should be used between managements
and students. James et al (1990, p. 36) delved extensively on different forms of
communication in institutions of higher learning. Communication usually flows in
vertical (downward and upward) and horizontal fashion. The downward flow of
communication as in directives, information moves from the top to the bottom.
Employing this property in an organization, engenders smooth flow of information and
may lead to increase understanding about matters / issues of communication. In the
upward flow, subordinates should feel free to communicate with their leaders without
any feeling of inferiority complex. This enhances both the expression in the organization
and popular participation in organizational activities. The horizontal communication
enables management and students to relate cordially, thereby promoting the progress of
the institutions or organizations. This infuses linkage among the various sections and
departments of the institutions of higher learning, thereby providing friendly and positive
psychological climate for smooth operation of activities.

2.1.2 Definitions, Nature and Types of Crises

The word “crisis” and “conflict” are used interchangeably because they mean virtually
the same thing. Defining crisis can be complex in nature across the field of
communication studies. Crisis can be seen as “a breakdown in the standard mechanisms
of decision making so that an individual or group experiences difficulty in selecting an
alternative”. Similarly, crisis is “any social situation or process in which two or more
social activities are linked by at least one form of antagonistic psychological relation or at
least one form of antagonistic interactions” (Ikpah 2008). Crisis in and of itself is not
bad, a crisis can sooth, smoothing or destroy a relationship. This brings alive all kind of
psychological antagonistic situation and /or interactions that involves two or more people
who are on opposite sides of an antagonistic situation. Some other scholars define crisis
as “an expressed struggle between at least two parties who perceive incompatible goal
and /or potential influence from the other party in achieving the desired goals”.

Crisis or dispute is an integral part of social life such that no society lives without them.
It is because of this realization that societies introduced laws and means of legally
settling disputes in order for society to live harmoniously. Nwosu (2004, p. 5) defines
crisis as any situation in which there are incompatible goals, cognition or emotions,
which are perceived as relatively rewarding to one entity and at the same time seen as
relatively unrewarding to another entity. This behavioural and interactional perspective to
crisis portrays it as an enviable outcome of human interaction, association and
transaction. Conflict in this sense, can have both positive and negative effects that are
necessary for the cordial relationship between management and students of tertiary
institutions of learning. The major driving force in any crisis situation is “perception”, a
concept which refers to the way we see something, a situation, idea or action. According
to Morris (2000), crisis leads to hardship especially violence crisis which results to
instability or unjust policies and practices. Crisis leads to suffering of one of the parties
or both.

Crisis is defined by the Chambers Dictionary (2001, p. 344) as “unfortunate coincidence

or opposition, violence, collision, (a) struggle, contest, war, etc, a mental emotional
struggle”. According to Gomez-Mejia & Balkin (2002, p. 356), crisis spring up when
aggrieved parties disagree over policies or goals as well as over the motives or values of
other team members. There will always be divergent of views and opinion between
individuals and groups. Therefore, crisis is normal and inevitable whether in the work
place, between organizations or governments and their various publics. Its effective
management invariably enhances team work towards a common goal.

History of human beings abound with cases of crises. Crisis and violence appear to be as
basic to society, as unity, integration and relationship. It is an occurrence that has
become synonymous with the existence of human beings (Isard, 1992, p. 1) and a natural
part of our daily lives (Weeks, 1992, p. 9). Zartman (1991, p. 370) opines that crisis is a
way of expressing fact about human interdependence. Crisis are the results of one
frustration or the other by an aggrieved individuals or group of persons. Stagner (1995)
argues that the phenomenon of aggressive behaviour always assumes the presence of
frustration which always lead to some forms of conflict. As a concomitant implication of
human existence and interaction, conflict emanates sometimes from incompatible
interests and at other times from differential conception of what is right, fair and just.
However, it must be stressed at this juncture that not all conflicts are violent in nature.

Hornby (1999) views crisis as a great dispute, an argument; a struggle; a fight; a serious
divergent of opinions, wishes and anger. Wilson (1997) views conflict as any situation
which may result in dispute, dissension, or contention and in consequence bring about an
uncertainty within self (that is an endogenous conflict) or to bring about a state of
incompatibility between humans and a crisis within society (that is an exogenous
conflict). Wilson goes on to say that conflict can be psychological, cultural, interpersonal,
intra-personal, intra-group, inter-group and individual. Institutional conflicts are conflicts
between management and staff of institutions. Some can be violent while others can be a
mere peaceful demonstration. Some of the people involved in the peaceful conflict
usually take advantage of it and make it violent. Conflict as a concept or an experience is
innate and exists in every society and works either for good or bad. According to Francis
(2007) conflict is an inherent, innate and unavoidable part of human existence and natural
part of our daily living. It is a basic fact of life and an inevitable feature of institutions of
higher learning (Roa et al 1990, p. 236). It is also an expression of differences that
involves competition and it can be convert or overt (Ojaide, 2006, p. 4). Conflict is a
hostility, friction and un-cordial relationship which requires discussion to bridge the gap
and promotes peace. Hence, Robin (1974, p. 15) defines crisis as a mean through which
an effort is made by one person or unites to block goals or interest of another person.

It is in fact, it is not easy to mention exhaustively all the ingredients of conflict.

“Conflict” in a precise definition refers to disagreement between and among different
classes of people. It is often couched in such colourful expressions like controversy,
strife, battle, clash and internecine warfare, but the essence of conflict appears to be
disagreement, contradiction and incompatibility between and among different groups of
people. Crises in institutions of higher learning may help to unite the management and
students. Crisis can be more understood if it is considered as a dynamic process (Pondy
1967). “Process” in this context means a series of events. Each crisis is made up of a
sequence of interlocking crisis episodes. This model presents crisis as a series of stages
which are inactive conflict, discern conflict, and clear conflict, aftermath conflict.
According to Dougherty (1981):
 Crisis generally refers to a condition in which one identifiable
group of human being (whether tribal, ethnic, linguistic,
cultural, religious, social, economic, political or others) is
engaged in conscious opposition to one or more groups
because these groups are pursuing what are or appear to be
compatible interest. (P. 15)
Incompatibility may be subjective in nature and mostly culture specific and vary
according to the dominant norms and values of the cultures. That is the main reason
conflict may occur in one society but not in another. Francis (2004, p. 20) observes that
conflict has an ontological basis that arises when needs are denied which causes
resolvable differences and may degenerate into armed conflict. Crisis is also a situation
when one person perceives the action of another party as blocking the chances for the
attainment of a goal or goals. Therefore, for conflict to occur, two prerequisites must be
satisfied, namely, perceived lack of harmony and perceived opportunity for blocking.
The encyclopedia of social sciences defines conflict as:

A struggle over values or claims to status, power and scarce

resources, in which the aims of the conflicting parties are not
only to gain the desired values but also neutralize, injure, or
eliminate their rivals, such conflicts may take place between
individuals, between collectives or between individuals and

From the above definition, some levels of community organization, or relationship is

intrinsic in the concept of conflict. This means that if the parties involve in conflict were
not present at the same place time, or performing two incompatible role at the same time,
or co-operating to foist reciprocal injury, there may not be crisis conflict. Hence, Pate
(2002) argues that “conflict is part of life. It is a product of individual relationship and
unity.

Supporting this, Owens-Ibie (2002, p. 30) submits that “conflict” is a part and parcel of
living. As long as people interact and relate in one way or the other. This shows that
conflict occurs in all human societies but varies in degree and form of express. Schmid
(2000) describes conflict as a “rubber concept” referring alternatively to tense situations
characterized by “animosity”, argument, battle, clashes, competition, confrontation,
controversy, content, debate, disagreement, dispute, fights, quarrels, rivalry, struggle,
war, chaos, turmoil or unrest”. Wilson (2007, p. 114) defines conflict as a relationship
between various opposing parties marked by violence or perceived differences in needs,
interests and goals. Indeed, conflict is all about strong strife among various parties in any
transaction. Majority of the crises between higher institution management and students
are usually due to disagreement.

Crisis can also be considered as a social necessity and a normal, functional and inevitable
aspect of the healthy functioning of the society (Ali, 2008). Most of the crises in higher
institutions of learning are carried out by the students with the aim of forcing the
institutions authorities to change their policy that affect the student body negatively.
Conflict is normal at times, because it can change the way of doing things to a better
way. Thomas &Lee (1996) argues that crisis “the bread and butter of journalism” because
conflict sells in the newspapers, news broadcast, documentaries and so on and others as
applicable.

Society, parents, relations and everyone is always interested in a crisis situation.

Therefore, when there is conflict in any tertiary institution, the masses always want to
know the cause, effect and the actors in order to form their opinions. A crisis in an
institution of higher learning is a time of danger. Theories of personality usually see
conflict as a state of inconvenience or stress caused by an individual’s experiencing too
much desires or needs that are incompatible (Encyclopedia Americana, 2004). In
sociology, group conflict has often been regarded as a basic mechanism of social change,
especially of these radical and sudden social transformations identified as revolutions.
Conflict is a struggle over value of claims to scarce status, power and resources in which
the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals (Coser, 1956).
Some crises in tertiary institutions of learning usually lead to the destruction of property
and at times loss of lives. Based on this, it is glaring that competition amount to conflict,
which may results to struggle between two or more parties. Also, in conflict there are set
goals an individual or group seek to achieve and would want to counter other individual
or groups that are pursuing same goals. Every conflict between management and students
of institutions of higher learning is aimed at achieving certain needs.

Quite often, conflicts turn violent for man and man, man and community, group and
group, community and community, nation and nation. This violence emanates from the
expression of felt needs, wants, desires, aspirations and such other sentiments that may be
open or secret. When conflict is left to fester, it often breeds outcomes that are
destructive to society. Nwanne (2006, p. 56) view crisis as “any event, issues,
occurrence or situation which constitutes a significant breach in the natural order of
things and produces a disruptive force that can destroy an institution”. Nwanne stresses
further that crisis is not limited to organizations but could also affect individuals, a
country, an institution e.t.c. Crisis may also be anticipated or unpredictable. Most
unpredictable crises are normally classified as natural disasters as their occurrence is
beyond the control of man. On the other hand, anticipated crisis however, is caused and
in fact, involves in a broader sense, a complexity of human relationship which requires
crisis management skills necessary for public relations practitioners to resolve.

Crisis can manifest in various forms, at home, work, school or even while in transit. At
times, crisis may become confrontational which can culminate into physical violence. It
can show itself through obvious enmity and hostilities between individuals or in dispute
between organized group of people. Conflict is the nature of organizations or institutions.
Conflict amongst individuals in the place or work and between institutions is the natural
outcome of the competitive environment in which business or organization operates
(McDonald, 2004). This simply means that crisis is a natural corollary to the competitive
environment in which business operates. Students believe that the only way their
institution authorities can give them what is due to them is primarily through conflict.
Crisis is destructive when it obscures the real source of problems; prevent decision;
promote the wrong decisions for personal end; divert energy from important activities or
issues, leads to misuse of resources; destroys the morale of a people / employees; divides
people into warring groups and destroys stakeholders confidence.

Slyke (1998) defines crisis as “the competition between interdependent parties who
perceived that they have incompatible interests, needs, goals, desires or ideas”. Slyke
noted three important elements which are essential to the understanding of crisis namely:
competition, interdependence and perception. Crisis generally precede crisis, it is a stage
to a crisis situation. Hence, most crises in tertiary institutions of learning degenerate to a
state of crisis if not well managed or resolved. In most cases, what begins as a child’s
play by students can develop to a serious crisis if not carefully observed or nipped in the
bud.

Crisis is fundamentally a product of unresolved differences or issue that is perceived by

one or more stakeholders as an interception or threat to assert interest or goal. It is a stage
or development that appears to present an unfriendly dimension. Crisis will arise either
naturally or instigated. Most often, crisis in higher institutions of learning may take place
suddenly but may have a trail of signals in actions and inactions in the past. A crisis may
be an event that requires the co-operative effort of more people … at its worst; a crisis
can be as a result of a major sudden disaster (Philips, 2004, p. 305). Resenthal &
Pennsburg (1991) outline the concept of crisis when they wrote that “the concept of crisis
relates to situations featuring severe threat, uncertainty and sense of urgency” Barton
(1993) defines a crisis to be:
a major, unpredictable event that has potentially negative
results. The event and its aftermath may significantly damage an
organization and its employees, products, services, financial
condition and reputation. Barton’s definition looked at the
impact of a crisis on the whole wellbeing of the organization,
human and material reputation. These include the impact of a
crisis on reputations of people and organization. (p. 26)
Conflicts divert energy from important activities or issues leading to a misuse of
resources. It divides people or group of people into different warring groups. Conflict is
inevitable in an organization or institution of higher learning. Hence, Canary (2003, p.
515) aptly underlines that “a lack of conflict is assured in one or two extremely unlikely
conditions (a) when people are entirely constrained from thinking, feeling and acting or
(b) when they are talking to clones of themselves”. Since both states are impossible, then
the appearance of conflict in both personal and social relationships is certain. Although
conflicts in themselves are neutral: neither positive nor negative, their direction and
effects can be destructive or constructive. The attitude of the parties involved in the
disagreement as well as their communication serve as determines whether their argument
will take a healthy or harmful course. At times, conflict may be more of a solution than a
problem. According to Wood (2008, p. 284) just as conflict in relationship can spread
perspectives and facilitates understanding, conflict in group can promote critical,
thorough and insightful deliberations. However, when the disagreement or differences
disrupt the harmony of the group or society, they become destructive. Destructive
conflict can be detrimental to the parties involved. It has the power of forestalling or
stopping the development of the conflicting parties. MacDonald (2000, p. 10) shares the
view that “the healthy organization needs conflict but if that conflict is not managed or
recognized then it can become destructive”. Conflict therefore, abound whenever there is
perceived negative change in all aspect of our lives be it government, profit and non-
profit making organizations and religious bodies.

From the foregoing, it has been established that crisis is part and parcel of institutions of
higher learning. Crises in tertiary institutions may be destructive or not destructive. This
is because the goals of the institution authorities are totally different from that of the
students. The goal of tertiary institution may be to increase school fees to meet the
increased demand of management while the goal of the student may be not to pay school
fees or pay a very small amount. According to Appleby (1994) crisis could be seen as
any personal divergence of interest between the management and students of tertiary
institutions. Having reviewed the concept of crisis or conflict exhaustively, let focus on
the role of communication in crisis management or resolution in tertiary institutions of
learning.

2.1.3 Stages in Crisis Resolution

Crisis resolution means the patterns of dialogue. Often, most people see dialogue as
discussion of any kind of issue which can be done whenever people have the opportunity
to do so. This is a misconception as this may lead to “dialogue” without tangible results.
Any functional dialogue targeted at resolving a particular crisis most be well thought out,
planned and allowed to follow a well laid down procedures. Therefore, the method or
stages of crisis resolution using dialogue as a tool of communication.

Pre-Dialogue Stage

Pre-dialogue period entails the identification of interests. Such identification gives room
to the need for identifying those who are at the centre of the crisis situation and key
personalities to meet when dialogue commences. At this level, there should be spade-
work, getting personalities from all sections ready for participation in the dialogue.
Okonkwo (2007, p. 400) observes that neglect of key players in matters affecting their
interests is one major reason why such people resort to variety of plots to derail official
plans. He states further that “… the major active role of management of institutions of
higher learning is to figure out the aggrieved group among the students. Pre-dialogue
stage should help the planners carry some sort of research of the situation on ground in
order to know the people involved. This process is capable of producing enough or
almost enough data with which to work with when the actual dialogue takes place and
even beyond. Whatever information available at this stage would always serve as the
background to the dialogue and it goes a long way to know how speedy the crisis will be
resolved.

Dialogue Proper Stage

At this stage, the fundamental issues may have been known and x-rayed. At this stage,
representatives have been agreed by the various interest groups. This is also the stage
where discussion is not the only issue but also adequate study/examination of the issue in
crisis is very necessary. The venue of the dialogue should not be too far away from where
the subject of the crisis can be reached by all participants for proper examination. This
stage of the dialogue calls for frankness, commitment and less superiority. According to
Akakwandu (2015) this is well encouraged since it would help nip the problem in the bud
to avoid escalation. On the contrary, this is the stage when promises are made and money
change hands (Wilson, 1997, p. 187). This kind of arrangement perpetrates dysfunctional
dialogue. Until this kind of idea gives way to natural exchange of ideas among the
interest groups, whatever is done in the name of dialogue will ever remain non-
functional.

Post-Dialogue Stage

At this stage, the implementation and evaluation of Memorandum of Understanding are

essential and pre-requisite. A committee that should be set up during the dialogue should
faithfully and sincerely ensure adequate implementation of the Memorandum of
Understanding (Udoudo, 2003). Complete implementation of Memorandum of
Understanding is not the end of dialogue. Evaluation of what has been done could
uncover what has been done properly or what was left out during dialogue. Such
discovery requires meeting of all participants to handle what could otherwise engender
more crises. Post-dialogue stage thus becomes very important in every process of
dialogue between management and students of tertiary institutions of learning because it
makes the settlement to be finalized.

Requisite Strategies

To be able to adopt a workable dialogue, respect and fairness to dissenting views are
quite essential. This can always lead to co-operative relationship which is one of the
approaches of dispute resolutions. Scholar & Jackson (1996) note that in a co-operative
relationship, the union’s role is that of partner, not of a critic. They stressed further that
such cohesive relationship requires that that the parties involved solve problems, share
information and integrate outcome. If the management and students actually want to put
aside whatever might stand as an impediment to every crisis situation on campus,
dialogue is very effective means of resolving every crisis in order to give room for
harmonious relationship. Admission of one’s fault or mistake can afford a conducive
environment to dialogue appropriately. Crisis can be more easily understood if it is
considered as a dynamic process (Pondy, 1967, p. 15). “Process” here connotes a series
of events. Each curses is made of a sequence of interlocking crisis episodes. This model
represent crisis as a series of stages viz, latent crisis, perceived crisis, felt crisis, manifest
crisis, and crisis aftermath.

(a) Latent Crisis: Each episode of crisis starts with the latent stage. Important
sources of organizational or societal conflict such as competition for scarce resources, but
the crisis has not yet emerged. Latent crisis provides the necessary antecedent conditions
for crisis in organizations, tertiary institutions of learning and the society. At this stage,
participants only anticipate the crisis.

(b) Perceived Crisis: Here the basic sources of crisis are divergent goals;
competition for scarce resources. Crisis results in institutions of higher learning base on
the parties misconception of one another actual position on the issue at stake. Such a
crisis can be resolved by improving communication or dialogue between parties.
(c) Felt Crisis: Here even though the people perceive that there is a basis for crisis, it
will not arise unless the differences become individualistic (felt).
(d) Manifest Crisis: This is the level of open attack. It assumes the form of conflict
behaviour, open aggression, sabotage, apathy, withdrawal and the like, all of which
hinders organizational, institutional and societal functioning or effectiveness.
(e) Crisis Aftermath: The aftermath of a crisis may either be positive or negative for
the organization or society based on how the crisis is approached and resolved. If the
crisis is truly resolved, it can bring about more lasting and co-operative relationship
between the management and students. On the other hand, if the crisis is merely
suppressed but not resolved, the latent conditions of the crisis may be serious and
explode into a more violent and serious forms in no distant time. This legacy of crisis can
be appropriately labeled as “Crisis aftermath”. Crisis is a fluid and infinitely elastic
concept which can be foisted into different shapes and it has become an issue over which
scholars are in sharp disagreement (Ademole, 2007, p. 36). Crisis is mostly seen as if it
everything about it is negative. This is however not the case depending on the manner
with which it is handled. It can either be organized (constructive) or unorganized
(destructive). It can, for example be utilized basically to achieve different solutions to
problem and stimulate actively by recognizing and sensitively exposing crisis as a way of
bringing emotive and non-rational arguments into the open while deconstructing long
standing tension (International Alert, 1996, p. 3-4). Although some view points depict
crises as naturally destructive and mainly utilized to inflict injury on, neutralize or sub
rest the aspirations of opponents (Coser, 1956, p. 8) and (Boulding, 1977, p. 26). in a
situation where is crisis becomes destructive, it can hinder progress in the society,
encouraging individuals all-means necessary attributes, where emotions is brought to
bear instead of sound reasoning, lead to the disintegration of groups or societies and
scuttling of development and growth. Hence, crisis needs to be managed to avoid its
destructive consequences.

Having reviewed the stages involved in crisis extensively, the focus of the literature
review will now be on the role of communication in the resolution of crisis in institutions
of higher learning.

2.1.4 Role of Communication in Crisis Resolution in Tertiary Institutions

The modern world is becoming multicultural and the crisis stemming from this, at times
frighten and affects sustainable human development. This calls for increase in
understanding and dialogue to be key issue in the management of multiculturalism, as a
way of achieving global peace and security (Oloyede, 1999). Crisis is an indispensable
disharmony in any organization. When there is a relationship between people who
interact on daily basis or often, there is bound to be misunderstanding and this is the root
of crisis in every organization. Effective resolution of crises is basic to the development
of any society including between management and students of tertiary institutions.
Communication is all about how human interact with the entire world through spoken
words, written words, gesture, music, paintings, photographs. This makes different
organizations including institutions of higher learning depend on it for the management
and resolution of conflict. Hansan (2005) and West and Turner (2004) corroborated this
when they agree that communication is a social process in which individuals use symbols
to create and interpret meaning in their environment. Crisis in higher institutions of
learning may be inescapable. Crisis exists at every level of academic world and some of
them could be negative which can cause deep rift in the framework of an institution. On
the other hand, it can also be used as a tool to take an institution of learning and the
students from stagnation to a new level of effectiveness. The difference is effective crisis
resolution through communication (Holton, 1998).
Crisis occurs occasionally but a well resolved crisis in many institutions of higher
learning will not lead to violent since violence will not erupt with crisis as antecedents.
One may assume that most of the crises in tertiary institutions and insecurity may be due
to their antecedents or causes that were not properly handle through communication of
information. Hence, Ogayi (2016) asserts that information and knowledge about the
operations of the organization make it trouble free. He argues further that effective
communication is very essential for management to successfully perform its function.
The conflicting parties do not explore the power of communication in handling crisis in
most cases, hence resolving the crisis last longer than necessary.

The role of communication in the resolution of crisis in higher institutions of learning is

enormous. Since tertiary education is sine qua non to national development, forestalling
any form of crisis becomes necessary since no reasonable development can be achieved
in a crisis ridden system, such as witnessed sometimes in tertiary institutions in the
country today. Studies have revealed that students’ crises in tertiary institutions are as old
as the tertiary institutions in Nigeria themselves. Today, violent among students in the
nation’s higher institutions of learning has become very glaring, this has however,
resulted to revolts, protests, unrests which have consequently resulted to the closure of
the institutions for months with some lasting up to a year (Adeyemi, 2010).Attempts
aimed at reducing or eliminating these crises is worthwhile. Communication plays vital
role in reducing or eliminating these crises. Communication harmonizes the students of
higher institutions and the authorities’ relationship. Communication has remained a vital
tool in harmonizing relationship (Agim 2004, Nwosu 1990 & Nweke, 2001). Indeed, no
effort is too much for learning and understanding how effective communication can
appease the students. Therefore, the timing, form, content and placement or packaging of
communication should be a serious concern to every tertiary institution. Communication
has remained an important factor in motivation and capacity building (Baran, 2011).
Organizational survival and growth, including tertiary institutions of learning depend on
a number of factors; among them is a mean of transmitting information through which
people can exchange ideas and dialogue (Bittner 1989 & Nwachukwu, 1992).

The tertiary institutions as a system cannot operate effectively without a process of

exchanging information. The institutions of higher learning such as the Universities,
Polytechnics, Colleges of Education among others live on information and
communication at various levels through various media (Cavaleri and Fearon, 1996).
Management decisions that concern students should be communicated to them. Routine
corporate communication is critical in a crisis and must form a greater part of crisis
resolution or management. Hence, the ability to manage the communication factor is very
essential in crisis management (Nwocha, 1999). Communication is an ongoing process
which should be fully incorporated in crisis management within the higher education
system. Effective, accurate and unbiased communication is a virtue that must be
exhibited between the tertiary institution management and students during a crisis
situation.

Crisis is an integral part of social life such that no society or institution can live without
crisis. It is because of this realization that societies and institution authorities fashion out
means of settling disputes so that there can be harmony. All the different means of
resolving crisis involve communication. Institutions such as the police, communities,
traditional rulers, etc use communication in resolving crisis. Udeaja (2004, p. 26) sees
communication as a phenomenon representing our institution that has grown to assume
greater responsibility in the socio-political transformation of many nations in modern
society. Glen (1978, p. 4) believes that, in contemporary complex and fast moving world,
communication is a force that binds society together and saves it from possible
disintegrations due to pressure from crises. He also contends that communication is
presumed to be preventive, curative and a conciliatory factor in dealing with crisis
situations. Communication is both fundamental and indispensable for the growth,
development and sustenance of peaceful co-existence between management and students
of tertiary institutions (Walzlawick 1986, MacBride 1981&Ineji, 2003). This is supported
by Akpan (1987, p. 1) when he says that “society arises and exist through
communication”. Communication and different institutions in society are not only
inseparable, but also usually inclusive entities. Communication is perceived to have been
instrumental to growth, social transformation and knowledge. It has also been
acknowledged as the tool which man has engaged over the years to exercise control over
his physical environment. Communication is the most essential human surviving skills
because we need it on daily basis.

According to Hambagda (2003, p. 3), “Communication is purposeful”, meaning that

every communication interaction is designed and programmed to elicit a well defined
structural effect, or prompt a circumscribed response. It therefore means that the primary
motivating factor for all forms of communication is the achievement of specific,
measurable, attainable, realistic and tangible pre-determined goals. Menegbe (2005, p.
133) summarizes communication to be the primary tool that has been engaged by
individuals, groups, organizations and institutions over the years to aim at and realize
their transformation and peace process. Communication is therefore an integral part of
social function in managing and transforming crisis. Hambadga (2000) also argues that:

the primary purpose of communication is to establish a

bridge of understanding between one person and another or
others: it may be to reduce uncertainty about some referent
to solve a problem or belief held, to control or influence a
situation, or to respond to someone else’s communication.
Whatever the purpose may be in detail, it must create a
mutuality of understanding (p. 33).
This explains that communication could be actively and purposefully engaged in the
management and transformation of crisis situations because of ability to build bridges of
understanding, reduce uncertainty, solve problems and gain mutuality of understanding
between tertiary institutions, management and students. Effective use of convergence
communication approach would provide the much sought after panacea to crisis
transformation in institutions of higher learning. The bottom-line is that, the use of
convergence communication approach in national interest would promote a dynamic and
more practical strategy of building bridges of understanding and communality of purpose
as well as reducing crisis among the diverse interests in institutions of higher learning.

Communication according to Unoh (1990, p. 39), is a human phenomenon, a form of

information exchange and negotiation meaning to maintain relationships for peaceful
existence. Both the sender and receiver are constantly having impact on each other
through symbolic behaviour. Communication is instrumental and has a pragmatic
function in that we can use it as a tool to affect other people and control the environment.
It is a persuasive and strategic activity that enables people to exert control over other
people and their environment. Communication has a consumatory purpose, in that the art
of communication itself can provide satisfaction to the communicators. The purpose of
communication is to influence the knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, perceptions and
behaviour of other individuals and be influenced in return. Ikpen (2004, p. 12) observes
that in the process of communicating, peace can be established.

Ajala (2001) asserts that successful communication develops what the experts call
communality between the source and the destination. From the definition of
communication, it is obvious that it plays essential role in dispute resolution through
negotiation. The place of communication in the various forms of dispute which occur in
our higher institutions of learning on regular basis is very viable and visible. A situation
whereby a smooth channel of communication is established between the parties (tertiary
institutions, management and students) facilitates the resolution of crisis and
subsequently aids the establishment of peace and tranquility. According to Olagunju
(2002), effective communication emanates from proper and appropriate use of verbal and
non-verbal communication. Communication is that lubricant through which discussions
are held, decisions are made and conclusions are reached.
Interpersonal communication is quite fluid and dynamic, and it is ever changing to suit
the parties involved in the field. Interpersonal communication is also direct, immediate,
spontaneous and it could also be informal in nature. Some of the inter-personal
communication skills which can facilitate the resolution of conflict between management
and students of tertiary institutions include the ability to speak well, in simple and easy to
understand language that would be appreciated by parties involved in the crisis situation.
Efforts should be made to speak so fluently and eloquently in order to grasp the attention
of the other party. The communication should be made simple and straight to the point.
The ability of an institution of higher learning to resolve crisis amicably shows that they
have the capacity to manipulate and channel communication appropriately. Crises
between management and students may be resolved through the understanding of both
parties beliefs, differences of opinions, values, norms and understanding of issues on
ground.

Inability to manage crisis at the interpersonal level of crisis situations may lead to
escalation with the concomitant bad blood that may even culminate in terrorism,
assassinations, wars, unrest, strike, etc. Communication remains a potent force in
eliminating all forms of crises in tertiary institutions. Interpersonal communication skills
are required to effectively carry out negotiations .It is important to state that interpersonal
communication involves primarily a communication mode that involves two or more
parties, who are physically close to each other. Hence, Sannie (2000) sees
communication as a relationship, an interaction, the process by which messages (codes)
are transmitted from a source to the receiver. Communication at whatever level it occurs,
whether through interpersonal, group or mass communication, plays a very significant
role in crisis resolution. Communication via various channels and forms becomes a
“touch light” that shows the path to knowledge from obscurity to limelight.

Different institutions of higher learning develop different styles of management, based

on placing various emphasis on the needs of their students. Five different styles of crisis
management have been identified by Gomez-Mejia & Balkin (2002, p. 358). These are
integrating, obliging or smoothing style, dominating style; avoiding style and
compromising style. The integrating or problem-solving style is used when crisis
managers or group members can frame issues as problem and pacify the parties involved,
examine alternatives and seek for enduring solution. The solution is based on the
communication and negotiation skills of the parties involved in the crisis situation.
Infante et al (1997) in Oji (2006) asserts that interpersonal communication occurs for a
number of reasons: to solve problems, to resolve crisis and to share intentions. The way
interpersonal communication facilitates exchange of ideas in a two way communication
process becomes very relevant also. Communication enables each party to “win” and
ensures effective long-term solutions to crisis, enabling the parties to come to a
consensus. Its major tool is persuasion, though it is time consuming and may not work
when resolution of crisis is needed immediately.

The obliging or smoothing style comes into play when the party handling the crisis is
willing to negotiate for his or her own needs so that the needs of the other party can be
accommodated. This system creates sacrifice and accommodation. It is effective for short
term resolution of crisis although solutions arising there from may give rise to resentment
and future crises. Okiyi (2008) asserts that communication is that lubricant through
which exclusive discussions are held, persuasions and decisions are made, and
conclusions are arrived at. Thus, for negotiation to take place, communication has to
occur in various forms.

The dominating style is brought to bear when the crisis handler asserts authority by
persuading the other party to forget about its objectives. This is a top down approach to
the use of communication in the management of crisis. It is usually employed during
critical time and emergency situation of crisis resolution. On the other hand, the avoiding
style is used when the parties involved decide that honorable to avoid the crisis than
deal with it. This system can be very good when the issues involved are not so important
and it is used to buy time, which is said that “heal all wounds” may however not be
applied to serious issues. Lastly, the compromising style lends itself to the granting of
accession from both parties in a “give and take” arrangement culminating in a resolution
of crisis. The style can be useful when resources can be shared but it may be appropriate
when worth or utility are the main essence of the crisis. In all these different forms of
crisis management, communication stands out clearly as a tool used in the negotiation.
Rice (1994), Ajibade (2003) summarize the roles of communication in today’s social
change and development strategies as follows:

To prompt and instill in people participatory decision-making and Action;

To make people possess fresh skills and knowledge needed to stay peacefully;
To engender appropriate team work, co-operation and co-ordination between parties in
organizations that involves in different developmental programmes;
To make progress in empowerment efforts at the local level. (p. 28)

By this all available communication channels must be considered and utilized. This goes
further to reveal the power of communication in all spheres including crisis resolution.
The different forms of crisis management use communication which is the transferring of
information, attitudes, values, and promoting new patterns that would lead to a change
of attitude is essential for creating a conducive and all round environmental
transformation.

Communication plays an essential role in society including crisis resolution. It is very

significant for resolving crises of all kinds in tertiary institutions. Without effective
communication between management and students of higher institutions of learning,
there will be daily occurrence of unrest which may consequently result in closures.
Communication is vital in the existence, growth and development of all kinds peculiar to
higher institutions of learning. Communication is a social action which allows

Communication is the sharing of experience ……what

makes human communication unique is the superior
management and students of tertiary institutions to share one form of idea or another in
order to engender peace. Hence, Tubbs and Sylvia (1996) posit that:

Communication is dynamic, complex and ongoing. It spelt out how humans interact with
the entire world by means of spoken and written words, gestures, music, painting,
photographs or dance. Hanson (2005) and West & Tunner (2004) corroborated this when
they agree that communication is a social process in which individuals employ symbols
to establish and interpret meaning in their environment. To communicate is simply to
share, information, idea, opinions, feelings or experience between people and in the case
of higher institutions of learning it is sharing of ideas, information, opinions, feelings or
experience between management and students in a bid to achieve a harmonious
relationship. Mekanna (1998) says that communication means to make common or to
share. The fundamental issue in communication is enshrined in message exchange which
may be verbal, non-verbal, personal or non-personal. The dare need of communication is
entrenched in its ability to emancipate tertiary institutions from crisis ridden situation and
ensure peace between them and their students.

Communication in the context as it is used in this literature review includes the mass
media. The media are playing their functions in crisis as well as promoting peace
existence. For example, the Cable Network News (CNN) performed a significant role in
the ejection of American troops from Somalia in the 1990’s by releasing the pictures or
dead bodies American Soldiers totaling nineteen being dragged along the street. In the
same vein, in Rwanda, Hate Radio assumed an important role in increasing the killings
and genocide but it is also to be noted that the Radio Miles collieries station was set up as
part of peace and democratization project facilitated by international organizations
(Allen and Streamlau, 2006, p. 4). The media can be for or against crisis sometimes. For
instance, the oxygen theory sees the media as the escalator of most crises due to their
constant and continuous emphasis on issues or events in the society. By doing that their
reports tend to increase rather than alleviate crisis situations in institutions of higher
learning.

2.1.5 Crisis Management in Nigeria Tertiary Institutions

Communication at all levels is the panacea to conflict management. Crisis occurs when
various parties have conflicting interests over sharing of resources and/or issues relating
to their growth and development. In the view of Bloisi (2007), crisis is a disagreement
between two or more parties who perceive that they have incompatible concerns. Crisis
has also been viewed as a struggle or contest between people with opposing needs, ideas,
beliefs, values or goals (Foundation Coalition, 2001). Alabi (2002) notes that crisis
situation is marked by the inability of those concerned to find remedies to their situation.
This inability may manifest different forms such as strike and other work-disruptions
(Slow-Down, Planned Absenteeism and Sabotage).

Crisis management implies intervention in crisis situation in a manner as to contain it.

Olajide (2011) defines crisis management as a way of reducing the negative and
disruptive capacity of crisis through a number of measures and by working with and
through the parties involved in that crisis situation. Crisis management entails the various
means of handling crisis with the intention of achieving peaceful co-existence between
the parties involved. It also include efforts being made to prevent crisis by being
proactive. Crisis management in tertiary institutions includes diagnostic process,
interpersonal style, negotiation strategies and other interventions that are designed to
avoid unnecessary crisis and reduce or resolve excessive crisis. It covers crisis
limitations, containment and litigations as the case may be. According to Albert (2010),
crisis management covers co-ordinated and timely application of all means necessary in
the forestalling the violence situation. This may be political, economical, military and
security measures in response to a situation threatening peace, with the aim of defusing
the tensed situation, preventing escalation or achieving a peaceful settlement of a dispute.
Crisis management is the principle that all crises in higher institutions of learning may
not necessarily be resolved once and for all but can be managed in order to reduce the
odds or escalation.

Oni (2007) regards conflict management the application of appropriate skills in dealing
with unusually tense or dangerous situation. That is to say it is the application of skills by
management in dealing with disagreement by students with the aim of achieving peace,
satisfaction and tranquility. Wilson (2005, p. 1) laments that “the present state of
communication in much African countries in the management of crisis is atomistic from
the point of view of a general lack of consensus in the appropriate strategies that are
desirable for it”. Management should always learn to apply crisis communication skills
thereby putting in place a viable structure for management of crisis that may emanate
from relationship between management and students. If a crisis between management and
students of tertiary institutions are well managed, they may be functional and useful to
the institution in general. Crisis is an occurrence that has become part and parcel of
human existence(Isard, 1992, p. 1). It therefore requires appropriate measures for its
management. According to Zartman (1991),crisis is an expressions of basic facts of
human interdependence. Hornby (1999) regards crisis as an argument, a struggle, a fight,
a divergence of opinions and wishes.

In essence, conflict management correctly assumes that crises evolve term that take a
longer time to be resolved. The notion of “management” suggests that human can be
directed or controlled the same way object are directed and controlled. In addition, the
view of management reveals that the goal is the reduction of volatility. This view is aptly
supported by Best (2005) as he sees crisis management as “The procedures for reducing
the negative and destructive tendencies through various means and by working with and
through the parties involved in that crisis. He further opines that the term is sometimes
used to refer to the term crisis regulation. Also, the term crisis management means other
areas of handling “crisis positively at different levels, including those efforts made to
prevent a crisis which usually includes such other terms like crisis limitation,
containment and litigation; it may also include crisis prevention”. Burton (1990) uses this
phrase “crisis prevention” to connote “containment of crisis through steps introduced and
valued relationships control the behaviour of the parties in crisis”(p. 60). In a summary,
conflict management reveals the fact that not all crises are inevitable and that not all
crises can be resoled. Therefore, the only option left for mediators would be ‘manage’
and monitor them to ensure there is peace and harmony.

Adequate management of crises should be the basis for the development and growth of
tertiary institutions. Some higher institutions in Nigeria have been experiencing crisis and
insecurity which hinder them from achieving the aims and objectives for their
establishments. There are various ways of managing crisis, some focus on interpersonal
relationship and other structural changes. Robinson, Roy and Clifford (1974) advocate
that managing crisis toward constructive action is the best approach in resolving crisis in
any organization or institutions of higher learning. When crisis arises in institutions of
higher learning, the management needs to envoled better management, so that they can
become positive forces, rather than negative ones which may threaten the individual or
group. Fiske (1998) stresses that communication modifies the broad consensus of values
in culture. Any crisis that is not well handled may lead to complete breakdown and retard
work in the organization. Unmanaged crisis may result to the withdrawal of individuals
and willingness on their part to participate in other groups or assist with various group
action programmes in the organization. Crisis is an attendant feature of human interaction
and may not be totally eliminated. Imo (2008) opines that communication has
consumatory purpose, in that the art of effective communication itself can provide
satisfaction to conflicting parties. However, communication is necessary in the
transformation of peace and progress of the particular institution. This is why crisis
management or resolution is one of the most important challenges of higher institutions
of learning but with effective communication the effect can be ameliorated

In resolving tertiary institution crises, developing a constructive communication process

and skills including influential communication crisis negotiator’s personality are
necessary. It is no doubt that tertiary institutions are prone to crisis situations but a great
deal of such crisis can be managed in order to prevent it from disrupting institutions
effort towards attaining its clear and inactive goals. Linderman (2001) suggests that any
communication targeted at crisis management should be measured and evaluated. The
parties (management and students) should communicate grievances and therefore ready
to negotiate for peace and harmony.

Crisis management in institutions of higher learning requires disciplined leadership style

of the management or chief executive. Magangula (2007) argues that each of the methods
employed in crisis management by tertiary institutions to manage crisis among
aggrieved parties must be the ones that can reduce its efficacy. Crisis management in
higher institutions of learning should be devoid of propaganda and cognitive discrepancy.
Cognitive discrepancy is a condition that occurs when the parties in conflict advanced
different views as the reason for the crisis. When messages during crisis are based on
propaganda and cognitive discrepancy, rumours can emanate. This can also distort third
party’s understanding of the crisis and may hamper its involvement in the resolution of
the crisis. Communication in tertiary institutions crisis management needs not cover the
truth. Their messages for peace and unity should entail assurance of restoring power and
their promise of cooperation towards developing and growing the institution should be
sincerely communicated (Agbonna & Okafor, 2008).
Crisis negotiator in an institution of higher learning should be a personality that can
convince and assure the conflicting parties of security of the crisis resolution process and
that of his involvement in the resolution process. This is essential in order to achieve a
clear stance by the team that are handling the crisis and the progress made so far in the
resolution. Every institution of higher learning can develop its own styles of crisis of
management, based on placing different emphasis on concern for their needs and needs
of the students. Gomez-Mejia & Balkin (2002, p. 358) identify five different styles of
conflict management.

Integrating or Problem Solving Style;

Obliging or Forcing Styles;
Dominating or Forcing Styles;
Avoiding Style; and
Compromising Style
Different institutions may decide to use any of these in managing their crisis. The
message style of each of them is also different. However, early delivery of the message
can help third party peace negotiations to project where and when to direct their
intervention. Such timely recommendation, most especially be positive and reveals how
the stronger of the conflicting parties will work for peace. The interest of all the
conflicting parties to alleviate fear and hinder the spread of rumour or fear of
victimization, may reduce tension in a crisis situation.

2.1.6 Factors Responsible for Communication Effectiveness in the Management

and Resolution of Crisis

There is a consensus among communication scholars that the out come of communication
are the cause of a number of factors of which the communicator can only control one –
the message.

Berlo (1990) stresses that in order to understand the

dependency relationship between crisis and
communication, it is necessary to understand the
relationships between the various elements of the
communication process, which consists of the source,
The sender can shape the message and decide when, where and how to introduce it. The
other three elements that determine what occurs after the message has been delivered, are
the situation in which the communication is received and in which response, if any, must
occur, the group (audience) relationship and standards and the personality state of the
receiver of the message.

(a) Knowing the Audience(s) / Participant

In a crisis situation, the first thing that expert communicators or institution management
should do is to know the audience or parties to the crisis. This means that audience
research is paramount for effective communication. This may involve interpersonal face-
to-face communication, interviews with leaders of the conflicting groups, documentaries
and environmental surveillance studies, among others. The communication can only be
effective in addressing the issues to a crisis, Schramm (1969, p. 13) has suggested that
the management starts where the audience (parties) is “the pattern of habits, attributes,
drives, values, perceptions, language, idioms, symbols and experimental backgrounds of
the different groups they are dealing with and move on slowly from there.

(b) Message Design and Delivery

A message is more likely to succeed if it is salient and satisfies the needs, interests,
understanding, values, expectations and goals of the receiver. An appropriate message
must employ signs, symbols and language which refer to experiences common to both
the source and destination in order to achieve the desired aims. The message must be
delivered in such a way with a view to pacify those aggrieved and calm their nerves. The
message should be able to stimulate the needs of the personality in the destination
(participants) and suggests some ways and means of meeting those needs or demands of
the group.

The basic requirement for an effective message is that it relates to needs, such as security,
status, love, belongingness, solidarity, understanding, reaction from constraints and
anxiety. Secondly, the message should be actionable, it must create need for action.
According to Ogayi (2016), proper communication should be able to pacify the groups in
the crisis. The message must therefore suggest to the receiver what action to take for his
or her personal good, the group or those in crisis. Invariably, the suggested actions may
not be accepted because of certain intervening variables, such as personal values, group
role and membership. This is because people set their standards and values as members
of groups, communicate as groups and are loyal to groups and institutions. The group
members in crisis are most likely to respond to desired actions if those actions are not
sanctioned by the group.

(c) Frequency and Timing of Messages

The drops of communication which have been introduced repeatedly over the years affect
people’s personality. According to Ajala (2001) effective and timely communication
creates meaning in the parties involved in the crisis. She stresses further that the
frequency of the message attempt to pacify the parties engenders negotiation.
Communication helps to pacify the conflicting group. However, the message(s) must be
timely for it to have the required impact on the aggrieved party. On the other hand, if the
management is communicating frequently without appropriate timing, there may be
communication breakdown.

(d) Audience Segmentation and Targeting

In conflict situation, communication should recognize that the audience/ groups are
homogeneous. Aina (2003) asserts that the common denominator in conflict is the
targeting audience. In order for management of the particular institution to speak to the
interest of all, there is need for segmentation of the audiences and targeting of message
in order to achieve the desired result. Some of the conflicts between management and
students of higher institutions of learning are traceable to some aggrieved groups of
students. As Nnoh (2003) observes that:

A communal group is one who in which its primary identity

prevails. Membership of the group is not attained but
ascribed. Within these groups are the individuals defined
holistically. The totality of the individual’s involvement in life
is defined by the group. Examples of communal groups
include family, ethnics, religious, friends, regional groups (p.
3)
These different groups form the total population of students in any institution of higher
learning. Hence, when there is a crisis there is need to know the particular target
group(s). As a result of this, different messages, programmes and formats including
language differentiation must be used. Programme should target policy and decision
makers, opinion leaders, social groups etc among the students in crisis. Every group in
the crisis must be given opportunity to participate in the communication process since
their needs and preference are different.

(e) Establishment of Feedback Mechanism

Communication is incomplete without feedback. In short, feedback enables the source or

sender to correlate events. In the absence of feedback, the reactions to and perceptions of
the receiver to the message is not known. As management communicates or dialogues
with the students during crisis situation, a mechanism for feedback must be established in
order to ascertain the impact of their message and subsequently know the next line of
action to take. Akpoveta & Ogbemi (2006) assert that feedback is a response, a reaction
to the message received from the sender. It is a continuous process during crisis. Those in
the crisis should be given opportunity to air their views. Management may use both
interpersonal and mass media approaches as means of obtaining feedback during crisis
situations.

(f) Use of Multi-Strategic Approaches

Crises are multi-dimensional in their cause and effects. Therefore, a multi-dimensional

approach is required for their management and resolution. This means a combination of
traditional, oral, personal, interpersonal, group and mass media strategies should be used
to ensure that everyone involved in the crisis is reached with the messages.

(g) Empathic Communication

Empathic listening, role reversal and non-judgmental communication are very important
in building harmonious co-existence, trust and respect among groups. It is the act of
listening to other people point of views without being evaluative or judgmental. Groups
in crisis and communication need to be empathic by having opportunity to express their
own group positions without confirmation by the groups.

(h) Assertive Communication

Assertive communication has been defined by Hybel and Weaver (1997, p. 210), as
having the power of expressing thoughts, needs and feeling in a clear and decent manner.
It involves the development and packages of clear and unambiguous messages and
planning what you want to say before saying it, so that people can get the true meaning of
what is said without the usual semantic and psychological noise.
2.1.7 Peace Building, Empowerment and Communication between Management
and Students of Tertiary Institutions

Peace is the absence of war and a state of mind of the individual , a state of social-
cultural, political and peaceful relationship. Jimo (2008) argues that social conflict may
assists in various ways for the maintenance of groups’ collectiveness as well as the
cementing of inter-personal relations. Hence, to promote the culture of peace, there is
absolute need for the development of justice and respect for human rights. According to
Anderson (2004), to ensure peace in tertiary institutions, there is need to fight against
marginalization and exclusion.

Peace building revolves round the values of self determination and empowerment.
Clearly, peace effort should be tilted toward persuading rather than forcing or
manipulating or cajole people to change. When groups in crisis change their behaviour
from negative to positive, the changes are likely to be long lasting than when they are
forced or manipulated. This initiation is further explained by Susan (2009) who compares
the field of journalism and conflict management and noted how each profession should
be contributing to peace building in our higher institutions of learning. Peace building
deals with the challenges of comprehending and responding to transformation conflict
situation. Such activities lay at the foundation of co-existence, co-operation and
reconciliation during conflict or tension (Miall, 2000).

The primary method of peace enhancement is through effective communication. Peace

building products in institutions of higher learning may include physical products such as
building a mediation centre and being trained or the modalities for peace building. Others
include joining a dialogue group, talking to friends of the different religions, or creating
a culture of peace. For example, during peace building in a higher institution of learning,
the management should endeavour to encourage the different groups among the students
to join the dialogue. The media such as the institution’s radio station should be used as
measures for dialogue.

The media can be used to institute peace because it can provide the communication
channels for the parties involved in crisis to dialogue. In short, the room for crisis
resolution is created when people are provided the avenue to talk or discuss their
disagreement. As Olagunju (2002) points out that the major secret of mediation entails
bringing the parties in crisis to a common where they discuss together. Effective
communication is a pre-requisite in a violent crisis management. According to Manoff
(1998), an independent media can contribute immensely to crisis resolution because they
are unrestricted. The Peace building and crisis resolution are grater part of the functions
of media. The traditional functions of the media are similar to those of crisis resolution.
The media help in identifying the interests of conflicting parties; defusing mistrust and
making available outlets for expression of opinions of the issue. Corroborating this
Manoff, Gilboa (2009) say that the media should not only be seen as a set of phrases and
initiatives for peace building but something that can also be used to initiate peace during
and after crisis.

Sart & Brydon, (2007), observe that communication is not a cheap way of preventing
and resolving crisis situation between two parties. He further observes that once the use
of communication tools are delayed, the parties may plunge themselves into deeper
disagreement which may not be easily managed or resolved.

Peace building is a system of instituting the prospects for peace and minimizing the
chances of further violence. The aim of peace building is to develop the ability to sort out
what can resort to crises in a peaceful manner. The media are well place to promote
peace relationship in our higher institutions of learning. Another important role of media
as far as crisis resolution is concerned is that of being a bridge between management and
students of tertiary institutions. The communication channel of the media should be well
positioned in order for it to be used for effective crisis resolution of tertiary institutions.
Feedbacks can be signals for more communication that will finally bring the parties the
negotiating table. Openness in communication may reduce suspicion and doubt over
contested issues and build up trust. Trust is a required ingredient needed to build
enduring peace. This may provide capacity for the emotional outlet of the parties to voice
out their grievances. In addition, a media report has the potential to weaken the position
of the strong party or strengthen the position of the weak party in the eyes of the public,
thus encouraging the parties to seek peace, (Benvenuti, 2003). They can be used to alter
the information environment of the people by changing or improving their knowledge
base on the cause of the crisis.

The media can be used to redirect the students members in the crisis to correct the flaws
of all the parties involved. Euwema and Verbeke (2009) wrote role the media played in
bringing the Flemish-Wallon crisis in Belgium to limelight. The media can be involved in
crisis prevention, mediation, management, resolution and reconciliation. Their reversal of
views and attitude is a step towards the prevention or resolution of crisis. Crises are
resolved when possible solutions to grievances are met and instituted. Communication
for peace building work has its roots in the philosophy and practices of communication
for development. It charted the emergency of communication for peace building
highlighting the similarities and connections between the two areas practice. The
approach to the use of communication for development championed by early pioneers in
the field, Daniel Lerner, Wilbur, Schramm and Everett Rogers is captured as follows:

Communication has been a key element in the West’s project of

developing the third world. In one-and-a-half decades after
Learner’s influential 1958 study of communication and
development in the Middle East, communication researchers
assumed that the introduction of media and certain types of
educational, political, and economic information into a social
system could transform individuals and societies from traditional
to modern. Conceived as having fairly directand powerful effects
on Third world audiences, the media were seen as magic
multipliers, able to accelerate and magnify the benefits of
development (Fair, 1989 quoted in Services and Malikhao 2004,
The use of traditional or mass media (radio, TV, print journalism) have been regarded as
playing crucial role in providing valuable information and messages capable of shaping
popular view. Jakande (1979) asserts that journalists have the specific duty of making
information available in order to make members of the public informed about
happenings in the society. Such information from the press are capable of preventing
what would have resulted in crisis. These tools of communication can be used as double
edge sword to either incite or help prevent violence or crisis and promote peace and
reconciliation. Traditional media can also be used to build peace. Osazee-Odia (2006, p.
224) posits that traditional media refer to all forms of indigenous organs that are capable
of enhancing the scope of grassroots awareness and stimulating interest. In addition,
technological breakthrough have opened ample opportunities thereby creating an outlets
for effective communication. To be specific, the spread of mobile phones, social
networking among others have enabled messages to be amplified and accelerated
information flow. This opens new spaces for the involvement of individuals and
communities to play a role in the various phases of the crisis cycle (Diane Coyle &
Patrick Meier 2009). Most communication messages are tinted towards the achievement
of peace during crisis situation. The application of these new technologies have altered
the way information flow and consequently assist in crisis and disaster monitoring.

The recent peace building publication in the information age: sifting hype from readily
ICT for Peace Foundation, (2011), reveals that the entire universe, communities, societies
and institutions of higher learning are moving from rigid to-down hierarchical approach
to a great dependent on mobile phones. This change from bottom-up approach focusing
on the individuals and various communities in crisis areas thereby making available
opportunities for a more superb communication with a range of agencies specialized in
creating opportunities for satisfactory resolution of crisis. In essence, these new tools
have changed the type of information that can be gathered and accessed. Kroker &
Weinstein (1994) opine that the internet is a very vital medium of mass communication
because of its influence on every aspect of society. This makes it a good tool for peace
building society including tertiary institutions. However, the use of communication tools
by tertiary institutions as part of their work in crisis prevention and peace building is a
relatively recent phenomenon.

The current practice of the use of communication for peace building can be understood
in many ways. There is no commonly accepted definition, but most scholars agree that it
involves the use of different forms of communication tools to support the procedure and
activities involved in managing and resolving violent crisis and establishing a sustainable
peace. To build peace and resolve crisis on a broader perspective, Omeje (2005), notes
that crisis resolution practitioners focus on peace education and crisis resolution in
institutions of higher learning. This has a way of inculcating in both the management and
students that there is need for continuous peace. Peace building engenders cordial
relationships between an institution authorities and the students. Galtung (1997) states
that peace journalism is oriented to peace, truth, people and solution to several crises in
the society. Simply put, peace building may be defined as the activity intended to
address the major causes of crisis in order to reconcile difference, to normalize
relationship and to establish institutions that can manage crises without degenerating to
violence. Peace building encompasses a range of tasks which may include unveiling and
addressing the underlying economic, political, social and structural imbalances that have
contributed to crisis, reconciling the competing objectives/ interests of opponents,
preventing the re-emergence of past crisis. This helps to ensure broad citizen
participation in the peace process and transitions to peace, and building the capacity of
those institutions that support a secure civil society.

The first approach to look at as enunciated by the United States for peace is how
communication can be applied to peace building and the channels of communication
flows between the following entities.
Different people in crisis;
Within various groups where crisis is on course;
Among various communities in crisis; and
Between institutions and students of tertiary institution in crisis

This procedure draws on traditional communication theory and provides one way of
framing where communication is used to promote growth and development.

A second way of using communication for the establishment of peace is to look at the
tools or platforms that are used for peace building. The diagram below shows a
distinction between “traditional’ and “new forms of media” although this divide has been
questioned by those who feel that the use of these tools are now blurred and the
distinction is no longer relevant.

Communication for Peace Building

Traditional PlatformNew Media / Technology

Radio Emails Blogs

SMS
Tweets
Face to Face / Public Meetings

Social Networking (Face Book)

Print Media TV

Crowd Sourcing/ Satellite

Technology (GPS,GIS) techno
Figure 2: Adapted from: Communication for Peace Building: Practices, Trends and
Challenges by United States Institute of Peace. (p. 39)

This approach to the United States Institute of Peace reveals the multitude, role and
relationships necessary to communication and tools which people use to communicate.
Traditional methods, like meetings between institutional management and students, radio,
television and newspapers, have long served to inform communities and organizations on
the modalities for resolving crisis. However, the addition of modern means of
communication tools such as mobile phones and social media, have made individuals,
communities, institutions and organizations to now complement these traditional forms
of media by communicating their own stories. In addition, new tools for communication
facilitate or enhance more information gathering and interactions between warring
parties. These tools can contribute immensely to peace building through knowledge about
changing conditions on ground, needs of communities that are enduring or have endured
violence and even increase contact and understanding between the warring. Harkin,
Anderson, Morgan & Smith (2012, p. 10) gave kudos to the social media as a result of
their output which facilitate information dissemination to heterogeneous group of people
in different phases. For instance, as soon as crisis occurs in any institution of higher
learning, people in the scene of the crisis post it immediately in the social media. This
creates a situation whereby social media report breaking news before the mainstream
journalists. Both traditional and new communication media need to be seen as working in
tandem as different platforms to achieve common goals of peace and stability in all
spheres of life.

Language which is also an important tool of communication is an indispensable human

endeavour which is conceptualized by Crystal (1987), as having, perhaps ‘magical and
mystical’ and essential role in appealing to human beings in all ramification. Many
studies obtained from the famous Sapir-Wharf’s hypothesis of “Linguistics
Determinism” and ‘Linguistic Relativity’ have revealed that there exist a strong
relationship between language and thoughts. Such relationship clearly shows that
language is the vehicle for thought. Language is what is used to convey peace messages
or circulate information on peaceful co-existence. Though, Peace is an essential
condition but crises are inevitable in any society. In view of this, language, information
and communication are very essential in promoting, preventing and resolving crisis
situations. Communication therefore is the goal of language as mutual agreement or
settlement is the goal of crisis resolution.

To encourage constructive crisis, communication should be interested in hearing and

listening to different ideas, openness to others’ point of view, willingness to alter
opinions and respect for the integrity of other members and the views expressed (Wood,
2009, p. 286). Management and students’ of tertiary institutions can use communication
to emphasize shared interests and collective goals that bind them together. Discussion is
open and supportive of differences, disagreements are focused on issues and fact, and not
personalities. According to Ohiagu (2008), due to many societal challenges and pressures
that often translate into one disagreement or the other, handling crisis and maintaining
peace in many communities across different nations has become more urgent now than it
had ever been; so much that many higher institutions of learning now offer Peace and
Crisis Resolution as a full course of study. Peace, which is the prime value of this section
of literature review, is generally defined as the absence of violence, war, fear, conflict,
anxiety, suffering and but focuses on harmonious living. Using language as one of the
tools of communication to resolve crisis goes a long way in the establishment of peaceful
co-existence in institutions of higher learning. Through language and communication, the
heart of people are understood and revealed. This implies that language makes it possible
to express feelings, emotions, views, ideas, opinions, perceptions as well as judgment
about people, objects, places, things, information and situations.

Therefore, information about crisis in an institution of higher learning can be expressed

through language and peace can also be built through language as well. Communication
means the presence and sharing of accurate information about crisis situation, being able
to talk about feelings and concerns of parties, speaking about what parties would like to
change and discussing the nature and type of the crisis, touching on the positions,
interest, needs, and fears of parties. Communication therefore, has come to represent a
key and valuable strategy of crisis management and resolution.

2.1.8 Some Crises, their Causes and Effects on Nigeria Tertiary Institutions

Every life in human society is replete with different forms of crises. From the moment
one wakes up in the day to the point at which he goes to bed at night, he is engaged in
situations of crisis and crisis resolution. The last few decades have borne witness to
specter of violence and bloodletting occasioned mostly by internal crises in institutions of
higher learning. These crises mostly occurring in the 1990’s till date have tended to alter
the nature of academic calendars. Ibeanu (2003) identifies three types of crises in
institutions of higher learning.

Crises that spring up due to struggle for political participation in the particular
institution;
Crises caused by the struggle and jostle for access to material and human resources in
the institution; and Crises caused by the struggle for identity and recognition by
institution’s management. Kahler (2002, p. 1) added a fourth type of crisis caused by
“persistent attachment to territory”. Conflicts can sometimes be caused by combination
of two or more of the above factors.
In the same vein, tertiary institutions battle with one form of conflict or the other in
almost every semester and academic session. Some tertiary institutions merely wade
through as if in a trance while some others are bogged down by them and consequently
resort to strike action.

Crisis does not just arise without a cause or causes. There are several factors that are
responsible for crisis situation in any institution of higher learning. Crisis arise as a result
of discrepancies within the students likewise, ambiguities between the institution
management and students may also give rise to crisis situation on campus. The absence
of a conducive teaching and learning environment in tertiary institutions can also cause
crisis. Some institutions in Nigeria have limited lecture halls or classrooms for learning
but have a large number of students. Hence, Opayemi (2008) argues that there is need to
focus on improving concentration on the quality of education. Most tertiary institutions
in Nigeria have experienced one level of industrial conflict or the other. For instance,
there was an industrial crisis at the University of Benin between the management and
students during the 2009/2010 academic session over absence of water and electricity in
the campus for about a week duration. Also, the students of Ambrose Alli University,
Ekpoma, Edo State had a showdown with the authorities over increase in school fees in
2011/2012 academic session. Increase in school fees has caused a lot of violent crisis in
different tertiary institutions in Nigeria.

A most recent one is the crisis at the Delta State Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku which
happened in March 2016 when a Higher National Diploma student was arrested for cult
related issue and the Student Union Government locked the school only gate that until the
arrested student was released nobody including management would not enter the
premises .It took the timely intervention of the State Commissioner for Higher Education
for the gate to be opened even after the student was released. Also, there was a crisis at
the Delta State Polytechnic Otefe-Oghara between management and students in February
2016 when students who had not paid school fees were driven from the examination
halls. As a result, the institution was closed down for three weeks. Staff member of
College of Education, Igueben disrupted academic activities in 2013 during academic
session over the use of their cooperative money to pay salaries. It is therefore true to
ascertain that crisis in tertiary institutions is a common phenomenon which will either
make or mar such institutions depending on its nature.

In recent times, it has been revealed that violence in higher institutions in Nigeria was
cause by several factors such as increase in tuition fees, cultism, failure of institution
authorities to listen to students complaints and poor system of transportation on campus.
Others include n refusing students in participating in decision making, academic stress,
changing value systems of students, contemporary national issues and welfare problems
(Falua, 2004,Adeyemi 2009, Adeyemi, Ekunday & Alonge, 2010). All these have led to
the breakdown of law and order, loss of lives and property in some tertiary institutions in
Nigeria.

Falua (2004), Ojedele & Ilusanya (2006), Akinyemi (2002) have shown that students
crises are caused by different situations such misbehavior, boycott of classes,
disturbances, wanton destruction among other extreme danger that are perpetrated by
students over the years. This has led to breakdown of law and order, disturbance of
public peace, loss of lives and property. However, as future leaders, students fail to
realize that no meaningful development can take place in a crisis-ridden system caused
by militancy, disturbances and rampage on our campuses. Also, in 1994 during the
regime of Late Gen. Sani Abacha, there was an industrial action embarked upon by
ASUU in pursuit of better working conditions which lasted for over a session. According
to Nwolise (2002, p. 3), what transforms crisis into violence is either lack of speedy
action, necessary action by institution’s management or government as the case may be.
Everybody dreads violence because the outcome is mostly negative.. The strike affected
the academic calendar of the university system and made the students to stay at home for
more than three months.

In a similar vein, in 2002, the same event repeated itself as ASUU also embarked on a six
months strike action. In 2009, the same ASUU proceeded on a six months industrial
action due to non implementation of ASUU – FG 2009 signed agreement. In 2010 the
ASUU chapters in South Eastern Nigeria embarked upon five months strike action over
non implementation of ASUU – FG 2009 written agreement. Most of these industrial
actions were caused by Federal Government non-challant attitude towards agreement
signed with ASUU. All these industrial actions adversely affected the academic
performance of the students in one way or the other.

Egwu (2004) states that industrial crisis increased the number of years that the students
are expected to stay in school before graduating. During periods of industrial unrest,
some students usually engaged themselves in some anti-social and illicit behaviours such
as political thurgery, armed robbery, drug trafficking, kidnapping, prostitutions etc
including some other attendant negative consequences of these strikes. Sayles (1959, p.
10) postulates that industrial crisis as a phenomenon has its root course as dissatisfaction
of workers about their salaries or wages. Darma (1986, p. 16) posits that there are many
causes of industrial crises, but there is only one basic, that is the one between the Federal
Government and the Academic Staff or between Government, or institutions’
management and Students. From this argument one can understand that wage is in fact a
major cause or source of industrial crisis in tertiary institutions in Nigeria. He stressed
further, that the causes of industrial crises is emanate from various angles depending on
the issue that generated the crisis.

Brown, (1992) stresses that labour should clamour for increase in its workers’ wages,
and to reduce its work burden in order to gain control over its own development. Capital
interests are the opposite that is to reduce the wages of workers and to increase the level
of work that can be extracted and subordinate labour to marginal control. This according
to him x-rays the hidden idea that disagreement between the workers and government
culminate into industrial crisis. Levine, (1981) posits that industrial crisis in tertiary
institutions can also arise when there is a sudden change of the term and conditions of
work especially when it affects the employees. Similarly, Sampson, (1987) stresses that
industrial crisis can arise as a result of divergence of workers and employees interest in
the working environment. Tawari (1986) opines that industrial crisis can also spring up
when there are absenteeism, output restriction, job changing, negligence, accident at
work, breach of contract of policy, and unconscious forms of protest. Ehiamefor (1997)
pointed out that the sources of crisis in industries and tertiary institutions are
multifarious, some of which are peculiar to respective organizations or industries and
some others are located outside the enterprise. This simply means that the sources of
industrial crises are both internal and external and both are constantly influencing one
another. Internal sources of crisis would include style of management, nature of physical
environment of the work place, orientation or social consciousness of workers, other
conditions of service, efficacy or otherwise, promotion system, and cumbersomeness of
grievances and dispute procedures.

On the other hand, the external sources or causes of crisis include government’s
industrial and economic policies, nature of labour, legislation, unpatriotic and unethical
behaviour of political class, drastic decision, national economic mismanagement, general
distribution of wealth and power in society and the nature of capitalist economy. Some of
the external sources of crisis might not directly promote industrial crises to influence
general expectations of workers which greatly determine the nature of workers demand,
have a bearing on the nature of crisis and set the whole tenor for the conduct of industrial
relations. Two points have to be emphasized. Firstly, it is because the workers lack any
direct control over the future of his job. Every worker desires to establish a right to the
job, is always a potential source or cause of crisis in most tertiary institutions.
Secondly, the main exercise of managerial control can lead to resistance even from
workers who do not question its legitimacy. The exercise of managerial power or
authority is often the cause of crisis between management and students of tertiary
institutions. A quick look at Nigerian universities including other tertiary institutions
reveals that several other issues militate against students’ crisis in recent times. The rate
of students involvement in decision making process has been seen as one of the major
cause of students frequency of students’ unrest. Hence, greater involvement of students in
decision making process may go a long way in reducing the frequency of campus unrest,
(Aluede, 2001 & Ojo 1995). Academic stress which simply means a the mounting of
academic pressure on academic staff is another factor that causes students unrest in
Nigerian tertiary institutions. (Aluede, 1996; Denga 1982, 1993; Emenyonu, 1991;
Keniston, 1967& Sampson, 1967). Over crowded and dirty hostel, lack of basic
amenities are some other factors currently causing students’ unrest in Nigerian higher
institutions of learning. The inadequate hostel accommodation, unsatisfactory food
supply and catering services, overcrowded lecture halls and hostels, lack of financial aid
including poor sanitary conditions tend to make students’ campus life boring one.
Students studying under these dehumanizing conditions tend to lose sleep, lose
concentration and as a result, may behave in manners not generally approved by the
authorities of their institutions (Aluede & Aluede 1999; Uzoma 1993& Yalokwu,1992).

Students in Nigerian tertiary institutions possess values that are generally at variance with
those of adults who are in charge of the administration of the institutions. Some of these
values are youthful exuberance, ego, aggression, rudeness, lack of respect for constituted
authorities etc. These values make them to see any rule and regulations as breach of their
fundamental rights. These students come up with a request that the social-economic that
government may not be able satisfy talk less of the institutions’ managements (Animba
1993). In the past the value of students were personal development, service to others and
the likes, but in modern days, these values are now being eroded and replaced by those
of: stubbornness, orientation for security, success at all cost, massive acquisition of
wealth by any means and attainment of enviable status in the society by any means.
Students these days barely focused on improving their conditions but concentrate effort
on irrelevant issues or situations on campus. For instance, the annulment of June 12,
1993 Presidential Election in Nigeria, led to violent demonstrations by students in
several tertiary institutions and even gained support from other tertiary institutions in
nearby African countries (Ojo, 1995). Thus, pattern of students protest have now changed
from fighting for their right to burning political and national issues which may not
benefit them (Nwokwule, 1992).

Funding of education in Nigeria is another glaring issue causing mayhem in Nigerian

higher institutions of learning. Funding of tertiary institutions in Nigeria has over twenty
years since 1982 when Nigeria adopted austerity measure depreciated a great deal. This
is contrary to UNESCO stipulation that government of developing and under-developed
countries should allocate a minimum of 26 percent of their annual budget to education.
The Federal Government of Nigeria allocates only a mere 5.3 percent and 1.083 percent
of the annual budget to all levels of education during 2002, and 2003 fiscal years. This
poor funding has led to the amazing deterioration of facilities in the institutions which
make people to refer to some of them as glorified Secondary School. Crisis has made
management of educational institutions in Nigeria to be spotlight throughout the country.
Johnson and Johnson (2005) maintain that peace education should focus on establishing a
co-operative and non-co-operative relationship among all parties as well as inculcating
into all parties the values peace and unity. Educational institutions’ crises in Nigeria are
phenomena of great concern. Incidence institutional crises have continued to destroy the
basic environmental conditions required to provide good and conducive environment for
developing human resources. This surprising situation has weakened programmes aimed
at enhancing the impartation of knowledge and skills in the future of human resources for
the country.
In comparison to other underdeveloped countries, Nigerian higher institutions usually
experienced series of violent crises due to the fact that the government at all levels are
not giving education the prestige it deserves. For example, in Rivers State University of
Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, a lecturer in-charge of verification of students’
results had his office burnt by cult groups because he did not heed to the warning by
members of the group to ensure their members pass his examination (Okafor & Okafor,
2011). Many of the crises usually lead to confusion on campuses. Some disorganize
programme of activities in the institutions where they occur. They also destroy lives and
property and in some cases, render school environments completely insecure for serious
academic activities. In addition to these, some known crises have resulted to prolonged
disharmony among school staff interpersonal relationship. It has increased indiscipline
among students, disarmed school authorities, clogged channel of effective
communication and render higher institutions of learning ungovernable (Agbonna, 2009;
Alabi 2002; Oguntuose1999&Olugbile, 2005). Most violent crises in Nigerian higher
institutions of learning have been traced to contested bases of citizenship rights, greed,
predatory rule, and long lasting grievances (Oloyede, 1999).

Mismanagement of crisis and weak institutions’ security system, many initiated mild
school crises have turned into serious violence with some becoming unresolved until
after a very long time. Ladipo (1997) posits different unresolved crises in Nigerian
tertiary institutions is the crisis of unsettled industrial agreement between Federal
Government and ASUU. The crisis concerning unsettled agreement started as a nine-
month national strike on April 2, 2007 and eventually degenerated to a more destructive
crisis which led to the sack of 44 Unilorin lecturers. This crisis still lingers till date
(Agbonna; Yusuf & Onifade, 2008).

The causes of students’ crises in tertiary institutions include wide communication gap
between the school authorities and students, non inclusion of students in decision making
on issues that affect them, delay in meeting students demands by the school management,
failure on the part of the school authority to guarantee security of lives and property.
Others are inadequate facilities such as laboratories and equipment, drastic and
obnoxious rules and regulations, students’ reaction to harsh government policies,
frustration and uncertainty from the larger society, academic stress; students non-
involvement in decisions that concern their welfare; students being forced to pay a
special fee, etc (Adeyemi; Ekundayo & Alonge, 2010).

Crises in tertiary institutions in Nigeria, over the years have led to breakdown of law and
order, disturbance of public peace, loss of lives and property. Hence, Aluede, Jimoh,
Agwinede & Omoregie, (2005) identify the effects of students crises as shutting down of
affected schools, loss of lives and property among others. According to them, the
incidence of students’ crisis in Nigerian higher institutions of learning indicated that in
1981, there was crisis in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria where students died and the
Vice-Chancellor of the University was consequently dismissed. In 1984, some tertiary
institutions rioted over the proposed introduction of tuition fees and the scrapping of
catering services. This led to closure of many tertiary institutions for a period that was
not less than six months. Similarly, the introduction of the Structural Adjustment
Programme (SAP) also led to different levels crises in many tertiary institutions in
Nigeria. Religious fanatics is another contributing factor to crisis in tertiary institutions in
Nigeria. Membership of one or the other of the various religious denominations entail a
fierce sense of territory, sometimes physical, but unfailing spiritual capacity. Ibrahim
(2009) observed thus:
Religion has not faded away with modernity; it has not
disappeared with the triumph of science and rationalism.
On the contrary, the religious sphere has expanded,
fuelled by global secular process such as urbanization,
migration, transnational capital and the mass media.
Religion today is a product of modernity as well as a
response to it (p. 30).
This is one of the remote reasons behind the increasing incidence of religious violence on
tertiary institutions’ campuses. What is clearly evident is that each of the two dominant
religions perceives itself as being involved with the other in a never-ending struggle for
physical space and political resources on campus (Obadare 2004). Suffice it to add that
they both see the campus itself as a social space to be conquered and brought under their
spiritual superintendence. This excerpt from a report published by Hotline Magazine in
the Wake of the June 10-14, 1988 crisis at the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria is an
excellent cause of the situation in contemporary Nigerian University campuses.
According to a report that:

The entire University community (in the case of Ahmadu

Bello University, Zaria), not just the students are divided
along lines of religion. Religious divisions are now so
hardened as a result of this latest of many religious
disturbances, that very few conversation can be held, few
academic debates can be conducted, few appointments and
promotions can be made without the issue of religion being
brought up or cited as the reason why certain actions are
being taken or certain decisions made. Even in the recent
appointment of Deputy Vice Chancellors, it is clear that while
both men are imminently qualified, one had to be a Christian

Another example is the persistent violence of Students’ Union elections on university

campuses across the country. Such elections are used as contest for supremacy between
the Christian and Muslim groups for mobilization. Some years ago, religious
considerations have become a serious issue in our tertiary institutions because students
use it as political participation. During the campaigns for the elections which led to the
1988 ABU crisis, the Christians reportedly showed their support for Stephen Awobi, their
candidate and their slogan was “a vote for Steve is a vote for Christ”. This is used for
mobilizing and freely using Church drums, trumpet and flutes (Obajane, 2004). In a
similar vein, religious issue caused the up-rising in University of Ibadan in 2010 which
led to the destruction of lives and properties.

Ethnicity has also been identified as a significant cause of crisis in tertiary institutions of
learning, as pointed out by Kombol (2008). According to Okpo (2008), on the unresolved
problem of ethnicity, the Federal Government of Nigeria has developed national and
administrative institutions in Nigerian Constitution such as Federalism, Federal
Character, National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) Scheme, Zoning System, Boundary
Adjustment Commission, etc. For instance, during the appointment of Vice Chancellors
or Rectors, the indigenes always want the appointees to come from the place the
institution is sited. Any attempt for the Vice Chancellor or Rector to come from another
ethnic group usually erupt crisis.

According to Cohen (1982, p. 4), the strife among ethnic groups comes in their bid to
assert their identity. The emphasis could be on the uniqueness of their language or
cultural heritage. This could also support the argument by some African scholars that
ethnicity existed in pre-colonial Africa in the form of ethnic boundary dispute and inter-
tribal wars. Different ethnic groups in Nigerian higher institutions of learning come
together to “fight” one another once a new Vice Chancellor is to be appointed. Many
ethnic groups always want the Vice Chancellor, Rector and Provost as in the case of
University, Polytechnic and Colleges of Education respectively to emanate from the
community where the institution is sited. In addition, Vice Chancellors are also under
pressure when member of staff and students of the universities are to be recruited and
admitted. It is also worthy of note that some of the crises in higher institutions of
learning arise over the filling of other vacant positions. According to (Uwazie, Albert &
Uzoigwe, 1999), crisis over the filling of vacant position started occurring in the late
1990’s when the issue of ethnicity and religious fundamentalism became a serious factor
in Nigerian politics.
The Nigerian situation is different from what is obtainable in other developed countries
like Lebanon, Belgium, Cyprus, India and Malaysia where comparable institutional
provisions and public policy exist. There is no provision in the for the reservation of any
quota for any designated ethnic group (Uwazie, 2000). Namanda (2008), citing Donelson
(1999) asserts that any issue capable of breeding dissatisfaction can promote crises
among people. Some of these issues include struggle for available resources,
egocentrism, ethnocentrism, bigotry, assertion, struggle for recognition, ignorance, pride
and fear. In a similar vein, Obegi and Nyamboga (2008) opine that some crises arose due
to lack of public policies and inadequate structure which create dissatisfaction among
the staff and students of tertiary institution students. Though some scholars are of the
view that crises assist in sharpening human unity and relationships, but also have their
peculiar negative consequences. These kinds of consequences constitute serious threats to
humanity and retard development in higher institutions of learning. In comparing with
other developing countries of the world, tertiary institutions in Nigeria have had its own
share of violent crises. Maiese (2003, p. 1) opines that: Most crises are deeply rooted
issues affecting parties fundamental interests, needs, values. These include issues of
injustice irreconcilable moral values, and issue of human rights abuse, unmet human
needs and issues of identity. Such crises tend to be protracted and have very damaging
effects.

Most tertiary institutions in Nigeria experience crises often as a result of disagreement

between the school administration and government, staff members and school
administration. Some violent crises in Nigerian higher institutions of learning can be
traced to contested bases of citizenship rights, greed, predatory rule, autocracy and
unresolved grievances (Oloyede, 1999). Crises can also emanate from ideas,
personalities, values, resources, improper dissemination of information, power, status and
goal differences, either by institutions’ authorities or students. Alabi (2002) notes that the
causes of crisis in tertiary institutions in Nigeria include competition for scarce resources,
management style of institutions, drives for autonomy and academic freedom, perceived
goal incomparability, and difference in value and styles. According to him, other factors
that cause crisis in institutions of higher learning include wide communication gap, delay
in meeting students’ demands by institution management, failure on the part of the school
authority to guarantee security of lives and property, students reaction to harsh
government policies, unequal distribution of power, role overload, competition over
scarce resources, power tussle, etc. Most crises usually truncate academic calendar and
render the school environment totally insecure for any academic activity.

Most of these crises have resulted in serious strike in Nigerian tertiary institutions.
Aluede; Jimoh; Agwinede & Omoregie (2005), identify the effects of students crises as
closure of affected schools, loss of lives and property among others. As a result of this,
some graduates from the Nigerian higher institutions are half-baked and even some
lecturers who felt that they would not succumb to threats from institution’s authorities
and Federal or State government were sacked in the process. There are other groups of
lecturers who travel to neighboring African countries such as Ghana, South Africa, etc
which is resulting to brain drain in Nigerian tertiary institutions. Some of them left out of
frustration and lack of self fulfillment. From the foregoing, the factors responsible for
crises in Nigeria tertiary institutions and the aftermath effects are enormous and
inexhaustible.

2.1.9 The Implication of Information Flow between Management and Students of

Tertiary Institutions

The pervasive and ubiquitous nature of communication makes it a powerful force. The
force could be one that can be used to direct the affairs of higher institutions of learning
authorities concerning the management and resolution of crisis. Two-way
communication flow between the management and students of a tertiary institution can
create a mutual relation between both parties. The management can form the habit of
dishing out appropriate information that students need to know to them and create room
for feedback. According to Mac Bride et al (1981, p. 3), communication makes life to go
on through it peace can be achieved. It is also the mean through which the expression of
social activity and civilization are attained. It leads people from instinct to inspiration,
through variegated processes and systems of enquiry, commands and control…
strengthens the feeling of messages and translates thought into action reflecting every
emotion and need from the humblest tasks of human survival to supreme manifestations
of creativity – or destruction.

All these buttress the ability of communication to be a tool of integration or that

disintegration, a soothing balm to calm fray nerves or a keg of gun powder that can set
forest ablaze. Effective information flow from management helps to counter
misconception that may come as a rumour. Crises have a casual and dependable
relationship with communication and can better be resolved through effective and well
packaged communication. The implication of this, according to Nwosu (2007) in
managing crisis, communication has a semantic and pragmatic function in that it must
mean what it says in word, clear and unambiguous terms. It should make a deliberate
effort to understand the non-verbal, unnecessary or unintended disagreement of
oppositions and ensuring that there is feedback mechanisms to all messages
communicated.

Information is a very valuable factor for the growth and development of any tertiary
institution and can go a long way in forestalling crisis. Bhatti (2010) notes that
“information” is a key resource for crisis management and resolution, peace promotion
and security in higher institutions of learning. The provision of essential information at
all levels of tertiary institutions may assist in minimizing or ameliorating crises of all
kinds. Likewise, information can also make or mar an institution of higher learning
depending on the source that the information is emanating from. In any institution of
higher learning, adequate provision of viable information and how they can be accessed
and used by the receiver is very vital. When a good and well packaged communication
message does not flow at the right time to the students, the essence will be lost and the
consequence may be grievous. Information is seen as a symbol that conveys meaning to
the intended audience for decision making. It is absolute for growth and development. It
is also a driving force for the promotion of all development initiatives at all levels, be it
economic, social, political, religious, cultural, etc. Information needs to be disseminated
or circulated within academic community because every academic arena survives through
accurate and necessary information. Students need to be informed on the rules and
regulations of the academic institution in order to know how to behave or comport
themselves while on campus. Absence of adequate and appropriate information
dissemination to students can make them to be hostile and may in-turn lead to crisis
situation. According to Okoye and Igbo (2011), In effective information or breach of
communication between the management and students tertiary institution has been found
to be the cause of most crisis situations. The duo further stressed that cases of
misinformation usually instigate disparity in opinions and social differences which are
capable of erupting crisis.

Information dissemination is as important as other basic human needs. Ani (2011) argues
that information helps in educating the students and keeps them informed of the ever
changing dynamics of the institution. Sound communication in institutions of higher
learning creates fertile ground for the rise of good students with the right attitude to
peaceful living. At every level of our normal life, communication is a strong tool for
societal interaction, societal integration and peace building. The essentials of
communication in institutions of higher learning cannot be neglected.

Information flow from management to the students is their right which makes them to
participate actively in the process of economic, social and political activities on the
campus. Appropriate dissemination is a timely alert to potential crises which is
paramount to an early warning, preparedness, precaution and mitigation of crises as the
case may be.

Tertiary institutions are essential tools for any nation to acquire the requisite skills,
value, knowledge, attributes and attitudes for peaceful living within the community,
state, and country. Ibeanu (2006, p. 10) stresses that peace is involves activities that are
directly or indirectly linked to facilitating growth and development in tertiary institutions.
This is because, development according to Rodney (1982) involves first, improving
man’s understanding of the laws of nature, second, applying the understating for the
production of tool which results in favourable conditions capable of leading to equitable
organization of work and rewards. With well managed and organized education, citizens
attitudes and behaviour towards violence can be channeled to the growth and
development of skills that support economic improvement and sustainable livelihood.
Hence, communication tools are the most potent means of achieving peaceful co-
existence between any tertiary institution of learning authorities and students. In the
developed countries, nations as Japan recognized the relevance of peace building
education as included in the aims of her education. When there is a great measure of
peace in a country’s educational system especially at the tertiary level, such a country can
boast of valuable education. This can only be achieved if such tertiary institutions put
communication tool to use.

Peaceful co-existence between management and students of tertiary institutions of

learning can only be acclaimed through effective and adequate information flow. Lack of
peaceful co-existence in institutions of higher learning in Nigeria is what triggers strife,
hatred, tension, distrust, mutual suspicion, unstable political system and dissatisfaction
among staff. According to Pearson et al (2003), a message refers to the “packages” of
symbols used to create shared meanings. This message should be able to flow to the
students at the right time because some of the things that bring about crisis in most
tertiary institutions are misinformation, rumours, etc. Right information and appropriate
feedback helps to bridge communication gaps between the management and students. All
communication takes place within a situation called context. The context includes the
physical, social and interpersonal settings within which messages are exchanged between
the management and students of tertiary institutions (Lusting & Koester, 2003).
Information should not only flow from management to students but also to staff
members. Peaceful institutional climate initiated by adequate communication of
information from management to students will promote love for one another. For
instance, where faculty members are closely knitted together as one family, living in
harmony, openness, trust, justice and fairness, have a way of promoting cross fertilization
of ideas and facilitate knowledge creation and academic productivity and advancement.
This may lead to an effective and efficient management of the particular tertiary
institution geared towards the attainment of academic excellence. A well managed
educational system through adequate information flow can be used as paramount tool for
promoting knowledge, values, skills and attitudes that can help in bringing required
behaviour on the part of staff members and students of tertiary institutions.

Communication is relevant to all aspects of management activity. It is an exercise for

transferring information from sender to receiver who interprets the information in order
to achieve organizational objectives. Information, according to Miller (2002), Roll
(2004), is simply the vehicle by which we attempt to provoke or evoke a human
response. Information on its own is quite static and has no life in it.

2.1.10 Approaches/Participatory Communication Strategies for Crisis Management

in Tertiary Institutions

Communication tilted towards crisis management or resolution should be patterned

according to certain approaches and strategies. Mefalopulos (2003) explains that
participatory communication characterized by a 2-way horizontal flow of
communication, based primarily has dialogue is a key component of development
project, process and programmes around the world. Participatory communication
approaches can only be effective when it is conceived and applied in consistent manner at
various levels within the institutions of higher learning. In order for staff members and
students to participate effectively in any communication from management, it must be
initiated, designed, implemented and evaluated according to the crisis on ground.

In essence, the management and students can get relevant information as it relates to the
crisis through the participatory communication strategies. Effective communication
strategies in crisis resolution requires feedback mechanism for continuous exchange of
information between the parties involved in the crisis or interest groups including other
official entities. According to Bassey (2002, p. 2), any attempt at crisis resolution should
begin with a determination of the nature of the particular crisis system and the requisite
condition for peace. It should proceed from an operative construct of “transformative
paradigm”. Proper participation facilitates understanding and commitment which are
good and effective system for crisis resolution. The absence of participation makes
communication to remain at a basic level.

In addition, participatory communication focuses on the development of knowledge. The

language used during crisis resolution should not be what will aggravate the crisis but
should be targeted towards pacifying those involved in the crisis. Orewere (1998) sees
language as an intricate network of interlinked elements; that which brings about a new
consciousness on the conflicting groups and capable of changing their behaviour.
Although participatory approaches are effective ways of crisis resolution but interaction
and planning by all players / stakeholders lead to realistic, useful and effective action.
This creates opportunity for dialogue and consensus and that may lead to resolution of
disagreement. In short, differences in opinion and consensus building are taken as
opportunities rather than as basis for criticism or reason for the violence. Collaboratory
approaches by the parties involved in crisis also result in effective communication and
have significant impact on policies, institutions, wealth distribution and people’s attitude
and livelihoods (Collier & Hoeffler, 2011).

Participation is a vital communication strategy and very viable tool for halting crisis
situations arising from inequality or marginalization. Participatory approach offers the
people concerned or stakeholders equal opportunity to participate in the management and
resolution of crisis from the commencement to the end. In other words, it means
participating in decision making, implementation and evaluation (Inagaki 2007).

The five approaches to handling any crisis are competing, accommodating, avoiding,
collaborating and compromising. Apart from these five, we have transformative
approaches to crisis. The terms “transformation” and “transformative crisis resolution”
are used in a number of ways. The two terms, however, relates to “transformation” as a
basic change in attitude and /or behaviour of individuals and / or the relationship between
two or more disputing parties. Though, the change may not be too significant but it goes
beyond the immediate situation to alter the way in which parties see themselves.

Earlier focus of colaboratory communication was tilted to small scale interpersonal

group media – speech, folk play, drama, theatre and other activities such as group
meetings, TV viewing centers, radio listening clubs, video viewing centers, etc.
Participatory approaches to communication should also result in effective information
flow that have meaningful effects on the conflicting parties (Collier & Hoefler, 2001).
Participatory interaction and planning by all players / stakeholders leads to realistic,
useful and effective action. The earlier participatory communication neglects the mass
media, hence, practitioners in mass media responded by innovating their own approaches
to participatory communication. Community and campus radio secured some of the early
success (Del Castello, & Braun 2006). The campus media is a strategy in getting both
staff members and students informed about recent developments or issues that institution
authorities want the students to know about. From time-to-time the campus radio
operators organizes talk shows and phone in programmes on different issues that bother
on management and students. The essence is to know staff and students view on various
issues. Staff and students through this medium also air their opinions, feelings, concerns
and interests. This may also help to inform, enlighten and educate staff and students on
facts and figures on burning issues on campuses.

Participatory communication can also be practiced using multi-media approach – from

folk (traditional) media, group meeting, radio, television, internet, satellite technology,
interactive e-learning, participatory video among others. Participatory communication as
effective way of managing or resolving crisis in tertiary institutions plays the following
roles.

Acts as the “eye”, “mouth” and “ear” of the staff members and students;

It increases information to give a balanced account of the situation and educate the staff
and students;

It gives information that is capable of answering questions that bother the staff and
students; and

It strives to expose fraud, scandal, injustices, corruption and other unpleasant activities of
management, staff and students (Schafer, 2002).

Participation in the discussion, decision and planning of crisis management requires

effective communication usually ignoring or avoiding long –term relationship issues.

Transformative crisis resolution takes many forms. One with increasing visibility and
interest over the last several years is transformative mediation. Other approaches include
crisis transformation, constructive confrontation, analytical problem solving, dialogue
and collaborative learning.
Transformative Mediation

This type of mediation can be refers to as problem solving mediation. Problem solving
or settlement – oriented mediation focuses on finding a mutually agreement to the
dispute. Transformation mediation as described by Bush and Folger (1994), aims to
transform the warring parties by empowering them to understand their own situation and
needs, as well as encouraging them to recognize the situation of the other party. This
often prepare the ground work for mutually-acceptable settlement. Though such an
outcome is not the primary goal. Rather, the ‘parties’ empowerment and recognition are
the main objectives of the transformative approach to mediation.

Crisis Transformation

Lederach uses the term “crisis transformation” in similar manner to the general usage in
order to make it broader. Like Bush and Folger, Lederach argues that experts in the field
of crisis should stop focusing on “resolution”, since resolution often involves the
continuation of injustice. He said that crisis management as a concept is too narrow.
Management, according to him, tends to focus on the technical and practical side of
peacemaking, while ignoring the cultural and relational issues which are very important.

Lederach (1995) uses the term “conflict transformation” to refer to the approach to peace
building between warring parties. This approach focuses on the nature and the cause of
the crisis. It sees crisis as something that bridge the gap of the parties. In order to
establish peace between management and students of tertiary institutions, negative or
destructive interaction patterns need to be transformed into positive or constructive
relationships and interactions. This occurs through personal and systematic change that
allows the parties to pursue truth, justice and mercy simultaneously with peace. Bush
and Folger, Lederach also focuses on the development of empowerment and mutual
recognition, along with interdependence, justice, forgiveness and reconciliation.
Human Needs/ Analytical Problem Solving

Various image of crisis transformation emanate from a group of theorists who stress the
importance of basic human needs to the development and maintenance of deep-rooted
crisis when individuals or groups are denied their fundamental needs for identity,
security, recognition, or equal participation within the society. Theorists such as John
Burton, Herbert Kelman, and Jay Rothman are of the views that prolong crisis is
inevitable. Before such crisis can be resoled, it is essential to identify the needs that are
threatened or denied and restructure relationships and / or the social system in way that
protects those needs for all individuals and groups. This can be arrived at through
“analytical problem solving workshop” in which experts facilitate, unofficial analytical
difficult crisis. This is done in order to help parties work together to frame the crisis in
terms of needs, potentials solutions to the impasses, usually become glaring than what
they were before.

Dialogue

Dialogue is a relevant strategy for conflict transformation. Various crisis professionals

have been using dialogue to transform deep-rooted, value-based crises. Dialogue enables
small group of people with different views on highly controversial and emotional public
policy issues (such as abortion or gay rights) to have a peaceful kind of conversation.
Unlike debates, which seek to score points and to persuade, the aim of dialogue is mutual
understanding and respect-essentially recognized in Bush and Folger’s terms. Though,
this does not lead to resolution of crisis, but can lead to its amelioration in the way the
crisis is pursued from one which is highly destructive and divisive to one which is
constructive and leads to personal growth.

Constructive Confrontation
Another approach to transformation is what Burges and Burges (2009) refer to as
constructive confrontations. This approach to long standing crisis is primarily focused at
public policy, intergroup and international crises. It assumes that deep-rooted value,
issues and domination issues are inevitable and ongoing. These types of crisis can seldom
be totally resolved. They can be confronted in more or less contractive manners.

Collaborative Learning

Collaborative learning is a process developed by Steve Daniel, Gregg Walker, Matthew

Carrol, and Kerth Blather (2001). They stress that to promote the public policy decision
making process public participation in the information should be worthwhile. The key
ideas are that public participations and experts as the case may be must work in
collaborative manner to learn more about the system that they are all operating. Unlike
other transformative processes, the collaborative learning is not for solving a particular
problem, but improving a situation which is framed as a set of interrelated systems. The
main goal of collaborative learning is to utilize improved and well packaged
communication and negotiation processes as means through which learning can be
enhanced or improved

2.1.11 Applying ACADA Planning Model to Crisis Management/ Resolution in

Tertiary Institutions
Behaviour changes are achievable when the right communication process is applied.
Hence, a tried and trusted communication planning and implementation model like the
one designed by UNICEF – Assessment, Communication, Analysis, Design and Action
(ACADA) is very useful for changing behaviour. Though UNICEF developed this model
for speedy development, but can also be applied to management and resolutions of crises
in tertiary institutions. Communication for development has been comprehensively
defined by Frazer and Restrepo-Estrada (1998) as “The use of communication processes,
techniques, and media to help people towards consensus, to help people plan action for
change and sustainable development, to help people acquire the knowledge and skills
they need to improve their condition and that of society and to improve the effectiveness
of institutions”. The power point of communication is Behavioural Change
Communication (BCC). Today, the emphasis among communication scholars,
researchers and advocates is no longer on the relevance of communication to resolving
crises but on how best to apply communication to change the behaviour of tertiary
institutions management, staff and students. The prime focus is to promote “interaction
around the messages for target audiences to understand them better, accept them and
practice the healthy behaviour proposed, not once but long enough to reap the benefits
that such behaviour brings” (See Communication Handbook for Polio Eradication and
Routine EPI)
The idea is to initiate or effect a behaviour change among the students by “brining about
and sustaining the desired healthy behaviour”. Hence, Anyaogbunam, Mefalopulos &
Moetsabi (2004) note that communication for development is:
The systematic design and use of participatory activities,
communication approaches, method and media to share
information and knowledge among all stake holders in a
rural development process in order to ensure mutual
understanding and consensus leading to action (p. 4).
Communication for development or behavioural change is a planned process of social
transformation which operates at the levels of advocacy to provide resources and socio-
political leadership commitment and support for effective management and crisis
resolution in institutions of higher learning. Through social mobilization and programme
communication, wider participation and effective change in knowledge, attitudes and
practice (KAP) can be achieved.
The ACADA communication planning model is an integrated communication plan which
portrays the cyclical nature of planning in a reiterative dimension. According to Okoro
(2005) the beauty of this model is that it throws into relief the vital steps / procedures that
must be followed in order to achieve set goals / targets in a clearer and scientific manner.
 Assessment
Situation Report

Evaluation
* Process
* Impact Adjustment to Existing Communication Analysis
* Outcome Programme Problem Analysis
Behaviour
Action Participation
Formative Research Channels/ Media
Communication Objective
Role of Partners Programme
Select Channels Communication
Approach
Information Person
Education. Entertainment
Empowering
Develop Material Design Strategy Plan
Protest and Reverse Advocacy
Develop Dissemination Plan Social Mobilization
Develop Training Plan Programme
Communication

Message Development
Emotional Rational
Positive Negatives
Humorous Serious
Collective Individual
Source for Authority

Figure 3: Diagram of the ACADA Communication Model

Source: Communication Handbook for Polio Eradication and Routine (p. 25)
Assessment

The first stage in the model is an objective assessment of the situation on ground that is
responsible for the crisis. This gives a clue to the communicator on the issue at stake and
come up with a statement that would eventually inform the behaviour to promote.
Through a proper assessment of the issue responsible for the crisis, an institution
management is able to gain an insight into the remote as well as immediate problems in
respect of the subject matter of investigation.

According to Ajala (2003), situational assessment in broad terms includes the following:

Review of programmes status in term of successes, failure / weaknesses, issues and

problems/interferences that can be overcome through the application of communication
interventions;

Review of existing communication interventions through the compilation of

communication, training and learning materials; listing of objectives of information,
education and communication (IEC) materials and analyzing the implications of protest
reports and evaluation studies; definition of intended beneficiaries/ participants with
regards to location, language, group, age, sex and Socio-Economic Status (SES).

Review of existing behavioural / focus group data attitudinal studies and monitoring /
evaluation report with regards to prevalent practices (habits, economic values and
religious belief systems); and Identification of missing information such as: which of
them need to be modified? Which of them need to be changed totally? Which practices /
behaviour are close to the ideal behaviour? How can we encourage such practices
/behaviour?

Communication Analysis

After the holistic assessment of the situation, the next step is communication analysis.
Under communication analysis, the take-off point is to analyze the problem on hand by
seeking answers to questions like: What are the students doing or not doing which
constitutes a problem? Where and when does such action or inaction take place? (Ajala,
2003). Providing answers to the above questions make it easy to state the problem.

Other sub-steps of communication analysis are behaviour analysis, participant analysis

channels / media analysis, communication objectives and monitoring and evaluation
indicators.

Design

Having analyzed the situation on ground and the communication component, the next
stage is designing an effective message that will compel desired action. This begins with
message development which involves (a) The determination of message concepts that
will give rise to the required behaviour change (b) Choice of communication mode and
(c) Selection of the message appeal or tone.

Communication messages must address in unambiguous manners behaviour to promote

and highlight the benefits of the behaviour beings promoted. In selecting communication
approach, emphasis should be laid on the informative, educative, empowering,
entertaining and persuasive plans to encourage compliance. Asadu (2012) opines that
communication for development as a process involves taking certain actions at different
stages of development intervention to arrive at an expected result.

The choice of specific message appeal or tone (e.g positive or negative, rational or
emotional, serious or humorous) must be informed by the nature of the behaviour being
promoted. The design component brings to the fore the issue of message dissemination
and training plans. It strategizes on the integrated communication strategy-planning
matrix which aims at carefully applying specific messages and intelligence at advocacy,
social mobilization and programme communication dimensions to promote and sustain
desired behaviour. Sambe (2005, p. 6) posits that the communication can be successful
when it is influenced by the sources perception and knowledge of the message. The
people should intelligently be put in the frame of reference by using the language and
signs they understand.

Furthermore, it is necessary to stress that in message design, emphasis should be on the

effectiveness of message format and content so that what is said is what is meant and
what is meant is what is understood and what is understood is what is done and what is
done is what is the desired action (Agba & Okoro, 1995).

Action

The stage next to the design state is the action stage which incidentally is the last letter in
the ACADA model. Here communication plan is developed in line with communication
objectives. Communication plan gives direction on how to implement communication
activities, taking cognizance of the target audience (participants). Everyone in the
development process should be allowed to participate fully in the communication.
Bondenave (2006) argues that participatory communication is that type of
communication where everybody is free and have equal access to the means and express
their view points, feelings and their experience aimed at promoting their interest, solving
their problems and transforming their society through collective action. Participatory
communication makes development an all inclusive venture where both the management
and students have equal opportunity.

For an effective implementation of a given communication plan, it is important that we

develop an integrated communication strategy that would address the relevant approaches
in our communication continuum, at the level of advocacy, social mobilization and
programmed communication. The task in this regard is made easier when we follow a
step-by-step process as shown in an integrated communication strategy planning matrix.
 Monitoring and Evaluation Indication

Channel of Communication
Communication Objectives

Communication Approach

Communication Materials
Behaviour to Promote
Problem Behaviour

Message Appeal
Target audience

Message Areas

Message Tone
Advocacy

Strategies

Activities
Social
Mobilization
Programme
Communicatio
n

Figure 4: Source: Communication Handbook for Polio Eradication and Routine

EPI

Following the matrix, it becomes easier and clear to develop specific communication
activities that would address given communication problems in a scientific manner (p.
35)

2.1.12 Galtung’s Crisis Triangle in Crisis Resolution

Galtung (1969, Pp.167-192) states that crisis can be perceived as a triangle from three
points of view, namely; contradiction, attitude and behaviour. These three are mainly
what causes crisis mostly in tertiary institutions. Each of these three causes of crisis can
be handled by specific type of intervention. Contradiction refers to disagreement which
causes most of the crises and when these causes are stalled, inadvertently peace building
is in the offing. Communication helps in identifying those involved in a crisis situation or
those aggrieved. For instance, mobile phone can serve as a medium through which
people who are involved in a crisis express their grievances. This can be achieved
through the exchange of information on social networking such as Facebook, Whatsapp,
etc, Such information entails the reason for the crisis and the way forward. This goes a
long way in identifying the immediate and remote causes of the crisis since mobile
phones can facilitate communication and inadvertently stifle the grassroots to the top,
from the periphery to the centre as well as from management of tertiary institutions to the
students. Thus mobile phones are strategically placed and used to ensure that
communication is a two way flow.

C
Contradictions
Tackle by Peace
Building

A
B
Attitudes Tackledby Behaviour Tackled
Peace Making by Peace Keeping

Figure 5: Galtung’s (1969) Conflict Triangle (p. 62)

Attitudes can be tackled by peacemaking. These attitudes comprise the perception of one
party in the crisis about the other. When these attitudes are identified among the students,
it is easy to straighten out and peace is the aftermath.

In a similar vein, knowing the behaviour of people in crisis prone areas are essential.
When people or students as the case may be continue to threaten and in some cases
mobilize attack against school management or property, peace keeping attempts are
therefore necessary to forestall reprisals.

2.1.13 Analysis of Examples of Crises and How Communication was used in

Managing General Crises in Tertiary Institutions in Delta State

Tertiary institutions in Delta State have been contending with unprecedented great
volume of mass crises. The aftermath of some of these crises have been pervasive
destruction of human and natural resources. These destruction are retarding the
development of the institutions. According to Ikenga (2006, p. 218) crisis has been a
scourge on people from the earliest times. Crises on campus of Delta State tertiary
institutions are growing in number, kind and complexity. The current University crises
including other tertiary institutions context is clearly more challenging than the past.
However, the range of crises and the tools or forms available for their management and
resolution are much more far reaching than ever before. In short, society has changed and
so has the tertiary institutions. There are many similarities in the dispute culture across
the tertiary institutions in Delta State. The institutions are confronted with countless
pushes and pulls from internal and external sources which influence the kind and quantity
of crises that emerged. Some of these crises emanate from institutions policies, sexual
harassment, inter cult clashes, lack of social amenities, academic freedom, increment in
school fees, payment of different kinds of levies, managing of personal matters among
others.

The crises that took place in some of the tertiary institutions of learning are outlined and
discussed as follows:

Delta State University, Abraka

In 1994, there was a riot by the students of the institution. The students went to the Delta
State Radio and Television Station (DRTV), Warri, besieged the station and drove away
all the members of staff in the studio. They broadcast on the lack of funding of the
institution by the state government. This led to the sack of the Station’s General
Manager, Mr. Andrew Orerejo by the then Military Administrator, Air Commodore
Walter Fegabo.

Also, in 1995, there was a cult clash between two rival groups (Black Axe and Bucania)
and this led to the killing of one Dominic Lopex, a 400 level student of the institution. As
a result of this, a curfew was imposed on the Abraka town which harbored the University
for about three weeks.

In 1996, a riot took place owing to the death of Uche Chucks, a 200 level student who got
drowned in the Ethiope River which share boundary with the institution. The drowned
student was rushed to the institution’s Health Centre but it was discovered that none of
the Medical Doctors was on duty. When the aggrieved students who rushed the drowned
student requested for the institution’s ambulance to carry him to Eku Baptist Hospital
which is just about 25 minutes drive from the institution, they were told that the vehicle
had no fuel. The drowned student was taken to Eku Baptist Hospital with a commercial
vehicle but before they could get to the hospital, the boy died. This angered the aggrieved
students who burnt down the school clinic and destroyed a lot of the institution’s
properties. The institution was closed down for 3 months until after the students were
made to pay for the properties destroyed and signed undertakings to be of good behaviour
that the institution was re-open.

Also in 1999, some group of Isoko students in the institution kidnapped the then Vice
Chancellor, Prof. Ovie Igun on the ground that he suspended the Student Union
Government (SUG) President, Mike Akpobire, an Isoko boy. The Vice Chancellor was
taken to Ambrose Ali University, Ekpoma. As way of retaliation, another group of
Urhobo students kidnapped, Prof. Abednigo Ekoko who is from Isoko. Prof. Ekoko was
driven in the boot of a 504 Station Wagon car to an unknown destination. Based on all
these, the institution was closed down for about 3 months before the issue was later
resolved. In 2006, a student of Delta State University, Abraka, Cadet Officer was shot by
unknown gun men near the small gate of the institution and some students wanted to take
advantage of it to embark on protest but for the timely intervention of the Students
Affairs Officer, the riot was averted. In 2007, a 300 level female student of the institution
was killed in the Abraka main market. The student who was killed by unknown cult
group went to the market to buy food stuff. Based on this, the students of the institution
took to the streets chanting war songs. The institution’s authority later invited a team of
police men and military personnel who helped to quell the riot.

In 1998, the Abraka indigenes attacked some group of students during their festival and
this resulted to a clash between the students and Abraka indigenes. Many houses, stores
and properties in Abraka were destroyed. It took the intervention of the then Ovie of
Abraka and institution’s authority including the police to calm the rioting students. There
was another riot in October 1999 which was caused by lack of electricity in the Abraka
town for months. The students first of all matched to the Ughelli Power Station and from
there they proceeded to Government House, Asaba. The Delta State Government, led by
Chief Onanefe Ibori immediately detailed some Mobile Police men who calmed the
rioting students by assuring them that within 48 hours light would be restored to the
Abraka community.

In 2013, there was a crisis caused as a result of some arguments between students in
female hostel and Eco Bank Staff inside the premises of the institution. This resulted to a
fight between the students and the Eco Bank Staff. Other students were about forcing the
gate into the bank open when the then Associate Dean of Student Affairs stormed the
Bank to calm down the situation.
Also 2016, the Postgraduate School Students of the institution went on rampage over
increase in the Postgraduate school fees. The riot was quenched by the timely
intervention of the Institution’s Authorities who took time to explain to the rioting
students the reasons for the increment.

Delta State Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku

In 2003, the students of the Delta State Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku blocked the old road
and the then Student Affairs Officer including other staff of the unit were chased away
as they were coming to school on that fateful Monday morning. The students’ action was
ignited by lack of water and other social amenities on Campus. It took the intervention of
the management who spoke through the Divisional Police Officer of the Ogwashi-Uku
Police Station who appealed to the students before normalcy was restored. There was
also another crisis in 2013 whereby the Student Union Government Exco locked the
school gate as early as 6.00 a.m. prompt. The crisis was as a result of non remittance of
the Student Union dues to the Student Union Government account coupled with non-
purchase of student vehicle for the Student Union Government Officials. Consequent
upon this, the gate of the institution was locked till about 12.00 noon when the
management of the institution met with the students outside the campus before the issue
was resolved.

Also, in 2014, there was a crisis in the institution during the first semester’s examination.
A student named, Hope Akpomemie was asked to stand up during one of the papers and
was refused sitting down by the invigilator. Based on this, the student went angrily to
submit his booklet since he was not allowed to write again by the invigilator. As he was
going to submit his booklet, he hissed at the invigilator and this angered the invigilator
who beckoned on some of the police officers that management invited to maintain peace
and order during the examination. They came in, grabbed the boy and started beating
him. Other students who were writing the same examination quickly submitted and
descended on the policemen. The policemen guns were taken away by the students and
their uniform torn. The Police men were made to sit down on bare floor. The Rector of
the institution was immediately alerted, she came to the scene of the incident in company
of the institution’s Security men. She pacified the students, assuring them that the boy in
question would not fail the paper and that none of them would be punished as a result of
the incident. It was after that the police men were released and allowed to go.

In 2015, the staff and students of the institution were locked outside the gate during
examination as early as 7.00am. The reason being that, one of the students was arrested
by the police and the Students Union Government Officials felt that no examination
would hold if the boy was deprived from writing examination. It took the timely
intervention of the Honourable Commissioner for Higher Education who ordered the
student to be released unconditionally that the school gate was subsequently opened.

College of Education, Agbor

In October 2012, the students of the College of Education, Agbor went on rampage as a
result of increase in school fees. The rampaging students destroyed some of the
institution’s properties including the setting ablaze of two Delta Line Buses belonging to
the State Government. Some of the rioting students were later arrested by the police.
They were later asked by the institution’s management to pay for the items destroyed
and were meant to sign an undertaking to be of good behaviour.

Also, in November, 2013, the students of the institution were in blackout for 9 months.
As a result of this, they went on rampage and proceeded to the premises of National
Electric Power Authority (NEPA), chased the members of staff away and hijacked one of
their Pick-Up Vans. The vehicle was taken to the institution’s premises. The NEPA
Manager in company of other NEPA staff immediately went to the Deputy Provost to
make a formal complain. The Deputy Provost detailed the Dean, Students Affairs and
Public Relations Officer in company of 3 Police men to handle the case. They pleaded
with the students to release the vehicle but they refused, claiming that they would only
release the vehicle after electricity had been restored. Light was restored immediately and
the vehicle was subsequently released.

College of Education (Technical) Asaba

In 2014, the College of Education (Technical), Asaba Association of Senior Staff

(COEASSU) carried placards as a result of the implementation of the centralized Federal
Government Integrated Personnel Payroll System in the institution. The crisis which took
a serious dimension when joined by the students of the institution led to the close down
of the institution between March – July, 2014.

Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro

In 2007, the students of the Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro went on rampage due to the
increase in school fees. The crisis led to the destruction of school properties, coupled
with different levels of injuries sustained by some staff and students who were running
for safety.

There was also a crisis between the management and staff of the institution in 2008 as a
result of deduction of excess Pay As You Earn taxation from staff salaries. The
institution was closed down for months until a meeting summoned by the representatives
of the State Government discussed with the staff of the institution that the issue was
resolved.

All the above submission clearly show that there have been lots of crises in tertiary
institutions of learning in Delta State. However, many of these crises were resolved in
one way or the other through the instrument of communication. However, some of these
crises emanated from the ineffective use of communication. The resolutions of some of
the crises were achieved through the interventions and /or interactions of a number of
relevant factors, including the institution authorities, students representatives, police,
staff representatives among others. Umechukwu (2001, p. 19) give credence to this when
he said that there is a growing awareness of the power of communication in the
resolution of crises in institutions of higher learning in Nigeria.

From the foregoing, it is clear that the common obstacles that obstruct smooth academic
sessions in tertiary institutions of learning in Delta State are the incessant crises.
However, communication plays a pivotal role in crisis resolution in tertiary institutions of
higher learning in Delta State. On the other hand, some of the crises emanated as a
result of ineffective use of communication by the management of the institutions. Some
of the crises which took place in the institutions in the past were managed and resolved
through the instrument of dialogue between the institutions management and students.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

Social Judgment Theory

This theory simply states that people who hear a message may interpret it in different
ways from what it actually means. This means that, the same message can strike two
people as radically different. The theory examines the effect of different amount of
discrepancy between the position advocated and the eventual stand of the recipient of the
message. Muzafor Sherif, the propounder of the social judgment theory typifies the
theory as the analyses of attitude change and persuasion process.

The main idea of the social judgment theory is the classification of attitudes into three
distinctive latitudes: latitude of acceptance, latitude of rejection, and latitude of non-
commitment. Thus, anytime we hear a message, we judge and decide where it should be
placed in the latitude scale in our mind. This sub-conscious sorting out of ideas occurs at
the point of perception at which the individual weighs every new idea by comparing it
with his past point of view. On the whole, Sherif’s studies reveal that people’s
perceptions are dramatically altered by group membership. In his social judgment theory,
Sherif extended this concern to the field of persuasion.

Social Judgment Theory postulate that people who hold extreme opinions on either issue
almost always care deeply and while it is possible to feel passionately about middle-of-
the-road positions, the social judgment theory states that massive attitudes anchors are
usually found towards the end of the scale. The theory stresses that:

Extreme positions and high ego involvement go

together. That is why religion, sex and politics are taboo
topics in the ward room in US Navy ships at sea. When
passions run deep, radical opinions are common and
there is little tolerance for diversity. (p.86)
The social judgment theory holds that we invariably use our attitude as a comparison
point when we hear a discrepant message. Hence, unless a message is crystal clear, the
contrast effect telescopes all unacceptable positions and provides them farther away.
Contrast here is a perceptual distortion that leads to the polarization of idea and it
happens or occurs when a message falls within the latitude of rejection.

On the other hand, assimilation is the opposite error of judgment. According to the social
judgment theory, it is the rubber hand effect that draws an idea towards the hearer’s
anchor so that it seems that he/she and the speaker share the same opinion. Assimilation
takes place when a message falls within the latitude of acceptance. The theory says that
once people judge a new message to be within their latitude of acceptance, they
invariably adjust their attitude somewhat to accommodate that new input.

However, if people judge a new message to be within their latitude of rejection, they may
adjust their attitude but in this case away from what they think the speaker is advocating.
Hence, the conversation from one end of the scale to the other is a rare phenomenon and
the only way to achieve a large scale change is through a series of small successive
movements. Persuasion, the theory affirms, is a gradual process.

The theory is applicable to crisis in the sense that whatever message that emanates from
management of tertiary institutions which does not fall within the latitude of the students
may be rejected and may consequently result to crisis situation depending on the
rejection scale. For instance, if school fees is increased with a little percentage, though
the students may not be happy but will not result to violence. However, if school fees is
increased by one hundred percent and above, that may be rejected totally and may result
to violent crisis on campus.

During resolution, the latitude of the students rejection can be changed if the institution’s
management reduce the fee to what the students can and are willing to pay and this is
termed as shifting to latitude of acceptance.

This theory is invaluable in crisis resolution situations involving the integrating or

problem solving style which ensures lasting long-term solution to crisis.

Frustration Theory

This theory postulates that once one’s needs are not met, one becomes frustrated and
begins to exhibit anger, violence and other aggressive cues. Unlike the biological theory
that sees crisis as innate in man, the frustration aggression theory sees crisis as an
outcome of frustration. However, it must be emphasized that this is individualistic
because what constitutes frustration for one man may not constitute frustration for
another (for instance, if Mr. A grew up in a village where there is no pipe borne water
and Mr. B grew up in the city where there is pipe borne water in every nook and cranny).
If this be the case, scarcity of water on campus may just be a normal thing for Mr. A
while it may result to frustration and aggression for Mr. B. People therefore get frustrated
when they set a very high standard for themselves and later find that the standard is no
longer there (Akakwandu 2015, p. 48). This obviously has led to broken relationships and
broken homes. When one heightens expectation and eventually gets little, he/she
becomes frustrated and begins to exhibit aggression which may culminate in a crisis
situation.

The theory has a strong relationship with the study in the sense that crisis in institutions
of higher learning may result from some levels of frustration by students who are used to
a particular way of life which are not provided by the institution’s management. Once
there is discrepancy between the lifestyle of a student at home which is not available in
the institution, the end result is to forment trouble by such a student. Crisis in higher
institutions emanates at times from the inability of an institution’s management to
provide the expected requirements such as electricity, water, conducive learning
environment, good means of transport within the campus, good standard of living in
hostels (accommodation) to mention but a few.

2.3 Empirical Review

This study focuses on “Communication as a Tool for Crisis Resolution in selected

tertiary institutions in Delta State Nigeria. Nwosu (2005) in a study on “The Role of
Communication in Managing Students – University Administration Crisis” found that in
determining the relationship existing between them, two specific issues were identified.
Firstly, was the decision by the institution authorities to make the students lose one
academic year and the second was to dissolve the Students Union Government. Since the
two issues were capable of causing crisis between the students and institution authorities,
communication before, during and after the period were examined using the content
analysis. The study found that dialogue and communication were good instruments for
crisis management or resolution. On the other hand, it was discovered that institutions
authorities were not prone to using communication to settle crises. The research findings
are in line with the findings and observation that communication is the bedrock of
peaceful co-existence (Onah, 1985 & Nwosu, 1994). Since students –university
administration crises are becoming incessant, there is therefore the need for effective
crisis management strategies.

Okoro (2003) in a study titled “The ACADA Model of Communication for Development:
A Morphological Presentation” found that the ACADA Model of Communication is
better understood and utilized when it is viewed as a cyclical strategy commencing from
assessment of the situation to communication analysis to decision, to action and then
back to assessment for communication / programme improvement and / or modification
in order to achieve set communication objectives.

In addition, critical to the success of the ACADA Model are two innovative management
principles, namely: Total Quality Management (TQM), and Continuous Quality
Management (CQM). These principles underscore the fact that modern community
communication management should be used as a means of integrating the ideas/
philosophy of participant driven benefits and continuous improvement of the delivery of
product and service quality. These principles are based on the fact that communication
for behaviour change seeks not only to transfer messages, but also to facilitate
relationship around the messages so that participants would practice the desired
behaviour proposed in such messages. The task of communication in this regard is to
alter negative behaviour is to a sustainable positive behaviour.

In this context of Behaviour Change Communication (BCC), communication is no longer

interpreted within hypodermic needle perspective or what Michael Reddy (1999) calls
the conduit metaphor, showing communication as the action of one person, rather,
communication is seen as an interactive, transnational phenomenon, resulting in a
communality of interest and a circle which are products of humanized, democratic
communication model (Moemeka, 1991). The study also found out with the use of
ACADA Model that communication is used to change behaviour from negative to
positive.

In a study conduct by Ayodele (2008)on “Dialogue: An Antidote to Organizational

Instability (A Study of Two Tertiary Institutions in Kwara State, Nigeria” it was found
that dialogue was the ultimate tool for effective conflict resolution of tertiary institutions
instability. Dialogue is a vital communication tool for crisis resolution in institutions of
higher learning in Nigeria.

From the study carried out by Imoh (2008) on “A Critical Evaluation of the Role of the
Mass Media in the Prevention, Resolution and Transformation of Inter Ethnic Crisis in
Warri in 2003: A Focus on Delta Broadcasting Service (DBS), Warri, the findings
indicated among others that the role of the mass media of communication (DBS) in the
prevention, resolution and transformation of crisis has been minimal and underplayed
both in inter ethnic crisis, tertiary institutions and organizations. The study also revealed
that mass media of communication covered the crisis fairly and objectively but there was
no organizational capacity for crisis prevention and resolution. However, there was the
involvement of experts and state functionaries in media programmes to give expert
opinions and views on the crisis, including the use of indigenous discussion programmes
and radio feedback mechanisms to allow the people air their views, opinions and
concerns. Invariably, DBS was not able to manage the crisis due to the gate keeping role
of its owners and inadequate fiscal, human technological capacity of media organization.
There was a business approach to programming in such a way that there were limited
programmes that encouraged a two-way communication flow between the people and
government and between the mass media and the people on the other hand. Adapted
programmes that are community oriented and designed to bring community reactions and
views over inadequate, not integrated and do not have multi-sectoral approach were
broadcast. Also, both the technical and financial requirements to assist mass media
involvement in crisis precaution; resolution and management were lacking or inadequate.
Similarly, Kindiri (2009) conducted a study titled “Effectiveness of Communication on
Students Discipline in Secondary Schools in Kenya”. The study which focuses on
influence of communication on students discipline in secondary schools as an issue of
continued debate in Kenya, indicated that school administrators barely discussed the
implementation of rules and regulations with the students. The findings also indicated
that students are made to sign undemocratic, vague and oppressive rules only during
admission process which are not implemented. In addition, it was found that the level of
discipline in any secondary school in Kenya was very low due to the seldom use of
communication as a channel of information dissemination between the administration
and students. The most common cases of indiscipline include drug abuse, fighting among
the students, bullying junior students, insubordination, sneaking from school, destruction
of school property and stealing other students property. The use of ICT especially mobile
phones, digital TVs and internet network, too much pocket money led to antisocial
behaviour among students. The methods employed for dealing with indiscipline were
four namely: suspension, manual work, guidance and counseling and sometimes illegal
caning was employed.

Third theme which was focused at identifying channels of communication used by school
management to communicate to the students on issues of discipline, the data revealed that
the school administration had a choice of employing the use of several channels to
communicate to students important information concerning the school. The channels
chosen or used would determine how well the information was passed and received by
the students as well as determining the reaction of the students to the message. The study
shows that 70% of the respondents did not indicate meetings as channels of
communications used by the school management. The implication here is that meetings
as channels of communication were never used or initiated by the undemocratic school
administration.
The study also found that 87% respondents preferred meetings as the best channel of
communication because they improved interaction, and the relationship between the
administration and the students. This would in turn lead to unity and peace in the school.
Meetings conveyed by the school administration would also be taken more seriously by
students as opposed to those information posted on notice boards. For example, messages
on the notice boards may be ignored, overlooked or passed unnoticed by the students.
Morning assemblies are effective in conveying information to the students because they
are held regularly and students and teachers are assumed to be present during the
assembly. As it is with meetings, the information passed during assembly would also be
first hand and might not be subjected to misinterpretation.

Ola & Oyibo (2000) in a study on “The Role of Communication in the Growth and
Development of Organizations” found that the current orientation is that crisis is a part
and parcel a of every organization and that dysfunctional crisis should be resolved, while
functional crisis should be regarded and in fact, encouraged if its level is too low in the
organization. However, it is important to note that most of the crises in tertiary
institutions are highly dysfunctional and should be avoided at all cost. In a study
conducted on “Service for Crisis Resolution: The Role of Nigeria Academic Libraries”
by Okoye, Nwabuisi & Igbo (2010), it was found that Universities libraries are faced
with the problem of lack of established policy on crisis management information services
including lack of funds and government support. The study identified the problem of
break-down in communication, between the institution authorities and students. These
findings corroborated those of Thairu (2008) and Malesi (2008) who identified limited
technological infrastructure, lack of fund and government support in the generation of
vital information related to breakdown in communication due to high illiteracy level of
the community as the problems affecting library service for crisis resolution.

Malakwen (2014) conducted a study on “A Media Initiative and the Promotion of

Peaceful Co-existence among Communities in Kenya”. The study found that media
initiatives in Kenya as regard crisis resolution were consistent with findings by others.
World Development Report (2012) quoted Mahatma Gandhi to the effect that the
newspaper as a medium has a role of understanding the popular feelings and give
expression to it as well as arouse interest among the people, the desirable sentiments and
to fearlessly expose popular defect.

Wolsfeld (2004), on the other hand, found that an influential role of the media is that of a
bridge between government and the citizenry. The findings regarding the media in
promoting peace building supports findings by Reddy (2002), that the media has an
obligation not to jeopardize or harm the welfare of the society but to promote peace and
unity in our society. The findings from the interviews indicated that ethnic media were
likely to fuel crises. This lends support to findings by Wolsfeld (2004) that the media can
either report negatively on political opponents or raise legitimacy of those supporting
peaceful negotiations.

In a study conducted by Asiyai (2015), on “Strategies towards Effective Management of

Higher Education for Building a Culture of Peace in Nigeria”, it was revealed that life
skills related strategies for proper management of higher education for building a culture
of peace in Nigeria and improving academic productivity are aligning University
education to skills needed for job creation, teaching, problem –solving, crisis resolution,
decision making, negotiation and communication skills. Teaching concerning problem-
solving and crisis resolution skills could make learners to identify and solve problems
immediately as they arise to avoid pent up tension that could emanate when the problems
are not solved at the right time and thus can promote peace. As rightly noted by
Goodman, Gravit and Kaslow (1995), possessing skills for solving problems and
resolving crises reduce the risk of adjustment difficulties in youths and children even
youths in troubled families and institutions of higher learning. In addition, Noah and
Dosumu (2011) found that peace education is more effective when the skills for peace
and crisis resolution are learned actively and are modeled by the school environment in
which they are taught. Also, Brocklutne (2000) found that learning skills for non-violent
crisis resolution and respect for human rights would help to stabilize and secure human
lives and societies. The findings of the study also revealed that a culture of peace could
be built in Nigeria by Universities and other tertiary institutions aligning education to
skills needed for job creation. Unemployment triggers youth restlessness thereby
promoting crises of different types which are dangerous to educational institutions.

The findings also lend credence to Rivera (2009) who found that building a culture of
peace in any organization revolves around participatory management, tolerance, respect
for human rights and creating an orderly peaceful environment which will enable
managements and students to enjoy a measure of unity on campus. Furthermore, the
findings is in agreement with those of Howard, Howell and Brainerd (1987) who
identified caring, trust and respect among the eight indicators of the school climate that
could assist in facilitating and promoting culture of peace in the institution. In addition,
Osman (2012) in a study found that leadership as a component of school climate
significantly correlated with a culture of peace in school. The findings also reveal that
there are related strategies for building a culture of peace in Nigeria and improving
academic productivity in Universities including other tertiary institutions. Such strategies
include ensuring equitable distribution of funds, disbursement of fund as at when due and
adhering to UNESCO (1995) recommendation of 26% budgetary allocation to education.

Enoch (2014) in a study conducted on the “Evaluative Study of Peace Journalism

Practice in Nigeria Using Boko Haram crisis as a Case Study” found that Nigerian
media mostly framed their reportage with war journalism frames, therefore, revealing
that peace journalism tenets are not practiced by the media of communication as far as
reporting crisis is concerned. The study which analyzed the content of both Guardian and
Punch newspapers had a frequency of 152 (41%) peace journalism frames and 220 (59%)
frequency of war journalism frames. Based on this, the study concluded that the level of
peace journalism is low compared to the framing of war journalism. Supporting the
outcome of content analysis findings, the survey data generated from the questionnaire
revealed that 164 (55%) of the respondents were of the opinion that Nigerian journalists
do not practice peace journalism in their reportage as against 112 (37%) respondents who
believed that Nigerian journalists portray peace journalism in their reportage. Thus,
findings further confirmed the degree at which peace journalism is exhibited in Nigerian
journalism. The mass media of communication can only exhibit peace journalism if their
reports are focused on peace rather than on war. Reporting tertiary institution crises, the
media in most cases frame war rather than peace and this consequently aggravates the
crisis. Communication effectiveness during crisis should preach peace for its aim and
objectives to be achieved. Therefore, Nigerian journalists should de-emphasize war
frames in their reports concerning tertiary institutions and uphold the tenet of peace
reporting as the Fourth-Estate of the Realm.

Ezeah and Odionye (2014) in a study on “Understanding the Place of Communication in

Crisis Behaviour among Children” which was carried out in South-East geo political
zone revealed that televised crisis and violence can have harmful effects on adults as well
as children including millions of young people who view adult oriented programmes.
This explains the fact that seed of violence and crises nurtured by the media are very
detrimental to the listening and viewing audience especially children and young ones.
The study showed that crisis messages are communicated very often as indicated in item
5 of the questionnaire by the number of respondents who agreed to this assertion (167 or
46.3%) which outweighed other responses. It was equally established from the
respondents that the media promote violence/ crisis through their constant exposure of
these messages and pictures to children and young persons. The confirmation for this
notion was obtained in item 6 by the majority of the respondents (150 or 41.6%) who
said yes, which invariably outweighed other responses. Thus, items 5 and 6 provided
answers to research question one.
Also, on the question whether or not the crisis exposures as communicated by the media
impress children, 138 representing 38.3% of the respondents said yes to the question.
This implies that they practice these experiences after listening to or viewing such
programmes. Among the reasons given by the respondents for being impressed by such
violent exposures was that it gave them the techniques of dealing with their opponents
and defending themselves. Furthermore, the result of the analysis showed that though
these crisis exposures are initiated and practiced by children, it should be discouraged.
This was confirmed in item 8 by as many as (227 or 62.9%) of the respondents. It was
confirmed based on responses that the media promote kidnapping, increasing wave of
assaults, rape, increasing communal and tertiary institutions crises. This confirmation
was based on the large number of respondents (121 or 33.5%) which in item 9 agreed
that all the above mentioned crises / violent conducts are promoted by the media.

Efficient and effective management of crisis as proactive and constructive action is a

relevant approach in resolving crisis in the tertiary institutions. In resolving university
crisis, developing a good communication channel and influential crisis negotiator’s
personally are important. No doubt schools or institutions of higher learning cannot avoid
experiencing one form of crisis or the other but a great deal of such crises can be
managed and be guided from disrupting school or tertiary institutions of learning efforts
towards attaining their manifest and latent goals if the conflicting parties are systematic
in the way they communicate their grievances, situation of the crisis and their readiness
to negotiate for peace and if the negotiator mediating the resolution process is of good
personality (Agbonna; Yusuf & Onifade, 2009).In furtherance to this, they found that
managements of institutions of higher learning require appropriate leadership style in
disseminating information to the students.

Leadership and administrative experts remain central to crisis management or resolution.

They found that a more participatory and supportive style of leadership and management
behaviour is likely to assist in crisis management. The clarification and continual
refinement of goals and objective role definitions and performance standards help to
avoid misunderstanding and crises. Ibukwu (1997) highlighted some crisis resolution
measures such as the use of authority and command problems solving, appeal to superior
organization goals, changing the structures of the organization, prevention and
avoidance, expansion of opportunities and resources, compromise and agreement as well
as changing the behaviour of people involved in crisis through dialogue.

Kombol (2008) found that mobile phones are often used by people to establish peace
between conflicting parties. The findings suggested that although using mobile phones
for crisis resolution has its own implications but phones are used most of the time to send
and receive calls as well as text messages during crisis situations. Mobile phones come in
handy when other means of communication are unavailable or inadequate. During crisis,
people need more information than what is broadcast or read about in the newspapers and
magazines. At such critical and life saving time, information and immediate feedback are
needed. Mobile phones are useful during any crisis including crises in tertiary institutions
and when properly used, they can go a long way in de-escalating crisis and at the same
save lives. Mobile phones can ensure stability and sustain peace (i.e peace building)
during crisis between tertiary institutions and students. They serve as easy channels for
the conflicting parties to express their views and correct anomalies.

The study carried out by Nworgu (2005) on “The Role of Communication in Managing
Students-University Administration Crises”, was aimed at establishing the role of
effective communication in students-university administration relationship, with a
particular reference to two crises situations in University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The study
which used 36 publications (both from the university administration and the students),
found that a total of 31 publications made up of 26 publications were by the students and
five publications were by the university administration. The findings from the examined
publications indicated that there is no adequate effective communication between the two
parties. The university authorities shy away from effective positive communication with
the students, as can be seen on the scanty publications issued on the issued examined.
However, the findings contradicted the assumption that crises in the universities are
caused by militant posture of the students. As revealed by the findings, using students-
university administration publications on the two crises situations, there were no violent
clashes, even though the publications from both sides indicated a break-down in
communication, a situation that usually leads to crises. Break-down of communication
breeds rumours and suspicion, which result in crises.

The study result further shows that students do not go all out of their way to make trouble
with university. Again, it was discovered that the authorities do not adequately inform
students about issues affecting them. This shows that there was no adequate flow of
information from the authorities to the students since communication is interactive
(Nwosu 1990; Emeka 1998; MacBride et al 1980). Poor communication can lead to crisis
(Nweke 2001). Therefore, crises management entails having a communication plan.
(Newman & Carrel 1995).

Gap in Literature

A lot of studies have been carried out on the use of communication as a tool in the
management of crisis in tertiary institutions. Most of the earlier studies were based on the
crisis between management, staff, host-community and students in higher institutions.
However, this study focuses mainly on the use of communication as a management tool
in the resolution of crisis between management and students. The study focuses on how
communication can be used as a panacea to the numerous crises between management
and students of tertiary institutions in Delta State. The study is narrowed down to
management and students because over the years, crisis that occur in tertiary institutions
are mostly between management and students as a result of disagreement on issues that
affect them. Some of these crises disrupt academic activities in a great deal, hence, the
study is specifically targeted at managements and students of tertiary institution.
Summary

The literature review showed that a lot of literatures abound on the area of study. The
literatures show that crisis erupt in tertiary institutions of learning between management
and students on regular basis. Most of these crises truncate the normal academic
calendar. The causes of some of these crises range from lack of effective communication
between management and students to failure to meet the demands of the students. There
are several implications of lack of effective channels of information flow between
management and students. A two way information flow between management and
students has a way of creating cordial relationships between the management and
students.

Communication of information between the duo should follow appropriate approaches

and strategies for it to achieve its results. The literature review includes some
communication models such as ACADA model of development which can be adopted for
crisis management and resolution in tertiary institutions of learning. The empirical review
showed that various researches have been carried out on the role of communication in
crises management and resolution in tertiary institutions of learning and other related
institutions. Some of the findings showed that communication and communication media
are vital in crisis management and resolution. However, the mass media through their
reports on crises may at times fuel some of the crises in organizations or institutions of
higher learning. When they expose the masses especially youths and children to the
messages and pictures of crises, they tend to promote violence among them.
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter deals with the method and procedure employed for the data gathering and
analysis in order to appropriately actualize the set objectives and answer the research
questions for the study. The chapter covers the research design, population, sample and
sampling technique, instrumentation, reliability and validity of instrument, data collection
procedures, method of data analysis, Ethical consideration and post-research benefits.

3. 1 Research Design

This study employed the survey research design. The survey design according to Ohaja
2003, Karhinjer (1973), Hassan, Cottle, Magrime and Newhold (1988) describe the
survey design in a similar way as useful for gathering data for both large and small
population. The survey design allows for collection of data that helps to answer research
questions and hypothesis. The survey design was adopted for this study because of the
large population of the study and since the study was not a census base.

3.2 Population

Delta State has a total number of 15 higher institutions with a total population of 77,600
as obtained from the Information Units and Student Affairs Officers of each of the
institutions. The study population comprises the students, Deans of Student Affairs,
Student Affairs Officers and Public Relations Officers of the three institutions of higher
learning chosen through proportional representation for the study. According to Nworgu
(2010, p. 361) population refers to a group of persons occupying or living within a
definite geographical area and who are needed for a research study. The population for
the study is 77,600 students. In addition, 3 principal officers (Dean of Student Affairs,
Student Affair Officers and Public Relations Officers) of each of the higher institutions
chosen for the study were interviewed. The different higher institutions in Delta State
from where the 3 tertiary institutions of learning were chosen for the study are listed
below.

S/N Institutions Population

1. Delta State University, Abraka 20600
2. Western Niger Delta University, Oghara 2500
3. Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Ugbowu (FUPRE) 3900
4. Petroleum Training Institute, Warri 3800
5. Federal College of Education (Technical) Asaba 3950
6. College of Education, Agbor 6500
7. College of Education, Warri 6800
8. College of Health Technology, Ofuoma 2300
9. Novena University, Kwale 2400
10. Edwin Clark University, Kiagbodo 600
11. Michael and Cecilia Ibru University, Agbara 1600
12. Delta State Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku 6550
13. Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro 6750
14. Delta State Polytechnic, Otefe-Oghara 6550
15. College of Physical and Health Education, Mosoga, Jesse 2800

3.3 Sample size and sampling Technique

A total of 1,720 students were sampled using the multi-stage Sampling Technique. This
represents 20 percent of the total number of institutions of higher learning, 20 percent of
faculty/schools, 20 percent of department and 20 percent of class levels. The three
institutions sampled namely: Delta State University, Abraka, Delta Sate Polytechnic,
Ogwashi-Uku and Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro.
Following the multi-stage sampling technique, 20 percent of the population was chosen
at each stage. Of the 15 institutions of higher learning, 3 were sampled representing 20
percent. From each of the 3 institutions of higher learning, 20 percent of the faculties/
schools were sampled and from the chosen faculties/schools, 20 percent of the
departments were chosen. Also, from each department, 20 percent of the students were
chosen. To arrive at the choice of the institutions, faculties/ schools and departments,
their names were written according to their categories on a piece of paper and dropped in
a bucket, on which the 20 percent were sampled. The non-inclusive simple random
sampling technique was used whereby a paper picked was not returned. This process was
carried out separately from the faculties/schools within the institutions and the
departments within the faculties/ schools. The 20 percent of the students were randomly
selected from the total students population of the departments. There is justification for
the choice of 20 percent of the population as the sample size.

According to Owojiri (2002) 10 percent of the entire population is appropriate for a

sample size. Based on this premise, the study used 20 percent which is in tandem with the
postulation of Owojori (2002) that 10 percent of a population is sufficient for a sample
size. (see Table 3.2 for distribution of sample size).

Meanwhile, there is justification for the choice of 1, 720 representatives sample size. For
instance, Obadara (2007) notes that sample is the portion of the entire population selected
for observation and analysis because the total population may be too large and therefore
difficult to cover.
S/ Sampled Sampled Sampled Sampled
N Institutions faculties/Schools (20%) Departments (20%) Students (20%)
(20%)
1 Delta State Total number of faculties Faculty of Agriculture 670 +1552 +2,593
University, Abraka 1. Faculty of Agriculture 1. Agric Economics- 300 = 4,815
2. Faculty of Education 2. Agric Extension – 130
3. Faculty of Law 3. Forestry - 65 4,815 x 20
4. Faculty of Mgt Sciences 4. Animal Science – 100 100
5. Faculty of Sciences 5. Crop Science – 190
6. Faculty of Basic Sciences 6. Soil Science– 75 = 963
7. Faculty of Social sciences Total - 670 (sampled students}
8.Faculty of Clinical Sciences
9. Faculty of Dentistry Faculty of Mgt. Sciences
10. Faculty of Engineering 1. Bus. Admin – 363
11. Faculty of Pharmacy 2. Marketing – 410
12. Faculty of Arts 3.Banking& Finance- 363
13. Faculty of Environmental 4. Accountancy – 416
Studies Total 1552
Sampled Faculties (20%)
12x20 Faculty of Social Sciences
100= 3 1. Accountancy – 200
(Faculty of Agriculture, 2. Bus. Admin – 450
Faculty of Mgt. Sciences & 3. Economics – 450
Faculty of Social Sciences) 4. Geography – 345
5. Massa Comm – 400
6. Political Science – 398
7. Sociology &
Psychology – 350
Total - 2,593

2 Delta State Number of Schools School of Business Studies 2,191x20

Polytechnic, 1. School of Engineering 1. Mass Comm. – 560 100 = 438 (sampled
Ogwashi-Uku 2. School of Business Studies 2. Bus. Admin – 545 students)
3. School of Applied Sciences 3. Accountancy – 450
4. School of General Studies 4. Banking & Finance – 180
5. Marketing – 150
Sampled Schools (20%) 6. O.T.M – 300
4x20 Total - 2,191
100 = 1
(School of Business Studies)
3 Delta State Number of Schools School of Business Studies 1,590 x 20
Polytechnic, Ozoro 1. Mass comm. – 80 100 = 318
1.School of Engineering 2. Bus. Admin – 400 (Sampled students)
2. School of Business studies 3. Accountancy – 350
3.School of Environmental 4. O.T.M - 300
Studies 5. Marketing - 60
4. School of Agriculture Total 1,590
5. School of Science
& Technology
 Sampled Schools (20%)
6x20
100 = 1 (School of Business
Studies)

Table 3.2 Shows the Summary of 20 Percent Sampled Institutions, Faculties, Schools,
Departments and Students.

At the Faculty level of the Delta State University, Abraka, which comprises of Faculties
of Arts, Education, Law, Management Sciences, Social Sciences, Sciences, Basic
Medical Sciences, Clinical Sciences, Dentistry, Environmental Studies, Engineering and
Pharmacy, 20% was chosen. The 20% represents 3 Faculties which are Faculties of
Social Sciences, Management Sciences and Agriculture. These were chosen due to their
large population. Out of this, 20% of the Departments put together was chosen. The
Faculty of Agriculture comprises the Departments of Agriculture, Agricultural
Extension, Forestry, Animal Science, Crop Science and Soil Science. The Faculty of
Social Sciences comprises Departments of Business Administration, Economics,
Accountancy, Geography, Mass Communication, Political Sciences and Sociology and
Psychology. The Faculty of Management Sciences comprises Department of
Accountancy, Business Administration, Marketing, Banking and Finance.

These 17 Departments under the 3 Faculties have a total of 4,815 students of which 963
students representing 20 percent were sampled. At the school level of the Delta State
Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku, which comprises School of Business Studies, School of
Applied Sciences, School of Arts and Design and School of General Studies, the School
of Business Studies representing 20 percent was chosen due to its large population. The
School of Business Studies comprises Department of Mass Communication, Department
of Marketing, Department of Management Studies, Department of Office Technology
and Management, Department of Accountancy and Department of Business
Administration. These departments have a total population of 2,191 and 438 students
representing 20 percent were sampled.

At the School level of the Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro, which comprises School of
Engineering, School of Business Studies, School of Environmental Studies, School of
Science and Technology, the School of Business Studies representing 20 percent was
chosen due to its large population. The School of Business Studies has five Departments
which are Departments of Business Administration, Department of Mass
Communication, Department of Marketing and Department of Office Technology and
Management (OTM). These departments have a total of 1,590 and 318 students
representing 20 percent were sampled.

Therefore, the sampling size from the 3 institutions chosen for the study came to a total
of 1,720.

On the other hand, the researcher interviewed the Deans of Student Affairs, Student
Affairs Officers and the Public Relations Officers of the chosen institutions, thus making
it a total of nine persons that will be interviewed. These selected officers were chosen
because they have direct dealings with the students as well as manage relationship
between the institutions and the students. In this regard, they are the custodian of
information in the tertiary institutions chosen for the study.

3.4 Research Instrument

The study adopted questionnaire and interview guide as the instruments of the study.
Cooper and Schindler (2008) assert that questionnaire is the most common data
collection instrument in social science research. Salatery et al (2012) also point out the
importance of questionnaire in gathering data for a study that employs the survey
method. In this regard, the questionnaire was used to gather quantitative data from the
respondents. The questionnaire which is close ended consists of section A and B. Section
A which consists of socio-demographic variables has 4 items. Section B which deals with
the thematic issues has 5 sub-sections. Sub-Section A finds out the level of information
flow between management and students of the institutions of higher learning in Delta
State. Sub-section B ascertains the communication strategies employed by management
of institutions of higher learning in Delta State. Sub-Section C assesses the level of
communication usage in crises resolution between management and students of
institutions of higher learning in Delta State. Sub-section D examines the extent of usage
of inter-personal channel of communication in the resolution of crises between
management and students of institutions of higher learning in Delta State and Sub-
Section E ascertains the efficient and effective information management on the
relationship between management and students of institutions of higher learning in Delta
State.

Interview Guide

Interview guide qualifies as a major way of generating data in research (Akakwandu,

2015). Interview is popularly used in gathering qualitative data. The interview guide is a
structured one and contains items capable of eliciting information that can provide
answers to the objectives and research questions of the study. According to Kennedy
(2006), before conducting an interview, a researcher needs to design an interview guide
to assist him/her to direct the conversation directly towards topics and issues that
necessitated the interview. In the study, a face-to-face interview was conducted with the
officers listed earlier in order to elicit the needed information.

3.5 Validity of the Instrument

The researcher has to prove that his research especially his measuring instrument
measured what it was set out for. To determine the face validity and content validity of
the questionnaire, the questionnaire was given to the Supervisor who checks the ability of
the questionnaire to measure what it was set out for. The questionnaire was also given to
four other experts in the Field of Text and Measurement for the same purpose.

The interview guide was given to the Supervisor and Communication Scholars who are
vast on the topic under discussion for Validation. The outcome of their validation forms
the interview questions and the interview guide.

3.6 Reliability of the Instrument

Reliability has to do with the consistency of a particular instrument at measuring a given

trait. Hence, Asika (1991) refers to reliability as “the consistency between independent
measurements of the same phenomena” (p. 75). In order to ensure reliability, the
researcher employed test-re-test method. The same measuring instrument was
administered on the same respondents at two different times to determine the reliability
index.

3.7 Data Collection Procedure

The questionnaire and interview were used to elicit information from the sampled
respondents. The researcher employed the services of 2 research assistants who assisted
him in the administration of the questionnaire in each of the sampled higher institutions
of learning. The researcher and the two research assistants carefully distributed the
questionnaires to the respondents in each of the institutions. One working day was
devoted to each institution for the administration of the questionnaire. The researcher
personally visited each of the institutions chosen for the study to conduct the interview
with the Deans of Student Affairs, Student Affairs Officers and the Public Relations
Officers. Relevant questions as pertain to the study was asked during the face-to-face
interview. The questions asked and responses were documented in a piece of paper. In
addition, the researcher went with a tape recorder to record the responses of the
interviewees in each of the institutions. This was to ensure that accurate responses from
the interviewees were obtained after the exercise.

3.8 Data Analysis and Presentation

The data obtained was analyzed using parametric and non-parametric data analysis. All
data collected from primary source through questionnaire were analyzed through
statistical presentation and analysis. The researcher used both the quantitative and
qualitative techniques. The data obtained from the questionnaire were analyzed using the
Scientific Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 20. Qualitative method was used to
analyze or report the responses of the interviews with the Deans of Student Affairs,
Student Affairs Officers’ and Public Relations Officers of the three tertiary institutions
by grouping such responses according to their inherent themes which is referred to as
thematic analysis.

3.9 Ethical Consideration

The information gathered in this study is for the purpose of academic research and would
be treated with utmost confidentiality. Participants are free to exit or participate in the
survey part of the study. Participation is voluntary and subject to participant willingness
to accept or reject the questionnaire to be administered on them. However, participants
have the opportunity to contribute to the body of knowledge on how communication can
be used as a tool for the management and resolution of crisis between management and
students of tertiary institutions. Also, the data obtained through investigation and privacy
of respondents will not be used for the purpose other than the reason for obtaining it
(Welman et al, 2005). Through their participation in the study, therefore, participants will
gain an insight into how communication can be used as a tool for the management and
resolution of crisis between management and students of tertiary institutions.

3.10 Post-Research Benefits

There are several benefits that can be derived from the study. Some of these benefits are:

1. This study on communication as a tool for crisis management in selected tertiary

institutions in Delta State, Nigeria will be of immense benefit to the Federal, State
and Private tertiary institutions in Nigeria.
2. The study will no doubt provide the tertiary institutions in Nigeria at all levels tips
on how to use communication as a tool for crisis management in their institutions
of higher learning.
3. The study will help to minimize the level of crisis between management and
students in tertiary institutions in Delta State and Nigeria at large.
4. The study will also help the tertiary institutions management to devise strategies to
improve the relationship between management and students.
5. Finally, the field of academics will find the study especially useful as it will
advance knowledge substantially.
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.0. Introduction

This chapter entails presentation, analysis and interpretation of data collected through the
research instruments used for the study. It begins by analyzing the respondents’
demographic features and this is followed by analyzing appropriate questionnaire items
meant to answer the research questions earlier raised in this study. A total of one
thousand, seven hundred and twenty (1,720) copies of the questionnaire were
administered to students in higher institutions of learning in Delta State but one
thousand, three hundred and thirty four (1,334) copies were returned and validated for
further analysis, constituting 78% response rate. This chapter mainly used descriptive
statistics of frequency count, percentages, tables and mean and standard deviation, as
well as inferential statistics of Pearson Product Moment Correlation to analyze data.

4.1 Presentation of Results

This subsection entails the analysis, presentation and analysis of the respondents
demographic data. The data analyzed quantitatively are then interpreted in the paragraphs
following the frequency tables and charts.

Table 4.1.1: Demographic Features of Respondents

Features Frequency Percentage (%)

Age 19-24 1265 94.8
25-30 69 5.2
Total 1334 100.0
Gender Male 627 47.0
Female 707 53.0
Total 1334 100.0
Educational OND/ND/HND/B.Sc 1334 100.0
 Qualification
Marital Status Married 69 5.2
Single 1265 94.8
Total 1334 100.0

Table 4.1.1 indicates that the most represented age category in this study was 19years to
24years (n=1265; 94.8%), while those who were between the ages of 25years to 30years
were in the minority (n=69; 5.2%). This is implies that the study was dominated by
younger students than older students. In addition, the most represented gender was
female (n=707, 53%), while their male counterparts had 47% representation. This
suggests that although, females were slightly above average proportion of representation,
the study was slightly dominated by the female gender. All the study participants
indicated they had OND/ND/HND/B.Sc educational qualification (n=1334, 100%), while
the study was dominated by single respondents (n=1265, 94.8%).

4.1.2 Analysis of Research Questions

In this sub-section, responses to the items of the questionnaire are used to answer the
research questions earlier set in this study. The responses were coded and analyzed in
accordance with how they relate to each research questions.

Research Question One: What is the level of information flow and usage between
management and students of institutions of higher learning in Delta State?
Table 4.1.2: Level of Information Flow and Usage between Management and
Students
Items VH H L VL Mean SD
4 3 2 1
Information from management to 757 505 72 - 3.51 0.60
students of institutions of higher (56.7) (37.9) (5.4)
learning flow through a laid channel by
management.
Information flows regularly from 679 506 149 3.40 0.68
management to students of higher (50.9) (37.9) (11.2)
institutions of learning.
Efficient and effective information 529 730 75 3.34 0.58
flow facilitates the resolution of crises (39.7) (54.7) (5.6)
between management and students of
institutions of higher learning.
There is effective information flow 569 636 129 3.23 0.87
between management and students of (42.7) (47.7) (9.7)
institutions of higher learning.
Institution’s management forms the 556 649 129 3.22 0.87
habit of concealing some information (41.7) (48.7) (9.7)
that they considered not pleasant to the
students.
Institution’s management decides on 490 584 185 75 3.12 0.85
the information to disseminate to (36.7) (43.8) (13.9) (5.6)
students.
Average Weighted Mean 3.30 0.74
KEY: VH=Very High, H=High, L=Low, VL=Very Low, ***Decision Rule if mean is
≤ 1.49 = Very Low; 1.5 to 2.49 = Low; 2.5 to 3.49 = High; 3.5 to 4=Very High
Table 4.1.2 shows that the level of information flow and usage between management and
students of institutions of higher learning in Delta State on the average was high
(Average Weighted Mean=3.30; SD=0.74). The students indicated that information flow
and was used by management and students averagely to a very high level because
information flowed from management to students of institutions of higher learning
through channels designed for the purpose (Mean=3.51, SD=0.60). However, the
students rated the level of information flow between the managements and students to be
high on the average in the following ways: that information flowed regularly from the
managements to students of institutions of higher learning (Mean=3.40, SD=0.68),
effective information flow facilitates the resolution of crises between the managements
and students of institutions of higher learning (Mean= 3.34, SD=0.58), that there was
effective information flow between the managements and students of institutions of
higher learning (Mean= 3.23, SD=0.87), that the institutions’ managements formed the
habit of concealing some information that they considered not pleasant to the students
(Mean= 3.22, SD=0.87) and that the institution’s management decided on the information
to disseminate to students (Mean=3.12, SD=0.85).

These suggest that generally, the level of information flow and usage between the
management and students was high. Students, however, mostly recognized the laid down
channels of communication through which information flowed between management and
students, which implies that information flowed from the managements to students
structurally. In addition, information flow and usage between management and students
occurred regularly. Consequently, efficient and effective information flow brought about
resolution of crises between management and students. However, students stated that
management of institutions concealed information that was deemed unpleasant and that
they also decided the information to disseminate to students.
Research Question Two: What are the communication strategies employed by
management in crisis resolution between management and students of tertiary
institutions of learning in Delta State?
Table 4.1.3: Communication Strategies Employed by Management in Crisis
Resolution between Management and Students
Items SA A D SD Mean SD
4 3 2 1
A good communication strategy 911 423 - - 3.68 0.47
facilitates the resolution of crises (68.3) (31.7)
between management and students
of higher institutions of learning.
Institutions of higher learning 883 374 - 77 3.55 0.77
employ the best communication (66.2) (28) (5.8)
strategies in resolving crises
between management and students.
The particular conflict/crisis should 687 582 65 - 3.47 0.59
determine the strategies that are (51.5) (43.6) (4.9)
employed.
Communication tilted towards 340 865 129 - 3.16 0.57
conflict management or resolution (25.5) (64.8) (9.7)
should adopt appropriate strategies.
Managements of institutions of 495 633 77 129 3.12 0.90
higher learning employ (37.1) (47.5) (5.8) (9.7)
communication strategies for the
resolution of crises between it and
students without putting the students
into consideration.
Management and students of 475 640 72 147 3.08 0.92
institution obtain relevant (35.6) (48) (5.4) (11)
information during crises situations
through participatory
communication strategies.
Average Weighted Mean 3.34 0.70
KEY: SA=Strongly Agree, A=Agree, D=Disagree, SD=Strongly Disagree,
***Decision Rule if mean is ≤ 1.49 = Strongly Disagree; 1.5 to 2.49 = Disagree; 2.5 to
3.49 = Agree; 3.5 to 4=Strongly Agree
From Table 4.1.3, on the average, communication strategies were employed by the
managements of the institutions in resolving crisis with the students (Average Weighted
Mean=3.34; SD=0.70). This suggests that communication strategies were generally
employed in crisis resolution between the institutions’ management and students.
Students averagely strongly agreed that a good communication strategy facilitates crises
management between management and students (Mean=3.68; SD=0.47) and that the
institutions of higher learning in Delta State employed the best communication strategies
in resolving crises between their managements and students (Mean=3.55; SD=0.77).
However, students averagely strongly agreed that with the following assertions that:
particular conflict/crisis should determine the strategies that are employed (Mean=3.47;
SD=0.59), communication tilted towards conflict management or resolution should adopt
appropriate strategies (Mean=3.16; SD=0.57). However, the respondents averagely
agreed that the managements employed communication strategies for the resolution of
crises between it and students without putting the students into consideration
(Mean=3.12; SD=0.90) and that the managements and students of the institutions
obtained relevant information during crises situations through participatory
communication strategies (Mean=3.08; SD=0.92). This suggests that communication
strategies were mostly adopted by management for crisis resolution. The use of
appropriate strategies for different conflict or crises should be adopted. Conversely, the
management of the higher institutions adopted communication strategies without due
consideration for the students and participatory communication strategy was used for
obtaining relevant information during crises.
Research Question Three: What is the level of communication usage in crisis
resolution between management and students of tertiary institutions of learning in
Delta State?
Table 4.1.4: Level of Communication Usage in Crisis Resolution between
Management and Students
Items VH H L VL Mean SD
4 3 2 1
Management of institutions of higher 699 570 - 65 4.22 2.36
learning often use communication in (52.4) (42.7) (4.9)
resolving crises between it and students.
Management of institutions of higher 896 438 - - 3.67 0.47
learning use communication as a tool for (67.2) (32.8)
crises resolution between the management
and students.
Higher institutions of learning should 953 244 137 - 3.61 0.67
cultivate the habit of using communication (71.4) (18.3) (10.3)
in the resolution of crises between
management and students.
Effective use of communication facilitates 751 583 - - 3.56 0.50
the resolution of crises between management (56.3) (43.7)
and students of higher institutions of
learning.
Some higher institutions of learning prefer 468 654 212 - 3.19 0.69
the use of force rather than communication (35.1) (49) (15.9)
in the resolution of crises between
management and students.
Some higher institutions neglect the use of 552 242 273 267 2.81 1.18
communication in the resolution of crises (41.4) (18.1) (20.5) (20)
between management and students
Average Weighted Mean 3.51 0.98
KEY: VH=Very High, H=High, L=Low, VL=Very Low, ***Decision Rule if mean is ≤ 1.49
= Very Low; 1.5 to 2.49 = Low; 2.5 to 3.49 = High; 3.5 to 4=Very High
Table 4.1.4 indicates that generally, the level of communication usage in crisis resolution
between the institutions’ managements and students was averagely very high (Average
Weighted Mean= 3.51; SD=0.98). This implies that the managements of the institutions
of higher learning in Delta State established communication lines with students to a very
high level during crisis. Specifically, respondents stated that on the average, the
management of institutions of higher learning often used communication in resolving
crises between them and students (Mean=4.22; SD=2.36). In the same vein, the
management of the institutions of higher learning used communication as a tool for crises
resolution between them and students to a very high level (Mean=3.67; SD=0.47).
However, the study participants stated that some management of higher institutions of
learning in the state averagely preferred the use of force rather than communication in the
resolution of crises between them and students to a high level (Mean=3.19; SD=0.69),
while others on the average neglected the use of communication in the resolution of
crises between them and students to a high level (Mean=2.81; SD=1.18). This implies
that from the general standpoint, the level at which communication was used in crisis
resolution between management and students were very high. This might have occurred
because of regular usage of communication in resolving crises to a very high level and
the usage of communication as a tool for crises resolution to a very high level. However,
some higher institutions preferred the use of force while others also neglected the use of
communication in resolution of crises to a high level.
Research Question Four: What is the extent of usage of inter-personal channel of
communication in crisis resolution between management and students in tertiary
institutions of learning in Delta State?
Table 4.1.5: Extent of Usage of Inter-personal Channel of Communication for Crisis
Resolution between Management and Students
Items VHE HE LE VLE Mean SD
4 3 2 1
Interpersonal communication should 828 335 171 - 3.49 0.71
be used regularly as means of (62.1) (25.1) (12.8)
resolving crises between
management and students of
institutions of higher learning.
Interpersonal communication 695 568 71 - 3.47 0.60
provides road map to conflicting (52.1) (42.6) (5.3)
parties of institutions of higher
learning.
Interpersonal channels of 889 445 - - 3.33 0.94
communication facilitate the (66.6) (33.4)
resolution of crises between
management and students of
institutions of higher learning.
Students of institutions of higher 691 381 262 - 3.32 0.78
learning have regard for the usage (51.8) (28.6) (19.6)
of interpersonal communication
channel and their management
Some management of institutions of 618 480 171 65 3.24 0.85
higher learning engage the use of (46.3) (36) (12.8) (4.9)
interpersonal channel of
communication in the resolution of
crises between it and the students.
Interpersonal communication 741 248 216 129 3.20 1.03
appeals more to parties involved in (55.5) (18.6) (16.2) (9.7)
crises situation in institutions of
higher learning than other channels
of communication.
Average Weighted Mean 3.34 0.82
KEY: VH=Very High Extent, H=High Extent, L=Low Extent, VL=Very Low
Extent, ***Decision Rule if mean is ≤ 1.49 = Very Low Extent; 1.5 to 2.49 = Low
Extent; 2.5 to 3.49 = High Extent; 3.5 to 4= Very High Extent
From Table 4.1.5, the extent of usage of interpersonal channel of communication for
crisis resolution between the institutions’ managements and students was averagely high
(Average Weighted Mean=3.34; SD=0.82). This suggests that interpersonal
communication was used to a high extent for conflict resolution between management
and students in tertiary institutions in Delta State. Specifically, respondents averagely
rated that interpersonal communication should be used regularly as means of resolving
crises between the managements and students of institutions of higher learning to a high
extent (Mean=3.49; SD=0.71). Furthermore, the respondents averagely rated the
following items to a high extent: interpersonal communication provided road map to
conflicting parties of institutions of higher learning, interpersonal channels of
communication facilitated the resolution of crises between the management and students
of institutions of higher learning (Mean=3.33; SD= 0.94), students of institutions of
higher learning had regard for the usage of interpersonal communication channel
(Mean=3.32; SD=0.78), some managements of the institutions of higher learning
engaged the use of interpersonal channel of communication in the resolution of crises
between them and the students (Mean=3.24; SD=0.85) and interpersonal communication
appealed more to parties involved in crises situation in institutions of higher learning than
other channels of communication (Mean=3.20; SD=1.03).
Research Question Five: What is the effect of inefficient and ineffective information
management on the relationship between management and students of tertiary
institutions of learning in Delta State?
Table 4.1.6: Effect of Inefficient and Ineffective Information Management on the
Relationship between Management and Students
Items SA A D SD Mean SD
4 3 2 1
The state of peace in any institution 852 482 - - 3.64 0.48
of higher learning is due to the (63.9) (36.1)
effective and efficient management
of information between the
management and students.
Students crises in institutions of 1006 129 199 - 3.60 0.73
higher learning are due to lack of (75.4) (9.7) (14.9)
effective and efficient information
management between the students
and management.
Management decisions that affect 720 614 - - 3.54 0.50
students in one way or the other (54) (46)
should be communicated to the
students on time.
Crises are indispensible in every 780 489 65 - 3.54 0.59
higher institution of learning, (58.5) (36.7) (4.9)
therefore, management should
always device effective and efficient
means of managing them.
Effective and efficient information 625 709 - - 3.47 0.50
management are the keys to crises (46.9) (53.1)
resolution between management and
students of institutions of higher
learning.
Effective and efficient information 734 466 69 65 3.40 0.80
management is fundamental to the (55) (34.9) (5.2) (4.9)
development of peaceful co-
existence between management and
students of institutions of higher
learning.
Average Weighted Mean 3.53 0.60
KEY: SA=Strongly Agree, A=Agree, D=Disagree, SD=Strongly Disagree,
***Decision Rule if mean is ≤ 1.49 = Strongly Disagree; 1.5 to 2.49 = Disagree; 2.5 to
3.49 = Agree; 3.5 to 4=Strongly Agree

Table 4.1.6 indicates that on the averagely, respondents strongly agreed that inefficient
and ineffective information management could affect the relationship between the
institutions’ managements and students (Average Weighted Mean=3.53; SD=0.60).
Specifically, respondents averagely strongly agreed with the following assertions that:
the state of peace in any institution of higher learning was due to the effective and
efficient management of information between the institutions’ managements and students
(Mean=3.64; SD=0.48), students’ crises in the institutions of higher learning were due to
lack of effective and efficient information management between the students and
managements (Mean=3.60; SD=0.73), management decisions that affect students in one
way or the other should be communicated to the students on time (Mean=354; SD=0.50)
and crises are indispensible in every higher institution of learning, management should
device effective and efficient means of managing them(Mean=3.54, SD=0.59). However,
the study participants averagely agreed with the following statements: effective and
efficient information management were the keys to crises resolution between the
managements and students of institutions of higher learning (Mean=3.47; SD=0.50) and
effective and efficient information management was fundamental to the development of
peaceful co-existence between the managements and students of institutions of higher
learning (Mean=3.40; SD=0.50).

4.2 Test of Hypothesis

Decision Rule
The pre-set level of significance for this study is 0.05. The hypotheses assume a
relationship between the variables being considered. The p-value indicates the
significance or the probability value, if it exceeds the pre-set level of significance
(P>0.05), the hypothesis stated will be rejected, however, if the p-value is less than or
equal to 0.05 (≤0.05), the hypothesis will be accepted.
Null Hypothesis One: There is no significant relationship between level of information
flow and effective relationship between management and students in institutions of
higher learning in Delta State.
Table 4.2.1 Pearson Product Moment Correlation Showing the Relationship
between Level of Information Flow between Management and Students and
Effective Relationship between Management and Students

Variable Effective Relationship between

Management and Students
0.322**
Pearson
Level of Information Flow
Correlation
between Management and
Students Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000
N 1334
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.2.1 shows that there is a low positive significant relationship between level of
information flow between management and students and effective relationship between
management and students (alpha =0.322, p<0.05). This implies that an increase in the
level of information flow between management and students will lead to a proportional
increase in effective relationship between management and students. The implication of
this is that tertiary institutions in Delta State that wish to bring about better relationship
between management and students should endeavour to set up appropriate structures
through which accurate, timely information could flow between management and
students. Consequently, the null hypothesis is rejected.

Results of the In-depth Interview

The in-depth interview, which is one of the instruments of data gathering in the study,
was conducted with the Dean, Student Affairs, Student Affairs Officers and the Public
Relations Officers of each of the three tertiary institutions chosen for the study. The
interview was conducted by the researcher with the use of an interview guide structured
in line with the research questions earlier raised in the study. Responses from a total of
nine participants involved in the exercise were categorized according to how they relate
to the research questions. Findings arising from the in-depth interview are presented as
follows:

Research Question 1: What is the level of information flow and usage between
management and students of your institutions?

Responses to this question showed that the flow of information between managements
and students of their institution was very cordial, consistent and fantastic. All the officers
interviewed said that the management of their institutions operated open door policy.
According to the Dean, Student Affairs Officer of Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro, there
was an organized information flow between management and students and the
information flow was very cordial and spontaneous. None of the officers attested to lack
of information flow between the managements and students of their institutions. The
findings in this regard are in tandem with the data generated from the students, which
confirmed that the level of information usage between the institutions’ managements and
students was high (see Table 4.1.2)

Research Question 2: What are the communication strategies employed by the

management of your institution in the resolution of crises between management and
students of your institution?

Six of the participants said that the management usually employed interactive sessions
with the leadership of Student Union Government (SUG). According to them,
Management operated students-friendly policies and put in place effective feedback
mechanisms to get responses from students mainly through their leadership. Those in the
minority said that the strategy they used for managing crisis was direct information flow
from the management to the students. At times, the management employed two-way
information flow: a system whereby the Chief Executive addressed the aggrieved
students personally. For instance, the Public Relations Officer of the Delta state
Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku said that on a number of occasion, students of the institution
had matched to the front of the Rector’s office and the Rector came out to address them.
He added that from time to time, the Rector gathered the students and addressed them in
order to keep them abreast of issues they should know about. On the other hand, the
Dean Student Affairs of the Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro told the interviewer that
anytime there was an issue, the students’ leadership was invited for a round table
discussion and brainstorming with the management from which agreements were reached
between the management and the students. Some of these responses do not tally with the
findings from the students who said that the managements of higher institutions adopted
communication strategies without due considering of the students. They also asserted that
participatory communication strategy was used to obtaining relevant information during
crises implying that interactive communication was employed as a retroactive strategy
after crises have erupted.

Research Question 3: What is the level of the usage of communication in the

resolution of crisis between management and students of your institutions?

Most the participants said that the level of communication usage was very high.
According to the Dean, Student Affairs of the Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro,
communication was employed anytime there was an issue between the management and
students. This strategy could be considered retroactive because communication is used to
respond to emerging issues. The Public Relations Officer of the Delta State Polytechnic,
Ozoro said that since consistent communication between management and students was
vital to the much desired peace on campus, the level of communication between the
management and students was very high. Some said that there was consistent
communication between the management and students. The Public Relations Officer of
the Delta State Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku said that as a way of improving the
communication level between the management and students, the Rector sometimes
appointed students into school committees. This is a proactive strategy that involves
students as stakeholders in the decision-making process of the institution. The fact that
the usage of communication in crisis resolution was high among the management of the
tertiary institutions in Delta State has been attested to by the quantitative data generated
in the survey (See Table 4.1.4).

Research Question 4: How often does your institution use inter-personal channel of
communication in the resolution of crisis between the management and students

Majority of the participants said that there was a regular use of inter-personal
communication channel between the managements and students. According to the Public
Relations Officer of Delta State University, Abraka, the University established the
Counseling Unit to attend to the needs and demands of students and the students were
also at liberty to access the Dean of Students Affairs of the institution in resolving
personal or collective issues which could result to crisis. On the other, the Public
Relations Officer of Delta State Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku told the interviewer that the
Rector granted audience to the students always and she spoke with class representatives
and SUG officials often. According to him, the Rector gave her phone numbers to
students and she equally has the phone numbers of some students leaders. This had
facilitated regular inter-personal communication between the students and the
management. This result is also in tandem with the findings generated from the survey in
which respondents said that the use of interpersonal communication channels is
averagely high in crisis resolution between the institutions’ managements and students
(See Table 4.1.5).
Research Question 5: What is the state of information management on the
relationship between management and students of your institution?

Some of them said that the state of information management was very cordial while
others said that the students were kept abreast of public matters often. According to the
Public Relations Officer of Delta State University, Abraka, the state of information
management between management and students was work in progress because
communication channels were being fine-tuned regularly to ensure that both sides
benefits from the system. The Dean, Students Affairs of Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro,
said that every information was managed soundly, speedily, adequately and intelligently.
According to him, signposts, bulletins and host of others means were used to
disseminate information to the students often.

4.3 Discussion of Findings

This study examined the role of communication in the resolution of crises between
management and students of tertiary institutions of learning in Delta State. In order to
achieve this, the study randomly selected three institutions in Delta State namely: Delta
State University, Abraka, Delta State Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku and Delta State
Polytechnic, Ozoro. The study adopted the mixed method research design that combined
survey with in-depth interview and used structured questionnaire and interview guide as
research instruments. A total of one thousand, three hundred and thirty four (1,334)
students participated in the study. Female participants (53%) were slightly above average
proportion of representation, the study was slightly dominated by the female gender,
males had 47 percent representation. The study was dominated by younger students than
older students because the most represented age category was 18 to 24 (94.8%) while
those who were between the ages of 25 to 30 had 5.2 percent representation. All the study
participants had academic qualifications that ranged from OND/ND/HND/B.Sc (100%)
and the study was dominated by single students (94.8%).
Level of Information Flow and Usage between Management and Students of
Institutions of Higher Learning in Delta State

This study revealed that from the general standpoint, the level of information flow
between management and students was high as indicated in Table 4.1.2. Essentially this
study found that there was a two-way communication flow between the management and
students of tertiary institutions. The implication of this is that there were rooms to pass
accurate information between management and students, thereby leaving little room for
misinformation and rumours mongering. This result has been emphasized by Bhatti
(2010) that information is a key resource for crisis management and resolution, peace
promotion and security in higher institutions of learning. This implies that when
information flows from management to students and vice versa, through the provision of
relevant mechanism at all levels of tertiary institutions, crisis may be minimized or
ameliorated. In the same vein, information flow can also make or mar an institution of
higher learning depending on the source that the information is emanating from. In any
institution of higher learning, adequate provision of viable information and how they can
be accessed and used by the receiver is crucial. When information appropriately
packaged and channeled appropriately, at the right time, between management and
students, it is possible to avoid grievous misunderstandings, crises and conflicts. This
position is corroborated by the findings of this study that there was effective information
flow between management and students of institutions of higher learning (Mean=3.23;
SD=0.87).

Furthermore, Okoye and Igbo (2011) argue that breach of communication between the
management and students in higher institutions of learning has been found to be the cause
of most crises. This study however on the contrary found that there was a high level of
information flow between management and students, hence it is expected that in tertiary
institutions in Delta State, there may not be complex crises that arise from lack of
information flow. The in-dept interview reveals that there was a cordial and consistent
information flow between the management and students. For instance, the Public
Relations Officer of the Delta State Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku said that there was cordial
and consistent information flow between management and students of the institution.

Students in tertiary institutions in Delta State may not be engulfed in crisis with the
administration because of high information flow between them and the managements as
this study has shown. This view is also supported by Ani (2011) who states that
information flow helps in educating and keeping students informed about important
updates and events in their institutions. Hence, it is reasoned that sound communication
in institutions of higher learning should create a foundation for students’ appropriate
attitude to peaceful studentship.

Communication Strategies Employed by Management in Crisis Resolution between

Management and Students of Tertiary Institutions of Learning in Delta State

It was revealed that generally, communication strategies were employed by management

in crisis resolution between management and students of tertiary institutions in Delta
State (Average Weighted Mean=3.34, SD=0.70). The study pointed out specifically that
management and students of tertiary institution in Delta State obtained relevant
information during crises situations through participatory communication strategies
(Mean=3.08, SD=0.92). This is similar to the observation made by Mefalopulos’ (2003)
that participatory communication which entails a two-way horizontal flow of
communication, is being adopted increasingly in different sectors around the world. The
adoption of participatory communication approach in higher institutions of learning in
Delta State for conflict resolution should be consistent so as to ensure that management
and students participate effectively in the communication process. Participation is a vital
communication strategy and very viable tool for preventing crisis.
The results of the in-depth interview revealed that the managements employed different
communication strategies in the resolutions of crisis between them and the students. For
instance, the Dean of Student Affairs of Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro told the
researcher that the management of his institution employed a two-way communication
strategy in crisis resolution between it and the students. This is a system whereby the
management selected opinion leaders among the Students Union Government and
addressed them on timely bases. They in turn addressed their fellow students, keeping
them abreast of management decisions and policies. The participatory approach offers
stakeholders in organizations equal opportunities to participate in the management and
resolution of crisis from the beginning to the end (Inagaki 2007). In other words, it means
participating in decision making, implementation and evaluation is a proactive crisis
management approach. Hence participatory communication as a strategy should be
initiated, designed, implemented and evaluated according to the crisis in higher
institutions in Delta State, which also brings to fore the importance of contextualizing the
crises being handled in higher institutions in Delta State, before appropriate
communication strategies are deployed for conflict or crises resolution. This is
corroborated by Bassey (2002) who stated that any attempt at crisis resolution should
start with an appropriate evaluation of the peculiar and particular nature of the crisis
system and the requisite condition for peace; hence it should continue from an operative
construct of transformative paradigm and that proper participation ensures understanding,
connectivity and commitment and thus a very good and effective system for crisis
resolution.

Therefore the absence of participation makes communication to remain at a basic level

between management and students. Furthermore, the adoption of participatory
communication strategy for the management of crises between the managements of
institutions of higher learning and students in Delta State would have helped to generate
knowledge on important aims and objectives and reduces the time for acquisition/
integration of knowledge and conversion into action. In addition, participatory
approaches are effective ways of crisis resolution because they create opportunities for
dialogue and consensus that may lead to resolution of disagreement. Hence, participatory
approaches can also result in effective communication and have meaningful effects on
policies and institutions (Collier & Hoeffler, 2011).

Level of Communication Usage in Crisis Resolution between Management and

Students of Tertiary Institutions of Learning in Delta State

Higher institutions in Delta State generally had a very high level of communication usage
in crisis resolution between management and students (Average Weighted Mean= 3.51,
SD=0.98). This suggests that management of institutions of higher learning in Delta State
established communication lines with students to a very high level during crisis.
Communication entails the totality of factors that ensure that human interact with the
entire world through spoken, written, gesture, music, paintings, photographs and so on.
This has led many organizations including institutions of higher learning to depend on it
for the management and resolution of conflict. Corroborating this result, Hansan (2005),
West and Turner (2004) state that communication is a social process in which individuals
make use of signs and symbols to make sense of their environment. Since crisis in higher
institutions of learning may be impossible to avoid between students and management,
communication may be used appropriately as a tool to resolve the crises between
management and students in institutions of higher learning. Communication helps to
resolve crises in tertiary institutions, it specifically helps to degenerate the antecedents of
crisis and bring about resolution. Ogayi (2016) states that communication yields
information and knowledge about the operations of the organization which brings about a
trouble free atmosphere. He argues that effective communication is essential for
management to successfully perform its function, in many cases, conflicting parties do
not explore the communication strategies and clash with manager’s personality which in
most cases leads to lingering of crises.
Interpersonal Channel of Communication, Effective Information Management and
Relationship between Management and Students of Tertiary Institutions of
Learning in Delta State

The extent to which interpersonal channel of communication for crisis resolution

between the institutions’ managements and students was high (Average Weighted
Mean=3.34, SD=0.82). This implies that interpersonal communication was used to a high
extent for conflict resolution between the managements and students in tertiary
institutions in Delta State. This is similar to the assertion made by Jimo (2008) that social
conflict may contribute in many ways to the maintenance of groups’ collectiveness as
well as the cementing of inter-personal relations. Interpersonal communication involves
primarily a communication mode that involves two or more parties, who are physically
close to each other. Since interpersonal communication is direct, immediate,
spontaneous, it could also be informal in nature. Some of the interpersonal
communication skills which can facilitate the resolution of conflict between the
managements and students of tertiary institutions include the ability to speak well, in
simple and easy to understand language that would be appreciated by parties involved in
the crisis situation. Therefore strategic effort should be made to speak fluently and
eloquently in order to get the attention of other stakeholders. Interpersonal
communication skills are required to effectively carry out negotiations. Corroborating
this view, Tiana (2008) asserts that interpersonal communication helps to ensure
negotiation of conflict among shareholders. This is also the case with Harvey (n.d) who
opines that a strategic and holistic approach to managing conflict is through interpersonal
communication. The study goes further to point out that Interpersonal communication is
fundamental to resolving conflict because it is characterized by certain identities such as
Face to face interaction, better treatment among as different personalities. Finally,
Yingshan, Fangwei, Yueand Ning (2016) argue that a strategic means for resolving
conflict is through interpersonal communication.
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

The purpose of this study was to examine communication as management tool for crisis
resolution in selected tertiary institutions in Delta State, Nigeria. The study was designed
to know whether or not tertiary institutions in Delta State employ the instrument of
communication in the resolution of crisis between managements and students of tertiary
institutions in Delta State. Since communication provides the road map for people to
achieve peaceful co-existence, it is a powerful instrument to manage and resolve crises of
all kinds. However, for communication to be employed in managing and resolving crisis
effectively it must follow the actual process and at the same time be well packaged in a
way so as to affect or change the receiver’s attitude. The study was focused on
management and students of tertiary institutions.

The total number of tertiary institutions in Delta State were 15 with a total population of
77,600. Out of this, 20% was chosen which represents Delta State University, Abraka,
Delta State Polytechnic, Ogwasi-Uku, and Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro. 20% of
Faculties, schools and departments of the tertiary institutions were sampled respectively.
In addition, 20% of the students from the sampled departments was sampled. The study
employed the survey research designed using questionnaire and interview as instruments
for gathering Data. The questionnaire which comprises section A and B has 35 items
altogether. Section A which deals with the demographic characteristics has five items
while section B which deals with the thematic issues have 30 items. As for the in-dept
interview, the interview guide was employed. The Dean Student Affairs, student Affairs
Officer, Public Relations Officer of each of the Institutions were interviewed. These three
staff from each of the institutions were interviewed because they play intermediary role
between managements and students of tertiary institutions. Therefore, a total of 9 staff
were interviewed.

The study answered the five research questions and one hypothesis raised for the study.
It was found that the level of information flow and usage between management and
students of institutions of higher learning in Delta State on the average was high. The
study indicated that information flowed and was used by management and students
averagely to a very high level because information flowed from management to students
of institutions of higher learning through a laid down channel. Hence, the students rated
information flow between management and students very effective and efficient which
consequently facilitates the resolution of crises between management and students of
institutions of higher learning. It was found from the data gathered also that majority of
the respondents said that management of tertiary institutions employ good
communication strategies in the resolution of crisis between management and students.
The respondents agreed that management used appropriate strategies for different crises
management and resolution. This position is supported by data gathered both
quantitatively and qualitatively. For instance, the Public Relations Officer of Delta State
University, Abraka was of the view that the management of the institution usually
employ the strategies that best suit and considered appropriate for every crisis.
Invariably, the nature of crisis determines to a large extent the strategies that are
employed. However, it was revealed that management employ communication strategies
without putting the students into consideration indicating the use of communication as a
responsive strategy to crisis resolution.

Findings indicated that the level of communication usage in crisis resolution between
management and students was very high. This means that management of institutions of
higher learning established communication lines with students to a very high level during
crisis between management and students in institutions of higher learning in Delta State.
Specifically, this goes to show that management of tertiary institutions used
communication in resolving crises between it and students. However, the data revealed
also that some institutions preferred the use of force rather than communication in the
resolution of crises between management and students. Conversely, the in-dept interview
shows that there is a high level of communication usage between management and
students of tertiary institutions during crisis resolution. For instance, the Dean of Student
Affairs, Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro stated that there was a very high level of
information flow and well patterned communication between management and students
of the institution.

Another finding from the study is that there is a high extent of interpersonal
communication usage for crisis resolution between management and students.
Specifically, respondents averagely rated that interpersonal communication should be
used regularly as a potent means of crisis resolution between management and students
of higher institutions. This is due to the fact that interpersonal communication provides
road map to conflicting parties and as well facilitates crisis resolution in tertiary
institutions. The findings also revealed that interpersonal communication appeals more
to parties involved in crises in institutions of higher learning than other channels of
communication. From the in-dept interview, it is revealed that interpersonal
communication is used more frequently in the resolution of crises between management
and students of tertiary institutions than other channels of communication. For instance,
the student Affairs officer and Public Relations Officer of Delta State Polytechnic,
Ogwashi-Uku and Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro respectively asserted during the
interview that their institutions used interpersonal channel of communication consistently
in crisis resolution between management and students.

Findings also indicated that inefficient and ineffective information management could
affect the relationship between management and students of tertiary institutions. The
study participants averagely agreed that effective and efficient information management
was fundamental to the growth and development of peaceful co-existence between
management and students of tertiary institutions. The responses of the in-depth interview
corroborated this as well. Majority of the interviewees said that the state of information
management between management and students of their institutions was very, very
cordial.

Lastly, it was found that some tertiary institutions managements neglect the use of
communication in the resolution of crisis between the managements and students.

5.2 Conclusion

From the data analyzed and the interview content analyzed, the study can therefore
concludes that there exists a strong relationship between communication and crises
resolution between management and students of tertiary institutions. In other word,
communication is a sine-qua-non in crisis resolution between management and students
of tertiary institutions. This is due to the fact that effective communication helps to calm
fray nerves and consequently ensue peaceful co-existence between conflicting parties.
Peaceful co-existence can be achieved through efficient and effective information flows
between management and students of institutions of higher learning. Effective
communication strategies is also very relevant in crisis resolution between management
and students of tertiary institutions but a particular crisis determines to a large extent the
communication strategies that are employed. However, some institutions’ managements
prefer the use of force and also neglect the use of communication in crisis resolution.
More importantly, interpersonal channel of communication is more effective in crisis
resolution between management and students of tertiary institutions than other channels
of communication. For instance, all those interviewed agreed that their institutions
employ regularly interpersonal channel of communication in the resolution of crises
between management and students.

5.3 Recommendations
Findings from this study have clearly revealed that communication is a very potent force
in the resolution of crisis between management and students of tertiary institutions.

Based on the findings, the following recommendations are made:

1. All tertiary institutions in Delta State and Nigeria as whole should always embrace
communication as a tool for crisis resolution between management and students,
since it has been found that communication is an indispensable tool in crisis
resolution.

2. Efficient and effective information flow facilitates crises resolution between

management and students of tertiary institution, therefore, management of tertiary
institutions should always ensure that there is regular and continuous information
flow between it and the students. Management should always weigh those
information they conceal from students before concealing them because if students
get to know later that some of those information ought to be disseminated to them,
such action of management may lead to crisis between management and students. In
addition, the laid down channels of information flow between management and
students of tertiary institutions must be well structured inclusive.

3. Since the findings of the study shows that some managements do not put students
into consideration before employing communication strategies, it is of utmost
important for management to put students into consideration when deciding on the
communication strategies to employ. Good communication strategies that appeal to
both management and students facilitate crisis resolution in higher institutions of
learning

4. The effect of the use of force in crisis resolution is ephemeral in nature, even if it
generates positive results. Therefore, managements of tertiary institutions should
avoid the use of force during crises between them and the students. The use of force
 during crises may boomerang and when it does, it can aggravate the crises.
Managements of institutions of higher learning should rely always on communication
during crises between them and their students.

5. Management of higher institutions of learning should ensure that decisions which

affect the students in one way or the other are communicated to them on time. Delay
in communicating such decisions to the students may cause more harm than good.

6. Management of higher institutions of learning should endeavour to evaluate its

information flow from it to the students to know whether it is on the right track.
Regular communication audits help to determine result achieved, effectiveness of
strategies and possible need to change strategies.

7. Tertiary institutions in Delta state that wish to bring about better relationship between
management and students should endeavour to set up appropriate structures through
which accurate and timely information could flow between management and
students.

8. Managements and students of tertiary institutions should set up appropriate structures

through which accurate and timely information could flow between them and the
students.

5.4 Contribution to Knowledge

This work has contributed to knowledge in different ways. Crisis is a cankerworm that
has eaten deep into the fabric of Nigeria tertiary institutions, disrupting smooth running
of academic calendars and serving as set-backs for the educational system. The study
extensively explored the important concept of crisis in tertiary institutions, thereby
providing insights into the potency of communication in addressing the perennial
problem. Managements of institutions of higher learning could make use of the results of
this study to plan and execute communication policies of their institutions in order to
prevent or resolve crises. The mixed method of research employed in the study made it
unique. The views of students as regards the use of communication for crisis resolution
were obtained through the administration of questionnaire while the views of staff who
have direct relationships between management and students were got through the use of
in-depth interview. A comparison between these two sets of results assisted in
ascertaining the truth in respect of the subject matter of the study.

The study is also unique due to the fact that it is the only study to the knowledge of
researcher that has been carried out on the use of communication as a tool for crisis
resolution between managements and students of tertiary institutions in Delta State,
Nigeria. Some of the findings of the study will contribute greatly to the available
literature on crisis between managements and students of institutions of higher learning.
There are some important revelations of the study that would help to bridge
communication gaps between managements and students which may consequently
reduce or eradicate crises between the two parties. For instance, findings of this study
revealed that management at times employed the use of force in relating to the students
during crisis situations. In a similar vein, it was also discovered that some managements
employed delay tactics in communicating the decisions that affect students to them.
Tertiary institution management could learn from these to correct some of the anomalies.

Lastly, the study also came up with a new model that depicts the relationship between
communication and crisis management in tertiary institutions. The model could be further
researched into for the purpose of building a theory of crisis management in the
communication discipline. It can also be applied by officials that are responsible for
organizational communication for professional practice.

5.5 Limitation of the Study

This study cannot be assumed to be a very perfect one. There are certain shortcomings
and conditions beyond the control of the researcher that served as limitations to the
outcomes of the study. Limitations were experienced in the following areas: some of
those to be interviewed refused to speak to the researcher despite the fact that a letter
from the department showing the intention of the researcher was presented to them. For
instance, the Students Affairs Officers of Delta State University, Abraka and Delta State
Polytechnic, Ozoro refused to be interviewed given flimsy reasons. Also, getting
respondents to feel the questionnaire also constituted a serious problem. Most of the
students were reluctant in filling the questionnaire while some deliberately refused to
return copies of questionnaire issued to them. Some of the students even demanded for
money before filling the questionnaire while others could not be convinced about the
purpose of the study and consequently did not fill the questionnaire.

The methodological shortcomings of this study include purposiveness in selecting 20

percent of the institutions, faculties and departments from the total population in Delta
State. The fact that 78% valid copies of the questionnaire were used for data analysis was
a shortcoming, though the return rate was considerably high. The 22 percent that were
either not returned or invalid represented a waste of resources, which could have been
part of the data generated in the study.

5.6 Suggestion for Further Studies

This study dealt with crisis between managements and students of higher institutions of
learning in Delta state, Nigeria. Other areas for further studies include a consideration of
the role of communication in managing crises between managements and members staff
of tertiary institutions of learning. Management-staff relationships are not immune to
crises as some crises emanate from the relationship between the two parties in institutions
of higher learning. Another area worthy of research attention is the impact of
communication in preventing or resolving crises between managements of institutions of
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students and host communities. Such issues require carefully planned communication
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INFORMED CONSENT

Title: Communication as a Management Tool for Crisis Resolution in Selected Tertiary

Institutions of Learning in Delta State, Nigeria.

Purpose: To Examine Communication as a Tool for Crisis Resolution in Selected

Tertiary Institutions of Learning in Delta State, Nigeria.

Procedure: The Survey research design was employed. Data will be gathered through
the use of questionnaire and interview research instrument. The questionnaire will be
administered to students of the 3 higher institutions selected for the study through
proportional representation. Respondents were proportionally selected from the
institutions, faculties / schools, departments to class levels.

It is among these institutions, faculties / schools, departments to class levels that the
questionnaires administrations were based. Students respondents were used for the study.
As for the interview, 3 staff each from the institutions (Dean Students Affairs, Students
Affairs Officers and Public Relations Officers)were selected for the study.

Consequences of Participation Decisions:

Participants are free to fill the questionnaire. As for the interview it is voluntary for the
interviewees to respond to the interview questions.

Conflict of Interest:

The researcher does not have any other interest other than to contribute to knowledge.

Contact: GSM – 08037424086, Email Address: akposemmaejoma@gmail.com

Name, Signature of Participants: …………………………………….…………………

Name, Signature of Witness & Date: ………………………...

…………………………….
 APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRE

Department of Mass Communication,

School of Postgraduate Studies,
Babcock University,
Ilisan-Remo,
Ogun State.
Dear Respondent,
My name is Akpoveta, Emmanuel Ejomafuvwe. I am an M.Phil candidate of the
Department of Mass Communication, Babcock University, Ilisan-Remo, Ogun State.

I am carrying out a study on “Communication as a Management Tool for Crisis

Resolution in Selected Tertiary Institutions in Delta State, Nigeria”.

Please, fill the questionnaire as truthful as you can. Be assured that any information you
give would not be used other than for academic purpose and would be treated with
utmost confidentiality.

Please, don’t write your name.

Thank you.

Yours Sincerely,

Researcher
 APPENDIX B

QUESTIONNAIRE

Section A

Instruction: Please tick (√) against the question(s) that correctly express your opinion.
1. What is your gender? Male [ ] female [ ]
2. What is your age? 18-24 [ ] 25-30 [ ] 31-35 [ ] 36-40 [ ]
41-45 [ ] 46 and above [ ]
3. What is your educational qualification? OND/ND/HND [ ] B.Sc/M.Sc [ ]
Ph.D [ ]
4. What is your marital status? Married [ ] Single [ ]
Section B (Thematic Issues)

A Lack of Information Flow Between Management and Students of SA A SD D

Institutions of Higher Learning
I There is effective information flow between management and
students of institutions of higher learning.
Ii Information does not flow regularly from management to students of
higher institutions of learning.
Iii Institution’s management decides on the information to disseminate
to students.
Iv Institution’s management forms the habit of concealing some
information that they considered not pleasant to the students.
V Information from management to students of institutions of higher
learning flow through a laid channel by management.
Vi Efficient and effective information flow facilitates the resolution of
crises between management and students of institutions of higher
learning.
B The Communication Strategies Employed by Management of
Institutions of Higher Learning.
I Institutions of higher learning employ the best communication
strategies in resolving crises between management and students.
Ii Communication tilted towards conflict management or resolution
should adopt appropriate strategies.
Iii The particular conflict/crisis should determine the strategies that are
employed.
Iv Management and students of institution obtain relevant information
during crises situations through participatory communication
strategies.
V A good communication strategy facilitates the resolution of crises
between management and students of higher institutions of learning.
Vi Managements of institutions of higher learning employ
communication strategies for the resolution of crises between it and
students without putting the students into consideration.

C The Level of Usage of Communication for Crises Management SA A SD D

Between Students and Management of Institutions of Higher
Learning.
I Management of institutions of higher learning use communication as
a tool for crises resolution between the management and students.
Ii Management of institutions of higher learning seldom use
communication in resolving crises between it and students.
Iii Effective use of communication facilitates the resolution of crises
between management and students of higher institutions of learning.
Iv Some higher institutions of learning prefer the use of force rather
than communication in the resolution of crises between management
and students.
V Some higher institutions neglect the use of communication in the
resolution of crises between management and students,
Vi Higher institutions of learning should cultivate the habit of using
communication in the resolution of crises between management and
students.

D The Extent of Usage of Inter-personal Communication Channels

in Institutions of Higher Learning.
I Interpersonal channels of communication facilitate the resolution of
crises between management and students of institutions of higher
learning.
Ii Interpersonal communication provides road map to conflicting
parties of institutions of higher learning.
Iii Interpersonal communication appeals more to parties involved in
crises situation in institutions of higher learning than other channels
of communication.
Iv Interpersonal communication should be used regularly as means of
 resolving crises between management and students of institutions of
higher learning.
V Some management of institutions of higher learning do not engage
the use of interpersonal channel of communication in the resolution
of crises between it and the students.
Vi Students of institutions of higher learning have little regard for the
usage of interpersonal communication channel and their management
due to the fact that it can be denied.
E Effective and Efficient Information Management on the
Relationship between Management and Students.
I Students crises in institutions of higher learning are due to lack of
effective and efficient information management between the students
and management.
Ii The state of peace in any institutions of higher learning is due to the
effective and efficient management of information between the
management and students.
Iii Effective and efficient information management are the keys to
crises resolution between management and students of institutions of
higher learning.
Iv Crises are indispensible in every higher institution of learning,
therefore, management should always device effective and efficient
means of managing them.
V Effective and efficient information management is fundamental to
the development of peaceful co-existence between management and
students of institutions of higher learning.
Vi Management decisions that affect students in one way or the other
should be communicated to the students on time.
 APPENDIX C

Structured Interview

i) What is the state of information flow between your institution and the students?

ii) What are the communication strategies the management of your institution
employ in the resolution of crises between management and students of your institution?

iii) What is the level of the usage of communication in the resolution of crises
between management and students of your institution?

iv) How often does your institution uses inter-personal channel of communication in
the resolution of crises between the management and students of your institution?

v) What is the state of information management on the relationship between

management and students of your institution?