n vo | | £ 6 ies — c Oo a wv Zz DEIN) Ae SE nae «Series Editor ~ [>] wrie Ryanconnect inspire achieve Nee erm EC Com aC Kerboodle Books - interactive (J) Interactive resources: Nee ete oe Q Support and Extension ee eee Q Revision/assessment material eee eed Cera ee eee ae co BST Crary NSE Peele ST IC Beet et _ WebQuests USC n ec Be ON IL Pe ene Teacher and Technician Notes. ‘Thicis the full What ls meant by How You will be expected to collect scientilic evidence and to understend how Pliner wo use evidence. These concepts will be assessed as the major part of your internal school assessmert. eth bile densiears elit You wil tako one or more 45-minute tests. These tosts are based on data you have collected previously plus data supplied for you in the test. They are Sete Call investigative Skills Assignments (ISA). The ideas in How Science STREET RETR TRIN Worle’ wil also be assessed in your examinations. problem scientifically? How science works for us Science works for us all day, every day. You do not need to know how a mobile phone works to enjoy sending text messages. But, think about how you startad to use your mobile phone or yaur television remote control. Did you work through pages of instructions? Probably roll ‘You knew that pressing the buttons would change something on the screen CO links (knowledge). You played around with the buttons, to see what would happen (ebeervation). You had 2 guass based on your knowladge and observations at vihat you thought might be happening (prediction) and then tested your idea (experiment). Peraps ‘How Science Works’ should really be called ‘How Scientists Work. Science moves forward by slow, steady steps. When a genius such as Einstein comes along, it takes a glant leap, Those small steps bulld on knowledge and cexporionce that we already have. You can find out more about your ISA by looking at Hi0 The ISA atthe end of this chapter. The steps don’t always lead in a straight line, starting with an observation and ‘ending with a conclusion. Moro often than not you find yoursalf gcing round in circles, but each time you go around the loop you gain more knowledge and so can make better predictions. 4 Observation | Analysis otresuts | Hrwatnesis X a Experimental test. — Prediction Each small step is important in its own way. It builds on the body of knowledge that we have. In 1675 a German chemist tried to extract gold from urine, He must have thought that there was a connaction between the two colours. He was wrong. But after a while, with a terrible stench coming from his laboratory, the urine begen to glow. Figure 1 Albert Einatoin w Figure Abot Enon weoa gente, hac lecovered ahosohorus, Phosphorus catches fe eal A Swedish buine waked scene tist worked cut howto marufacture phosphorus without the sme of w. GCSE urine, That is why most matches these days are manufactured in Sweden,Investigating fireworks Fireworks must be safe to light. Therefore you need a fuse that will last long enough to give you time to get well out of the way. © Fuses can be made by dipping a special type of cotton into a mixture: of two chemicals. One chernical (A) reacts by burning; the othar (B) doesn't. © The chemicals stick to the cotton. Once itis it, the cotton wil continue ‘to bur, setting the firework off. The concentrations of the two chemicals will affect how quickly the fuse burns. @ In groups, discuss how you could vrork cut the correct concentrations of the chemicals to use. You want the fuse to last long enough for you to get out of the way. However, you don't want itto burn so long that we all get bored waiting for the firework to go off! You can use the following headings to discuss your investigation. One person should be writing your ideas down, so that you can discuss tem with the rest of the clees. © What prediction can you make about the concentration of the two chemicals (A and 6) and the fuse? © What would you vary in each test? This is called the independent variable. © What would you measure to Judge the effect of varying the indopendent variable? This is called the dependent variable. © What would you need to keep unchanged to make this a feir test? These are called control variables. © Write @ plan for your investigation, Figure 2 Fireworks ‘Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: experiment knowledge conclusion prediction observation You have leamed before that a cup of tea loses heat fit s left standing. This is 2 piece of ‘You make an. ‘that dark-coloured cups will cool faster. So you make a that if you have @ black cup, this will 000l fastest of all. You carry out an........fo got seme results, and from these you make a ‘Tne Greeks were arguably the first rue scientists. They challenged traditional myths about life. They put forward ideas that they knew would be ‘challenged. They wore keen to argue the point and come toa reasoned conclusion. (Other oulturas raliod on long-established myths and argument was eeen es heroey. aka the starting point for an as eis intended to explain certain Cee OP ed ce ae! cau as er Tn Pec crocseee een chou ed eats hal ccc} Cd © What Is the Importance of Cee ecu) Ped Tou td evidence is valid? eit eed between a resutt being repeatable and a result being eee ORE Read a newspaper article or watch the news on TV. Ask yourself whether any research presented is valid. Ask yourself whether you can trust that erson’s opinion and wry. Figure 1 Stident recording a range oF tomparatures ~ an example of a How Science Works te UC emer ee- Lele ey re) Mau ude) Science is too important for us to get it wrong ‘Sometimes it is easy to spot whan people try to use science poorly. ‘Sometimes it can be funny. You might have sean adver's claiming to give your hhair ‘body’ or sprays that give your fost ‘ft On the other hand, poor scientific practice can cost lives. ‘Some years ago a company sold the drug thalidomide to people asa sleeping pill, Research was cavried out on animals to see ifit was safe. The research cid not include work on pregnant animals. The opinion of the peopla in charge was that the animal research showed the drug could be used safely with humans. ‘Then the crug was also found to help ease morning sickness in pregnant women. Unfortunately, doctors prescribed it to many women, resulting in ‘thousands of babies being born with deformad limbs. It was far fram safe, These are very difficult decisions to make. You need to be absolutely certain of what the science is telling you. ‘Why was the opinion of the people in charge of developing thalidomide based on poor science? Deciding on what to measure: variables Variables are physical, chemical or biological quantities or characteristics. In an investigation, you normally choose one thing to change or vary. This is called the independent variable, When you change the independent variable, it may cause something alse to change. This is called the dependent variable. Accontrol variable is one that is kept the same and is not changed during the investigation, You need to know about two different types of these variables: © A categoric variable is one that is best described by a label (usually a word). The ‘colour of eyes! is a categoric variable, e.g. blue or brown eyes. © Acontinuous variable is one that we meaaure, 90 its value could be any number. Temperatura (as measured by a thermometer or tamperature senso”) is a continuous variable, 2.g. 37.8 °C, 45.2°C. Continuous variables can havo values (called quantities) that can be found by making measurements (e.g. ight intensity, flow rate, etc.). b Imagine you were testing the energy given out in three different reactions (A, Band C). Would it bo bast to cay i reactions A and B folt warm, but C felt hot, or ii reaction C got hottest, followed by A and finally B, or iii the rise in tamperature in reaction C was 31°C, In A twas 16°C and in B It was 14°C? a variableMaking your evidence repeatable, reprodu: and valid ‘When you are designing an investigation you must make sure that other people can get the same results 2s you. This makes the evidence you collect reproducible. This is more likely to happon if you repeat measurements ard get consistent results. ‘Ameasurement is repeatable if the original experimenter repeats the Investigation using the samme method and equipment and obtains the same results, ‘A measurement is roproduciblo if the investigation is repeated by another parson, or by using different equipment or techniques, and the same results are oblained. ‘You must also make sure you are measuring the actual thing you want ‘to measure. If you don't, your data can't be used to answer your original question, This szems very obvious but itis not always quite so easy. You need ‘to make sure that you have controlled as many other variables as you can, so ‘that no one can say that your investigation is not valid. A measurement is valid ITitmeasures what itis supposed to be measuring, with an appropriate level of performance. State one way in which you can show that your results are valid. How might an independent variable be linked to a dependent variable? Looking fora link between your independent and dependent variables is very important. The pattom of your graph or bar chart can often help you to soe whether there is a link. But beware! There may not be a link! If your results seem to show that there is no link, don't be afraid to say so. Look at Figure 2. ‘The points on the top graph show a clear pattern, but the bottom graph shows random scatter. Aimee toe 1 Students were asked to find the solubility of three different solids ~ D, Eand F. Name each of the following types of dependent variable described by the students: a Dand E were ‘soluble’, whereas F was ‘insoluble’. b Og Of F dissolved in 100 om? of water, 30.29 of D dissolved in 100 or? of water, 26.99 of F dissolved in 100 om of water. 2 Some people believe that the artificial sweetener aspartame causes headaches and dizzinass. Do you trust these opinions? What would ‘convince you not to use aspartame? ACA Examiner's tip ‘When designing your investigation yu should always tty to measure continuous data whonever you can. This is not always possible, so then you have to use a label (categorie variable). You might still be able to put the variables in an order so that you can spot a pattern. For example, you could describe flow rate as ‘fast flowing’, ‘stead | ‘low’ or ‘slow flowing’. Figure 2 Which graph shows that there rmightbe a link between x andy? At any time there are only about 20 ators of francium in ‘the entire planat. How do we know that this cata is valid? Como Peon Salida aabed ee una Pee eut eat ed Cros ete nord repeatable, reproducible and rnPR ead Cer scientific knowledge to ‘observe the world around Pra cna Suey Pec teed ee eta Cet Figure 1 A rusting lock How Science Works Starting an investigation Observation ‘As humans we are sensitive to the world around us. We can use our senses to detect what is happening. As scientists we use observations to ask questions. ‘We can only ask usaful quastions if we know something about the observed event. We will not have all of the answers, but we know enough to start asking relevant questions. It we observe that the weather has been hot today, we would not ask if it was due to global warming. the veather was hotter than normal for several years, we could ask that question. We know that global warming takes many years to show its effect. ‘When you are dasigning an investigation you have to observa carefully which variables are likely to have an effect. @ Would it be reasonable to ask whether the iron in Figure 1 is casting because of acid rain? Discuss your answer. ‘An owner of a housa noticed that the driveway up to the house had oracks in the concrete cn the lett side of the driveway (observation). He was concerned because the driveway had only been laid for ten weeks. The work had been done in Decamber. Bafore the builder cama to look at it, the owner thought of afew questions to ask the builder: © Did the builder have the correct amount of water in the concrete? © Did the builder use the correct amount of cement? © Could it be the car that was causing the damage? id the builder dig the foundations deep enough? @ Did the builder put the same depth of foundations on both sides? © Could the frost have caused the damage? ‘© Could tho bushes growing next to the drive have caused the problem? b Discuss all of these good ideas and choose three that are the most. likey. Observations, backed up by really creative thinking and good scientific knowledge, can lead to a hypothesis. Testing scientific ideas Scientists always try to think of ways to explain how thines work or why they behave in the way that they do. After their observations, they use their understanding of science to come up with an idea that could explain what is gcing on. This idea is sometimes called a hypothesis. They use this idea to make a prediction. A pradiction is like a guess, but itis not just a wild guess — itis based on previous understanding. Ascientist will say, Ifit works the way I think it does, I should be able to change this (the independent variable) and that will happen (the dependent variable).[ _Staringan investigation Predictions are what make science so powerful. They mean that we can work out rules that fell us what will happen in the future, For example, a weather forecaster can use knowledge and understanding to predict wind speeds. Knowing this, sailors and windsurfers can decide whether it would be a good ay to enjoy their sport. Knoviladge of energy transfer could lead to an idea that the insides of chips 00k by energy baing conducted from the outside. You might predict that ‘small, thinly sliced chips will cook faster than large, fat chips. Figure 2 Which o00% factor? Small thinly © Lock at the photograph in Figure 2. How could you test your prediction —_—_siced chips o lager fat chips? about how fast chips cook? Not all predictions are correct. I scientists find that the prediction doesn’t work, i's back to the drawing board! They either amend their original idea or think of a complotoly now one, Starting to design a valid investigation observation + knowledge ==> hypothesis —=» prediction =» investigation We can testa prediction by carrying out an Investigation. You, as the scientist, prodict that there is a relationship botwoon two variablos. ‘The independent variable Is one that 's selected and changed by you, the stigator. The dependent variable is measured for each change in your independent variable, Then all other variables become control variables, kept constant so that your investigation is a fair test. Ityour measurements are going to be accepted by other people, they must be valid. Part of this is making sure thal you are really measuring the effect, of changing your chosen variable. For example, if other variables aren't controlled proverly, they might be affecting the data collected. Look at Figure 3. Darren was investigating the temperature change when adding anhydrous copper sulfate to water. Ho used a tost tube for tho reaction. What is wrong here? Figure 3 Darran investigating the ‘temperature change Etim e te 4 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: controlled dopondent indopondent knowlodgo ecco prediction hypothesis oe) An observation linked with scientific. can be used ta make a Oe . LA. links an .. variable to a. variable. All other ‘the starting point for an variables need to be... Lek Sane 2 Whats the citforanoe bstwoen a prediction and a guess? Oy 8 Imagine you were testing whether the concentration of the reactants Lhe d bailed affects the rato of action. The reaction might cause the solution to get es hot. Cte a How oould you monitor the ternporature? eet b What other control variables can you think of that might affect the DT at) results? DePR ead eet re ag rete eae ce seh heal eke eee ee Soros Deter reac X( JA Examiner’s tip you are asked about why it Is important to keep control variables constant, you nood to give a detailed explanaton. Don't just anewor, ‘To make it a fair test? ‘When you are asked to write a plan for your investigation, make sure that you give all the details. Ask yourself, Would someone else be able to follow my written plan and use it to do the investigation?” How Science Works Planning an investigation Fair testing fair testis one in which only the Independent variable affects the dependent variable, All cther variables (called contro! variables) should be kept the same. If the testis not fair, the results of your invastigation will not be valid Sometimes itis very difficult to keep. control variables the same. However, at least you can monitor them, ao that you know whether they have changed or net, Figure 1 Different types of pant a How would you set up an investigation to see how exposure to different amounts of sunlight affected different typas of paint? Surveys Not all scientific investigations involve d variable, jerately changing the independent Ifyou were investigating the effect that using a mobile phone may have on health, you wouldn't put a group of peopie in a room and make them use their mobile phonas to se whether they developed brain cancer! Instead, you might conduct a survey. You might study the health of alarge umber of paople who regularly use a mobila phone and compare their health with those who never use a mobile phone. You would have to choose people of tha same age and same family history to test. The larger the sample size you test, the better your results wil be. Control group Control groups are used in investigations to try to make sure that you are measuring the variable that you intend to measure. When investigating the effects of a new drug, the control group will be givan a plaeebo. This is a ‘pretend’ drug that actually has no effect on the patient at all. The control group think they are taking a drug but the placebo does not contain the drug, This way you can control the variable of ‘thinking that the drug is working’ and separate out the effect of the actual drug. Usually neither the patient nor the doctor knows until after the trials have been. completed which of the patients were given the placebo. This is known as a double-blind trial.Le Risks and hazards (One of the first things you must do is to think about any potential hazards and then assass the risk. Everything you do in lifa presents a hazard. What you have to do is to identify the hazard and then decida the decree of risk that it cives. Ifthe risk is very high, you must de something to reduce it. For example, if you decide to go out in the pouring rain, lightning Is a possivie hazard. However, you decide that the risk is 0 small that you will ignore it and go out anyway, Ifyou decide to cross @ busy road, the cars travelling along it at high speed represent a hazard. You decide to reduce the risk by crossing at a pedestrian crossing. Figure 2 The hezard is the busy oad: Burning alcohols we reduce the risk by using @ pedestran Imagine you were testing alcohols to See how much energy they give out Grossing when burned. Tersomi Before you start your practical work you must make sure that itis safe. What are the Glass beater likely hazards? How could you reduce the risk caused by War these hazards? This is known as arisk assessment. You may well be asked questions co like this on your ISA paper. Alcona pedo “tipod ei ad fair tosting - as far as is od Teka Pu ul © What are the hazards that are present? © What could you do to reduce the risk ‘rom these hazards? tee a Eire teen Becta i = — Pek ke 1 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: Lance rte investigation hazards assessment risks paises ei Before you carry out any practical ....you need to cerry outa risk. Cee snes “YOU aN do this by looking for any potential... and making ; ure thet tho ....... arB as ernall as possible. ete LO 2 Explain the difference between a control group and a control variable. ear 8 Brielly describe how you would go about setting up a fair testin a Peer eononinry laboratory investigation. Give your anewor as ganoral acvioo. Peete eePR ead Sr shat Peete epic ece ee sek un Cea i koe eu suitable interval? © How do you ensure accuracy and precision? How Science Works Designing an investigation Choosing values of a variable Trial runs will tell you a lot about how your early thoughts are going to work out, Do you have the correct conditions? Arate of reacton investigation may not have sufficient of one of the reactants ‘to result in a measurable amount of product. Have you chosen a sensible range? Range means the maximum and minimum values of the independent or dependent variables. Itis important to choose a suitable range forthe Independent variable, otherwise you may not be able to see any change in the dopendent variable. For example, if the results are all very similar in 2 rate of reaction experiment, you might net have choson a wide enough rango of concentrations. Have you got enough readings that are close together? “The gap between the readings is known as the interval. For example, you might alter the temperature to see whether this affects the rate of reaction. A tof 11 readings equally apaced over a range of 10°C would give an interval of 1°C, and this might not be encugh to notice any change in the rate, (On the other hand, if you choose an intarval of 20°C you might miss an important change in the pattem. Accuracy Accurate measurements are very close to the true value. ‘Your investigation should provide data tha is accurate enough to anewor your original question. However itie not avaye possibieto know what the true valuo is How do you get accurate data? @ You can repeat your measurements and your mear accurate, © Try repeating your measurements with a differen whether you get tha same readings. ¢ Use high-quality instruments that measure accurately The more carefully you use the measuring instruments, the more accuracy you will get. more likely to be rument and seePrecision, resolution, repeatability and reproducibility A precise measurements is one in which there is very lttie spread about the ‘mean value. Ifyour repeated measurements are closely grouped together, you have precision. Your measurements must be made with an instrument trat has a suitable resolution, Resolution of a measuring instrument is the smallest change in the quantity being measured (input) thet gives a perceptible change the reading. It's no use measuring the time for a fast reaction to finish using the seconds hand on a clock! If there are big differences within sets of repeat readings, you will not be able to make a valid conclusion. You won't be able to trust your datal How do you get precise data? @ You have to use measuring instruments with sufficiently small scale divisions. © You have to repeat your tesis as often as necessary. © You have to repeat your tesis in exactly the same way each time. It you repeat your investigation using the same method and equipment anc. ‘obtain the same results, your results are seid to be repeatable. It someone else repeats your investigation in the same way, or you repeat it by using different equipment or techriques, and the same results are obtained, tis s2id to be reproducible You may be asked to compare your results with those of others in your group, or with data from other scientists. Research like this is a good way of checking your results. A word of caution! Precision depends only on the extent of random errors - it gives no indication of how close resuits are to the true value. Just because your results show precision does not mean they are accurate, a Drawa thermometer scale reading 49.5" both accurata and precise. ‘showing four results that are Rte e teen 4 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: range repeat conditions readings runs give you a good idea of whether you have the correct. to collect any data; whether you have chosen the correct forthe independent variable; whether you have enough... and whether you noad to do. readings. 2 Use an example to explain how a set of repeat measurements could be accurate, but not precise. 3. Explain the difference batwoen a set of results that are reproducible and 4 set of results that are repeatable. LL ACA Examiner's tip ‘You must know the difference between accurate and precise results, Imagine measuring the temperature after a set time when a fuel is used to heat a fixed volume of water. “Two students repeated this, exporimont, four times each. “Their resuits are marked on the ‘thermometer scales below: © A precise act of repeat readings will be grouped closely together. @ An accurate set of repeat readings will have a mean (average) close to the true value. sec 4erc (but not acuratey ut ratprecise) Como eo ad Dey Cheon Res eee Dee ar Rees Setter between the values of a Pe Ree okie? Pe aueete wl aad accuracy and precision. '* You should try to reproduce Pete eanPR ead BAe SC Sead Cee ea Eee uote kad Beau ed eed Feu eu il and a random error? © How does human error affect eat sci) Send \@WW EL Ityou are asked what may have caused an error, never answer simply ‘human error’ - you won't get any marks for this. ‘You need to say what the experimenter may have done to cause the error, or give more detail, e.9. ‘Human reaction time might have caused an error in the timing when using a stopwatch. How Science Works Making measurements Using instruments ‘Try measuring the temperature of a beaker of water using a digital thermometer. Do you always get the same result? Probably nol! So can we say ‘that any measurements absolutely correct? In any experiment there wil be doubts about actual measurements, When you choose an instrument you need to know that it will give you the accuracy that you want, You need to be confident that itis giving a tue reading. Ifyou have used an electric water bath, would you trust the temperature (on tha dial? How do you know its the true temperature? You could use a very expensive thermometer to calibrate your water bath. The expensive thermometer is more likely to show the true temperature, But can you really be sure it is accurate? Instruments that measure the same thing can have different sensitivitios. The resolution of an instrument rafers to the smallest change in a value that can be detected. This is one factor that determines the precision of your measurements. Choosing the wrong scale can cause you to miss important data or make silly conclusions. We would not measure the length of a chemical bond in metres, we would use nanometres, ‘@_ Match the ‘following weighing machines to their best use: Used to measure Rosolution of weighing machine ‘Sodium chloride In a packet of comflakes | micrograms Comtlakes delivered to. supermarket | milligrams Vitamin D in a packet af eamfiakes ‘grams. ‘Sugar added to a bowl of cornflakes Kllogzams Errors Even when an instrument is used correctly, the results can stil show differences. Results may differ because of random error. This is most likely to ba due to @ poor measurement being made. It could be due to not carrying out the method consistently. Ifyou repeal your measurements several times and then calculate a mean, you will raduce the affect of random errors. ‘The error might be a systematic error. This means that the method was carried out consistently but an error was being repeated. A systematic error will make your readings be spread about some value other than the true value. This is because your results will differ from the true velue by a consistent amount each time a measurement is made.No number of repeats can do anything about systematic errors. Ifyou think ‘that you have a systematic error, you need to repeat using a different set of equipment or a different technique. Then compare your resuits and spot the difforencel Azero error Is one kind of systernatic error. Suppose that you were trying 1 measure the length of your desk with a metre rule, but you hadn't noticed thet, ‘someone had sawn cff half a centimetre from the end of the ruler. Itwouldn't matter how many times you repeated the measurement, you would never get any nearer to the true value, Check out these two sets of data that were taken from the investigation that Matt did. He tested five cifferent oils. The bottom row is the time calculated from knowing the viscosity of the different ols: Type of oll used atelteloje Time taken to flow downtile (seconds) | 23.2 | 45.9 | 495 | 627 | 759 ast | 364 | 487 | ats | 761 Calculated time (seconds) 1a2 | 04 | 425 | 556 | 707 'b Discuss whether there is any evidence of random error in these results. © Discuss whether there is any evidence of systernatic error in these results. Anomalies Anomalous results are clearly out of line, Thay aro not those that are duo to ‘the natural variation you get from any measurement. These should be looked at carefully. There might be a very interesting reason why they are so different. You should always look for anomalous results and discard them bafore you calculate a mean, itnecessary. © If anomalias can be identified while you are doing an investigation, itis best ‘to repeat that part of the investigation. @ If you find anomalies efter you have finished collecting data for an investigation, they must be discarded. Blue aoe 41 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: acourate discarded random resolution systematic use variation Thoro will always bo somo in rosults. You should always choos the best instruments that you can in order to get the most... results. ‘You must know how to .......the instrument properly. The... of an instrument refers to the smallast change that can ba detacted. There are two types of error— and ‘Anomalies due to random error should be... What ki of error will most likely occur in the following situations? a Asking everyone in the class to measure the length of the bench. 'b Using a ruler thet has a piece missing from the zaro end. Figure 1 Matt timing the flow of cil ater eet aud Se ete) co Prue eu open us Coad ‘We examine anomalies; ‘they might give us some Ce Leona) Cree ad eet us ee PO eePR ead ee) feu eek eed Cd Se Bias Ce ‘T a ——— Figure 1. Student using an oxygen mater How Science Works Presenting data For this section you will be working with data from this investigation: ‘Mol took a liteo (1 drm) of tap water. Sho shook it vigorously for exactly 2 ‘minutes, She tried to get as much oxygen to dissolve in it as possible. ‘Then she took the temperature of the water. She immediately tested the oxygen concentration, using an oxygen meter. Tables () ‘Tables are really good for getting your results down quickly and clearly. You should design your table before you start your investigation. Your table should be constructed to fit in all the data to be collected. It should ba fully labelled, including units. You may want to have extra columns for repeats, calculations of means or calculated values. Checking for anomalies While filing in your table of results you should be constantly looking for anomalies, © Chook to see whothor any reading in a sot of repeat readings is significantly different from the others. © Gheck to see whether the pattern you are getting as you change the independent variable is what you expected. Remember, a result that jooks anomalous should be checked out to see whether it really is @ poor reading, Planning your table Mel had decided on the values for her independent variable. We always put ‘these in tha first column ofa table. The dependent variable goas in the second column. Mel will find its values as she carrigs out the investigation. ‘So she could plan a table like this ‘Temperature of water (°C) Concentration of oxygen (mg/m) 5 70 16 20 | 28 | Or ike this: Temperature of water (C) Ea nC 2) Concentration of oxygen (mgidm=) AII sho had to do in the invostigation was to write the correct numbers in tho second column to complete the top table. Me's resutts are shown in the alternative format in the table below: Temperature of water (°C) s | tw | te | 2 | a Concentration of oxygen (mgidis) wal us| 9a | er | 73[Presenting deta The range of the data OTT Pick out he maximum and the minimum values and you have the range of a ‘arable. You should aiwaye quctatheoe two numbers whon asked for a range. For example, the range of the dependent variable is between 7.3ma/dm® (the " 7 lowest value) and 12.8mgidm: (he highest value) —and don't forget to include | ® Readings, including the units the units! @ atitie. ‘When you make a table for your results, remember to include: hon you draw aline graph or bar chart, remember to: © use a sensibee scale that is easy to work out ‘@_Whatis the range for the independent variable and for the dependant variable in Mel's set of date? use as much of the graph paper as possible; your data should occupy at least a third of each axis label both axes draw a line of best fitifitis a line graph label each bar ifitis a bar The mean of the data Cften you have to find the mean of aach repeated sat of measurements. ‘The first thing you should do is to look for any anomalous results. If you find any, miss these out of the caloulation. Then add together the remaining measurements and divide by how many there are. For example: ‘© Mol takes four readings, 1mgiim!, 12mg/dm’, 2mg/dm?, 15 mg/dm* ‘© 20mg/dm? is an anomalous result and so is missod out. So 15412415 = 42 © 42 divided by three (the number of valid results) = 14mg/dm* ACA Examiner’s tip ‘The repeat values and mean can be recorded as shown below: Temperature of water Concentration of oxygen (mg/d?) Merks are often cropped in a the ISA by candidates plating ‘attest | andtest | Grdtest | Moan ovis iconeety Alsouse ° 15 2 8 14 alline of bost fit whore appropriate — don’t just join the points ‘dot-to-dot!! Displaying your results Bar charts ow of ou vaalesiceaoprs, you should oa bar chart Lino grape ce aor aed Ce cs ue ak! Ifyou have 2 continuous indapendent and a continuous dependent variable, a line graph should be used. Plot the points as small ‘plus’ signs (4 Etro Be mod Sed cae ae er een ere eee pee ee eee aes eel eae ate ee eet bal epee ‘The sum of all the values in a set of repeat readings divided by the = tbalnumte ol hese repeal vos geste -Barcharts re | SC See used when you have @..........independent variable and a continuous Rete key dependent variable. Line graphs are used when you have... " ieee arena a aie ae elceeteeet cee eee ete eer ra bean SrHow Science Works Using data to draw conclusions Identifying patterns and relationships Now that you have a bar chart or a line graph of your results you can begin to PR ead Och ahaa teh aaah look for pattems. You must have an open mind at this point. ae Peners ay perro) First, there could still be some anomalous results. You might not have picked these out earllr, How do you spot an anomaly? It must be a significant et distance away from the pattern, not just within normal vaition. ff you do have Lenealoablitbeeedanbibdl) any anomalous results plotted on your graph, circle these and ignore them BE Ld when drawing the line of best fit. Now look at your graph. Is there a pattern that you can see? When you nave from relationships? decided, craw e line of best ithat shows this pattern Se Alline of best fit is a kind of visual averaging process. You should draw the DSU cena ine so tha it leaves as many points slightly above the lie as there are points Cael dh Deal below. In other words itis a line that steers a middle course through the fiald of points. ‘The vast majority of rasuits that you get from continuous data require a line of best iit Remember, a line of best ft can be a straight line oritcan be a curve - you have to decide from your results. ‘You nead to consider whether your graph shows a linear relationship. This simply means, can you be confident about drawing a straight line of best fit on your graph? Ifthe answer is yes —is this lina positive or nagative? ‘Say whether graphs i and iin Figure 1 show a positive or a negative linear relationship. Look at the graph in Figure 2. It shows a positive linear relationship. Italso goes through the origin (0,0). We all this a directly proportional relationship. ‘Your results might also show a curved line of best fit. These can be predictable, complex or very complex! Look at Figure 3 below. & a A Figure 1 Goh shoring nee 2 Es raatorehpe 3 Be z = Tine Tempers Af s 5 = 0 Tine Figure 2 Graph showing adrecty Figure 3 a Grach shoving pretceble resus b Graph showing complex rests a relationship ‘eGraph showing very complex restsSr Drawing conclusions Itthora is @ pattorn to be seen (for example 2s one variable gots bigger tho other also gets bigger), it may be that: «© changing one has caused the other to change «@ the two are related, but one is not necessarly the cause o! the other. Your conclusion must go no further than the evidence that you have. od Looking at relationships ‘Some people think that waiching too much television can cause an increase in violence. The table shows the number of television sets in the UK for four different years, and the number of murders committad in those years. Year | Numberof televisions (millions) | Number of murders 1970 6 310 4960 25 500 4900 2 550 2000) 60 750 Plot e graph to show the relationship. © Do you think this proves that watching tolovision causes violonco? Explain your answer. oe ‘When you read scientific claims, think carefully about the evidence that should be there to back up the claim. Poor acience cen often happen if a wrong decision is made here. Newspapers, have said that living near electricity substations can cause cancer. All that scientists would say is thal there is possibly an association. Evaluation ee You will often be asked to evaluate either the method of the investigation or the ey conclusion that has bean reached. Ask yourself: Gould the method have been Peeks proved? Is the conolusion that has bean made a v ore? “The possible relationships 7 ten Etna end negative, directly 1 Copy and complete this paragraph using the folowing words: Proportional, predictable and anomalous complex directly negative positive Coe Linas of best fit can be usod to ident... results. Linear Conclusions must go relationships can be. or. . Ifa straight line goes through the ho further then the date, origin of a graph, the relationship proportional. Often a line of oa best fit is a curve which can be predictable or. Be Nagma found ¢ newspaper article about nanosofenco. Nanoparticlos Ces) are used for many things, including perfumes. Ftd Seas Thore was ioreasing evidence tha ile naoparicls coudcasse | (ale kaiipboaieateaa Jung inflammation. (quote from Professor Ken Donaldson] Cree et od Discuss the type of experiment and the data you would expect to see to De ee) support this conclusion. PrasPR ead Sera Poveda te aac aed uated ed Oe eid Re eet See Ly Pea eT CCL ay ya ‘Acscientist who rejected the Idea of a causal link between ‘smoking and lung cancer was later found to be being paid by a tobacco company. Ora Ifyou are asked about bias in scientific evidence, there are ‘two types: ‘© the measuring instruments may have introduced a bias because they were not calibrated corractly the scientists themselves may have a biased opinion (eg ifthey are paid by a ‘company to promote their produc’). How Science Works Scientific evidence and society Now you have reached a conclusion about a piece of scientific research. So ‘what is next? If itis pure research, your fellow scientists will want to look at it very carefully. fit affects the lives of ordinary people, society will also want to examine it closely, ‘You can help your cause by giving a balanced account of what you have found out. Itis much the same 2s any argument you might have. If you make ridiculous claims, nobedy will believe anything you have to say. Be open and honest. Ifyou only tell part ofthe story, someone will want to know why! Equally, if somebody is only telling you part of the truth, you cannat bbe confident about anything they say. An advert for a breakiast cereal claims that it has ‘extra folic acid’. What information is missing? Is it important? You must be cn the lockout for people who might be biased when presenting scientific evidence. Some scientists are paid by companias to do research. ‘When you are told that a certain product is harmless, just chack out who is telling you 'b Bottles of perfume spray contain this advioe: ‘This finished product has not been tested on animals.’ Why might you mistrust this statement? zs. ‘Suppose you wanted to know about the pollution effects of burning waste ina local incinerator. Would you ask the sciontist working for the incinerator ‘company or one working in the local university? We also hava to he very careful in reaching judgaments according to who Is presenting scientific evidence to us. For example, ifthe evidence might provoke public or political problems, it might be played down. Equally, otners might want to exaggerate the findings. They might make more cf the resulta than the evidence suggests. Take as an example the data available on animal research. Animal liberation followers may well present the same evidence completely differently to pharmaceutical companies wishing to dovolop now drugs. © Check out some websites on limestone quarrying in the National Parks. Gat the opinions of the environmentalists and those of the quarrying ‘companies. Try to identify any politcal bias there might be in their opinions.[ Scientitc evidenceand soctety ‘The status of the experimenter may place more weight on evidence. Suppose a quarrying company wants to convince an enquiry that itis periectly reasonable to site a quarry in remote moorland in the UK. The company will choose the most ominent scientist in that fiold who is likely to support them. ‘The small local community might not be able to atford an eminent soiantist The enquiry needs to be very careful to make a balanced judgement. Science can often lead to the development of new materials or techniques. ‘Sometimes these cause a problem for society where hard choices have to be made. ‘Scientists can give us the answers to many questions, but not to every question. Scientists have a contribution to make to a debate, but so do others such as envronmentalists, economists and politicians, The limitations of science Science can help us in many ways but it cannot supply all the answers. We ave sill finding out about things and developing our scientiic knowledge. For ‘example, the Hubble telescopa has holped us to rovice our ideas about the baginnings of the universe. ‘There are some questions that we cannot answer, maybe because we do not have enough reproducible, repeatable anc valid evidence. For example, research into the causes of cancer still needs much work to be done to provide data, ‘There are some questions that science cannot answer at all. These tend to ba questions where beliefs, opinions and ethics are important. For example, sclence can suggest what the universe was lke when It was first formed, but cannot answer the question of why it was formed. 1 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: status balanced bias political Evidence from scientific investigations should be given In a... Way. It must be checked for any ........ from the experimenter. Evidence can be given too litle or too much weight fit is of significance. The ....-.- of the experimenter Is likely to influence people in thelr judgement of the evidence. Collect seme newspaper articles to show how eclentific evidence ie used. Discuss in graups whather these articles are honest and ‘air representations of the science. Consicer whethar they carry any bias. Petcoke is a high carbon product from refined oil. t can be used in power stations and cement works. Owners of the Drax power station, which is running a trial use of the fuel, claim that it is cheaper than ccal and can be used without harmful effects. Other groups claim that itis, ‘dirty fuel’ and will cause enviccnmental and health problema. Suppose you were living near Drax power station. Who would you trust to tall you whether petcoke was a safe fuel? Explain your answer. BIODIESEL} DIVUIESEL |The Fuel of the Future? eres ee eer etonlaltrea Sate Slt ingly tormaking biodiesel ee area yeeca erase) except sepia ae eee eer ey erertee “etter schas tones a pst bog, Figure 1 The Hubble space telescope ccan look doop into epace and tall ue things about the universe's beginning ‘rom the formations of eerly galaxies Com er etry Pocudubto cushion that points out clearly how Re ritaneeucet Baca) contain any bias from the experimenter, Sec uate checked to appreciate Net ear oe Lies Soren) Ce baekeulan ca Ce uni CeRu eae rsa ened Cece Pie eects Or uy oreo ‘When you are making a blank table or drawing a graph or bar chart, make sure that you use full heacings, eg, @ the length of the lea’, not just ‘length’ © the time taken for the reaction’, not just ‘time’ @ the height from which the ball was dropped’, not just ‘height’ and don't forget to include any units. How Science Works There are several different stages to the ISA. Stage 1 ‘Your teacher wil tal you the problem that you are going to investigate, and you will have to develop your own typothesis. “Thay wll also set the problem in context in otner words, whare in real life your investigation could ba useful. You should have a discussion about t, and tak about different waye in which you might solve the problem. Your teacher should show you the equipment that you can use, and you should research one or two possible methods for carrying out an experiment to test the hypothesis: ‘You should also research the contoxt and do a risk aseosemont for your practical work. You will be allowed to make one side of notes Figure 1. Doing practical work allows you to on this rosaarch, which you can develop the oil needed to do well nthe ISA take into the written part of the ISA. ‘You should be allowed to handle the equipment and you may be allowed to carry out a preliminary experiment. ‘Make sure that you understand what you have to do - nowis the time to ask questions if you are not sure. Section 1 of the ISA At the end of this atage, you will anewer Section 1 of the ISA. You will need c develop a hypothesis Identity one or more variables that you nead to control describe how you would carry out the main experiment Identify possible hazards and say what you would do to reduce any risk make a blank table ready for your results. What features should you include in your written plan? bh What should you include in your blank table?Stage 2 AC QA Examiner's tip ‘This is whore you carry out the experiment and get some rasuts. Dor'twory — P'when you are comparing your too much about soending a long time getting fantastically accurate results -it | conclusion with the Fypethesis, ie more important to get some results that you can analyee. make sure that you also tak about tho oxtent to which your results support the hypothasis. Which of these answers do ‘© How do you decide whather you should draw a bar chart or a lino graph? you think would score the most After you have got results, you will have to compare your results with those of others. You will also have to draw a graph or a bar chart. marks? ‘© My results suppor the Stage 3 hypothosie. ‘This ie whero you answor Section 2 of the ISA. Section 2of the ISA isall about | @ Inmy results, asx got your own results, so make sure that you look at your table and graph when bigger, y gotbigger, as you are answering this section. To get the best marks you will need to quote stated in the hypothesis. some data from your results. © Inmy results, ao x got oo bigger. y got bigger. as, stated in the hypothesis, but unlike the hypothesis, y stopped increasing after a while, Section 2 of the ISA In this section you will need to: © say what you were trying to find out © compare your results with those of others, eaying whether you think they are similar or different analyse data that is given in the paper. This data will be in the same topic area as your investigation ideas from your own investigation to answer questions about this © write a conclusion © compare your conclusion with tha hypothesis you have tested. ‘You may neod to change or oven reject your hypothesis in response to vyour findings. read ruc hi) Ci er es De ee cana Cu SE hd eos Seu! two possible hazards, and Arab baT oh eaten a en Aire cee ee Ed hypothesis that you are given 1. Copy and complete the paragraph using the words below: Rr tral control independent dependent ‘When wring a pan, you need to state the varicble thet you are Soran nant deliberately going to change, called the variable. You also need to say what you expect will change because of this; this is called the ‘Always refer back to the uw Vatiable. You must also say what......... variables you will keep. Dr cy constant in order to make it a fair test. Ree TeGCM) Summary questions 4) Put these words into order. They should be in the order that you might use them in an investigation. design; prediction; conclusion; method; repeal; controls; graph; results; table; improve; safety; hypothesis 2) a How would you tell the difference between an opinion that was scientific anc a prejuciced opinion? b Suppose you were investigating the amount of. gas produced ina reaction. Would you choose to investigate a catogoric or a continuous variable? Expiain why. ) You might have seen that marble statues weather badly where there is air pollution. You wantto find out why. ‘@ You know that aulfur dioxide in the air forms en acid. How could this knowledge help you ta make a prediction about the effect of sulfur dioxide on marble statues? b Make a prediction about the effect of sulfur dioxide on marole statues. ‘© What experiment could you do to test your prediction? Suppose you are not able to carry out an experiment. How else could you test your prediction? @ a Whatdo you understand by a ‘fair test"? b Suppose you were carrying out an investigation into what effect diluting acid had on its pH. You would need to carry out a trial, Describe what atrial would tell you about how to plan your method. ¢ How could you decide if your results were reliable? d Itis possible to calculate the offect of dilution on the PH of an acid. How could you use this to check on the accuracy of your results? 5 Suppose you were waiching a friend carry out an’ investigation using the equipment shown on page 13. ‘You have to mark your friend on how accurately he is, making his measurements. Make a list of points that you would be leaking for. ‘a How do you dacide on the range of a sat of data? b How do you caloulate the moan? ‘© When should you use a bar chart? d When should you use a line graph? @ a What should happen to anomalous results? b What does a line of bast ft allow you to do? ‘¢ When making a conclusion, what must you take into consideration? d_How can you check on the repeatability and reproducibility of your results?® a Why is it important when reporting science to ‘tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth’? b Why might come pooplo be tomptod not to bo ‘completely fair when reporting their opinions on scientific data? ® a ‘Science can advance tachnology and tachnology can advance science.’ What do you think is meant by this, statement? b Who answers the questions that start with ‘Should we...’? 10 Glass has been used for windows in buildings for along time and is increasingly being uses for structural paris 28 wall. itis important therafare to be able to find out the strangth of glass. One measure cf this is the force that can be applied to glass before it breaks. Glass bends under pressure. Laminated glass is in three layers, glass on the outside sandwiching a polyrner layer. This strangthens the glass. ‘An experiment was carried out to find out how far laminated glass would bend. The glass was supported ‘on two wooden blocks and a load line drawn halfway between the blocks. A load was then placed an this load line and the amount of bend in the glass was measured, ‘The load was gradually increased. Another plate of glass was then used for a second sat of results. Lune oad (Vm) wth 2-sided support ‘ppylozd | Line oad Ww Breet ed ‘The results of the investigation are in the table. Line load added | Bending Teet1 | Bending Test2 (tty) (rom) (mm) 1 18 20 2 7 29 3 5 ST 4 4 76 6 2 08 a What was the prediction for this test? b What was tho independent variable? ‘© What was the dependent variable? d Suggest a control vaviable that should have been used @ Ie there any evidence of a systematic error in this investigation? Exolain your answer. Is thera any evidence of a random error? Explain your ansvrer. 9 How could the investigation have its accuracy improved? hh Was the precision of the bencing measurement satisfactory? Provide some evidence for your answer from the data in the table. 1. What is the mean for the results at a line lead of skNim? {Draw a graph of the results for the first test, ke Draw a fine of bast fit 1 Describe the patter m What conclusion can you reach? fn How might you develop this technique to show the ceffact of the thickness of the polymer on the breaking Pont of the glass? (© How might this information be used by architects wanting to protect buildings?Fundamental ideas Atoms, elements and compounds A — Look at the things around you and the aubstances that they are made from. Learning objectives You will ind wood, matal, plastic, glass ... the listis almost endless. Look ETP SSES SNES furtherand the number ef different substances is mind-boggling. All substances are made of atoms. There are about 100 different types of atom found naturally on Earth, These can combine in a huge variety of ways. This gives us all those differant substances. SOIREE some substances ere made up of only one type of atom, We cal hese Co substances alaments. As there ara only about 100 different types of atom, there are only about 100 different elements. © How do we represent atoms ‘a How many different types of alom are there? b Why can you mako millions of difforont substancos from these difforont types of atom? Elements can have very different properties. Elements such as silver, copper and gold ere shiny solids. Other elements such as oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine are gases. Atoms have their own symbols (C3) ‘The name we use for an element depends on the language being spoken. For example, sulfur is called Schwefel in German and azutre in Spanish! However, alot of scientific werk is international. So itis important that we have symbols ‘poo of atom inthis caoo bromine for elements that everyone can understand. You can see these symbols in the dic table. ‘Group purrs 7 i w]e] | me | & | | | 2 | 2 vee_| caw | ia | cee te | a | an | ta | Bla) oe] oe | a | erein| nomi | ein | as | she pw po] ef om | a B| ol) | | a jorin | cin | voi | nonn | e_| “Te tansiion metals The The habgers noble cases, The The kai akaine metas earth metals Lantanies tomes — [E22] 2/2) 2/2) 2] 22S ur 2 Th pao tole shows th yal he leiCee Tne symbols in the periodic table represent atoms. For example, O represents an atom of oxygen; Na represents an atom of sodium. The elements in the table are arranged in columns, called groups. Each group contains elements with similar chemical properties. The ‘staircase’ drawn in bold is the dividing line between metals and non-metals. The elements to the left of the line are metals, Those on the right of the line are non-metals. ‘© Why isituseful to have aymbois for atoms of ciffarent elements? d_ Sort these elements into metals and non-metals: phosphorus (P), barium (Bal, vanadium (V), mercury (He) and krypion (k") Atoms, elements and compounds Most of the substances we come across are not pure elements. They are made up of differant types of atom joined together. These are callad compounds. Chemical bonds hold the atoms tightly together in compounds. ‘Some compounds aro made from just two types of atom (e.g. water, mado ‘from hydrogen and oxygen). Other compounds consist of mors different types of atom, Anatom is made up ofa tiny central nucleus with electrons around it Figure 2 Each atom consists of 2 small nucleus surrounded by electrons 1 Copy and complete using the words below: atoms bonds molecule compounds Allelements are made up of... . When two or more atoms join together 2......... is formed. The atoms in slaments and......... are held tightly to each other by chemical .. Explain why when we mixtwo elements togzther we can often separate them again quite easily. However, when two elements are chemically combined in a compound, they can be very difficult o separate, Draw diagrams to explain the difference between an element and a ‘compound. Use a hydrogen molecule (H,) and a hydrogen chloride molecule (HCl) to help explain. 4 Draw a labelled diagram to show the basic structure of an atom. CO links For more information on tho periodic table, see 03 1.2 The ‘modern periodic table. Only 92 elements ccour raturally on Earth. The other heavier elements in the Periodic table have to be made artificially and might only exist for fractions of a second before they decay into other, lighter elements, CO links For more information on what is Inside an ator, see C1 1.2 Atomic sirueture and 1.9 The arrangement of electrons in atoms. Figure 4 A grouping of two or more atoms bonded togetner Is caled a ‘molecule, Chemical bonds hold the hydrogen and oxygen atorns together in ‘the water molecule, Water @ an example ofa compound Com ern) Ce «© Elements cortaln only one Dr Ae et id than one type of atom. @ Anatom has a tiny nucleus ri ieg Caseu ead error ott Proton, a neutron and an Cees ‘© What can we say about the feetol areal Cha cad Cea et mo ea Totactaen lal Peat) 7 Cpa eee In 1808, a chemist called John Dalton publishad a theory of atoms. Ii explained how atoms joined togother to form now substances (compounds). Not everyone liked his theory ‘though - one person wrote ‘Aloms are rourd bits of wood invented by Mr Dalton!" CO links For more information on the structure of atoms, see C2 3.1 The Fundamental ideas Atomic structure In the middle of an atom there ie € very emall nustous. Thie containa two types of particles, which we call protons and neutrons. A third type of particle orbits the nucleus. We call these really tiny particles electrons. Any atom has the same number of electrons ortiting its nucleus as it has protons in its nucleus. Protons have a positive charge. Neutrons have no charge - they are neutral. So the nucleus itself has an overall positive charge. ‘The electrons orbiting the nucleus are negatvely charged. The relative charge ona proton is +1 and the relative charge on an electron is —1. Because any atom contains equal numioers of protons and electrons, the positive and negative charges cancel out. So there is no overall charge on any atom. Its charge is zara. For example, a carbon atom is neutral. It has 6 protons, so we know it must have 6 electrons. a What are the names of the three particles that make up an atom? b An oxygen atom has 8 protons - how many electrons does it have? Fectron Prion ewan Nucous Figure 1 Urderstandirg the structure ofan atom gives us mpertant cluas tothe way cchemicels react together Type of subatomic particle Relative charge Proton 4H Noutron ° Electron a To help you remember the charge on the subatomic particles: @ Protons are Po: © Neutrons are Neutral; © co that means Electrons must be Negative! Atomic number and the periodic table All the atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons. For ‘exemple, hydrogen has 1 proton in its nucleus, carhon has 6 protons in its nucleus and sodium has 11 protons in its nucleus. \We call the number of protons in each atom of an element its atomic number. aWwe In an atom, the number of protons is always equal to the umber of electrons. You can find out tho numbor of protons and electrons in an atom by Figure 2 Tha elements in the pariadic tab atoms are neuital, his also the sere order as their numer of electrons) ‘The elements in the periocic table are arranged in order of their atomic umber (number of protons). If you are told that the atomic number of an element is 8, you can identify it using the periodic table. It will be the th element listed, In this case itis oxygen. © Whatis the ‘4th elementin the periodic table? You read the pariocic table from left to right, and fram the top down — just like reading a page of writing, Look al the elements in the last group of the abbreviated periodic table jn Figuro 2. What patton do you notice about the number of protons: going from helium to neon to argon? Mass number ‘The number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called its mass number. © So, fan alom has 4 protons and 5 neutrons, is mass number will be 4 + 5 = 9. © Given the atomic number and mass number, we can work out how many protons, electrons and neutrons are in an atom. For example, an argon atom has an atomic number of 18 and a mass number of 40. Its atomic number is 18 so it has 18 protons. Remember that atoms have an equal number of protons and electrons. So argon also has 18 electrons. ‘Tha mass number is 40, so wa know that: 48 (tho numbor of protons) + the number of noutrons = 40 ‘Therefore argon must have 22 neutrons (as 18 + 22 = 40) We can summarise the last part of the calculation as: number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number Aire toe Copy and completa using the words balow: electrons atomic negative neutrons In the nucleus of atoms there are protons and Around the UCIOUS there 2F@ «non WHICH NAVE a... Charge. In the periodic table, atoms are arranged in order of their... number. ‘Atoms are always neutral. Explain why. How many protons, electrons and neutrons do the following atoms: contain? a Anitrogen atom whose atomic number is 7 and its mass number is 14. b Acchlorine atom whose atonic number is 17 and lis mass number is 35. ra arangad in order of their atomic number (Ae looking up its atomic number in the periodic table. GO links For more information on the patterns in te perlocic table, ‘s9e C1 1.3 The arrangement of electrons in atoms. Poa © Atoms are made of protons, eta ead Deke bakes) electric charges. Protons ‘are positively charged, and Sey Cire ear) charge. They are neutral. a Sei (= numberof electrons) De ea [iccobdiadidaa dubouleal Ne ny Pde econ Psdeu ead ea eh Boel uke ad OT ueel Cre aL od energy level of an atom ee ry periodic table? Ol Cee at sd Cera Cee ou fake © Why are the atoms of Ce td Meer Figure 1 A simple way of representing the arrangement of elections inthe fa carbon alom Wwe ‘Make sure that you can draw the electronic structure af the ‘ators for all of the first 20 elements. You will always be civen their atomic number or ‘their position in the poricdic table (which tells you the umber of electrons) —s0 you don't have to memorise these numbers, Fundamental ideas The arrangement of electrons Ua oh es (One model of the atom which we use has electrons arranged around the rucleus in shells, rather like the layars of an onion. Each shell represents a different energy level. The lowest energy level is shown by the shell which is nearest to the nucleus. The electrons in an atom occupy the lowest availeble energy level (the shell closest to the nucleus). ‘@ Where are the electrons in an atom? b Which sholl roprosonts tho lowest onergy level in an atom? Electron shell diagrams () ‘We can draw diagrams to show the arrangement of electrons in an atom. A carbon atom has 6 protons, which means it has 6 electrons. Figure 1 shows how we represent an atom of carbon, ‘An energy level (or shell) can only hold a certain number of electrons. e ‘The first, and lowest. energy level holds 2 electrons. @ The second energy level can hold up to 8 electrons. © Ones there are & electrons in the third eneray level, the fourth begins to fil up, and so on, To save drawing atoms all the time, we can write down the numbers of electrons in each energy level. This ie called the electronic structure, For ‘example, the carbon atom in Figure 1 has an electronic structure of 2,4. Aslicon atom with 14 electrons has the electronic structure 2,84, This represents 2 electrons in the first, and lowest, energy level, then B in the next energy level, There are 4 in the highest energy level (its outermost shell) ‘The best way to understand these arrangements is to look at soma examples. 1 23 26 Hydropen H Boron B Oygend 28,1 288 28,82 Sedium Na ‘argon ar calaum Ga Figure 2 Once you know the pattem, you should be able to draw the eneray levals (shells) and electrons nary ofthe first 20 atoms (given their atomic number)ec © How many electrons can the first energy level hold? d. Whatis the electronic structure of sulfur (whose atoms contain 16 electrons)? Electrons and the periodic table Look at the elements in any one of the main groups of the periodic table. Their atoms will all have the same number of electrons in their highest energy level. These elactrons are often called the outer electrons because they are in the outermost shell. Therefore, all the elements in Group 1 have one electron in their highest energy level Penne Properties of the Group 1 elements Your teacher will show you the Group 1 elements lithium, sodium and potassium, Tho lemons in this group are called the alkali metals. Make sure you wear eye protection for all the demonstrations. © In what ways are the elements similar? ‘© Watch the'r reactions with water and comment on the similarities. reer igure 3 The Group 1 metals are all reactive metals, © You mightalso be shown their reactions with oxygen. ‘Figure The The chamical properties of an elemant depend on how many electrons it has. ‘The way an element reacts is determined by the number of electrons in its highest energy level (or outermost shel). So as the elements in a perticular group all have the sama number of alactrons in their highest energy leval, they all react ina similar way. For example: lithium + water lithium hydroxide + hydrogen sodium — + water > sodium hydroxide + hydrogen potassium + wator — potassium hydroxide + hydrogen The elements in Group 0 of the periodic table are called the nable gases Do) because they are unreactive, Thelr alors have a very siable arrangement of SS electrons. They all havo & olectrons in their outormost sholl, except for helium, aS which has only 2 electrons. pe ‘Summary questions SSE TS Sa 1 Copy and complete using the wards below: ound electrons energy group nucleus shells piece eed) ee ‘than those close to the nucleus, All elements in the same. Ret el of the periodic table have the same number of... in their outermost No sllleadelid Rhodl ‘choll. Ce ou ae Using the periodic table, draw the arrangement of electrons inthe following atoms and label each one with its alactroniz structure. ot au »6bOlhCOUOPTCO noble gases (in Group 0) kaka 3 What is special about the electronic structure of neon and argon? SecsFundamental ideas Forming bonds Itis useful for us to know how atoms bond to each ether in difforont substances. Ithelos us to predict and explain thair properties. G eu ead elu Geckos ean etd Cee ees Ce Predicting what material to use ‘Ateam of research chemists and material scientists are working to make new ‘compound for the latzst surfboard. Knowing about chemical bonding will make the process of dasigning a new compound a lot quicker. Figure 1 Surfboards have to be ‘The substances used tomake a surfboard very strongand have a relatively have to be very strong (to wthstand large! rey forces) and have a relatively low density (to float on water). Chemists help dasign materials with suitable properties. They wil know bafore thay start which combinations of atoms might prove useful to Investigate. JA Examiner’s tip ‘When counting atoms, think of each symbol as a single aiom and the formula of each ion as a single ion. Small numbers ‘a chemical formula only multiply the symbol they follow. Brackets are needed when ‘there is more than one atom in the ion being multiolied. For ‘example, a hydroxide ion has the formula OH". So calcium hydroxide, in which Ga’* and OK” combine, has the formula ‘ca(Oh),. ‘Sometimes atoms react together by transferring electrons to form chemical bonds. This happans when metals react with non-metals. Ifthe reacting atoms are all non-metals, then the atoms share electrons to form chemical bonds. Forming ions When a metal bonds with a non-metal, the metal atom gives one or more electrons to the non-metal aiom. Both atoms become charged particles called ions. ‘© Motal atoms form positively charged ions (+). © Non-metal atoms form nagatively charged ions (-). Opposite charges attract each other. There are strong attractions between the positive and nagative ions in a compound of a metal and non-metal, These strong forces of attraction are the chemical bonds that form. They are called ionic bonds. Figure 2 The pocitive and negative ‘charge on the lons in compound balance each other, makng the total ‘charge 700 To see how ions are formed we can look at an example. Lithium metal will react with the non-metal fluorine. They make the compound lithium fluoride. Lithium atoms have 3 electrons, each negatively charged. As all atoms are neutral, we know It also has 8 positive protons in lis nucleus. The charges on the nagative electrons are balanced by the positive protons. When iithium reacts with fuorine t loses | electron. This leaves it with only 2 electrons, However there are stil3 protonsin the nucleus Therefore thelithium fan eames a+ charge. protons =ar 2electrans 2- Charge on ion We show the formula ofalitnium jon as LI ie The electron lost from ithium is accepted by a fluorine ator. A fluorine atom has 9 electrons end 9 protons, making the atom neutral. However, with the extra electron from lithium, ithas an extra + charge: 8 protons 10 electrons Charge on ion We show the formula of fluoride lon as F Notice the speliing — we have a fluorine atom which turns into ‘a negatively cnarged fuotide ion,In compounds between metals and non-metels, the charges on the ions always cancel each other out. This means that their compounds have no overall charge. So the formula of lithium fluoride is written as LiF. ‘a Potassium (} is a motal. It loses one oleciron whan it forms an ion. ‘What is the formula of a potassium ion? Forming molecules Non-metal atoms bond to each other in a different way. The outermost shells Cf thoir atoms evorlap and they share electrons. Each pair of shared aleotrons forms a chemical bond between the atoms. These are called covalent bonds. No ions are formed. They form molecules, such as hydrogen sulfide, H,S, and methane, CH, (see Figure 3) b What do we call the bonds between nitrogen and hydrogen atoms in an ammonia molecule, NH,? Chemical formulae ‘The chemical formula of an ionic compound talls us the ratio of each type of fon in the compound, We use a ratio because when Ions bond together they form structures made of many millions of ions. The ratio depends on the charge on each ion. The charges must cancel each other out. ‘An example is magnesium chloride, Magnesium forms Mg® ions and chlorine forms Ci- ions. So the formula of magnesium chloride is MgCl. We have 2 chloride ions for every one magnesium ion in the compound (e00 Figure 4). In covalont molacules wa can just count the number of each type of atom in 2 ‘molecule to get its formula. Figure 3 shows two examples, Summary questions 1 Copy and complete using the words below: covalent lose gain ionic negative attract share positive Metal ators form ions because they ‘one or more electrons when they combine with non-metals. Non-metal atoms lactrons in the reaction, forming ions. The oppositely chargad lons each other. This is callad ....... bonding, When non-metals combine with each other, they form Their aloms ____.. electrons. bonds. Sodium (Na) ators lose one electron when thay combine with fluorine (PF). Each fluorino atom gains one olectron in the rozction. a What is the name of the compound formed when sodium reacts with fluorine? b Write down tho formula of a sodium ion and a fluoride ion. © What is the formula of the compound made when sodium reacts with fluorine. Hycrogen sue Figure 3 Thare are strong covelent bonds between the nonmetal ators ineach of hase molecules, Trese are shawn as ines botween each atom oF betwean the symbols f each atom inthe ‘molecule (H,Sand CH) Metiane Mu?) or) or Figure 4 Ths 2+ positve charge on the ‘magnesium on balances the two 1 - negative cherget on tha chloride ions in ‘magnesium chloride (MgCl) Conn out utkuk oad Cenc De hears Se iets) Seat Chi eda) Peed Coes Seta cos Ce ea) Cocos Toe hokculesced Cos) Cee Ce aac ‘oppositely charged ions pee aaa os echo Ded ee olectrons. This ie called eeeFundamental ideas Chemical equations &« Chemicel equations show the reactants (the aubstances we etart with) and the products (the new substances mada) of a reaction. eeu Kea Tek cu) Wo can roprosont the test for hydrogen gas using a word equation: li Lhasa hydrogen + exygon > water une (reactants) (product) ee eae Cad) LOTTE DO State what happens in a positive test for hydrogen cas. Cie ee ucd SP Se In chemical reactions the atoms get rearranged. You can think of them area ety ‘swapping partners’ Now you can investigate what happens to the mass of BASSET SENET) reactants compared with mass of products in a reaction. Practical Investigating the mass of reactants and ‘The precipitate (@ solic suspended inthe solution) products formed in the reaction is lead iodide, Pol, (oxic). You are given solutions of lead nitrate (toxic) and ¢ Pradiet a word equation for the reaction potassium iodide. «¢ How do you think that the mass of reactants Wearing chemical spiashproof eye protection, add a. compare with the mass ofthe products? smal volume of each solution together in 2 tact Uub®. Now plan an experiment to fest your answer to this ‘© What do you seo happen? quoction “The formuia of load rittateis Pb(NO,), and potassium iodide is KI. Using symbol equations helps us to see how much of each substance is reacting, Representing reactions in this way is better than using word equations, for three reasons. © Word equations are only useful ifeveryone who reads them speaks the ‘same language. © Word equations do not fell us how much ef each substance is involved in ‘the reaction. © Word equations can get very complicated when lots of chemicals are involved. For example, calcium carbonate decomposes (breaks down) on heating. We can show tho reaction using a symbol equation like this: Caco, -» CaO + CO, This equation is balanced — thoro is the samo number of each type of atom on both sides of the equation. This is very important, because atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. This also means that: ‘The total mass of the products formed in a reaction is equal to the total mass of the reactants. one. | See oO). its uses. equation is balanced.Ee Look at the chemical equation on the previous page. (a) that we start with musi be 2.8 + 2.2 (b+) which ‘We can work out the mass of CaCO, CaO or CO, given equals 5.0g. the masses of the other two compounds. Rearranging the equation for a, b and ewe got Because the total mass of the products formed ina a~c =. reaction is equal to the total mass of the reactants we So if the reaction starled with 100 tonnes of CaCO, (a) ccan writ: and it gave off 44 tonnes af CO, (c), _ 6260, > G20 + CO, Then the mass of CaO (b) made is 100-44 (ac) Mass= a b+ vse tonnes, So ifthe mass of CaO formed is 2.8g (b above) and the mass of CO, is 2.2 g (c above); the mass of CaCO, E Making an equation balance In the case of hycrogen reacting with oxygen itis not so easy to balance the equation. First of all we write the formula of each reactant and product: ca H, +0, 5H,0 unting the atoms on either side uation wo see that we have: BO Counting the atoms on either side of the equation we see that we h: es Reactants Products (00% enough 2H atoms, 2 0 atoms 2H atoms, 1 Oatom reectans ators) ‘So we need another oxygen atom on the product side of the equation. We n't simply change the formula of H,O to H,0,.. (H,O, — hydrogen peroxide Not balanced is @ bleaching agent which i certainly not suitable to drink’) But we can have 2water molecules in the reaction this is shown in a symbol equation as: H+ 0, > 2H,0 Counting the atoms on either side of the equation again we get: H+ O, Reactents Products trtenin | thy? 2H toms, 20 atoms 4H atoms, 2 0 atom Although the oxygen atoms are balanced, we now need two more hydrogen ‘atoms on the reactant side. We do this by putting 2 in front of H, ‘Sil not balanced! 2H, + 0, + 2H,0 Now we have: Reactants Products 4H atoms, 2.0 atoms 4H atoms, 2.0 atom ah 0, 70 +s» and the equation is balanced. © Balance the following equation: H, + Cl, > HCI ‘anced atest! Aimee toe read 1 Why must all symbo! equations be balancad? Soo 2 a Amass of 8.49 of magnesium carbonate (MgCO,) completely beara geanks decomposes when itis heated. It made 4.0g of magnesium oxide Paliaoriraheity = (MgO). What isthe total mass of carbon dioxide (CO,) produced in Coe ere this reaction? b Write a word equation to show the reaction in parta. ue each type of atom on each Pe ee : TGerOnsGa0 DATO ALO, ©Na+H0-NeoH +H, 101) [oor miaialigSummary questions @ 4 a What is the difference in the definitions of an elament and a compound? b The chemical formula of ethanol is written 2s C,H,OH. | How many atoms of hydrogen are there in an ethanol molecule? How many different elements are there in ethanol? ‘What i the total number of atoms in an ethanol molecule? 2 a Diawa table to show the relative charge on protons, neutrons and electrons. b inwhich part cf an atom do we find: | protons ii neutrons lit electrons. © | What is the overall charge on any atom? li Anitrogen atom has 7 protons. How many electrons does it have? @ This question is about the pericdic table of elements. ‘You will need to use the periodic table at the back of this, book to help you anewer some parts of the question. Argon (Av) is the 18th element in the periodic table. | Is argon a metal or a non-metal? Il Are thare more metals or non-metals in the periodic table? How many protons does an argon atom contain? Iv State the name and number of the group to which argon bolongs. v How many electrons dogs argon have in its highest energy level (outermost shell)? b The element barium (Ba) has 86 electrons. | How many protons are in the nucleus of each barium atom? How many electrons does a barium atom have in its highest nergy level (outormost shell? How did you decide on your answer? is barium a metal or anon-metal? @ The diagram below shows the arrangement of electrons in an atom, ‘a How many protons aro in tho nucleus of this atom? b Use the periodic table at tha back of this book to give the name and symbol of the element whose atom is shown here. © This element forms ions with a 1+ charge. 1 Whatis anion? How dos tho charge on the ion tell us whether the element above is a metal or non-metal? Describe what happens to the number of elections when the atom forms a 1+ ion lv Write the chemical formula of the fon, v_ This ion can form compounds with negatively, charged ions. What type of bonding will we find in these compounds? dA compound is formed when this element reacts with chlorine gas, i Whatis the name of the compound formed? Il Chloride ions carry a 1~ charge. Write the chemical formula ef the compound formod. ‘What is the missing number needed to balance the ‘following symbol equations? a 2Na+C,—... NaCl b 22n +O, > Zn © 1. Or +30, > 26r,0, d OH, + ....0, +800, + 44,0 IH] Balance the following symbol equations: a H+ Br, HBr b Mg +0, ->Mg0 © HO, +H,0 +0, dL +H.O>LIOH+H, ¢ NaNO, > NaNO, + 0, 1 Fe +0, Fe,0, [HI ‘When a mixture of iron and sulfur is heated, a compound, called iron sulfide is rade. Inan experiment 2.89 of iron made 4.49 of iron sulfide. @ What mass of sulfur reacted with the 2.8g of iron? b Explain how you worked out your answer to part a.End of chapter questions AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 7 Us numbers from the list to complete the table to show the charge on each subatomic partice. 42 410-1 2 ‘Subatomic particle electron Charge neutron proton @ 2 Use the periodic table at the back of your book to help you to answar this quastion ‘a How mary protons are in an atom of fuorina? (1) b How many elections are inan atom of carbon? (1), © Complete the electronic structure of aluminium: 28, a d Whatis tho oloctronic structure of potassium? (1) 8 Noon is a noble gas. ‘@ What does this tell you about its electronic structure? ay b Draw a diagram to show the electronic structure of neon, @ @ a Magnesium has the electronic structure 2.8,2. Explain, in terms ofits electronic structure, why magnesium is in Group 2 of the poriodic table. wy b Give one way in which the electronie structures of the atoms of Group 2 elements are: [the same 1 ifforent. a © When magnesium is heated in air it burns witha bright flame and produces magnesium oxide. Calcium is also in Group 2. Doscribe what you oxpoct to happen and what would be produced when calcium is heeted in ar. @ 5 Sodium reacts with water to produce sodium hydroxide and hydrogen. The word equation for this reaction is ‘sodium + water — sodium hydroxide + hydrogen a Name one substance in this equation that is: 1 anelement w ‘a.compound «) has ionic bonds a) iv has covalent bonds « b 112.39 of sodium reacted with 1.89 of water, what ‘would be the total mass of eodium hydroxide and bydrogen produced? Explain your answer. ® ¢ Balance the symbol equation for this reaction Nat HO+ NaOH +H, [H1 (1) d Lithium isin the same group of the periodic table as, sodium. i. Write a word equation for the reaction of lithium with water. iO) What is the formula of lithium hydroxide? a) How many atoms are shown in the formula of lithium hydroxide you have written? 0)Figure 1 St Paul's Catnedtal in London is uit fom limestone blacks halk is a form of limestone, It vas formed milions of years ago from the skeletal remains of tiny sea piants called coocaliths. Thay were deposited on the seabed between 65 and 130 million years ago. It has been atimated that i took almost 4100000 years to lay down each metre of chalk in a clif face. CO links For information on the formutae of compounds mace up of ions, look S- at C7 1.4 Forming bonds. Limestone is @ rock that is made mainly of ‘Some types of limestone were formed from the remains of tiny animals and plants that lived in the sea millions of years ago. We dig limestone out of the ground in quarries all around the world. It has many uses, including its use as a building material. Many important buildings around the world are made of limestone. We can cut and shape the stone taken from the ground into blocks. These can be placed ‘one on top of the other, lke bricks in a wall. We have used limestone in this way fo make buildings for hundreds of years. Powdered limestone can also be heated with powdered clay to make ‘When we mix cement powder with water, sand and crushed rock, a slow chemical reaction takes place. The reaction produces a hard, stone-like building materiel called Figure 3 This bulding contains plenty of iemade from limestone Figure 2 Those white clifs are mace ‘of chal. Thi is ono type of imeatone, ferred rom the shel oftiny sea plants. ‘a Whatis the main compound found in limestone? How do we use limestone to make buildings? ‘The chamical formula for calcium carbonate is CaCO,, Itis made up of calcium ions, Ca®*, and carbonate ions, CO,*". The 2+ and 2~ charges tell us that there are the same number of calcium ions and carbonate ions in calcium carbonate, Remember that the charges on the ions cancal out in compounds. When we heat limestone strongly, the calcium carbonate breaks down to form ccaloium oxide. Carbon dioxide is also produced in this reaction. Breaking ‘down a chemical by heating Is called ‘We can show the tharmal decomposition reaction using the following equations: hat Word equation: calcium carbonate — calcium axide + carbon dioxide Balanced symbol Caco, + Cad + 0, equation: The calcium oxide made is elso a very useful substance in the building and farming industries.Practical Thermal decomposition In this experiment you can carry out the reaction that takes place in a lime kiln, ‘Safety: Make sure the rubber tube is tightly secured to the gas tap and the Bunsen burner before starting the experiment. Do not ovarstretch the tubing. Do not touch the decomposed caroonate as itis corrosive. Wash your hands if you get any chemicals on them. Wear eye protection. Place a limestone chip on a tripod and gauze. Using a roaring ame, hold the base of the Bunsen bummer and heat a limestone chip strongly from the side, It's best Ifthe tip of the blue cone of the flame heats the limestone directly. You will see signe of a reaction happening on the surface af the limestone. ‘© What do you see happen as the limestone is heatad strongly? A rotary lime kiln ‘To make lots of calcium oxide this reaction is done in a furnace called a lime kiln. We fil the kiln with crushed Imestone and heat it ¥ strongly using a supply of hot a, Limestone in —: Calcium oxide comes out of the foes Hot bottom of the kiln, Waste gases, including the carbon dioxide mada, leave the Kiln atthe top. Air carbon ddd Kiln rotates WW spate rns aun Calbum oxides on rosuced Sec a arotary kiln, where the limestone ‘ravals through the kin is heated in a rotating drum. This Figure 4 Calcium oxide i produced in a rotary line kiln makes sure that the limestone Is thoroughly mixed with the steam of hot air. Diinks This helps the calcium carbonate to decompose completely. For more information on the uses of ealoium oxide, ceo C1 2.9 The ‘limestone reaction cycle’ SETS rT 1 Copy and complete using the wards below: word building caicium cement concrete To ua uc kal Limestone is mostly made of......... carbonate (whose chemical formula calcium carbonate, is CaCO,). As well as making blocks of building meterial, limestone can Pere reer be used’o produce... and....... that are also used in the coterie industry 2 Produce a poster or PowerPoint presentation to show how limestone is DO ilee used in building. Rr 3. The stone roof of a building is supported by columns made of calcium oxide and carbon limestone. Why might this bo unsafe after a fire in the building? Explain Ce ae) the chemical reaction involved in weakening the structure. DOO LeBuildings and statuses made of limestone sufier badly from damage by acid rain. ‘You might have noticed statues where the fine features havo boon lost. Limestone is most calcium carbonate, which reacts with acid, A gas is given off in the reaction. 9 You can use a simple test to find out if the gas given off is carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide tums solution cloudy. ‘The tast works as follows: @ Limewateris a solution of calcium hydroxide. Itis alkaline, © Garton dioxide is a weakly acidic Gas SO Figure 1 Limestone is attacked and it reacts with the alkaline limewater. éamagoe by acide ¢@ Inthis reaction tiny solid particles of insoluble calcium carbonate are ‘ormed as a precipitate. © The reaction 's calcium hydroxide + carbon dioxide > calolun carbonate + water fimowater) {an insoluble procipitato) CaOH, + =O, Caco, + HO ‘Sculptures from the Parthenon (@ temple), built by the ancient Greeks in Athens, have had to be removed and replaced by copies to avoid any more damage from acid pollution from vehicle exhausts. © This preciptate of calclum carbonate makes the Imewater turn cloudy. ‘That's because light can no longer pass through the aolution with tiny bits of white solid suspanded in it a Whatis a preciptate? Carbonates react with acids to give a salt, water and carbon dioxide. For calcium carbonate the reaction with hydrochloric acid is: calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid + calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide ‘The balanced symbol equation is: CaCO, + 2HCI— CaCl, + H,0 + CO, Figure 2 The Partienen in Greece 1b Write a word equation for the reaction of magnesium carbonate with hydrochloric acid, 9 & up the ar tus as shown. fin a Sot up the apparat he hycrochleric % AY Vo eee S en, 7 ‘© What conclusion can you draw?Le Decomposing carbonates (3) In G1 24 we saw that limestone is made up mainly of calcium carbonate. This decomposes whan wa heat ft. The reaction produces calcium oxida and carbon dioxide. Calcium s an element in Group 2 of the periodic table. As we have already soon, the elements in a group tond to behave in the same way. ‘So, does magnesium carbonate also decompose when you heat it? And what about other carbonates too? © Why might you expect magnesium carbonate to behave ina similar way to caloium carbonata? eel Investigating carbonates ‘You can investigate the thermal decompositon of carbonates by heating samples ina Bunsen flame. You wil have samples of the carbonates listed below. Powdered carbonate samples: sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, ‘magnesium carbonate, zinc cerbcnate, copper carbonate ‘© What observations might tell you if a sample decomposes when you heat it? © How could you test any gas givon off? Plan an investigation to find out how easily different carbonates decompose. © How will you try to make ita fair test? ‘© How will you make your investigation safe? Before you start any practical work, your teacher must check your plan. Safety: Itis importantto remove the dalivary tube from the imewater before ‘Figure a vestgeing the ermal You stop heating tne carbonate. if you dom’, the cold limewater willbe ‘sucked “eComsiton of «solid ‘back’ into the hot boiling tube causing it to mash. You must wear eye protection when doing this practicel. Investigations like this show thai many etal carbonates decompose when ‘thoy aro heated in 2 Bunsen flame. They form tho motal oxide and carbon dioxide — just as calcium carbonate does. Sodium and potassium carbonate do not decompose at the temperature of the Bunsen flame. They need a higher temperature Magnesium carbonate decomposes lika this: magnesium carbonate > magnesium oxide + carbon dioxice MgcO, = > MgO +} CCO, Roa - eet Emre ete Perens kes] 1 Give a general word equation for: Cece ‘tho reaotion of a carbonate plus an acid Te a b the thermal decomposition of a carbonate. Perera 2 Write a word equation for the reaction of sodium carbonate with dilute co Npce ee Ten hydrochloric acid, Gocrpelpet = 3 The formula of zine carbonate is 2n00,. 2 2 Zine carbonate decomposes whan heated, giving zinc oxide and Olea carbon dioxide. Write the balanced equation for this reaction. [11] decompose on heating to bb Write the balanced symbol equation for the reaction of zinc carbonato Seo) with dilute hydrochloric acid. [H] Ch ataeeu Kea eal Die ute) ray Peete FXQQA Examiner's tip Make sure that you know the limestone reaction oycle and the equations for each reaction CO links For information on the test for carbon dioxide, look back at 01 2.2 a of carbonates. Rocks and building materials The ‘limestone reaction cycle’ (« Limestone is used very widely as a building material. We can also use it to make other materials for the construction industry, ‘Aa we sew in C1 2.1 calcium oxide is made when we heat limestone strongly. ‘The calcium carbonate in the limestone undergoes thermal decomposition. ‘When we add water to calcium oxide it reacts to produce ealeium hydroxide, ‘This reaction gives outa lot of heat. calcium oxide + water > calcium hydroxide C20 + HO > Ca(OH), Although itis net very soluble, we can dissolve a little calcium hydroxide in water. After filtering, this produces 2 colourless solution called limevrater. We can use limewater to test for carbon dioxide, ‘@ What subsiance do we get when calcium oxide reacts with water? by Doscribe how wo can make imawator from caloium hydroxide. Ere ene the ‘limestone reaction cycle’ (9) — cabsium [a] ie N ae 4 oS patria poe ca Bunsen Boiling ‘bumer cal Couress |) fitte d cf imewatr / Calcium fycroie ard Wat ungectd calcium carbonate Heat the calcium carbonate chip very strony, making tt glow. Make sure you are wearing eye protection. The greater the area cf the chip that glows, the better the rest of the experiment wil be. This reaction produces calcium oxide (corrosive). Let the calcium oxide cool down. Then, using tongs, add itto the empty boiling tube. Then you add a fow crops of water to the calsium oxide, one drop at a time, This teaction produces calcium hydroxide. When you dissolve this calcium hydroxide in more water and fiter, i produces Imewater. Carbon dioxide bubbled through the Imewater produces calcium ccarbenata. This tums the solution cloudy. ‘© The reaction between calcium oxide and water gives out a lot af energy. What do you observe during the reaction? ‘© Why does bubbling carbon dioxide through limewater make the solution go cloudy?ee a ‘The reactions in the experiment can be shown on a flow diagram: ‘The saying ‘to bein the limalight’ originated from the step Limestone step theatre, well betore the days er ep of electricity. Stagos wors lit Add carbon cxite Heat # oloctricty. Stagos woro lit (tisis to ‘est forC0,) Carton cosce up by heated limestone before vin of electric or gas lamps were invented. Calcium carbonate Calcium tyeroxce mare Calcium oxide Limowator ‘Step 3 Step? Add more water Ad aie water and ther Calcium tycrodide Figure 1 The limestone reaction cycta" Neutralising acids Calcium hycroxide is an alkali. It reacts with acids in 2 neutralisation reaction, ‘The products of the reaction are @ calcium salt and water. Calcium hydroxide is used by farmers to improve seil that is acidic. Becausa it is an alkali, it will raise the pH of aoidic soll. I is also used to neutralise acidic waste gases in industry before releasing gases into the air. Summary questions Copy and completa using the words balow: carbon limewater hydroxide carbonate water oxide When limestone is heated, the calcium in it decomposes to PrOdUCE CALCIUM en. €?N nn GlOXide gas. If calcium oxide is reacted with water, calcium... is preduced. Whon wo add more rm 5 and filter we make a solution of calcium hydroxide called : a/c) Deseriba and explain the positive tast or carbon diaxide gas. Include a ‘© When water is added to word equation in your answer. (See C1 2.2). Se aed ‘2 When calcium oxide reacts with water, calcium hydrox Rall alten produced. Write a word equation and a balanced symbol equation to ore show the reaction tH] ey) b Calcium hydroxide is an alkali soit reacts with acids, pees 1 Give one use of calcium hydroxide thet reies on this reaction. i 7 ‘ ‘© The reactions of limestone ji What do we call this type of reaction? Sees Why co we refer to the savies of reactions in the practical box on the et al previous page as the limestone reaction cycle’? Dna te toedFigure 2 The original ime moriar has ‘ake away tram the suriace ofthe Sphine in Egypt, anc many of the stones af now missing ‘About 6000 years ago the Egyptians heated limestone strongly in aire and then combined it with water. This produced a material that hardened with ago. Thay usad this material to plaster the pyramids. Nearly 4000 years later, the Romans mixed calcium hydroxide with sand and water to produce ‘Mortar holds other building material's together —for example, stone blocks or bricks. It works because the lime in the mortar reacts with carbon dioxide in the air, producing calcium carbonate again. This means that the bricks or stone blocks are effectively held together by rock. celcium hydroxide + carbon dioxide + calcium carbonate + weter caOH, = + CO, CaCO, + HO ‘Tne amount of sand in the mixture is very important. Too litle sand and the mortar shrinks as it drias. Too much sand makes it too week, Even tocay, mortars still used widely as a building material. However, modern mortars, made with cement in place of calcium hydroxide, can be used in a much wider range of ways than lime mortar,Cement Although lime mortar holds bricks and stone together very strongly, it does have some disadvantages. For example, lime mortar does not harden very quickly. Itwill not set at all whore water prevents it from reacting with carbon dixie. ‘Then people found that heating limestone with clay in a kiln produced cement. Much experimenting led to the invention of Portland cement. This is manufactured from 2 mixture of limestone, clay and other minerals. Thay aro heated and then ground up into a fina powder. ‘This type of cament is stil in use today. The mortar used to build a modern house is made by mixing Portland cement and sand. This sets when itis mixed thoroughly with water and left for a few days. ‘a What does lime mortar need in order to set hard? b Why will ime mortar not set under water? Concrete ‘Sometimes builders adc small stones or crushed rocks, called aggregate, to ‘the mixturo of water, coment and sand, When this sots, it forms a hard, rock. like building material called concrete. ‘This material is very strong. to squash or crush it. We can make concrete even stronger by pouring the \wet micture around steel rads or bars and then allowing it to set. This makes reinforced concrete, which is also good at resisting forces that tend to pull It apart. Gee Which mixture makes the strongest concrete? Try mixing different proportions of cement, gravel and sand, then adding water, to find out how to make the strongest concrete. © How can you test the concrete’s strength? © How could you improve the qualty of the data you collect? Emre ero 1 Copy and complete using the words below: mortar concrete clay sand bricks ‘Cement is made in industry by heating limestone with Itean be mixed with sand to produca........., used to hold building materials like in piace. An even stronger material is made by mixing cement, snes aNd aggregate to make. 2 List the different ways in which limestone has been used to build your home or school, 3 Concrete and mortar are commonly used building materials. Evaluste the use of: concrete to make @ path rather than using mortar b mortar to bind bricks to oach othor rather than using conorete. especially good atresisting forces which tend ‘The Romans realised that they naedad to add something to lime mortar to make it set in wot conditions. They found that ‘adding brick cust or volcanic ash improved ite setting. The modified mortar mixture could harden even under water. This method remained in use until the 18th century, Figure 3 Portland cement was invented neatly 200 years ago. I i i faround the world today,Limestone is a very useful raw material, bbut mining for limestone can affact the local community and environment, a Limestone is quarried from the ground. | Wa ‘Aquarry forme a huge hole in the Pipes trial ground. The limestone is usually blasted from a quarry by explosives. Then its Figure 1 Limestongis often found in ‘taken in giant lorries to be processed. eauiful countryside. Quavrying the limestone scars the landscape. ‘Much of the limestone goes to cement factories which are often found near the quarry. Explosive charges are used to dislodge limestone from the rock face. This is known as blasting. Aa wall as scarring the landscape the blasting noise scares off wildlife and can disturb local residents. Eventually a huge crater is, formed. These can later be fled with water and can be used as a reservoir for leisure activitios. Thero is also the possibility of use as landfil sitos for housshold rubbish before covering with soil and replanting. Figure 2 Explosive charges are used! to logge mectene from the rock face Alarge mining company wants to open a new limestone quarry on the eC pee Tonal Park Look athe ews offeent people alected by AGH jon to allow the quarry or nat. wo'vo bor quary: eee Take the role of one of tha people shown and debate the issues involved. Assign a chairperson to make sure each person gats their say. © Write your own response to the planning application in a letter to the mining company’s managing director aftor your debate. “acest! igre “This quary wid beable w get ‘ebviowsy dost lob arcurd the habtate hore! Iwas ‘of bis and ‘born hora and Gnimais. Arco I raaly dont ‘Spootes ortoas want to leave” ‘fauna near tte proposed sit.” ‘¥m woned about all the dust hat wit otto ‘nm erops. Thy won't grow the seme, ‘Well bo able to supply limestone forthe glass, ‘Stel end coment nasties Ys region TON. WO smnotomnes ‘predict wellbe quanying here fer 10 years then, 0 wal andscapo the erator befere moving on canying tmestone wil have 00. Straight thraugh our village. My daughters ‘primary sohoe! fs ‘onthe main road.’ “hi gota lotmore ete reckoeeoae iho quary. {might sao Sendutches and empoy SS Soroane nate on rosy oe eachDevelopments in limestone, cement and concrete Bathioom tiles have traditionally been made from ceramics with a glazed finish ‘to mako thom watorproot. They aro vory hard wearing, Nowadays more tiles are made trom natural stone, such as travertine. These look very attractive with each iile having unique markings. However, travertine tiles are porous and can be easily scratched. They need to be sealed with a waterproof coating, Cement is used to make mortar and conerate on building sites. Before cement mortar was invented, bullders used lime mortar. However, this takes much longer to set fully than cement mortar, especielly in wet conditions. The restoration of old buildings stil needs lime mortar ta repair brickwork. Often the old buildings have shallow, if any, foundations. Their brick walls are rnuch ‘more likely to move than modorn buildings. With hard coment mortar this results in cracking along weak points in the walls. However, Ime mortar offers more flexibility and will not crack as easily. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. The manulacture of cement contributes about §% of the CO, gas produced by humans emitted into the air. About half of this comes from burning fuels used to heat the kilns that decompose limestone. The rest comes from the reaction itself: calcium carbonate — calcium oxide + carbon dioxide Using lime mortar would contribute less to carbon dioxide omissions as it absorbs CO, asit sets. Concrete is the world's most widely used building material. Concrate was first reinforced using a wire mesh to strengthen it. Nowadays we can also use: © glass fibres @ carbon ‘fibres @ steol rode @ poly(propene), nylon, polyostors and Kevlar. ‘Some of the latest research uses pulp from wood, plants and reeycled paper. A\littlo recycled paper can improve conoreto's resistance to cracking, impact (making it tougher) and scratching. These reintorcing materials are shredded into small pieces before adding them to the concrete mixture. Itis much cheaper to use reinforced concrete to make a bridge than to make itfrom iron or steel. However, steel is much strongar (harder to snap) than concrete. Over long spans, suspension bridges can use steel’s high-tensile strength in cables between conerete towers. This will support the cheap reinforced concrete sections of bridges on which cars travel. Short span bridges will always be made from reinforced concrete because of lls low cost. BME ed 1 Give one effect of starting up anew limestone quarry in a National Park in oach of the following: a an environmental effect b asocial effect an economic effect. ‘Anew material has boon developed called ConGlassCrete. it has largo: piecas of recycled glass embedded into concrete. Its surface is polished ‘smooth which gives a very attractive finish. Give one environmental advantage and one disadvantage of using ConGlassCrate instead of slate as a building material. Figure 3 Traverine is a form of limeatone, Becauea ‘ravertne ie made Lup mainly of calcium carbonate, tles and worktops can be damaged by acdk> solutions, CO links For information on how line mortar reacis with CO, when selling, Took back at C1 2.4 Cement and concrete. Figure 4 The ales high performance cconcretes give architects new ‘ppaitunities when designing buicings © There are good and bad points about querrying for ee ed ea Kec A eat) landscape. concrete all have useful Ext eee ae) processing of limestone and Cake Seuss ad Cee usGoer c i mec Summary questions @ @ In the process of manufacturing cement, calcium carbonate is broken down by heat. a1 Write a word equation to show the reaction that, happens inside a lime kin, What do we call this type of reaction? b Draw a diagram to show how you could test for the gas given ott in the reaction described in part a. © Write a word equation to show the reaction between calcium exide and water. (2 Wrte balanced symbol equations for he reactions in Question 1 parts aand c. tH (@ a How is imoston turnod into coment? b Given cement powder, how would you mak: i mortar it concrete? @ Potassium carbonate reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid, Tho gas given off gives a positive test for carbon dioxide. ‘a Wiite a word equation and a balanced symbol equation to show the reaction between potassium carbonate, K,CO,, and dilute hydrochioric acid. [+1] b Describe what you see in a positive test for carbon ionic ¢ Explain your observations made in part, Include a ‘word equation in your anewer. ¢ Write a balanced symbol equation for the reaction in parte tal (2 Hore is. sot of instructions for making concrete: "To make good, strong concrete, theroughly mix together + 4 buckets of gravel +S buokats of sand + 1 bucket of cement When you have done this, acd half @ bucket of water” Design and filin a table to shaw the percentage of each substance in the concrete mixture. Give your velues to the nearest whole numer. b Describe an investigation you could use to find out which particular mixture of gravel, sand and cement makes the strongest concrete. What would you vary, what would you keep the same and how would you test the ‘strangth’ of the concrete? Paes ein an investigation into the behaviour of carbonates, a sludent draws the following conclusions when he heats samples of caroonates with 2 Bunsen burner: Calelum carbonate ‘Sodium carbonate Potassium carbonete Magnesium carbonate Zine carbonal2 Coppar carbonate: (V = decomposes, X = does not decompese Safi o)s) ‘@ What was the independent variable in the investigation? b To which group in the periodic table do sodium and potassium belong? ¢ To which group in the periodic table do magnesium and calcium belong? d What do these conclusions suggest about the behaviour of the carbonates of elements in Group 1 and Group 2? @ Can you be certain about your answer to question d?, Give reasons. 1 Write a word equation for the thermal dacomposition of copper carbonate. g Write a balanced symbol equation for the thermal decomposition of magnesium carbonate. TH]Erm ror ced AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 1 Use words from the list to complete the sentences. caicium carbonate calcium hydroxide eaicium oxide carbon dioxide Limestone is mainly made of the compound When limestone is heated strongly it decomposas producing the gaa and solid = When the solid reacis with water it produces . 4 2 Match the compounds in the list with the descriptions. caicium carbonate copper carbonate sodium carbonate zine carbonate ‘@ When heated with a Bunsen burner it does not decompose. a b It decomposes when heated to givezinc oxide. (1) ¢ itis a blue solid that produces a black solid when heated, a) ¢ it can be heated with clay to make cement. a 3) Limestone blocks are damaged by acid rain, Use words from the list to complete the sentences. cissolves escapes produces reacts Calcium carbonate in the imestone with acids in the rain. With sulfuric acid it calcium sulfate, carbon dioxide and water. The carbon cioxide into tho air. Tho calolum sulfato inthe rainwater, 4 @ A student wanted to make calcium oxide from limestone. ‘The student heated a piece of limestone strongly in a Bunsen burner flame. ‘@ Complete the word equation for the reaction that, happened: calcium carbonate — calcium oxide + a ‘The student wanted to be sure he had made calcium cxide. Ho crushed tho heated limastone and added water. The mixture got hot. The student cooled the mixture and fitered it. This gave « colourless solution and a white solid that was left in the filter paper. b The student added universal indicator to the colourless solution and it turned purple. i Name the compcund in the solution that causes the indicator to turn purple. w Explain how the student's observations show that he had made some calcium oxide by heating Iimastone. @ ¢ The student addad dilute hydrochloric acid to the ‘white solid from the filter paper. ‘The misture fizzed and producad a gas that tumed limewater cloudy. i What doos this tell you about the white solid? (1) ji Was the student successful in changing al of the limestone into calcium oxide? Explain your answer. a d Write balanced equations for the three chemical reactions that the student did. [x] @) eb} Residents living near a cement works are concemed because more children ave sutfering asthma attacks. Rasidents have also noticed that parked cars are becoming dirty because of smoke particles from the chimney. ‘The table shows the possible medical risk from smoke Particles. Particle alze In mm Larger than 0.8 No medical risks known 0.3 and emailer Causes aethma attacks 0.2and smaller May cause cancer Itis also recommended that to avoid damage to health, the concentration of any particles should be no higher than 2 parts por milion (ppm). Scientists were brought in to moniter the emissions from the cement works’ chimnay. They positioned four sensors around the cement works to monitor airborne emoke particles, o @ sul cireoton of wind ‘Osment ® Local esidorts 3 lneinths area cirney ‘Sensor. a & ‘These four sensors only detect particle sizes larger than 0.5mm and measure the concentration of particles in Ppm. The scientis's reported that the particle sensors showed that the average concentration of particles was 1.8 ppm. The eciontists concluded that there was no risk to health, a Suggest two reasons why the local rasidents objected lo the positions of the four sensors. @ b What evidence did the scientists use to conclude that there was no risk to health? a) © The local residents were stil concerned that there was a risk to health. Suggost three reasons why. @ QA, 2009 47Metals and their uses Extracting metals Metals have been important to people for thousands of years. You can follow the course of history by the materials paople usec. Starting from the Stone eeu Kea Eee eee Age, we go lo the Bronze Age (copper/tin) and then on to the ron Age. roe 2 oboe Whero do metals come from? (3 Melais are found in the Earth's crust. We find most metals combined chemically with other chemical elements, ofton with oxygen. This moans that the metal must be chemically separated trom its Compounds before you can use Potasm 4 Most reactive In some places there is enough of a metal or soso metal compound in arock to make it worth extracting the metal. Then we cal the rack a ation metal ore. Gres are mined trom the grounc. Some need to be concentrated before he stagsiom metal is extracted and purifiec. For example, Copper ores are ground up into a powder. The param thoy aro mixed wih water anc achemical that eng makes the copper compound repel water. Air “mn is then bubbled through the mixture end the Frguret Tre angalotte orm ange copper compound foalson top as a roth. The lon seem actel Neeoteciweclane, rocky bits sink end the concentrated copper Gerla sara ammuntt copper Compound is scraped off the top. itis then ready ‘in to have its copper extracted Whether itie worth extracting a particular metal Leas depends on Gold in Wales is found in P , copper came [atitocoel atthough | © howeasyitisto extractt from ts ore rot as thick, unfortunately! © how much metal the ore contains. sir Sele semen was worn Be ‘Thess two factors can change over time. For carly Welsh prinoos as a badge i ae ag ere , carly Welsh pincas ce abadge | exape, anew, chaeper metod might be Gots ank. Welsh gold has been | scoyered for extracting a metal, We might also Lned in moderntines to meke | crovera iow way to edracta metal eicently pain \//_ Lens eaten ‘the wedding rings of royal brides, from rock which contains only small amounts Figure 2 Tha voachity eoroe of a metal ore. An ore that was once thought of sows how reactive each as ‘low grade’ could then become an economic _elementis compared to the Source of a metal. other elements Afew metals, such as gold and silver, are so unreactive that they are found in the Earth as the metals (elements) themselves. We say that they exist in their native stato, Sometimes a nugget of gold is so large it can simply be picked up. At other times tiny flakes have to be physically separated from sand and racks by panning. If there is enough metal in a rook to make it economic to extract it, what do wo eall the rook? Figure 3 Penning for gol. Mud and ‘ i Cee oe a i ase __B Why is gold found as the meial rather than combined with other a wmains nthe pan elements in compounds?How do we extract metals? (9) ‘The way that we extract a metal depends on its place in the reactivity series. The reactivity series lists the metals in order of their reactivity (see Figure 2). ‘The most reactive are placed at the top and the least reactive at the bottom. ‘Amore reactive metal wil displace a less reactive metal from its compounds, Carbon (a non-metal) will also displace less reactive metals from their oxides. ‘We use carbon to extract some metals from thelr ores in industry. © Armeial cannot be extracted from its ore using carbon. Where is this metal in the reactivity series? ‘We can find many metals, such as copper, lead, iron and zinc, combined with ‘oxygen. The compounds are called metal oxides. Because carbon is more reactive than each of these metals, we can use carbon to extract the metals, from their oxides. ‘We must heat the metal oxide with carbon. The earbon removes the oxygen from the metal oxida to form carbon dioxide. The metal is also formed, as the element: metal oxide + carbon + metal + carbon dioxide: For example: lead oxide + carbon + lead + carton dioxide 2PbO + C— 2Pb + CO, ‘We call the removal of oxygen from a compound chemical reduction. ‘d_ What do chamists moan when thoy say that a metal oxide is reducad? Moials that are more reactive than carbon aro not extracted from their ores by reduction. Instead they are extracted using electrolysis. Eine 1 Copy and complete using the words balow: crust lead extracted native elements reduced Metals come from the Earth's. . Some metals are very unreactive and are found as......... in their... state. Metals, such as zing, iron. and ...... are found combined with oxygen in compounds. These metals can be ........ using chemical reactions. The metal oxides are ‘as oxygen is removed from the compound. Define the ward ‘ore. Platinum is never found combined with oxygen. What does this tell you abeut its reactivity? Give a use of platinum that denends on this, property. Zine oxide (ZnO) can be reduced to zinc by heating it in a furnace with carbon, Carbon monoxide (CO) is given off in the reaction. ‘a Write a word equation for the raduction of zine oxide. b Now write a balanced symbol equation for the reacton in part a. [HJ EE Practical Reduction by carbon Heat some copper oxide carbon powder in a test tube, gently at first then more strongly, Empty the contants into an evaporating dish. ‘You can repeat the experiment with lead oxide and carbon if you havo a fume cupboard to work in, © Expiain your observations. Include a word equation ora balanced symbol equation. Pt eed Cr kuna Decora ac) Ce rd ean ke) Perec lec Pec Di) Pues ree Dunc es Sd Petia extract a metal from its ore. Se ead Cee tol) reduced by carbon to give Pe eas Dal Seether) Deceit iayFigure 1. The iron which has just come autola bast fimace contains about 96% iron, The main impusity ie carson Figure 2 Low carbon steel called mild By. 'S easily pressed nia shapes Iron ore centains iron combined with oxygen in iron oxide. Iron is loge reactive than carbon, So we can extract iron by using carbon to remove oxygen from the iron(a) oxide in the ore, We extract iron in a ‘Some of the iron(u) oxide reacts with carbon. The carbon reduces iron(1) ‘oxide, forming moltan iron and carbon dioxide gas. This is one of the reduction reactions which takes place in a blast furnace: iron) oxide + carbon — iron + carbon dioxide Iron straight from the blast furnace has limited uses. It contains about 96% iron and contains impurities, mainly carbon. This makes it very brittle, although it is vary hard and can't he easily compressed. When motten it can be run into ‘moulds and cast into different shapes. This Is used to make wood- buming stoves, man-hole covers on roads, and engines. ‘We can treat the iron from the blast furnace to remove some of the carbon. Removing all the carbon and other impurities from cast iron gives us pure Iron, This Is very soft and easily-shaped. However, IIs 100 soft for most uses. Iwo want to make iron reelly useful wo have to make sure that it contains tiny amounts of other elements. These include carbon and matals, such as nicke| and chromium, ‘We call a metal that is mixed with other elements an is an alloy of iron. By adding elements in carefully controlled amounts, ‘we can change the properties of the steel ‘@ Why Is iron froma blast furnace very brite? Why is pure iron not very useful? © How do we contrcl the properties of steal? ‘Steel s nota single substance. Like al alloys, tis a mixture. There are lots of, difforent types of steel. All of them are alloys of iron with carbon andlor other elements, ‘The simplest steels are the . We make these by removing most of tho carbon from cast iron, just leaving small amounts of carbon (from 0.03% to 1.5%). These are the cheapest steels to make. We use them in many products, such as the bodies of cars, knives, machinery, ships, containers and structural steel for buildings. Often these carbon steels have small amounts of other elements in them as well. High carbon steal, with a relatively high carbon content, is very strong but brittle. On the other hand, low carbon steel! Is soft and easily shaped. Itis not a strong, but ie much leas Ikely to shattor on impact with a hard object. Mild steel is one type of low carbon steel. It contains less than 0.1% carbon. Itie vory eacily proceed into shape. This makes it particularly useful in mass production, such as making car bodies.Alloy steels Low-alloy steels are more expensive than carbon stee's bacause they contain between 1% and 5% of other metals. Each of these metals produces a steel ‘that is well-suited for a particular usa. Figure 3 The properties of sts alloys meke thern ideal for usein suspension bildges Even more expensive are the high= alloy steele, Thase contain a much higher percentage of other metals. The chromium-nickel steels are known as stainless steels. We use them to make cooking utensils and cutlery. They are also used to make chemical reaction vessels. That's because thay combine hardness and sirengih with great resistance to corrosion. Unlike most other steels, they do not rust! ln Figure 4 The propattias 0 sainless ‘Sols make them idea! for making Utensils anc eationy 4 Copy and completa the following sentences using the terms below: carbon pure steel cast reduced Iron) oxida is........ fhas its exygen removed) in a blast furnace. Iron from the blast furnace, poured into moulds and loft to solidify is called... ron. lf all the carbon and othar impurities are remaved from cast iran we get ton, Iron that has been alloyed with carbon and other elements is called... Iron that contains just a small percentage of carbon is called steel. 2 How doos cast iron differ from puro iron? 3 a Make a table to eummerise the properties and some uses of low carbon steel, high carbon steel and chromium-nickel steal, b Why are surgical instruments made from steel containing chromium and nickel? ‘We use nickel-stee! alloys to build long-span bridges, bicycle chains and miltary armour-plating. That's becauso they are very resistant to stretching forces. Tungsten steal operates well under very hol conditions so itis used to make high-spaed tocls such as cil bits. WW Know how the hardness of steals is related to their carbon content. ON uueuleiea) Pe Leu becca) ees Seed ede eels Cc eke) oe eel fount ‘with different properties, ee are: Se eicakes Sala) ee Stu Uc) Cn Seed resistant to corrosion,Metals and their uses PNT ema) , ae Aihough they are vary strong, many metals are also very dence. This means Learning objectives that we cannot use them ifwe want to make something that has to be both Tec ne strong and light. Examples are alloys for making an aeroplane or the frame of Cbd cd aracing bioycio. ete we nud asic afebot tong ard have alo desig Sens SEAM Surnncn'sdiastmns acnctocon tarcnesesetae atch acer not corrode. ied Dee i Properties and uses of aluminium Ce Aluminium is a silvery, shiry metal. itis surprisingly light for a metal as thas a relatively low density. It is an excellent conductor of eneray and electricity. We can also shape itand draw it into wires very exaly. Although aluminium is a relatively reactive metal, it does not corrode easily. This ie because the aluminium etoms at ite eurface react with oxygen in air. They form a thin layer of aluminium oxide. This layer stops any further corrosion taking place. Aluminium is not a particularly strong metal, but we can use it to form alloys. ‘These alloys are harcer, more rigid and stronger than pure aluminium, Because of thase proparties, we use alu goods. These include: drinks cans ium to make a whole range of cooking foil saucopans high voltago electricity cablos aeroplanes and space vahicles icycles. Figure 1 Wo uos aluminium alloys i frnake biogobs because ofthat a Why does aluminium resist corrosion? combination cflow censty andsrength bb How do we make aluminium stronger? Extracting aluminium Because alurinium is a reactive metal we cannot use carbon to displace it from its oxide. Instead we extract aluminium using electrolysis. An electric current is passed through molten aluminium oxide at high temperatures to break it down. First we must mine the aluminium ore, This contains aluminium oxide mixed with impuritias. Thon the aluminium oxido is separated ‘rom tha impuritios. The oxide must then be melted before electrolysis can take piace. Tho problem with using electrolysis to extract motals is that itis a very expensive process. That's because we need to use high temperatures to melt the metal compound. Then we also need a great deal of electricity to extract Figure 2 Wo use aluminium alloys to fikearcat Tealoyareatengyet the metal from its molten compound. There are also environmental issues to have a low densty so the plane can cary considar when using so much energy. ove passengers and cargaProperties and uses of titanium Titaniumis a silvery-white matal. IIs very strong and very resistant 10 corresion. Like aluminium it has an oxide layer on its surface that protects it Aithough itis denser than aluminium, itis less dense than most other metals. Titanium has a very high melting point - about 1860°C - so we can use it at very nigh temperatures. ‘We use titanium for: @ the bodies of high performance airoratt and racing bikes (because of its combination of strength and relatvaly low canstty) © parts oft engines (because it keeps its strength even at high temperatures) @ parts of nuclear reactors (where it can stand up to high temperatures and its ‘tough oxide layar means that it resists corcosian) @ replacement nip joints (because ofits low density, strength and resistance to corrosior), © What properties make titanium ideal to use reactors? jetengines and nuclear Extracting titanium Titanium is not particularly reactive, so we could produce it by displacing itfrom its oxide with carbon. But unfortunately carbon reacts with titanium metal making it very brittle. So we have to use amore reactive metal to displace titanium. We use sodium or magnesium, Howevar, bath sodium and magnesium have to be extacied by electrolysis themselves in the frst place. Before displacement of thanium can take place, the ttanium ore must be processed. This involves separating tho titanium oxide and converting it to a chloride. Then the chioride is distilled to purity it. Only then is it ready for the nium to be displaced by the scdium or magnesium. Each one of these: stops takes time and costs money. d_ Why do we need electricity to maker T aluminium and it thanium? ‘Summary questions 1 Copy and complete using the words below: corrode energy expensive high low oxide reactive strong Alurninium and tianium alloys are usetul as they are ........ and have @ suse Gonsity, Although aluminium is reactive, it does not because its surface Is coated with a thin, tough layer of aluminium, «Titanium does rot corrode because it is not very... and also has its oxide layer to protect it. We use large amounts of... the extraction of both metals from their ores which makes them... ‘The large number of steps involved in the extraction of the metals also contributes to their cost. Why is ttanium used to make artificial hip joints? ‘@ Explain the different reasone why carbon cannot be used to extrac aluminium, or ii titanium, b Name two processes in the extraction of aluminium that require large amounts of enargy. = Figure 2 We ean use ftanium inside the body as well as uiside. This is an artical hip jr, used to replace & natural joint damaged by dsease or wear ‘and teat CO links For more information on the environmental impact of extracting metals, see Cf 3.8 Metalic issues. ar ae eee ews Ce Tad Crh hated aluminium oxide to extract it eu Pe cue ee eae ees) a ee! many stages and requires DearMetals and their uses Extracting copper Extracting copper from copper-rich ores (9 eeu Kea ‘We extract mast of our copper from copper-rich ores. These are a limited CES Ren lnen) | 50urce and aein danger of running out C “ ‘There are two main methods usad to remove the copper from the ore. Ou @ In one method we use sulfuric acid to produce copper sulta‘e solution, ch eeceirer ily before extracting the copper. bow gemais creed) ‘© Tho othor process is called smolting (roasting). We heat copper ora very ee ‘strongly in a furnace with air to produce crude copper. For example, copper can be found in an ore callad chalcocite. This contains coppar(|) sulfide, Cu,S. If we heat the copper() sulfide in alr, it decomposes to give copper meta copper() sulfide + oxygen > copper + sulfur dioxide Care has to be taken to avold leiting sulfur dioxide gas into the alr. This gas causos acid rain. So chimnoys aro fittod with basio ‘sorubbors" to neutralise the acidic gas, ‘Then we use the impure copper as the positive electrode in electrolysis calls ‘to make pure copoer. About 80% of copper is stil produced by smeiting. Figure 1 Mining copper ores can leave huge scars on the lancscape. This & callod oper-cast miring. Abcut 99% of sulfate? ‘copper comes from open-cast mines. Our Supples of copperrich ores are a limites a What chemical do we use to treat copper ore in order to form copper ‘Smotting and purifying copper ore uss huge amounts of heat and electricity. ‘This costs a let of money and will have an impact on the environment. CO links re For information on the charges Extracting copper from malachite (on meial ions, look back at C1 1.4 Malachite is a copper ore containing copper carbonate. To extract the Fovnning bonds. ‘copper we fist heat the copper carbonate in a boiling tube. Tharmal decomposition takes place. Copper oxide is tin the tube ‘© Which gas is given off? We then add dilute sulfuric acid to the copper oxide. Stopper and shake the tube. This makes copper sulfate soluton. Filter off any excess black copper oxide in the solution. ——+ = To extract the copper metal, either S = 1. Put an iron nail into the copper sulfate solution © What haopens to the iron nail? Or Carbon Copper 2, Collect some extra copper sulfete solution and place itin @ small ‘tectroes sutate beaker. Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 2. Tum the power on until saluton you s2e copper metal collecting, © Wihich electrode - the positive or the negative — does the copper form Figure 2 Extracting copper metal using a ®—Metal ions are always positively charged. Therefore, in electrolysis they are attracted to the nagative electrode. So metals are always daposited at the nagative electrode. in industry the elactrolysis Is carried out in many calls running at once. This method gives the very pure copper needed to make alectrical \wiring. Electroysis is also used to purity the impure copper extracted by ‘smelting. In the industrial process, the electrolysis cells use copper electrodes. ‘The copper can also be extracted from copper sulfate solution in industry bby adding serap iron. Iron is more reactive than copper, soit can displace copper from its solutions: iron + copper sulfate -> iron sulfate + copper Extracting copper from low-grade copper ores Instead of extracting copper from our limited copper-tich ores, scientists are developing new ways to gat capper from low-grade ores. This would be uneconomical using traditional methods. We can now use bacteria (bioleaching) and ovon plants (phytomining) to holp extract copper. In phytomining, plants can absor’ copper ions from low-grade copper ore as ‘they grow. This could be on slag heaps of previously discarded waste from the processing of copperrrich ores, Then the plants are burned and the metals can ba extracted from the ash, The coppar ions can be ‘leached’ (dissolved) from the ash by adding sulfuric acid, This makes a solution cf copper sulfate, Then we can use displacement by scrap iron and electrolysis to extract pure copper metal. In bioleaching, bacteria feed on low-grade metal ores. By a combination of biological and chemical processes, we can get a solution of copper ions (called a ‘leachate’) from waste copper ore. Once again, we use scrap Iron and electrolysis to extract the copper from the leachate. About 20% of our copper comes from bioloaching, This is likaly to increase as sources of copper-tich ores run out Bioleaching is a slow process so scientists are researching ways to speed it up. At presentitcan take years to extract 50% of the metal from a low-grade ore. Atego 4 Copy and complete using the words below: bactorfa smelting olectricity phytomining iron Traditionally, copper can be extracted from some of its ores by heating (com): I COppEr OFe Is treated With .......€Cld, We get a solution of copper sulfata. We can obtain copper metal from this solution either by adding ........ metal or by passing through the solution. Now new ways are being developed to extract coppar using ....... (bioleaching) or plants (........). These can extract the copper from........-grade Ores. Explain briefly two traditional ways of extracting copper metal. low sulfuric b State an advantage of extracting copper using bacteria rather than tracitional mathods. ‘© Why can copper eometimes be found native (as the element itself)? 4 When cooper is purified by electrolysis, which electrode do you think thal the pure copper collects at? Why? Write a balanced chemical equation for the extraction of copper: a from coppor(i) sufide from copper sulfate solution using scrap iron. [iH] [iH] ee Copper metal is so unreactive that some samples of capper existin nature as the element itsolf. tis found natve. A huge copper boulder was discovered by adivor at the bottom of Lake ‘Superior in North America. It was| raised to the surface in 2001. It ras a mass of about 15 000 ko, CO links For more information on the environmental impact of extracting metals and phytomining, see C1 3.6 Metallic issues. Figure 2 In Auetrals Dr Jazon Plumb looks for bacteria that can extract metals ‘om ores. His search takes him to some fexcting places - includirg velearoes! Otel ‘smetting (roasting) copper rich ores, although our Tees eer) eeu Meee Tec See Reeis Ce seks Ceo) ee edd uss peu s ata) ‘ways to extract copper eter ee oda) Ce eae) CayFigure 2 Copper ia particularly usc bbacause itis Such a good conductor of electrcty 9 In the centre of the periodic table there is a large block of metallic elements. They are called the . Many of them have similar properties. Lke all metals, the transition metals are very good conduciors of electricity and energy. They are strong but can also be bent or hammered into useful shapes. ‘rancton matals Figure 1 The position ofthe transition metals nthe periods able {_ In.which part of the periodic table do we find the transition metals? 1b Name three properties of these elements. ‘Tne properties of the transition metals mean that we can use them in many different ways. You will find them in bulldings and in cars, trains and other types of transport. Their strength makes them useful as building materials. ‘We use them in heating systems and for alactrical wiring because energy and electricity pass through them easly, Copper is a very useful transition metal. It can ba bent but is sill hard enough, for plumbers to use as water tanks or pipes. Fortunately, It does not react with water. Coppar also conducts electricity and anergy very well. So itis ideal where we need: © pipes that will carry water, or © wites that will concuct electricity. © What makes copper so useful for a plumber? seta propertios Figure 9 Transition metals are usad in many cffarant waye because of theCopper alloys Bronze was probably the first alloy made by humans, about 5600 years ago. It Is usually mace by mixing copper with tin. We use it to make ship's propellers bacause of its toughness and resistance to corrasicn. ‘We make brass by alloying copper with zine. Brass is much harder than, copper but itis workable. It can be hammered into sheets and prassed into intricate shaoes. This property is used to make musical instruments. Why are copper alloys more sultable for some uses than pure copper metal? Aluminium alloys Aluminium has a low density for a metal. Itcan be alloyed with a wide range of other elements. There are over 300 alloys of aluminium available. These alloys have very different properties. We can use some to build aircraft while others can be used as armour plating on tanks and other military vehicles. Figure 4 The Statue o Libery in New ‘York containe over 89 tonnes of capper Gold alloys ‘As with copper and iron, we can make gold anc aluminium harder by adding other elements. We usually alloy gold 2 with copper when we use it in jewellery, Fre gid eare sway more saaty nen its alloy with copper. By varying the f ‘expressed in ‘carats’, where proportions of the two metals we also 2a-carat golds almost pura get different shades of ‘gold’ objects. Figure 5 Aloying with copper makes (old (99.97%). I you divide the fH more hardening, Te is especially fpotartin weddng ange, wrichmeny” | Carat number by 24, you get the zi ‘The purity of gold is often people wear mast the time fraction of gold in your jewellery. Soan 18-carat gold ring will © What property of aluminium makes it useful for making alloys in tha contain % (75%) gold. aircraftindustry? Apart from making gold harder, what alse can alloying change? ‘Summary ques ‘Copy and complete using the words below: bo aluminium brass aircraft bronze sott transition rn Ty The ...--- Metals ate found in the central block of the periodic table. found in the central block Famine rot ehtc\aerer elec maa al eoerttee cise i Crore! ‘copper harder by alloying it with tin to make . and with zinc to Ld make... ue) ‘There are over 300 alloys of the low-density metal ......... Many of these Lie sala all ‘aro used to make whore strength ie also an important proporty. eae) r i making things. For example, ‘a Write alist of the properties ofa typical transition metal. fe pA hes b Why is copper metal used so much in plumbing? borers Siver and gold ave transition metals that conduct electricity even better conductivity. than copper. Why do we use copper to make electric cables instead of re ac ns otro) eee ee hou Why can aluminium alloys be used in so many different ways? Dee cd19 How Science Works Ru ocd ‘ What issues arise in ELE ee Cd eal ec fn Sra or) Pee hoe) out “—Gompleing agents may be ‘dee to enhance etal uptake of erep \ PU RUE Sy UY Ces eel feat SST =S Exploiting metal ores Itis ciffcult to imagine our lives without metals. They play a vital role in our technological society. Just think ofall those electrical davices we depend Con! Howaver, whenever we mine metal ores ‘rom the Earths crust there are consequences for our environment, You have seen that open cast mining is often used to get copper ere from the ground. The ores of iron and aluminium are also mainly mined like this. Huge pits thal scar the landscape are made, creating noise and dust and destioying the habitats of piants and animale, The mines also lecve large heape of waste rock. “Tho water in an area can also be affected by mining. As rain drains through exposed ores and slag heaps o/ waste, the groundwater can become acidi “Then the ores must be processed to extract ihe metals. For example, sulicle oFes are heeted strongly in smetting. Any sullur dioxice gas that escapes into the air will cause acid Phytomining ‘As plants grow, they absorb dissolved ions inthe soil through their roots. Some plants are very effective et absorbing metal ions. Once harvested, wo can extract the metals from ash left after burning the plants. This can be used in the phytomining of low-grade metal ores, such as copper ores. Copper metals extracted from the plant by dissolving the esh fn sulfuric acid frst of all Then the solution made can be electolysed to get the copper. The capper collects atthe negative electrode, Alternatively, scrap iron can be added to the solution to displace copper iron + copper sulfate ~>iron ulate + cooper Possible prstetion ofaleovioty ey — Et —- & -B ‘copper nickel faim gold Crop grews en so enrasng mate Pht atria urna Smal vor of lant Set iors coreetton to lw for corrtcnl 2h bo-cro) cotaning —tayblé mat ‘expotaton high concerto af Figure 1. Metal one ars absorbed by plants which can then be processed ‘apa neal to exvact:he metals Recycling metals (D CO links In the UK each person uses around 8 kg of aluminium every year. This is why For more information on open cast copper mining and phytomining, Took back at C1 3.4 Extracting copper. itis important to recycle aluminium. It saves energy, and therefore money, since racyoling aluminium does not involve electrolysis. Comparing reoycled aluminium with aluminium extracted from its ore, there is a. 95% energy saving. We aiso recycle iron and steel. Tin cans’ are usualy steal cans with a very thin coating of tin to prevent rusting. These cans are easy fo separale from rubbish as they are magnetic. Using recycled stael saves about 50% of the energy used to extract iron and turn it into steel. Much ot this eneray is supplied by burning feasil fuels 20 recycting helps save our dwincling supplies of the fuels. Copper is also recycled but this is tricky as itis often alloyed with other metals. So it would need to be purfied for use in electrical wiring,Reeycling metals reduces the need to mine the motal ore and conserves the Earth's reservas of metal ores. It also prevents any pollution problams that arise from extracting the metal from tis ore, ‘Stee! Is the most commonly used metal. Itis often used in the consiruction industry where strength is needed. For exampl @ skyscrapers have steel girders supporting them @ suspension bridges use thick steal cables @ concrete bridges aver motorways are made from concrete, reinforced with steel rods. However, steel does have some drawbacks. Unfortunately the iron in it ends. to rust. Stainless steel could ke used but cnly for small specialist jobs. That's because it is much more expensive than ordinary steel, Even so, protacting the steel from rusting also costs money. Coatings, such as paint or grease, also have to be reappliad regularly. Rusting wil affect the strongth of stael and can be dangerous. ‘Some benefits of using metals in construction ‘© Coppers a good electtical conductor for witing; itis nat reaative ¢o ean be ‘made into water pipes @ Lead cen be benteasly co is used 10 seal joints on reals © Sieel|s stong for girders anc seatfolcing © Aluminium alloys are corrocien- resistant, ‘Some drawbacks of using metals In ‘construction © tron and steel can rust, severely weekening structures, ¢.g, the Iron rods used Inside reinforced concrete rust, structures can collapee © The exploitation cf metal ares to extract metals causes polution and uses up the Earths limited resourees (© Metals are more expensive than ether rmateriais such as concrete. ‘Make a list of the processes required in ona of the following: @ extracting iron from its ore and then making stee! @ extracting aluminium from its ore @ recycling steel or aluminium. Highiight those processes that use a lot of energy. Then write a paragraph justifying the claims that recycling metal saves energy. 11 What can a mining company do to help the environment when an open- cast mine is no longer economic? 2 Each person in the UK uses about Bkg of aluminium each yeer. ‘a Recycling 1 kg cf aluminium saves about enough energy to run small electic fre for 14 hours. If you recycle 60% of the aluminium you use in one year, how long could you run a small electric fire on the eneray you heve saved? b Explain the benefits of recyciing aluminium, nyt Figure 2 Recycing cans saves energy ‘and reduces potion Figure 2 The Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco uses thick steel cables te supportitMetals and their uses: C1 3.1-C1 3.6 Summary questions @ (Write simple definitons for the following terms: a metalore b native state © chemical reduction. (2 We can change the properties of metais by alloying them with other elements. Write down three ways that a metal alloy may be cifforont from tho pure metal. @ 2 What name ie givon to the mothod of extracting copper from an ore: using bacteria using plants using heat iv using electricity? b Which methods in part a are being developed to oxtract copper from low. grade coppor ores? @ Describe how brassicae can bo used to decontaminate ‘brown-field’ sites and recover the polluting metals. [H] ‘6 Carry out some research to fing the advantages and cisadvantages of using bioleaching to extract copper metal, \6 By tho micdlo othe dooado scrap car doalors are roquirod to recover 95% of all materials used to make a car. The following table shows the metals we find in an average car: Material ‘Average mase ‘% mace 3) Ferrous metal 780 62.3 (steels) Light non-ferrous 2 63 ‘metal (mainly aluminium) Heavy non- w 18 ferrous meatal (for example lead) Other materials used includ plastios, ruober and glass. ‘a Whatis the average mass of metal b What percentage of a car's mass is made up of non. ‘metallic materials? What is the main metal found in most cars? Which of this meta's properties allows it to be separated easily fram other materials in tha serap) from a car? acar? gf? The following vas overheard in a jeweller’s shor “I would like to buy a 24-carat gold ring for my husband.” "Well madam, wo would advise that you buy one which ie a lower carat gold. It looks much the same but the more gold there is, the softer itis.” Is this actually the case? Let's have a look scientifically at tho data, Pure gold is said to be 24 carats. A carat is a twenty- fourth, s028 x 3 = 1 or pure gold. So 2 9-carat geld ting will have 2 Gold and # of another metal, probably copper or cometimes silver. Most ‘gold’ sold in shops i thersfore an alloy. How hard the ‘gold’ is will depend on the amount of gold and on the type of metal used to make the alloy. Here are some data on the alloys and the may hardness of ‘gold’. umn Gold alloy (carat) Maximum hardness (BHN) ° 170 4 100 8 230 22 90, 24 7 ‘a Which metals are used to alloy gold in jewellory? b Tho shop assistant said that ‘the mora gold thre is, the less hard itis’ Was this based on science or was it hearsay? Explain your answer, ¢ In this investigation which Is the independent variable? d Which type of variable is ‘the maximum hardness of the alloy’ ~ continuous or categoric? @ Plota graph of the results. 1) Whatis the pattem in the results?End of chapter questions AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 1 Bicycle frames are often made from metal tubes. The metal tubes are produced using the steps in this lst: mining > concentrating > extracting —> purifying > alloying — shaping Match each of the following statements with the correct word from the list. @ The metalis procuced using chemical reduction. (1) b The metal is mixed with other metals to make it harder and stronger. a ¢ The metal ore is dug from the ground a) Waste rock is removed from the metal ore. a € Other elements are removed from the metal. a) 2 Choose the correct words from those shown to complete each sentence. Gold is found in the Earth as a gold chloride gold metal gold oxide b Iron is exiracted by reacting iron oxide with a carbon copper nitrogen © Aluminium is extracted from aluminium oxide using a combustion distillation electrolysis 8 Copper metal is used for electric wires. An alloy of copper, caled brass, is usad for pins and terminals of electric plugs. a Copper metal is relatively soft and flexible. Give another reason why copper is used for elactic wires. (1) b Brass is an alloy. What is an alloy? a © Open-cast mining of copper ave makes a very large hole. [Suggest one environmental problem that is caused by open-cast mining of copper ore. a ii Some copper ores contain copper sulfice, Gus. Copper sulfide in heated in air to produce copper and sulfur dioxide GuS + 0, Gu + SO, Suggest one environmental problem caused by heating copper sulfide in ai a 4d The amount of coppertich ores is estimated to last only 2 few more years. New houses need several kilometres of copper wire | Explain why the need to use so much copper will cause a problom in tho future. w ii Suggest two ways in which society could overcome this problem. @ AQA, 2008 @ In this question you will be assessed on using good English, organising information clearly and using specialist terms whare appropriate. Most of the iron we use is converted into steels. Descrive and explain how the differences in the properties of the three main types of steel allow them to BS. used in different ways. 6 5 Titanium is used in aircratt, ships and hip replacement joints. Titanium is as strong as steel but 45% lighter, and is more resistant to acids and alkalis. Most tianium is produced from its ore, cule (titanium ide), by a batch process that takes up to 17 days, Titanium oxide is reacted with chlorine to produce titanium chloride —> Titanium chioride is reacted with magnesium at 00°C in a sealed reactor for 3 days > ‘The reactor i allowed to ccal, then opened and the ‘thanium is separated trom the magnesium chloride byhand, Titanium reactors produce about 1 tonne of the metal per day. lron blast furnaces produce about 20000 tonnas of the metal per hour. @ Give one property of titanium that makes it mora useful than steel for hip replacement joints. “ b Suggest three reasons why titanium costs more than steel. @) AQA, 2008 @ Phytomining uses plants to absorb matal compounds from the ground. It is often used on land that has been contaminated by normal mining. It involves these stages: Sow seeds + grow plants > harvast plants + dry plants — burn plants collect ash ‘The ash is then treated like a metal ore obtained by normal mining. ‘a Suggest one environmental advantage of phytomining compared with normal mining. ) ‘The table shows information about some metals that are absorbed by plants used for phytomining. Metal | Value of | Maximum mass | Percentage metal In £ | of metal in planta| (%) of metal in perkg | Ingperkg | normel ore Gold__| 25000 040 0.0ca Nickel 7 38 2 Copper 48 4 05 Zine 82 40 5 Lead 15 10 3 'b The plants used for gold phytomining give a maximum yield of 20 tonnes of plants per hectare, Calculate the maximum value of the gold that can be recovered from 1 hectare, @ ¢ One kilogram of plarts used for nickel phytomining produces 150g of ash. What is the percentage of nickel in the ash? @ Suggest reasons why phytomining has been used 10 produce gold, nickel and copper, but is only raroly used to produce zinc and lead. @eeu Kea ron Cd Figure 1 The price of neatly everything \we buy is affected by cil because the cost ‘oF moving goods tothe shops affects the rice we pay for them Crude oil and fuels Rice mech e(-Ke)|| ‘Some of the 21st century's most important chemicals come from crude oll. ‘These chemicals play a major part in our lives. We use them as fuels to run our cars, to warm our homes and to make electricity. Fuels are imoortant because they kaep us warm and on the move. So whan oil prices rise, itaffects us all. Countries that produce crude oil can affect the whole world economy by the price thay charge for their cil ‘a Why is ol so important? Crude oil Grude oil is a dark, smelly liquid. itis a mixture of ots of diferent chemical compounds. A mixture contains tive or more elements or compounds that are not chemically combinad together. Crude oil straight from the ground is net much use. There are too many substances in it, all with different boiling points. Bafore we can use crude oil, we must separate It into different substances with similar boling points. These are known as fractions. Because the properties of substances do not change when they are mixed, we can separate mixtures of substances in crude oil by using distillation. Distilation separates liquids with different boiling points bb Whatis crude ol? © Why can we separate crude oil using distillation? Demonstration Distillation of crude oil Mixtures of liquide can be separated using distillation. This can be done in the lab on a small scala, We heat the crude oil mixture so that it boils. The different fractions vaporise between different ranges of temperature. Wo can collect the vapours by cooling and condensing thom. ‘Thermometer A (min can measure up 10 390°C) rade a Receiving tute cald weer tT Heat fraction Sesond Fist ‘© What colour are the first few drops of liquid collected?[ —Fusistromerudoot Hydrocarbons (9) Nearly all of the compounds in cruce oil are compounds containing only hydrogen and carbon. We call these compounds hydrocarbons. Most of the hydrocarbons in cruce oil ara alkanes. You can see some examples of alkane molecules in Figure 2. i if iit hi eo A ha Aad had Nenana hana Prepare tiara Figure 2 We can represent alkanes like ths, showing allofthe atoms in the molecule, They fare called displayed formulae. The Ine dravm between two atoms in a molecule represerte the covalent bond halding ther tagather. CD links Look at the formulae ot the first five alkane molecules: For information on covalent bonding look backat O74 CH, (mothano) Foming bones 4H, (thane) C,H, (propane) Ci, (outa) 4A, (pentane). ‘Can you see a pattern in the formulae of the alkanes? We can write the general formula for alkane molecules like this: CoH iano which means that ‘for every n carbon atoms there are (2n + 2) hydrogen atoms’ For example, if an alkane contains 12 carbon atoms its formula willbe 5 links, cH, aH For more information on organic We describe elkanes as saturated hydrocarbons. This means that they compounds, see 03 5.1 Structures contain as many hydrogen etoms as possible in each molecule. No more of alcohols, carboxylic acids and hydrogen atoms can ba added. esters. Summary questions 1 Copy and complate using the words below: carbon disilation hycrocarbons. hydrogen mre el: Crude cil is... of compounds. Many of thase only contain atoms ork Of sores AND renee THEY at Calle... «The Compounds in crude us oll can be separated using... eel 2 We drill crude oil from the ground or secbed. Why is this crude ol not ent OnE nS very useful as a product itself? De ace a) 3a Write the formulae of the alkanes which have 6 to 10 carbon atom ied ‘Then find out their names. ey wo] Ee cremate (Se ¢ How many carbon atoms are there in an alkane which has 30 acute hycrogen atoms? Pere dasa odCrude oil and fuels Fractional distillation The compounds in crude oil eu ead Hydrocarbon molacules can be very different. Some are quite small, with SEES ere relatively fev carbon atoms in short chains. These short-chain molecules are Cs ‘the hydrocarbons that tand to be most useful. They make good fusls as they renee i bum wel. They are very flammable. Other hydrocarbons have lots of carbon PRP RN POMPEI atoms, and may have branches or side-chains. Ro Ld ‘The balling point of a hydrocarbon depencs on the size of its molecules. We Seen can use the differances in boiling points to separate the hydrocarbons in Peet crude oil Demonstration ye <7 a Comparing fractions ‘Shertctain Long eran ‘Your teacher might compare the viscosity and fammabiity of same fractions (mixtures: cf hydrocarbons with similar oiling points) that wo get from The crude oil, ag | = QT a verry ‘mew (ow viscosity) (high viscosity) a fame Figure 1 Tha properice af hydroserbone de ed on tho chain-longth of ther molecules a How does the length of the hydrocarbon chain affect: i the boiling point ii the viscosity (thickness) of a hydrocarbon? b Ahydrocarbon catches fire very easily. [sit likely to have molecules with long hydrocarbon chains or short ones?Fractional distillation of crude oil (9) We saparate cut crude ol into hydrocarbons ints, called fractions, We call this process fractional jon, Each hydrocarbon fraction contains molecules with similar numbers of caroon atoms. Each of these fractions boils at a different temperature range. That is because of the different sizes of their molecules. Relinry/petooun gas =— (short-chain tyerceatos an ow Boling pai akanes, used 2) =; escli/petrel — (_eed for fuolin cer enginas) oh — Kerosene fo. (used for arora fet) Diesel oi/cas of —I (sed as funn dese — engines and es bol fuel FG The ol is vacorsed eéor| i.gos into the tower ese {ary thick, stoly miure ot long-chain hydrocarbons, used inmaking roads ard lt ro0!s) Figure 2 Wo use factional dstlation to eaparata the mixture of hydrecarbane in crude cil into factiens. Each faction contains hydrocarbons with similar ball points. Crude oil is fod in near the bottom of a tall tower (a fractionating column) as hot vapour. The column is kept very hot at the bottom and much cooler at the top. The temperature decreases going up the column. The gases condense whon they rach the temperatura of their boiling points. So the cifforont fractions are collected as liquids at different levels. Crude oil enters the fractionating column and fractions are collected in a continuous process. Hydrocarbons with the smallest molecules have the lowest boiling points, They are collected at the cool top of the column. At the bottom of the column, the fractions have high bolling paints. Thay cool to form vary thick liquids or solids at room temperature. Once collected, the fractions nead more processing before they can be used. ‘Summary questions 1 Copy and complete using the words below: easily distilation fractions high mixture viscosity Crude oll Is a......... of many different hydrocarbons, We can separate crude oil into difforent......... using faotional......... . A hydrocarbon molecule with many carbon atoms will have a. boiling point and - Hydrocarton molecules with few carbon atoms catch fire ‘and burn with a cleaner flame. ‘4 Explain the steps involved in the fractional distillation of crude ol. b Make a table to summarise how the proparties of hydrocarbons depend on the size of thelr molecules. Cerny A.quarter of the world's reserves of crude oil are found In Saudi Arabia. ‘There are many cifferent types of crude oil. For example, caude oil from Venezuela contains many long-chain hydrocarbons. It is very dark and thick and we call it heavy ‘crude. Other countries, such as Nigaria and Saudi Arabia, produce crude oil which is much paler in colour and runnier. This is ‘ight’ crude. Figure 3 An cil inary at night ror Deen Cees Oe uo eee tuk ek kal their hydrocarbon molecules. Orie kcc Ca ud eka ees udued eri al Ce fuels in a good supply of air? ‘What pollutants are produced Std DO links For information on useful fractions from crude oil, look back at C1 4.2 Fractional distiation. ad Figure 1 On cold day we can often see ‘the water arocuced when fossil fuels bum Crude oil and fuels Burning fuels {* ‘The lighter fractions from crude oll are very useful aa fuels. When hydrocarbons bumn in plenty of air they release energy. The reaction produces two new substances ~ carbon dioxide and water. For example, when propane burns we can write: propane + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + wator C,H, + 50, + SCO, + 44,0 ‘The carbon and hydrogen in the fuel are oxidised completely when they burn like this. ‘Oxidised’ means adding oxygon in a chemical reaction in which oxides are formed. Gre Products of combustion We can tast the products given off when a hydrocarbon bums as shown In Figuie2, To water pum Bunsen fare (a@irhole dosed) leobah — Buu coat che nauralges—_E ana paper Figure 2 Testing the products formed when a hydracarsone burns ‘© What happens to the limewater? Which gas ia given off? ‘© What happens in the U-tube? Which substance is present? a What are the namas of the two substances produced when hydrocarbons bum in plenty of alr? b Methane is the main gas in natural gas. Write a word equation for ‘methane buming in plenty of air. Pollution from fuels All fossil fueis - oil, coal and natural gas ~ produce carbon dioxide and water when they bum in plenty of air. But as well as hydrocarbons, these fuels also contain other substances. Impuritias containing sulfur found in fuels cause us maior problems.EES All fossil fue!s contain at least some sulfur. This reacts with oxygen when we bum the fual. it forms 2 gas called sulfur dioxide. This gas is poisoncus. Itis also acidic. This is bad for the environment, as its a cause of acid rain, Sulfur dioxide can also cause engine corrosion. ‘© When fuels burn, what element presentin the imouritias in a fossil Fuel ‘may produce sulfur dioxide? d_ Which pollution problem does sulfur dioxide gas contribute to? When we burn fuels ina car engine, even more pollution can be produced. © When there is not enough oxygen inside an engine, we get incomplete combustion. Instead ofall he carbon in the fuel turning into carbon dioxide, we also get carbon monoxide gas (CO) formed. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas. Your red blood cells pick up this gas and carry it around in your blocd instoad of oxygen. So even quits small ‘amounts of carbon monoxide gas are very bad for you. © The high temperaturs ince an engine cleo alow the nitrogen and oxygen iin the air to react together. This reaction makes nitrogen oxides. These are poisoncus ard can tigger some peoples asthma, They also ceuse acl Fawe Asonbiaonofrany cars rain, ‘conditione can cause emag ta be formed. ‘This ise mbture o! SMoke and (0G. © Diesel engines burn hycrocarbons with much bigger molecules than petrol engines. When these big molecules react with oxygen in an engine they do not alvrays burn completely. Tiny solid particles containing carbon and unbburnt hydrocarbons are produced. These particulates get carried into th a Sent hat oy ray damage cles cr binge a even cause cancer. ‘© When we burn hydrocarbon fuels In plenty of air the Cee ard fuel are completely oxidised. Deu et and water, Panne al Pec eg Cee us eae a 1 Copy and complete using the words below: Peele keeacal monoxide carbon nlirogen oxidised particulates sulfur water CNEL ID eee When hydrocarbons bur in a good supply of ar... oxide and ss ‘are mado, a6 the carbon and hydrogan in tho FU6l 20 ever AS re oer well as these compounds other substances such as. ... dioxide may Do Re bbe made which causes acid rain, Other pollutants that may be formed Peery ns include. oxides, carbon on. AND nonce Dt teas especially if the fuel is diesel. Explain how a sulfur dioxide b nitrogen oxides and e particulates aro produced when fuels burn in vehicles. a Natural gas is mainly methane (CH,), Write a balancad symbol Ge ae engines, nitrogen from the air equation for the complete combustion of methane. [HI pol oo b When naturel gas burs in a faulty gas heater it can produce carbon vas ° Lice ube elnentoraed ee ey a (ae eo euCrude oil and fuels fos [=F Vat=] NTE} ‘When we burn fuels, as well as producing carbon dioxide and water, we produce other substances. Mary of these harm the environment, and can aifect our health. eu ead ea kad CO tens tekena Pollution from our cars does not stay in one place but spreads through the Cece atmosphere, For a long time the Earth's atmosphere seemed to cope with all TT this pollution, But the huge increase in our use of fossil fuels in the past 190 Psat years means that pollution is a real concern now. ‘@ Why is there more pollution in the air from fossil fuels now compared with 100 years ago? What kinds of pollution? (3) When we bur any fusl containing carton, makes carbon dioxide, Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas in the air. it absorbs energy released as radiation from the surface ofthe Earth, Most scents think that this is causing global warming, which affects tomperatures around tho world. Look atthe increase in our production of carbon dioxide and average global temperature data over recent times Difference from sage ‘lobal temperature (°C) _~ ot w7s0 1801850 19001960 20002060 go i940 1900 «1980 += 2co0«= 200 Yoo Year Figure 1 Cumulative caroon diovide emissions ftom burning fessil Figure 2 Diferencas fram average glabal temperatures overtime: fuels and the manufacture of cement People are worried abeut changing climates, and metting ice caps that could aiee coa ovale Burning fuels in engines also produces other substances. One group of pollutants is called the particulates. These are tiny solid particles made up 6 carbon (e00t) and unbumt hydrooarbons. Scientists think that these may be especially bad for young children. Particulates may also be bad for the environment too. They travel into the upper atmosphere, reflecting sunlight back into space, causing global dimming. Carbon monoxide is formed when there is not enough oxygen for complete combustion of a fuel. Then the carbon in itis partially oxidised to form carbon monoxide. Garbon monoxide Is a serious pollutant because it affects the amount of oxygen that our blood is able to carry. This is particularly serious for paople who have problems with their hearts.EEE Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from burning fue!s damage us and our environment. In Britain, scientists think that the number of peapla who suffer from asthma has increased because of air pollution, Suifur dioxide and. nitrogen oxides also form acid rain. These gases dissolve in watar droplets in the atmosphere and react with oxygen, forming sulfuric and nitric acids, The rain with a low pH can damage plant and anitrals. b Name four harmful substances that may be produced when fuels burn. Cleaning up our act We can reduce the effects of burning fuels in saveral ways. For example, we can remove harmful substances from the gases that are produced when we burn fuels. For some time the exhaust systems of cars have been fitted with catalytic converters. A catalytic converter greatly reduces ‘tho carbon monoxide and nitragon oxides produced by a car engine. They are expensive, as thay contain precious metal catalysts, bul once warmed up they are very effective. Caaytic cemertar ‘The metal catalysts are arranged so that they have a very large surface area. This causes the carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides in the exhaust gases to react together. They produce carbon dioxide and nitrogen: ‘carbon monoxide + nitrogen oxides > carbon dioxide + nitrogen ‘So although catalytic converters reduce the toxic gases given out, they do not hhalp reduce levels of carbon cioxide in the air. Filtora can also remove most particulates from modem diesel engines. The filters need to bur off the trapped solid particles otherwise they gat blocked. In powar stations, eulfur dioxide is removed from the waste or ‘ue’ gases by reacting it with calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide, This is called flue gas desuifurisation, The sulfur impurities can also be removed from a fuel before the fual is burned. This happens in petrol and diasel for cars, as wall as in the natural gas and oll used in power stations. Summary questions ‘1 a Why is carbon dioxide called a greenhouse gas? b How do you think particulates in the atmosphere Earth's temperature? © Which gases are mainly responsible for acid rain? 2 a Which pollutants irom a car does a catalytic converter remove? b Why will catalytic corverters not help to solve the problem of, greanhouse gases in the atmosphere? 3a Explain how acid rain is formed and how wo are reducing the proolem. b Compare the effects of global warming and global dimming. ¢ Particulates in the atmosphere could eventually settle on the polarice caps. What problem might this make worse? engine exhaust gases, CO links For more information on how we can also use altemative fuels to reduce pollution, see 014.5 Alternative fuels. ese engines can now be tad wh ‘ites 0 remove solid particulates 12 Modem cere aro fited with cetaiyic converters, Fills can also remove mest ofthe particulates frm closet Pore Substances that spread Rue Peetu Cee euskal Re ed Ree ee a Carbon dioxide produced from buning fuels is a Greenhouse gas. It absorbs ‘onorgy which ie lost from Peed radiation, Dec) bby buming fuels may be ee ee hd Peek haaukenats cat iid eked Sac fers Prue Pe ecu) Pe cee cd gas being formed.Rou ocd ed etre) Oe eae) end et tee) De er ano nr Figure 1. This coach runs on biodiesel Activity In a group of three, each choose a different task: A Write an article for a local newspaper describing the arguments for using biodiesel instead of other fuels made from crude oil. B Writo a lottor to the Newspaper pointing out why the article in A should not claim that biodesel makes no overall contribution of globel warming. Write an article for the newspaper focussing on the drawbacks of using biodiesel, Read each other's work and decide whether biodiesel will be @ major fuel in 20 years lime, Crude oil and fuels PVM (ats) Biofuels Biofuels are fuels that are made from plant or animal products. For example, biodiesel is made from ola extracted from plants. You can even use old cooking oil as a biofuel. Biogas is generated from animal waste. Biofue's will bacorne more and more important as aur supplies of crude oil run out. a Whatis biodiesel? Advantages of biodiesel ‘There are advantages in using biodiesel as a fuel. @ Biodiesel is much less harmful to animals ang plants than diesel we get from crude oi. if itis spilled, it breaks down about five times faster than ‘normal diesel. ‘© When we burn biodiesel in an engine It burns much more cleanly, reducing ‘the particulatos emitted. It aleo makes vory little sulfur dioxide, © As crude oil supplias run out, its price will increase and biodiesel will become cheaper to use than petrol and diesel. @ Anothor really big advantage over petrol and diesel is the fact that the crops used ta make biodiesel absorb carbon dioxide gas as they grow, So biodiesel is in theory ‘CO, neutval. That means the amount of carbon dioxide given off whon it burns is balanced by the amount absorbed as the plants it is made from grow. Therefore, biodiesel makes little contribution to the greenhouse gases in our atmosphere. Howover, wo can't claim that biodiasal makes a 2010 cortribution to carbon icxide emissions. We should realy take into account tha CO, released when: ~ fertlising and harvesting the crops ~ extracting and processing the oil = transporting the plant matecial and biadiasel made. © When we make biodiesel we also produce cther useful products. For example, we get a solid waste material that we can feed to cattle as a high- enargy food. We also get glycerine which we can use to make soap. Disadvantages of biodiesel “There are however disadvantages in using biodiesel and other bicfuels as a fuel. © The use of large areas of farmland to produce fuel instead of food could pose problems. If we start to roly on oil-producing crops for our fuel, land (once used for food crops will turn to growing biofuel crops. co, Paris absarb CO, C0, produned as as they grow Convertdto Biociosoli brad ‘tes 1 Y. => Figure 2 Cars that run on biodiesel produce vey litle CO, overall 2s CO,is absorbed by the plants used 10 make the fuel‘This could resultin famine in poorer countries if the price of staple food crops rises as demand overtakes supply. Forasts, which absorb lots of carbon dioxide, mightalso be cleared to grow the biofuel cropsiff they get more popular. © People ara also worried about the destruction cf habitats of endangered species. For example, orang-utans are under threat of extinction. Large aroas of tropical forest whore thay lve are boing turned into palm plantations for palm oil used to make biodiesel. © Atlow temperatures biodiesel wil start to treeze before traditional clesel. It ‘tums into a sludge. Athigh temperatures in an engine it can turn sticky a its molecules join together and can ‘gum up’ engines. Using ethanol as a biofuel Another biofuel is ethanol. We can make it by fermenting the sugar ftom sugar beet or sugar cane. In Brazi they can grow lots of sugar cane. They add the ethanol made to patrel, saving money as well as our dwindling supplies of crude oll. As with biodiese), the ethanol gives off carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) when itbuins, but the sugar cane absorbs CO, gas during photosynthesis. b Why is buming othanol a botter choice of fuel than petrol ifwe wantto ‘igure 3 Ethanol can be madefrom reduce carbon dioxide emissions? ‘sugarcane SO links Far more inforration on ethanol Hydrogen ~a fuel for the future sae 015.5 Ethanol Sciantists are very interested in developing hydragen as afual Ir burns well with avery clean flame as thete is no carbon inthe tusk hydrogen + oxygen — water 2H, +0, 3 2H,0 ‘Aa you can 22° inthe equation, waioris the only product nthe combustion of hycragen. There are no palitants made when Fydragen burns and no extra Ccaroon oxide is added 1 the alt Not only tat, water is porewaly a huge natural eurce of hydrogen. The hydrogen can be obtained from wator by ectolysis. But the alectcty must be supplied by a renewable energy source ifwe want 0 conserve fosst fuels and convrel carton divide emissions, However, there are problems o cove before hydragen becomes a common fuel. When mixed with air and ignited itis explosive, So there are safety cconcams in case ofeaks, or accidents in vehicles powered by hydrogen Vehicles normaly run on qual fuois but hycragan isa gas, Thorafore it takes up a much larger volume than quid fuss. So storage is an issue. We can use Plt) high-pressure cylinders but these also have safety problems in crashes. Te Summary questions Sere ee eal Ca ees! errr) Seer hasten} 11 Copy and complete these sentences using the words below: carbon dioxide diesel plants Biodiesel i a fuel made from.......... lt produces less pollution than ‘obtained from crude cil, and absorbs nearly as much \when the plants that make it grow as it does when it burns. 2 Where does the energy in biodiesel come from? 3 a Explain why hydrogen is potentially a pollution free fuel. bee b Why isn’t hydrogen used as an everyday fual at tha moment? for the future. ore tiaateh Ce cud asCrude oll and fuels: C1 4.1-C1 4.5 Summary questions 8 © This question is about the alkane family of compounds, a The alkanes are all ‘saturated hydrocarbons” i What is a hydrocarbon? What does saturated mean when deser alkane? ing an b i Give the nama and formula of this alkane: it Hoe HoH Il What do the letters represent in this displayed formula? What do the linas between latters reprasent? © What is the general farmula of the alkanes (where a the number of carbon atoms)? Give the formula of the alkane with 20 carbon atoms. (2 One alkane, A, has a boiling point of 344°C and another, B, has a boiling point of 126°C. a Which one will be collected nearer the top of a ‘ractionating column in an oil refinery? Explain your choices b Which one will ba the better fuel? Explain your cheice. © Give another difference you expect between Aand B. 1 2 Name the two products formed when a hydrocarbon burns in enough oxygen to ensure that complete combustion takes place. bb What problem is associated with the increased levels of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere? © 1 What gas Is glven off rom fossil fuel power stations that can cause acid rain? Give two ways of stopping this gas getting into the ‘atmosphere from power stations. Name the other cause of acid rain which comes from car engines? Iv How do car makers stop the geses in pert entering the air? ¢ Why are diesel engines now fitted with after for their exhaust fumes? @ a Which one of these fuels could be termed a ‘biofuel’? Hydrogen Propane Ethanol Petro! Coal 'b Biodiesel is potentially “CO, neutral’. What does this, moan? ¢ Scientists are concerned about the issue of global warming. Why is the use of hydrogen as 2 fuel one way to tackle the problem? d State two problems with the use of hydrogen 2s a fuel. @ Write a word and a balanced symbol equation to show the combustion of hydrogen. TH ef This apparatus can be used to compare the energy given out when different fuels are burned. ‘The burners waighed before and after to detarmine the amount of fuel burned, The temperature of the water is taken bofore and aftr, to got the tamporaiure rise. The investigation was repeated. From this the amount of energy released by burning @ known amount of fuel can be caleulated Design a table that could be used to collect the data as you carry out this experiment. A processed table of rasults is given balow. Fuel ‘Mass burned (g) | Temperature rise eo) Ethanol 43 4a Proparol 54 5856 Butane! 52 (6 70 Pentanol 54 7% 76 b List three variables that nead to be controlled, ¢ Describe how you would take the temperature of the ‘water to got the most accurate meaaurement possible. d Do these results show precision? Explain your answer? ‘e How might you present these results?Erp uk cu! AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 4) The table shows some information about the first four alkanes. Tiana afalane | Fermule | Boting pontine Methane cH, “162 on, 5 Propane oH, Butane ° ai Name the alkane missing from the table. a What is the formula of butane? () Estimate the boiing point of propane, 0 b Which one of the following is the formula of the alkano with 6 carbon atoms? CH, CH Cig Core a © Explain why alkanes are hydrocarbens. @ 4 A molecule of methane can ke represented as: 4 I H-o-H H Drawa molecule of propane inthe sameway. (2) 2 Some crude cil was distilled in a fractionating column. ‘The table shows the boiling ranges of three ofthe fractions that were collected. Fraction | Bolling range inc A 60-420 . 60-280 ° 240-820 ‘@ Which of these fractions is the most flammable? (1) b Which of these fractions is the most viscous? w © Which of these fractions has the smallest hydrocarbon molecules? a Why do the fractions have boiling ranges and not boiling points? a 3) Some landfil sites produce a gas that can be collected and burned as a fuel. The gas is mainly methane. ‘@ Choose the word from the list to complete the sentence. condensed distilled oxidised During the combustion of mothane the olemonts in tho fuel are a) bb Wiite a word equation forthe complete combustion of methane, CH, @ © Under what concitions could mathane burn to produce carbon monoxide? “) 4 A sample of landill gas was burned. The waste gases contained sulfur dioxide, Explain why. ‘) @ Crude oil is a resource from which fuels can be separated. a Tha name of the main fuel fractions and one of tha Fydrocarbons in each fraction are shown in the table. ‘ina Sai a clon trioexton — ee 2 Er tt re He Orsi ue enoot = 1 How does the number of carbon ators in a hydrocarbon affect its boiling point? 0 ‘Suggest the lowest temperature to which crude oil needs te be heated to vaporise all the hydrocarbons in the tabla. Temperature “c? @ Dodecane boils at 218°C. At what temperature will dodecane gas condense to liquid? Temperature = “co? w In this questicn you will be assessed on using good English, organising information cleerly and using ‘specialist terms where appropriate. Describe and oxplain how the fractions are separated in a fractionating column, 6) 73eu ead re unca De Ae tec ery io Re eee are they cifferent from alkanes? Figure 2 Inan cil refinery, huge crackers like this are used to break down large hhycrocarbon molecules into smaler ones c=o 7’ H # Bene auble bond 4 4 Liye H-¢—c4c i N, 4 4 Propone Figure 2 A molecule of ethene (G,H,| end a molecu of propane (G{H). These are both akenes ~ each ‘molecule hes a carbon-carbon double Products from oil ole Cel ute M NC eer lates ‘Some of the heavier fractions that we get by distilling crude cil are not very useful. The hydrocarbons in them are made up of large molecules. They are thick liquids o: solids with high boiling paints. They are difficult to vaporise and do not burn easily - so they are no good as fuels! Yet the main demand from crude oil is for fuels. Luckily we can break down larga hydrocarbon molecules in a process we call cracking, The process takes place at an cil refinery in a steel vessel called a cracker. In the cracker, a heavy fraction produced from ccude oil is heated to vaporise the hydrocarbons. The vapour is then either passed over a hat catalyst or mbed with steam, It Is heated to a high temperature. The hydrocarbons are cracked as thormal decomposition reactions take place. The large moloculos split apart to form smaller, more useful ones. a Why is cracking so important? b How are large hydrocarbon molecules cracked? Example of cracking (@) Dooane is a medium-sized molecule with ton carbon atoms. When we heat itto 500°C with a catalyst it breaks down. One of the molecules produced is pentane which is used in petrol. riggy “errr H Figure 1 Pextane (C.H,,) can be used 2s a fuel. This isthe displayed formula of pentane, We also get propane and ethene which we can use ta produce other chemicals. 900°C + catalyst > OH, + pentane Oy Hey CH, decane propene + OH, ethene This reaction is an oxamplo of tharmal decompesition. Notice how this cracking reaction produces different types of molecules. ‘Ons of the molecules is pentane. The first part of its namo tolls us that it thas five carbon atoms (pent). The last part ofits name (-ane) shows that it is an alkane. Like all other alkanes, pentane is a saturated hydrocarbon. Its molecules have as much hydrogen as possible in them, The other molecules in this reaction have names that end slightly differently. They end in -ena. We call this type of molecule an alkene. The cifterent ending tells us that these molecules are unsaturated. They contain a double bond between two of their carbon atoms. Look et Figure 8. You can see that alkenes hhave one double bond and have the general formula C,H.)Cracking Medicinal paraffin is a mixture of hydrocarbon ‘molecules. You can crack it by heating It and. passing the vapour over hot piaces of broken ot. The oroken pot acts as a catalyst. ‘© Why must you remove the end ofthe delivery ceric ‘tube from the water before you stop heating? woo! scahed in Ifyou carry out this practical, collect at least —-madcina two test tubes of gas. Test one by putting a parafin lighted splint into it. Test the other by shaking it with a few drops of bromine water. Cepheid Acimple experiment like the one above shows that alkenes burn. They also react with bromine watar (which is orange). Tha products of this reaction are colourless, This means that we have a good test to see if a hydrocarbon Is unsaturated: Positive tost: unsaturated hydrocarbon + bromine water -> products (orange-yelow) (colourless) Negative test: saturated hydrocarbon + bromine water > no reaction (orange) (orange) Emre ten 1 Copy and complote using the words bok alkenes catalyst cracking double hoating unsaturated Large hyérocarbon molecules ara broken down by........them and passing them over ahot........ This is callad........ . Some of the molecules produced when we do this contain a... bond. They are called... hydrocarbons. They ara examples of a group of hydrocarbons called the... 2. Cracking a hydrocarbon makes two new hydrocarbons, Aand B. When bromine water is added to A, nothing happens. Bromine water added to B turns from an orange solution to colourless. @ Which hydrocarpon is unsaturated? b Which hydrocarbon is used as a fuel? € What type of raaction is cracking an example of? Cracking can be carried out by passing large hydrocarbon molecules over a hot catalyst. Stato anothor way to crack a hydrocarbo: industry. {An alkene molecule with one double bond contains 7 carbon atoms. How many hydrogen atoms does it have? Write down its formula. Decane (with 10 carbon atoms) is cracked into octane (with 8 carbon atoms) and ethene, Write a balanced equation for this reaction. [1] eer Ethene gas makes fruits such as bananas ripen. Bananas ara picked and stored as the unripe green fruit. When they are required for display in a shop ethene gas is passed over the stored bananas to start the ripering process, YA Examiner's tip Remamber: alkanes are saturated alkenes have a double bond = (equals) Com Ore Pron cabbinsoas eda Coa tana Saar utara Fee ue Sed — by passing the vapours Cs Cire Taek! Pritt h aut tee) ee) hydrocarbons (called Ce Oe kukeca cd Seen CsProducts from oil Making polymers from alkenes The fractional distillation of crude oil and cracking produces a large range of hydrocarbons. These are very important to our way of life. Oil products are all around us. We simply cannot imagine life without them, Hydrocarbons are our main fuels. We use them in our transport and at home to cook and for heating. We also use them to make electricity in oll-ired power stations, ‘Then there are the chemicals we make from crude cil. We use them to make things ranging from cosmetics to explosives. But one of the mast important ways that we use chemicals from oll is to make plastics. Plastics Plastics are made up of huge molaculas made from lots of small molecules joined together. We call the small molecules monomers. We call the huge moleaules they make polymers. (Mono means ‘one’ and poly means ‘many’). ‘We can make different typas of plastic which have very different properties by using different monomers. Figure 1 Allof these products were andasuredusrgcremcas Male rg ways hat wo use fuels b What are the small molecules that make up a polymer called? MONOMERS =» PoLwnien e e e e => & cocceocoe « e Ply(ather) =>" BHfeeee te. Plyipopore) remade fram meny erallr molaculze called monomers Ethene (C,H,) is the smallast unsaturated hydrocarbon molecula. We can turn it into a polymer known as poly(ethene) or polythene. Poly(ethene) is a really useful plastic, Itis easy to shape, strong and trensparent (unless we add colouring material to it). Plastic’ bags, plastic drink bottles, dustbins and cingilim are all examples of poly(ethene). Propene (C,H,) is another alkene. We can aiso make polymers with propene as the monomer. The polymer formad is called poly(propene).Itforms a very strong, tough plastic. We can use it to make many things, including carpets, milk cratas and ropes. Figure 3 Polymers produced ftom oll ¢ Isethene an alkane or an alkene? ‘areal arourd us and are par cf our Which polymer can we make from propene monomers? rerylay ives 8Se How do monomers join together? ‘When alkene molecules join together, the double bond betwaen the carbon aioms in each molecule ‘opens up’. Itis replaced by single bonds as thousands of molaculas join togethar. The reaction is callod polymerisation. H HoH HoH HH y \, rbd td + Nomcl + oe ego t ato " Ho# HHH HOH A Ethene monomers Poly(ethena) ‘We can also write this more simply as: n ded bab) waanis =F PY, rata Many single Long chein tamene manarners ot poycetnene) Activity Modelling polymerisation Use « molecular model kt to show how ethene molecules polymerise to form poly(ethene). Make sure you can see how the equation shown above represents the polymerisetion reaction you have modelled. You should also be able to describe what happens to the bonds in the reaction. Think up a model to demonstrate the polymerisation of ethene, using people in your class as monomers. Evaluate the ideas of other groups. (QA Examiner's tip ‘The dotislo C=C bond in ethene (an alkene) makes itrmuch more reactive than ‘ethane (an alkane). Amro etn 1 Copy and complete using the words below: polymerisation ethene monomers polymers Plastics are made of large molecules called.......... We make these by pining together lots of small, reactive molecules called, One ‘example of a polymer is po¥ylethene), made trom... Poly(ethene) is formed as a result of... reaction. Com 2 Why is ethene the smallest possible unsaturated hydrocarbon See molecule? sa pe displayed formula of a propene molecule, showing all its OR eater ciation b Draw a diagram to show how propene molecules join together to form Pa pease poly(sropens). Join together, The reaction Is ¢ Explain the polymerisation reaction in b. polled poipaveriention’Products from oil RET To MET ole tere , a Chemists can design new polymers to make materiale with special properties Learning objectives 10 do particular jobs. Medicine is one area where we are beginning to see big Honan uig now benefits irom these ‘polymers made to order’ eat New polymer materials will evertually take over from filings for teeth which > contain mercury. Working with the toxic mercury every day is @ potential bebiahdillntl bia hazard to dental workers, Other davelopmerts include: @ new softer inings for dentures (false teeth) ¢ new packaging material €@ implants that can slowly release drugs into a patient. ‘What do we mean by a ‘designer polymer’? Light-sonsitive plasters We all know how uncomfortable puling a plaster off your skin can be. But for somo cf us taking off a plastor is roally painful. Both very old and vory young people have quite fragile skin, But now a group of chemists has made a plaster where the ‘stickiness’ can be switched off before the plaster is, removed. The plaster uses a light-sensitive polymer. Figure 1 sticking plaster is often needed when wo cut aurecivee, Getting hurt isnt much fan and sometimes taking the paster off can be pantul tco. 1 The pastes puton just ike ary normal plaster 2 To remove the plaster, the payers peeled 3 Once the lower layer fs exposed tothe ig, the nay ‘ram the ower layer which stays stuck adhesive becomes ls stick, mang i easy to tothe skin ed ff your stn Evaluating plastics Plan an investigation to compare and evaluate the suitability of different plastics fora particular use. Figure 2 This plasier uses. lightsensitve polymer Hydrogels Hydrogels are polymer chains with a few cross-Inking units between chains. ‘This makes a matrix that can trap water, Those Fydrogels are used ae wound ethanol + carbon dioxide (glucose) CH,,0, —>20,H,0H + — 2€0, 1a Which gas is given off when sugar is fermented? 1b Yeast is a living thing. It is a type af fungus. What type of molacuias in yeast enable Il to ferment sugar? Practical Fermentation Inthis experiment you can ferment sugar solution with yeast and test the gas given off, Ifyou leave your apparatus til next losson, your teacher can cclloct some fermented mixtures together and distil it to collect the ethanol formed. We use fractional distillation for the best separation as water and. ethano| have similar boiling points. Ethanol boils at 78°C. The ethanol collected will ignite anc burn with a ‘clean’ blue flame. Ethanol is also usad as a solvent. Methylatad spirit is mainly ethanol Decorators can use it to clean brushes after using an ol-based paint. ILis also used to make perfume. We have already seen how ethanol can be used as a fuel. It can be mixed with petrol or just used by itself to run cars. a fuels,EET Making ethanol from ethene (hydration) Ethanol for industrial use as a fuel or solvent can be made from ethene gas instead of by fermentation. Remember that ethene is made when oll ‘companias crack hycrocarbons to make fuels. Ethane is the main by-product, made in cracking. Ethene gas can react with steam to make ethanol, catalyst ethene + steam——> ethanol ©,H, + H,O ——>©,H,OH This reaction is called hydration. ‘© Where do we get the ethene from to make industrial ethanol? “The reaction requires eneray to heat the gases and to generate a high pressure. The reaction is reversible so ethanol can break down back into ethene and steam. So unreacted ethene and steam noed to be racyclod over the catalyst. This process Is continuous. It also produces no waste produots. Both of those are advantages when making products in industry. When ethanol is made industrially by fermentation, the process is carried cout in large vats which have to be left. This is called a batch process, which takes a lot longer than a continuous proceas. Carbon dicxide, a grenhouse: 925, is also given aff in fermentation, However, using ethene to make ethanol relies on caude oil which is a non-renewable resource Therefore making ethanol as a biofuel, by fermenting sugars from plant material (a ronewalblo resource), will become ever more importart. The sugars are from crops. such as sugar cane or sugar beet. Any cereal crop can also be used as the raw material. These naad their starch to be broken dawn to sugars before ‘fermentation takes place. However as we have seen before there are issues that need to be addreased when using orops for large-scale industrial processes. Etre ons Copy and complete using the words below: catalyst sugar yeast steam Ethanol can be made by two processes, ethene reacting with... undor pressure in tho prosencs of a... 0F the fermentation oF using enzymes in... . Write a word equation to show the production af athanol from: a ethene b glucces. is a continuous process better than @ batch process for making a industry? How can people claim that the ferment contribute to the increase in carbon of plant materi CD links For information on cracking, look back at C1 6.4 Cracking hydrocarbons. Figure 2 Industrial fermentation is a siow batch process. The ethanol ‘must be distlled af fram the fermented mixture. Tris requires energy even though the fermentation proceea fielfie onorgy effciant OD Kinks For information on the issues of using crops for large scale industrial processes, [ook back at C1 4.5 Alternative fuels, ee teal Ceca a ec L ce Mee rca eo ud Parke k tec} Peet Carbon dioxide is also made yest Td ethanol needs non-renewable ee el Se eon acd eee!ee oR bey Summary questions @ @ Write simple definitions for the following words: 2 hydrocarbon oracking distllation saturated hydrocarbon unsaturated hydrocarbon monomer polymer biodegradable polymer fermentation. Propene is a hycrocarben molecule containing three carbon atoms and six hydrogen atoms. What is the chomical formula of propeno? b Draw the display formula of propene, showing all its bonds, ¢ Is propene a saturatod molacule or an unsaturated molecule? Explain your answer. d You are given two unlabelled test tubes. One test {ube conlains propane gas, while the other test tube ‘contains propene gas. Explain how you could tost which tube contains which gas, stating clearly the results obtained in each case. e Propene molecules will react together to forrn long chains. i What do we call this type of reaction? ii Compare the properties of the reactants to those of the product. Amolecule of ethene ie a similar to a molecule of propene. Give an equation to show the reaction of ‘ethene to make poly(ethene). Why does the disposal of much of our plastic waste ‘cause probleme? b How can chemists help to solve the issues in part a using a plant material such as starch fram corn? Write a ward equation and a balanced symbol ‘equation for the reaction between ethene and steam. [HI b Write a word and balanced symbol equation for the fermentation of glucose. [HI \ Draw a tablo showing the advantages and disadvantages cf making ethanol rom ethene or from sugar obtained from plant material. {© Chemists have developed special waterproof materials, made from polymers. The polymer materials have pores that aro 2000 times smallor than a drop of water. However, the tiny pores are 700 times larger than a water molecule. Explain why these materials are descrived as ‘breathable! ‘9 Non-biodagradable plastic has been used for many years for growing melons. The piants are put into holes in the plastic and their shocts grow up above the plastic. The melons are protected from the soil by the plastic and grow with very few marks on them. Biodegradable plastic has been tested - to reduce the amount of nan -recyoled waste plastic. Inthis investigation two large plots were used to grow melons. One using biodegradable plastic, the other using normal plastic, The results were as follows: Plastic used Total yield | Average mess (kgiheetare) ‘of melons. produced (kg) Non-biodegradable 4829 24 Biodegradable 3560 22 a This was a fiald investigation. Describe how the experimenter would have chosen the two plots. b What conclusion can you draw from this investigation? ¢ How could the rallability of thase results be tested? d_ How would you viaw thase results if you were told that they were funded by the manufacturer of the traditional, non-biodegradeble plastic?End of chapter questions AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 4 Large alkanas from crude oil are broken down to give smaller molecules. Large alkane (2.0. O,Hy,) —> vaporised and passed cover hot catalyst ~» smaller alkane (a.g. C,H,) + alkene 9.0.4) Choose the correct word from the list to complete each sentence, a This process is called cracking distillation fermentation (ty b The reaction is an example of thermal decomposition evaporation polymerisation (1) ¢ The smaller alkane can be used as a plastic monomer fuel (ty d The alkene will turn bromine water blue colourless orange (ty The general formula for an alkene is. CyHene CHa, CyHeore a 2 Ethene is used to mke the plastic poly(ethene). a Complete the equation to show the formation of poly(ethene), @ tl = HoH b Inthe equation, what does the lettern represent? (1) ¢ What name is used for the small molecules that join to make a polymer? (i) d_ Name the polymer that is made from butene. (y e Which one of the following could be used in a similar way to make a polymer? CH, CH, CH a @ Ethanol can be used as a fuel for cars. Pure ethanol (100%) can be used in specially adapted car engines. Petrol with up to 10% ethanol can be used in ordinary car engines, To mix with petrol tho ethanol must not contain any water. Ethanol can be made from plants or from crude cil. fermentation —disililation dehydration planta —> sugars > 15% ethanol -> 98% ethano! > 100% in water ethanol cracking catalyst + steam 100% ethanol ‘@ Suggest one environmental advantage of making ethanol fuel from plants rather than from crude oil. (1) istilation crude ol fractions > ethene > bb Suggest one economic disadvantage of producing ethanol fuel from plants rether than from crude oil. (1) © Suggest one environmental cisadvantage of procusing ethanol fuel from plants. “0 d 10% ethanal in petrol can be used in ordinary car engines. Suggest one other advantage of using 10% ethanol in petrel as ¢ fuel rather than pure ethanol. (1) A Sciontists devolop now polymers and modify existing polymers. Polylactic acid (PLA) is a bioplastic that is biodegradable. It can be used to make sandwich containers, plastic cups and plastic cutlery. PLA is made from cornstarch. In the USA large amounts cof maize are grown and used to make cornstarch, which has many uses. To make PLA the cornstarch is fermented with microbes to make lactic acio, which is then polymorisod. i oom The structure of PLA is + toh o—CH—-G \ n i Give one way in which the structure of PLA is different from the structure of poly(ethene). (1) ii Give one way in which the structure of PLA is, similar to the structure of poly(ethene). “ ‘Suggest what is meant ky bioplastic. “ Iv Suggesttwo reasons why PLA was developed. (2) 'b In this question you will be assessed on using good English, organising information clearly and using specialist terms where appropriate. Copper was considered to be the most suitable material to use for hot water pipes. PEX is now used san alternative material for hot water pipes. PEX is, mada from poly(ethene), Copper is extracted from its ore by a series of processes. 1. The low-grade ore is powdered and concentrated. 2 Smelling is carried outin an oxygen flash furnace. This furnace is heated to 100°C using a hydrocarbon fuel. The copper ore is blown into the furnace with air, producing impure, molten copper, 8 Oxygen is blown into the impure, molten copper to remove any sulfur. The copper Is cast into rectangular slabs. 4. The final purification of copper is done by electrolysis. ‘Suggest the possible environmental advantages of using PEX instead of copper for hot water pipes. (6) AQA, 2009Plant oils Extracting vegetable oil Piants use the Sun's energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water during photosynthesis: Ru ec ee so ear trom una, Cae? carbon dioxide + water SO POP NY, cose + oxygen Seber aca 8CO, + 6HO ——___+C,H,0, + 60, uo ude ered SO etc iants than turn glucose into other chemicals they need using mare chemical reactions. In some casas these otner chemicals can also be very useful to us. For example, the vegetable oils from plants, euch as oilseed rape, make bioiuals and foodstutts. Wo find these oils in the seeds of tho rape plant. Farmers collect the seeds ‘from the piants using a combine harvester. The seeds are then taken toa faciory where they are crushed and pressed to extract their oll, The impurities are removed from the oil. Its then processed to make it into useful products. We extract other vegetable oils using steam. For example, we can extract lavender oil from lavender plants by distllation. The plants are put into water and boiled. The oil and water evaporate together and are collected by condensing ‘them. The water and other impurities are removed to give pure lavender cil Figure 1 Oieced rape ie acammon eight incur countryside. As ts name tells ust m isa goed source cf vegerable al firtare Extracting plant oil by distillation (microscale) Take care not 10 let the contents of the small vial boil over. ‘© What does the liquid collected look and smell Distilason column wit glass beads (eats as condenser) ——__ _= Thesmometer Droplts of amuision— Small wel ina second comboplae or receNing — equipment Eee and art-bumping granuks: antibumong Figure 2 Norfolk averdercilis eduacted © a_ Write down two ways we can use to extract vagatable oils from plants, B. Tavendar parts by ditilaton[Extracting vegetabieot Vegetable oils as foods and fuels (3) CO links For information on biofuels, ok i i f i . Vegetable oils are very important foods. They provide important nutrients, babs Cs sa Atematve nicl, For example olive oil is a source of vitamin E. They also contain a great deal of energy, as the table shows. This makes tham useful foods and sources of bio'uals, such as biodiesel. “There are lois of diferent vogetable cls. Each cmgjnwansis oma vegetaole of contains mxures of compeundswitn (oH OH HH jeoy vaetadle other foods Btghty ciferent molecules. However all vegetable _¢),|| | ¢ | _etmerteoas_| bis rave melecules which contain chains ofcarbon —@F FF 2° | Food Energy in atoms wih hydrogen atoms Hoa Hon AS 1009) In some vegetable ols the hydrocarbon chains contain carbon-carbon double | vegetable ol 3800 bonds (G=C). We call these unsaturated oils. We can detect the double sugar 1700 bonds in unsaturated ols with bromine water. You know the tet for double bonds from your work on alkenes. oon Protein ‘100 (meat “This provides us with an important way of detecing unsaturated oils Figure 9 Vogolzbb ol haroahigh unsaturated oll + bromine water (orange) colourless solution enetyy coma bb What wll you eee ityou tet a polyunsaturated mevgasine with bromine water? " CD links acca] For information on the test for See een er outte bonds, look tack at C7 5:1 ead Cracking hydrocarbons e. => ‘Stake tne tube and P25? Did you know ..? Ses what happens No more than 20% of the energy in your diet should Margarine dissalvee ‘Bromine waters decolourised ‘come from fats. in atbanol by unsaturated ‘ato 1 Copy and complete using the words below: Ped bromine decolorisod ditt sing unectursted rorine dao 00 energy preesing uneatural = eT ieee eee eee ence ee, Vertable ole ar paricury imporentaotoode because tay conan | oni nate a lotot . Some vegetable oils contain carbon-carbon double bonds. We call these vegetable cils. They can be detected by er ee reacting them with. _... water, which will be... ET) reed Why might dit containing too much vegetable cl be urhoainy? Cie kero peter ns eh ea Pe ouaraaeld bonds (C=C). We can detect them as they decoiorise Cd decolorised. Which of the following statements is truo? a The sample contains only unsaturated oils. b The cample contains only acturated cis. ¢ The sample may contain a mixture of saturated and unsaturated oils. Explain your answer.eu ead ‘ What are the advantages and Ce tae) Reta Leuk ‘harden’ vegetable oils? [H] uh Crd ft} — ‘ & ae) Lo Figure 1 An elec tye ke tis one tenables vegetable ol to be heated safely to's high lomperatore AXA Examiner's tip No chemical bonds are broken whan vagetable cils matt cr boil —these are physical changes. Plant oils Cooking with vegetable oils When we cook food we heat itto a temperature where chemical reactions ‘cause permanent changes to happen to the food. Cooking food in vegetable oll gives very different results fo cooking food in water. This is because the boiling points of vagetable cils are much higher than the boiling point of water. ‘Therefore, vegetable oils can be used at a much higher temperature than boiling water. What's the difference? So the chemical reactions thal take place in the food are very different in ol and in water. When wo cook using vagetable ci €@ the food cooks more quickly @ very offen the outside of the food turns a different colour, and becomes crispler © the inside of the food should be sovter if you don't cook It for to long. a How does the boiling point of a vegetable cil compare to the boiling, point of water? Cooking food in cil also means that the food absorbs some of the oll. As you know, vegetable oils | contain a lot af energy. This can — make the energy content of ‘ried food much highor than that of tho same food cooked by boiling it In water. This is one reason why regularly eating too much ‘rid food is unhealthy. Figure 2 Boiled potatoes and tied potatoes are very cifforont. One thing thet probably makes chine 29 tasly isthe contrast of spy outside and sot inside, together wit the efferent smell anc taste procuces by cooking ata higher temperature The cifferent colour may be impartant too ae golden chips lack ‘ore appetsing than «pale boiled potato, Practical Investigating cooking ‘Compare the texture and appearance of potato pieces after equal cocking times in water and cil. You might also compare the cooking times for boiling, frying anc oven- baking chips. If possible carry out some taste tests in hygienic concitions. 1b How is food cocked in oil differant to food cooked in water?Hardening unsaturated vegetable oils {[) Unsaturated vegetable ols ae usualy liquids at oom temperature The boiling and melting points of these oils can be increased by adding hydrogen to the molecules. The reaction replaces some or al ofthe carbon carbon double bonda with carbon-carbon single bonde \iith this higher melting point, the tquid of becomes a sold at room tormporature. Wo call charging a vogotable ol Ike this hardoning it. Wo harden a vegetable oil by reacting it with hydrogen gas (H,). To make the reaction happen, we must use a nickel catalyst, and carry it out at about 60°C. t 7 Figure 3 The hydrogen adds to the cattoon-carbon double bonds in a vegetable oil when it is harcened ano this can be usec to make margarine ¢ What do we call it when wa add hydrogen to a vegetable oil? Oils that we have treated like this are ‘sometimes callad hydrogenated oils. They ere solids at room temperature, This means that they can be made into ‘spreads to be put on bread. We can also use them to make cakes, biscuits and pastry, Figure 4 We can use hydrogenated vegetable cis in cooking to make a huge ‘hurbor of ferent, and delicious, ocd Bnet Copy and complete using the words below: water energy higher tastes The bolting points of vegotablo oils aro... water. This means that food cooked in oil. Intooone- Ihalso contains more... Copy and complete using the words below: hydrogen hydrogenated hardening melting nickel The...» Points of olls may also be raised by adding to their molecules. We call ths......... the oll. The reaction takes place at 60°C. in the presence of a catalyst. The reaction producas 2 oi [HI 3 a Why are hydrogenated vegetable alls more useful than olls that have not bean hydrogenated? 'b Explain how we harden vegetable oils. IH] than tho boiling point of different to food bailed Ceo ed QW ‘When oils are hardened with hydrogen, a chemical change takes place, producing hydrogenated oils (which have higher metting point than the original oll). These are used in margarines. Perey oe rar cooking because of their high Pe Taadecdnebachled ee eee! Cee hl ea ake kane ee oid Pe Poa Dee elie their melting points. This makes thom solids at room temperature which are ee oc erie etek Raeakl tee ea Cece ud vegetable oll molecules. [H]