Curriculum

Philosophy
Gaining insights into our
own theoretical
positions and developing
a rationale for the PGDip.

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017

 Order of presentation

• Brief Introduction
• Readings
• Presentation & discussion
• Developing of individual philosophy
• Collating philosophies into one document

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017

 Why develop an
educational philosophy?
• To dialogue and articulate individual educational and
subject/ discipline/professional values;
• To negotiate and agree a shared vision and some
common values.
In order to:
• Inform a more coherent choice and sequence of
programme outcomes; content; teaching, learning and
assessment approaches in the programme;
• Assist in the transparency of the programme’s key vision
and values to students and other stakeholders
(UCD Curriculum Review And Enhancement Guide, 2015)
Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017
 What does the rationale do ?

• Ensures that we have an understanding of what every HE

practitioner needs to know and be able to do ( absolutely
necessary, nice to know, unnecessary),reduces gaps
• Ensures that the curriculum is at the required level –
scope and depth
• Helps us make decisions of whether we should follow
traditional methods ( textbooks) or reimagine the
curriculum
• Helps us articulate utility of a programme – Career
progression, promotion, academic advancement ?
• Helps us articulate purpose – lifelong learning, developing
problem solvers, critical thinkers?
Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017
 A story….

Towards changing Science Education in Africa

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017
 Philosophy of
Education

“Philosophy of education is an activity of scientific

inquiry which enables one to understand the
situations of communities, ' `lived experiences”…
(Waghid, 2004, p.56)…

“There is no well-established tradition in the

philosophy of education, either as regards its
methodology or as regards its subject-matter, as
there is in other branches of philosophy”
Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017 ( Wilson, 2003, p.280).
 Think about your deep
philosophy…

Deep sense of the purpose – what do you value?

What is important?
How does this fit in with the community, and your
university?

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017

 Philosophical
Perspectives
Moving
from
Theories theory to
practice

Approaches,
Strategies
Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017
 Philosophical Foundations

IDEALISM Pragmatism Realism Existentialism

valuing ideas over the importance and Objects exist regardless focuses on value questions
experience or action, value of change, of how we perceive
reality is that which process and relativity them Kierkegaard, Sartre, Nietzsche
exists mentally Dewey Aristotle, Comenius,
Pestalozzi, Herbart,
Plato, Descartes,
Montessori, Hobbes,
Kant, Spinoza,
Bacon, Locke
Leibniz, Hegel, Empiricism
Schopenhauer
Critical
stresses the role of Realism
experience and active
learning combines a general philosophy of
science (transcendental realism) with
Locke, Kolbe… a philosophy of social science
(critical naturalism) to describe an
interface between the natural and
social worlds.

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017 Bhaskar, Sayer, Archer
 Educational Philosophical Perspectives
Perennialism Essentialism Progressivism Reconstructionism
Focuses on Focuses on the Focuses on advances Focuses on
personal important skills to in science, reconstructing
development promote the technology, society by instilling
intellectual growth economic habits and values to
of the individual development to improve and
promote democratic reconstruct society
and social living education for change

Involves a The curriculum Subjects are The curriculum

constant focuses on interdisciplinary- focuses on present
curriculum essentials skills of nary, integrative and and future trends and
focusing on the 3R’s and interactive. issues of national and
classical subjects, essential subjects of Curriculum is international
literary analysis English, Science, focused on students interests
History, Math, interest, human
and Foreign problems and affairs
Languages
Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017
 Is there room for an African
Philosophy of Education?

“Simply put, an African philosophy of

education explores the lives of African
communities and their situations”
(Waghid, 2004, p.56)

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017

 Constitutive elements of an
African philosophy of
education ( Waghid, 2004)

Reasonableness Moral maturity Deliberative dialogue

and rationality and refinement

Importance of being Honesty, faithfulness, duty Progressive `structures of

reasonable and the ability of and empathy for the well- dialogue and argument’
people to articulate clear, being of others in her where one listens to what
logical and defensible community the other has to say
arguments

The curriculum should The curriculum should In these dialogues,

involve educational problem empower communities to intellectual skills are used
solving by offering participate in their own methodically in addressing
possibilities as to what is educational development the African predicament
achievable and whether and use critical pedagogy and
achieving it is desirable self-reflection
Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017
 Our common-sense theories
• Each of us have our own common-sense
theories of learning.
• These theories are based on assumptions we
carry about teaching and learning, intuitions,
reasons, beliefs and our ideas about how
people learn, and how best to support that
learning.
• How do our common-sense theories relate to
learning theory? ( Vivian Bozalek, at TALHE ,2015)

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017

 Why do we have theories of learning?

• “Theories about teaching and learning

provide frameworks for the analysis of
learning situations and a language to describe
the learning taking place” (Capel, Leask & Turner 1995,
p.213).

( Vivian Bozalek, at TALHE ,2015)

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017

 Benefits of theories

• “… at present there is no one best description

of the learning process, just as there is no one
‘best’ way to teach. Educators can benefit
from knowing various learning theories,
because each position adds to their views on
how to engage in this very complex process”
(Hohn 1995: 5).

( Vivian Bozalek, at TALHE ,2015)

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017

 Value of understanding theories

Theories provide use with yardsticks we can use to

evaluate our assumptions informing our beliefs , to
check whether they make sense and if we can provide
evidence to substantiate their existence.

“A familiarity with the major theories, then, allows us

to examine, to evaluate, and to discipline our intuitions
and our own “theories” on human behavior”
(Craig 1980,p. 30).

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017

 Existing Learning Theories
• An index of a list of fifty of the most influential
educational theories which inform the design of
learning can be found at the Learning Renaissance
• The actual list can be found here: Learning Theories

The five fundamental learning theories are :

Cognitive Social Connectivism
Behaviourism
Constructivism Constructivism
Associated Watson, Kolb Vygotsky Siemens
Theorists Pavlov, Gagne -Conditions of Leontev Downes
Frederic learning Engestrom
Skinner Ausubel -Prior Lave & Wenger
Thorndike, learning Bruner
Bandura Bloom - Taxonomy of
Educational
Objectives
Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017
 Overview of the fundamental learning theories
Behaviorism Cognitive Constructivism Social Constructivism Connectivism

View of Learning is change in Learning involves active Learning is a socially Learning (defined as
learning observable behaviour assimilation and meaningful activity actionable &
shaped by accommodation of new focussing on connected
conditioning or information to existing conceptual knowledge) , and
response to a stimulus cognitive structures. development through focusses on
Mental models and collaborative activity connecting
discovery by learners are supported by others specialized
important. (learning in the ‘zone information sets,
of proximal inside and outside
development’ - ZPD the learner.
View of Extrinsic, involving Intrinsic; learners set Intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic and extrinsic.
motivation positive and negative their own goals and Learning goals and Nurturing and
reinforcement. motivate themselves to motives are maintaining
learn. determined both by connections is
learners the needed to facilitate
community continual learning

Implications Learning is shaped by The teacher facilitates Educator is facilitator, The teacher is a
for Teaching observable learning learning by providing. guide, coach, mentor curator or expert
& Learning outcomes and regular The content is well- who creates scaffolds learner creating
feedback. Learner is structured content & an for learning and a spaces where
usually taught using environment where resource-rich knowledge can be
repetition & positive learners are assisted in environments Supports ‘created, explored
reinforcement (drill & developing capacity and Inquiry-based learning and connected’ .
practice.). skills to learn better. & mediation &multiple
Tutorials & metacognitive perspectives.
strategies are important.
Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017
 Developing your individual
philosophy
Readings
Scheme through the following readings and spend some time
developing your own individual philosophy using the following
document for guidance. ( Individual Philosophy document).
• Carlile, O., & Jordan, A. (2005). It works in practice but will it work in
theory? The theoretical underpinnings of pedagogy. Emerging Issues in
the Practice of University Learning and Teaching. Dublin: AISHE, 11-26.
• Waghid, Y. (2004). African philosophy of education: implications for
teaching and learning: perspectives on higher education. South African
Journal of Higher Education, 18(3), 56-64.
We will then collate all the individual philosophies
into one philosophy for the entire programme.
Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017
 Thank you

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017

 References
Bozalek, V. (2015). Presentation at the Teaching and Learning in Higher Education
(TALHE), The Cape Higher Education Consortium (CHEC).
Capel, S., Leask, M. & Turner, T. (1995). Learning to teach in the secondary school: A
companion to school experience. London: Routledge. (RU Library 371.3 CAP).
Carlile, O., & Jordan, A. (2005). It works in practice but will it work in theory? The
theoretical underpinnings of pedagogy. Emerging Issues in the Practice of University
Learning and Teaching. Dublin: AISHE, 11-26.
Craig, G.J. (1980). Human development. (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Hohn, R.L. (1995). Classroom learning and teaching. White Plains, NY: Longman.
University College Dublin, Curriculum Review and Enhancement Guide. [ Available at :
http://www.ucd.ie/t4cms/Curriculum%20Review%20&%20Enhancement%20Guide
.pdf]
Waghid, Y. (2004). African philosophy of education: implications for teaching and
learning: perspectives on higher education. South African Journal of Higher
Education, 18(3), 56-64
Wilson, J. (2003). Perspectives on the Philosophy of Education. Oxford Review of
Education, 29(2), 279-303.

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017

 Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning is a process that attempts to
modify behavior through the use of positive and
negative reinforcement.
• Reinforcement comes in two forms: positive (praise,
rewards, the red tick on assignments) and negative
(removal of undesired behavior – red cross on
assignments). The learner makes an association
between a particular behavior and a consequence.
• The term operant conditioning was developed by B. F.
Skinner. He believed that one should focus on the
external, observable causes of behavior (rather than Skinner ( Psychologist)
try to unpack the internal thoughts and motivations).

Main strategy Objective-based instruction, competency-based

training, skills training

Teaching methods Lecture, simulation , demonstration, programmed

instruction
Assessment methods Criterion- based assessment, Multiple-choice questions
, recall items

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017

 Social Learning Theory
• Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist
learning theories of classical conditioning ( Pavlov)
and operant conditioning . Mediating processes occur
between stimuli & responses.
• Bandura asserts that that people learn from one
another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. The
theory encompasses attention, memory, and
motivation and is often seen as a bridge between
behaviorist and cognitive theories.
• Bandura advocates for “reciprocal determinism”,
where the world ( environment and a person’s Bandura ( Psychologist)
behavior influence each other).
Main strategy Involves (a) attention – where factors such as previous reinforcement
affects attention ; (b) retention – remembering you pay attention to
using symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization;
(c) reproduction of images using self observation : (d) motivation –
based on concretes reasons such as past incentives.
Teaching methods Modelling as part of skill training where information is given (lecture),
opportunities for observation; practicing of skills, application of skills, &
provision of constructive feedback. Development of self-efficacy.
Assessment methods Problem solving, portfolio development, Case studies.

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017

 Experiential Learning – Kolb’s Learning Cycle
• Kolb argues that we learn from our everyday
experiences and that reflection as an integral part of
learning.
• Four-stage model

David Kolb ( Philosopher)

Main strategy Active learning where activities draw on abilities from each stage of the
experiential learning cycle , and are designed in ways that offer each
learner the chance to engage with their preferred way of learning.
Teaching methods Concrete Experience ( Laboratory methods, field experiences ,
simulations); Reflective Observation ( reflective assignments,
discussions in class, discussion forums); Abstract Conceptualization (
Lecture, presentation of a model/theory of what is to be observed;
Active Experimentation ( Learner plans to test the model/ or future
experience).
Assessment methods Exams, Projects, Paper, Presentations and Portfolios.

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017

 Robert Gagne – Conditions of learning
• There are several different types or levels of learning and each
level (verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies,
motor skills and attitudes) requires a different type of
sequencing of instruction.
• Nine instructional events for designing instruction and
selecting appropriate technology
✓ Gaining attention (reception)
✓ Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
✓ Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
✓ Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
✓ Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
✓ Eliciting performance (responding)
✓ Providing feedback (reinforcement)
✓ Assessing performance (retrieval)
✓ Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).

Main strategy Appropriate sequencing of instruction so that learners are exposed to

Teaching methods
opportunities that require decision-making and problem solving .
Learning tasks are organized in a hierarchy according to complexity:
stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of
terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and
problem solving.
Technology- based simulations, Role plays, Project based

Assessment methods Exams, Projects, Paper, Presentations and Portfolios.

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017
Benjamin Bloom – Taxonomy of Learning Objectives

Benjamin Bloom
(Educational
Psychologist)

Benjamin Bloom made significant contributions to the classification of educational

objectives and the theory of mastery learning. He , together with a group of
educators developed a hierarchical "taxonomy of educational objectives"
categorized in three "domains:" Affective, Psychomotor, and Cognitive. The
taxonomy is used to motivate educators to design and created holistic learning
experiences .
Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017
 Lev Vygotsky
• Vygotsky stresses the fundamental role of
social interaction in the development of
cognition (Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed
strongly that community plays a central role in
the process of "making meaning."
• His theory is one of the foundations
of constructivism, asserting three themes
related to social interaction, the more
knowledgeable other, and the zone of
proximal development. Lev Vygotsky, Soviet psychologist

Main strategy Active based learning where students take initiative for their own
learning experiences in a supportive, democratic and collaborative
environment. The environment is democratic, the activities are
interactive and student-centered and the teacher facilitates a process of
learning where students are encouraged to become responsible and
autonomous.

Teaching methods Experimentation, Research projects, Field trips, Video presentation,

Simulations, Tutorials, Peer-supported ;learning.
Assessment methods Exams, Pre and post testing; Oral discussions, Mind Mapping, Projects,
Case studies.

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017

 Communities of Practice ( CoP)
• Communities of Practice (CoP) present a process
of social learning that occurs when people who
have a common interest in a subject or area
collaborate over an extended period of time,
sharing ideas and strategies, determine
solutions, and build innovations.
• These groups of people share a concern or a
passion for something they do and learn how to
do it better as they interact regularly.
• CoP’s require cultivation” so that they can
emerge, grow and become sustainable.

Main strategy A carefully well though purpose followed by processes of inquiry (

exploration and vision formation) ;design of activities , roles &
processes; prototype ( piloting the community with stakeholders) ;
Launching ( rolling out); growing ( numbers and networks in
collaborative projects) sustaining – assessing products outputs &
impacts on community.

Teaching methods Use physical and technology –supported infrastructure in relationship

building, collaborative learning, knowledge sharing, and action.
Assessment methods Evaluation of impact of CoP on community and individuals

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017

 George Siemens– Connectivism
• The theory of connectivism (Siemens, 2005) is
characterized as the learning theory of the digital age. One
underlying assumption in this theory is that knowledge is
distributed and can reside inside and outside of ourselves.
• Learning consists of the ability to construct and traverse
those networks where actionable knowledge is assembled
to form a network of connections arising from experience
and interactions within a community. George Siemens (writer, theorist,
speaker, and researcher)
Main strategy Collaborative learning whereby members of a group collectively
help each other towards achieving a pre-established goal through
interaction. Collaboration makes the process of learning efficient
and relevant because of an assumption that knowledge and
expertise reside in the networks. There is room for individual and
group learning in these interactions.
Teaching methods The teacher assists the learners build and make the relevant
connections in their Personal Learning Networks (PLNs). The
teacher is a curator and directs students to appropriate resources
and other experts, and creates experiences that stimulate continual
learning. Technology is pivotal in this learning process
Assessment methods Projects, Contributions to discussions, Artefact creation.

Rita Kizito PGDip Development NMMU March 2017