CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS - Ebook - ConstructionPlacements PDF

CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNICAL
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

eBook
By
CONSTRUCTION PLACEMENTS
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www.constructionplacements.com
Q1. What are the various Tests conducted for quality of Coarse
ggregates?
Ans. In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in
concrete/pavement construction, following tests are carried out:
1. Crushing Test on Aggregate:
The aggregate crushing value gives a relative measure of the resistance

of an aggregate crushing under gradually applied compressive load. If the
aggregate crushing value is less than 10, it signifies an
exceptionally strong aggregate. While crushing value above 35 would
normally be considered as weak aggregates.
2. Abrasion Test on Aggregate:
To determine the abrasion value of the coarse aggregate, this test is

carried out. The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the
percentage wear due to relative rubbing action between the aggregate
and steel balls used as an abrasive charge.
3. Impact Test on Aggregate:
The aggregates should have sufficient toughness to resist their

disintegration due to the impact. This distinctive property is measured by
impact value test
4. Soundness Test on Aggregate:
The soundness test is carried out to learn the resistance of aggregates to

weathering actions like thawing, freezing, alternate wetting and drying in
normal condition and in salt water, variation in temperature.
5. Shape Test on Aggregate:
Flakiness index test is used to determine the particle shape of the

aggregate. It is defined in percentage by weight of aggregate particles
and least dimension (thickness) of those particles should not be less than
0.6 times their mean area.
6. Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Test on Aggregate:
The specific gravity of an aggregate is a measure of a strength or quality

of the material. The specific gravity test helps in the identification of
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stone. Water absorption gives an idea about the strength of the
aggregate.
7. Bitumen Adhesion Test on Aggregate:
Bitumen gets attached well to all normal types of road aggregates

provided they are dry and free from dust. In the absence of water, there
is no adhesion problem of bituminous construction. Adhesion problem
may occur when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can be dealt
with by removing moisture from the aggregate by drying and increasing
the mixing temperature.
Q 2. List down the physical properties of Portland Cement.
Ans. Physical Properties of Portland Cements
1) Fineness,
2) Setting time
3) Compressive strength
4) Soundness
5) Consistency
6) Heat of hydration
Q3. What is the initial and final setting time of cement and how is
it measured?
Ans.
INITIAL SETTING TIME
The time period elapsed between addition of water to the cement and
moment when the needle fails to pierce the test block by 5.0 ± 0.5
mm measured from the bottom of the mould, is the initial setting time.
The initial setting is time when chemical reaction between cement and
water starts (paste starts losing it’s plasticity) and it should be not less
than 30 minutes without additive.
FINAL SETTING TIME
The period elapsed between the time water is added to the cement and
the time the needle makes an impression on the surface of the test block,
while the attachment fails to do so, is the final setting time.
Final setting is the time when the chemical reaction between cement and
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water is finished (The time at which cement completely loses its plasticity
and becomes hard is the final setting time of cement) and for Ordinary
Portland Cement, The Final Setting Time is 600 min.
Q4. What Are The Different Type Of Slump Test Indications?
Ans. Slump tests are performed to empirically measure the work ability of
fresh concrete. It is used to measure the consistency of the concrete. In
general there are three different types of slumps that occur in slump
tests. They are as follows:
o True Slump: This type of slump is characterized by the general drop

of the concrete mass evenly without visible signs of deterioration or
disintegration.
o Shear Slump: It indicates that the concrete mix is deficient in

cohesion. This type of slump leads to segregation and bleeding.
Henceforth in the long run effecting the durability of the concrete.
o Collapse Slump: This type of slump is indicates that the mix of

concrete is simply too wet. The mix is considered to be harsh and
lean.
Q5. What are the different methods of measuring workability of

concrete?
Ans. Following are the methods for measuring the workability of

concrete:
1. Slump test
2. Compacting factor test
3. Vebe test
4. Flow table test
Slump Test Method
 Fill the concrete into frustum of a steel cone in three layers

compaction.
 Hand Tap concrete in each layer
 Lift cone up
Compacting factor test (to distinguish between low slump mixes)
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 Concrete is placed in an upper
 Dropped into a lower hopper to bring it to a standard state and then

allowed to fall into a standard cylinder.
 The cylinder and concrete weighed (partially compacted weight)
 The concrete is fully compacted, extra concrete added and then

concrete and cylinder weighed again (fully compacted weight)
Vebe Test
Vebe time is defined as the time taken to complete covering of the

underside of the disc with concrete container
 A slump test is performed in a container
 A clear perspex disc, free to move vertically,
 is lowered onto the concrete surface
 Vibration at a standard rate is applied
Flow table test (to differentiate between high workability mixes)
1. A conical mould is used to produce a sample of concrete in the

centre of a 700 mm square board, hinged along one edge
2. The free edge of the board is lifted against the stop and dropped 15
times
Flow = final diameter of the concrete (mean of two measurements at

right angles
Q6. What is the standard and nominal size of Bricks in India?
Ans. In India, standard brick size is 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm as per

the recommendation of BIS. With mortar thickness, the dimension of the
brick becomes 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm which is also known as the
nominal size of the modular brick.
Q7. What are admixtures in Concrete? Describe five main

Admixture types.
Ans. Chemical admixtures are the ingredients in concrete other than

Portland cement, water, and aggregates that are added to the mix
immediately before or during mixing. Producers use admixtures primarily
to reduce the cost of concrete construction; to modify the properties of
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hardened concrete; to ensure the quality of concrete during mixing,
transporting, placing, and curing; and to overcome certain emergencies
during concrete operations.
TYPES:
Air-entraining admixtures facilitate the development of a stable air-

void system within concrete that increases the durability of the concrete.
These admixtures impart air entrainment that results in:
-Increased resistance to deterioration from cyclic freezing and thawing
-Improved workability and cohesiveness of concrete placement
-Reduced segregation and bleeding
Water-reducing admixtures usually reduce the required water content

for a concrete mixture by about 5 to 10 percent. Consequently, concrete
containing a water-reducing admixture needs less water to reach a
required slump than untreated concrete. These admixtures reduce water
content by at least 8 percent and tend to be more stable over a wider
range of temperatures. Mid-range water reducers provide more consistent
setting times than standard water reducers.
Retarding admixtures, which slow the setting rate of concrete, are used
to counteract the accelerating effect of hot weather on concrete setting.
High temperatures often cause an increased rate of hardening which
makes placing and finishing difficult. Retarders keep concrete workable
during placement and delay the initial set of concrete. Most retarders also
function as water reducers and may entrain some air in concrete.
Accelerating admixtures increase the rate of early strength

development, reduce the time required for proper curing and protection,
and speed up the start of finishing operations. Accelerating admixtures
are especially useful for modifying the properties of concrete in cold
weather.
Superplasticizers, also known as plasticizers or high-range water

reducers (HRWR), reduce water content by 12 to 30 percent and can be
added to concrete with a low-to-normal slump and water-cement ratio to
make high-slump flowing concrete. The effect of superplasticizers lasts
only 30 to 60 minutes, depending on the brand and dosage rate, and is
followed by a rapid loss in workability. As a result of the slump loss,
superplasticizers are usually added to concrete at the jobsite.
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Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures fall into the specialty admixture
category and are used to slow corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete.
Corrosion inhibitors can be used as a defensive strategy for concrete
structures, such as marine facilities, highway bridges, and parking
garages, that will be exposed to high concentrations of chloride. The
shrinkage reducers are used to control drying shrinkage and minimize
cracking, while ASR inhibitors control durability problems associated with
alkali-silica reactivity.
Q8. What is the appropriate duration of curing for concrete? What

are the various methods of curing?
Ans. The Indian Standard IS 456 – 2000 recommends that curing

duration of concrete must be at least 7 days in case of ordinary Portland
Cement, at least 10 days for concrete with mineral admixtures or blended
cements are used. It also recommends that the curing duration should
not be less than 10 days for concrete exposed to dry and hot weather
conditions and 14 days for concrete with mineral admixtures or blended
cement in hot and dry weather.
The methods that are involved in saving the shrinkage of the concrete
includes:
-Spraying of water: on walls, and columns can be cured by sprinkling

water.
-Wet covering of surface: can be cured by using the surface with wet
gunny bags or straw
-Ponding: the horizontal surfaces including the slab and floors can be
cured by stagnating the water.
-Steam curing: of pre-fabricated concrete units steam can be cured by
passing it over the units that are under closed chambers. It allows faster
curing process and results in faster recovery.
-Application of curing compounds: compounds having calcium chloride
can be applied on curing surface. This keeps the surface wet for a very
long time.
Q9. What is/are the standard IS Code(s) used for Concrete?
Ans. Indian Standard Codes (IS Codes) for Concrete
1. Plain and Reinforced Concrete - Code of Practice IS 456 2000
2. Method of test for strength of concrete IS 516 1959
3. Methods of sampling and analysis of concrete IS 1199 1959
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4. Method of measurement of building and engineering works: Part 2
concrete works IS 1200 1974 (Part 2)
5. Code of Practice for Prestressed Concrete IS 1343 1980
6. Concrete mix proportioning - Guidelines IS 10262 2009
Q10. What is/are the standard IS Code(s) used for Concrete?
Ans. Indian Standard Codes (IS Codes) for Reinforcements
1. Reinforcement and reinforced concrete - Code of Practice IS 456

2000
2. Specification for mild steel and medium tensile steel bars and hard-
drawn steel wire for concrete reinforcement: IS 432 1982 Part 2
3. High strength deformed steel bars and wires for concrete

reinforcement - Specification IS 1786 2008
4. Code of Practice for Bending and Fixing of Bars for Concrete

Reinforcement IS 2502 1963
5. Recommendations for Detailing of Reinforcement in Reinforced

Concrete Works IS 5525 1969
Q11. What are the different defects arising in plastering?
Ans. The following defects may arise in plaster work-
 Blistering : This is the formation to small patches of plaster swelling

out beyond the plastered surface, arising out of late slaking of lime
particles in the plastic.
 Cracking: cracking consists of cracks or fissures in the plaster work
resulting from the following reasons:
1. Imperfect preparation of background.
2. Structural defects in building
3. Discontinuity of surface.
4. Movements in the background due to its thermal expansion or rapid

drying.
5. Movements in the plaster surface itself, either due to expansion (in

case of gypsum plaster) or shrinkage (in case of lime – sand
plaster).
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6. Excessive shrinkage due to application of thick coat.
7. Faulty workmanship.
 Crazing: It consists of formation of a series of hairline cracks on

plastered surface.
 Efflorescence: It is the whitish crystalline substance which appears
on the surface due to presence of salts in plaster – making
materials as well as building materials like bricks, sand, cement etc.
and even water. This gives a very bad appearance. It affects the
adhesion of paint with wall surface. Efflorescence can be removed to
some extent by dry brushing and washing the surface repeatedly.
 Flaking: It is the formation of very loose mass of plastered surface,
due to poor bond between successive coats.
 Peeling: It is the complete dislocation of some portion of plastered
surface, resulting in the formation of a patch. This also results from
imperfect bond.
 Popping: it is the formations of conical hole in the plastered surface
due to presence of some particles which expand on setting.
 Rust stains: These are sometimes formed when plaster is applied on
metal laths.
 Uneven surface: This is obtained purely due to poor workmanship.
Q12. How Water – cement ratio is associated with strength of

concrete?
Ans. The water-cement ratio is one of the most important aspect when it
comes to maintaining the strength of Concrete. The ratio depends on the
grade of concrete and the structure size. We generally prefer a W/C ratio
of 0.4 to 0.6, but it can be decreased in case of high grade concrete, we
reduce the amount of water and use plasticizers instead.
W/C ratio affects the workability of concrete and thus should be taken
into careful consideration. Also, if the ratio exceeds the normal value,
segregation of concrete occurs and the coarse aggregate settles at the
bottom, thus affecting the strength of concrete greatly.
Q13. What are the methods of improving bearing capacity of Soil?
Ans. Some of the methods to improve bearing capacity of soils:

-Increasing the depth of the footing is the simplest method of improve the
bearing capacity of soil, This method is restricted to sites where the sub-
soil water level is much below and deep excavations do not increase the
cost of foundations disproportionately.
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-Drainage is a well known method to improve the bearing capacity of
certain soils. Drains (with open joints) are laid in trenches just at the
footing base. The sub-soil water thus collected is drained out through a
system of pipe drains provided outside the external walls of the building.
-By blending granular material, like sand, gravel or crushed stone into the
natural soil by ramming. The layer of soil thus formed is much stronger
and is of improved bearing capacity.
-By confining the soil in an enclosed area with the help of sheet piles. This
method is used with advantage in shallow foundations in sandy soils.
-By driving sand piles. This method is based on the principle of reducing
the void volume of the natural soil. Holes are made in the soft soil with
the help of wooden piles or other means and then sand is filled in the
holes and rammed. These are called sand piles. Bearing capacity of soft
soil can be appreciably improved by driving sand piles at close spacing.
Q14. What are the different types of Foundations?
Ans: Broadly speaking, all foundations are divided into two categories:
shallow foundations and deep foundations. The words shallow and deep
refer to the depth of soil in which the foundation is made. Shallow
foundations can be made in depths of as little as 3ft (1m), while deep
foundations can be made at depths of 60 - 200ft (20 - 65m). Shallow
foundations are used for small, light buildings, while deep ones are for
large, heavy buildings.
Types of Shallow Foundations-
 Pad foundations
 Strip foundations
 Raft foundations
Types of Deep Foundations-
 Piles
 Piers
 Caissons/ Wells
 Compensated Foundations
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Q15. What are 7th day and 28th day tests?
Ans. 7th and 28th days tests are usually carried out for cc cubes for
analyzing if they get enough strength as required characteristic
compressive strength. (7 days- around 20 mpa…and 28 days- around 32
mpa)
Q16. Define bleeding, segregation and honeycombing.
Ans. Bleeding – when cement and watar come on the top and aggregate
is settle down is called bleeding this is due to specific gravity of material
and improper placing.
Segregation – it means separation of ingredients of concrete
Honey combing – after removal of formwork from column beam there is
hole Is called honeycombing. It occurs due to improper compaction of
concrete
Q17. What is Pre-stressed concrete and what are the various

reinforcements used for it?
Ans. Pre-stressed concrete is a method for overcoming concrete’s natural

weakness in tension. It can be used to produce beams, floors or bridges
with a longer span than is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete.
(i) Spalling reinforcement
Spalling stresses are established behind the loaded area of anchor blocks
and this causes breaking away of surface concrete. These stresses are
induced by strain incompatibility with Poisson’s effects or by the shape of
stress trajectories.
(ii) Equilibrium reinforcement
Equilibrium reinforcement is required where there are several anchorages

in which prestressing loads are applied sequentially.
(iii) Bursting Reinforcement
Tensile stresses are induced during prestressing operation and the

maximum bursting stress occurs where the stress trajectories are concave
towards the line of action of the load. Reinforcement is needed to resist
these lateral tensile forces
Q18. What is pre-tensioning of concrete?
Ans. Pre-tensioning is tensioning pre-stressed cable before pouring

concrete while Post-tensioning is tensioning pre-stressed cable after
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pouring concrete. The losses in pre-tension is less than losses in post-
tension (there is no friction losses as well as there is no anchorage slip
losses.
Q19. What are the minimum propping period of beams and slabs
of various spans?
Ans. In the normal condition, formwork shall be removed
1) For slab props left under 3 days, it is usually removed after 12 to 24

hours.
2) For sides of beam formwork shall be removed after 24 hours.
3) For verticak member, it shall be removed 24 to 48 hours as may be

decided by the engineer in charge.
4)Bam soffits (props left under)7 days
5)Removal of props to slabs (Spanning upto 4.5 m)-7 days
6)Removal of props to slabs (Spanning over 4.5 m)-14 days
7)Removal of props to beams and arches (Spanning upto 6 m)-14 days
8)Removal of props to beams and arches (Spanning over 6 m)21 days
Q20. What is plinth level and sill level?
Ans. Plinth Level:- In architecture, a plinth is the base or platform upon

which a column or structure rests. It is normally the finished floor level of
the ground floor and is usually kept at 450 mm from existing ground level
unless some other factor compels it to be altered.
Sill Level:- The lower part or the base of the window is called sill level.
Q21. What is crushing/compressive strength of bricks?
Ans. Compressive /Crushing strength of bricks (Indian Made) are very

variable, and may vary from 30 kg/sq. cm to 150 kg/sq. cm for hand-
made burnt bricks, while Crushing strength of heavy duty bricks machine
pressed (also called engineering bricks) may have compressive strength
as high as 450 kg/sq. cm, and even 500 kg/sq. cm. The minimum
crushing / compressive strengths of burnt bricks tested flat-wise
prescribed are:
(i) Common building bricks—35 kg/sq. cm,
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(ii) Second class bricks—70 kg/sq. cm,
(iii) First class bricks— 105 kg/sq. cm.
(iv) Crushing strength of bricks not less than 140 kg/sq. cm are graded as
AA class.
The strength of bricks decreases by about 25 per cent when soaked in
water.
Strength of sun-dried (unburnt) bricks is from 15 to 25 kg/sq. cm.
Water absorption of bricks after 24 hours immersion,
First class bricks—20%,
Second class bricks—22 %,
Third class bricks—25%.
Heavy duty machine made bricks should not absorb more than 5% of
their weight
Q22. What are different types of construction joints in Concrete

structures?
Ans. Construction Joints in Concrete:

Construction joints are placed in a concrete slab to define the extent of
the individual placements, generally in conformity with a predetermined
joint layout.
Construction joints must be designed in order to allow displacements
between both sides of the slab but, at the same time, they have to
transfer flexural stresses produced in the slab by external loads.
Construction joints must allow horizontal displacement right-angled to the
joint surface that is normally caused by thermal and shrinkage
movement. At the same time they must not allow vertical or rotational
displacements.
Types of joints in concrete constructions are:
-Contraction Joints
-Isolation Joints
-Expansion Joints
A contraction joint is formed, sawed, or tooled groove in a concrete

structure to create a weakened plane to regulate the location of cracking
resulting from the dimensional change of different parts of the structure.
An isolation joint is a separation between adjacent sections of a concrete

structure to allow relative movement in three directions and through
which all of the bonded reinforcement is interrupted.
An expansion joint in a concrete structure is a separation provided

between adjacent sections to allow movement due to dimensional
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increases and reductions of the adjacent sections and through which
some or all of the bonded reinforcement is interrupted. In pavements
slabs on ground it is a separation between slabs filled with a compressible
filler material.
Q23. What is fineness Modulus for aggregates?
Ans. The Fineness modulus (FM) is an empirical figure obtained by adding

the total percentage of the sample of an aggregate retained on each of a
specified series of sieves, and dividing the sum by 100.
Q24. What is the difference between QA and QC?
Ans. The difference is that QA is process oriented and QC is product

oriented. Testing, therefore is product oriented and thus is in the QC
domain. Testing for quality isn’t assuring quality, it’s controlling it. Quality
Assurance makes sure you are doing the right things, the right way.
Q25. What is the meaning of Fe415?
Ans. It is a HYSD(high yield strength deformed) bar and its characteristic

strength is 415N/mm2.
Q26. What is bulk density and what does it depend on?
Ans. Bulk density is the weight of soil in a given volume. Soils with a bulk
density higher than 1.6 g/cm3 tend to restrict root growth. Bulk density
increases with compaction and tends to increase with depth.
Bulk density is dependent on soil organic matter, soil texture, the density
of soil mineral (sand, silt, and clay) and their packing arrangement. As a
rule of thumb, most rocks have a density of 2.65 g/cm3 so ideally, a silt
loam soil has 50% pore space and a bulk density of 1.33 g/cm3.
Q27. What are the ratios of Cement Sand and Aggregate for
different concrete mixes?
Ans. Ratios of Cement Sand and Aggregate for different concrete mixes
are
 M-5- 1:5:10
 M-7.5 -1:4:8
 M-10 – 1:3:6
 M-15 – 1:2:4
 M-20 – 1:1.5:3
 M-25 -1:1:2
 M-30 – M-40 – Design Mix followed
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Q28. What do you understand by soil reinforcements? Give
examples.
Ans. Soil reinforcement is the act of improving soil strength to enable it

support or carry more load.
Two common examples are:
a) Mixing a soil amendment such as lime into weak clayey soil and re-
compacting to improve soil-bearing capacity (often done under the road
base in highway construction).
b) Installing plastic or composite webbing layers (called geo-grid
material) alternating with compacted soil to produce a stronger sloped soil
structure (often done on steep roadway embankments to improve
strength and stability).
Q29. Define buckling of a structural element.
Ans. Buckling is characterized by a sudden sideways failure of a structural

member subjected to high compressive stress, where the compressive
stress at the point of failure is less than the ultimate compressive stress
that the material is capable of withstanding.
Q30. Define slenderness ratio. What is its effect on the design of

compression member?
Ans. Slenderness ratio is the ratio of the effective length of a column (Le)
and the least radius of gyration (r) about the axis under consideration.
It is given by the symbol “λ” (lambda).
-Effective slenderness ratio of the section about the minor axis of cross-
section = Le/ry.
-Effective slenderness ratio of the section about the major axis of cross
section = Le/rx.
Significance:
As slenderness ratio increases, permissible stress or critical stress
reduces. Consequently, load carrying capacity also reduces.
Q31. Difference between mild steel and HYSD bars?
Ans. Mild Steel is cheap and easy to form, basically used for re-melting,
alloying and manufacturing of fabrication of steel structures. Mild steel is
often used when large quantities of steel are needed. The Steel is
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generally made of low Carbon and Silicon.
Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength. Therefore it is not used for
special purposes such as reinforcement and heavy structure
manufacturing.
Whereas, HYSD is High Yield Strength Deformed Bars have ribs on the
surface and this increases the bond strength at least by 40%. As HYSD
steel is stronger, it saves cost. These bars are used as reinforcement steel
for construction purposes. They are graded as Fe415, Fe500 i.e. fy of 415
and 500 N/mm2 respectively.
Q32. What do you understand by 80/100 bitumen?
Ans. Bitumen Penetration Grade 80/100 is a standard penetration grade

Bitumen usually used as a Paving Grade Bitumen suitable for road
construction and for the production of asphalt pavements with superior
properties. This grade of Bitumen is mainly used in the manufacture of
hot mix asphalt for bases and wearing courses.
The Bitumen mode is dependent on temperature. The temperature-vs-
stiffness relationship of bitumen is dependent on the type of crude oil and
its refining method. Bitumen penetration grade 80/100 is semi-hard
penetration grade bitumen used as paving grade bitumen which is
suitable for road construction and repair. It is also used for the production
of asphalt pavements with the below technical specification. This grade of
bitumen is mainly used in the manufacturing of hot mix asphalt for bases
and wearing courses. Bitumen penetration grade 80/100 is one of the
most used bitumen grades and it’s a basic material for all other
bituminous products.
Q33. What is differential settlement?
Ans. Differential settlement is the term used in structural engineering for

a condition in which a building's support foundation settles in an uneven
fashion, often leading to structural damage. All buildings settle somewhat
in the years following construction, and this natural phenomenon
generally causes no problems if the settling is uniform across the
building's foundation or all of its pier supports. But when one section of
the foundation settles at a faster rate than the others, it can lead to major
structural damage to the building itself.
Differential settlement is not usually a sign of carpentry construction
flaws, although some people view it that way. Instead, the phenomenon
results when the soil beneath the structure expands, contracts, or shifts
in an uneven fashion, causing the foundation to settle at an uneven rate.
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Thus, the villain is not the carpentry construction practice, but rather the
prior evaluation and preparation of the building site itself and the
construction of the foundation.
Q34. What do 53 stands for in 53-grade cement?
Ans. The 53 in 53 Grade cement corresponds to the standard

compressive strength attained within 28 days.
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is generally graded according to their
strength. The grade indicates the compression strength (N/mm2) of a
concrete that will attain after 28 days of setting.
53 Grade Cement means - compression strength of the cement concrete
after 28 days of setting, it gives a strength of 53 mpa(or 53 N/mm2)
Q35. What are the different loads on a structure?
Ans. The different types of loads coming on the foundation of a structure

are described below.
1. Dead Loads:
Dead loads consist of self-weight of the structure (weight of walls, floors,

roofs etc). It also consists of the weight of the foundation, footings and all
other permanent loads acting on the structure. These can be computed by
finding the weights of cubical contents of the different materials used for
constructing the structure.
2. Live Loads:
Live loads consist of moving or variable loads like people, furniture,

temporary stores etc. It is also called super-imposed load.
3. Wind Loads:
The Wind acts horizontally on the surfaces of the walls, roofs and inclined
roof of the structure. That means it exerts uniform pressure on the
structural components on which it acts and tends to disturb the stability
of the structure.
4. Snow Loads:
The amount of snow load depends on various factors such as shape and
size of roof structure, roofing materials, location of the structure,
insulation of the structure, duration, and frequency of snow.
5. Seismic Load:
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These loads are internal forces which act on the structure due to
earthquake developed ground movements.
Q36. What is camber?
Ans. Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the
road surface in the transverse direction to drain off rain water from road
surface. The objectives of providing camber are:
 Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads
 Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
 Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety
Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. Camber is
measured in 1 in n or n% (Eg. 1 in 50 or 2%) and the value depends on
the type of pavement surface
Q37. What is batching?
Ans. In general batching is the process of measuring and combining the

ingredients of concrete (cement, water, sand, aggregates) as per the mix
design. The last part is important, if you are an Engineer then you will
have to do a concrete mix design to know the quantity required for each
element of concrete. So, basically, we will say “for C-30 concrete member
we need 50kg of cement per meter cube of the member or 20kg of
aggregate per meter cube, etc this is the mix design.
Q38. What is the difference between volume and weight batching?
Ans. Volume Batching: In this method cement, sand and concrete are
batched by volume. A gauge box is made with wooden plates, its volume
being equal to that of one bag of cement. One bag of cement has volume
of 35 litres. The required amount of sand and coarse aggregate is added
by measuring on to the gauge box. The quantity of water required for
making concrete is found after deciding water cement ratio. For example,
if water cement ratio is 0.5, for one bag of cement (50 kg), water
required is 0.5 × 50 = 25 kg, which is equal to 25 litres. Suitable
measure is used to select required quantity of water. Volume batching is
not ideal method of batching. Wet sand has higher volume for the
same weight of dry sand. It is called bulking of sand. Hence it upsets the
calculated volume required.
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Weigh batching: It is the correct and preferred method of measuring
concrete ingredients which leads to more uniform proportioning. Weigh
batching system facilitates simplicity, flexibility and accuracy. Different
types of weigh batchers available in the market and it depends upon the
type of job.
01. Manual weigh batching: In manual batching weighing of all concrete

ingredients is done manually. This system may be used for small jobs.
02. Semi-automatic weigh batching: In this system the aggregate bin

gates are opened by manually operated switches and gates are closed
automatically when the material has been delivered.
03. Fully automatic weigh batching: These systems have automatic

microprocessor controlled batching arrangements. Not only the
aggregates are batched in correct proportion but also their moisture
content is automatically determined and necessary corrective action taken
so that mix has desired consistency.
Weigh batching has a great advantage as it gives good quality of concrete

and providing more accurate and consistent mixture.
Q39. What is a benchmark? Name the different types.
Ans. The term benchmark, or bench mark, originates from the chiselled
horizontal marks that surveyors made in stone structures, into which an
angle-iron could be placed to form a "bench" for a levelling rod, thus
ensuring that a levelling rod could be accurately repositioned in the same
place in the future. These marks were usually indicated with a
chiselled arrow below the horizontal line.
The term is generally applied to any item used to mark a point as an

elevation reference. Frequently, bronze or aluminium disks are set in
stone or concrete, or on rods driven deeply into the earth to provide a
stable elevation point. If an elevation is marked on a map, but there is no
physical mark on the ground, it is a spot height.
The height of a benchmark is calculated relative to the heights of nearby

benchmarks in a network extending from a fundamental benchmark. A
fundamental benchmark is a point with a precisely known relationship to
the vertical datum of the area, typically mean sea level. The position and
height of each benchmark is shown on large-scale maps.
There are different types of bench marks are available in the surveying as
follows:
19
o Great Trigonometrical Survey benchmarks
o Permanent benchmarks
o Temporary benchmarks
o Arbitrary benchmarks
Q40. What is reduced level?
Ans. Reduced level is the vertical difference between the level point and
datum line or the mean sea level.
Q41. What is levelling and what are the instruments used to

perform levelling?
Ans. Levels are the different instruments used for levelling in surveying.
There are various types of levels such as dumpy level, Y level, Cushing’s
level, tilting level, Cooke’s reversible level and automatic level
instruments for levelling in surveying. The process of measuring vertical
distances in surveying is called levelling.
Q42. What is least count?
Ans. Least count is the smallest measurement that can be taken by a

measuring instrument.
The least count is related to the precision of an instrument; an instrument
that can measure smaller changes in a value relative to another
instrument, has a smaller "least count" value and so is more precise. Any
measurement made by the instrument can be considered repeatable to no
less than the resolution of the least count. The least count of an
instrument is inversely proportional to the precision of the instrument.
Q43. What is the least count of dumpy level?
Ans. Dumpy level does not have a least count of its own but is associated
with the least count of the levelling staff. Least count of levelling staff is
5mm.
Q44. What are the functions of a column in a building?
Ans. A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a

structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the
structure above to other structural elements below. In other words, a
column is a compression member. The term column applies especially to
20
a large round support (the shaft of the column) with a capital and
a base or pedestal[1] which is made of stone, or appearing to be so. A
small wooden or metal support is typically called a post, and supports
with a rectangular or other non-round section are usually called piers. For
the purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed
to resist lateral forces. Other compression members are often termed
"columns" because of the similar stress conditions. Columns are
frequently used to support beams or arches on which the upper parts of
walls or ceilings rest. In architecture, "column" refers to such a structural
element that also has certain proportional and decorative features. A
column might also be a decorative element not needed for structural
purposes; many columns are "engaged", that is to say form part of a wall.
Q45. Difference between one way slab & two way slab?
Ans. One way slab is supported on two opposite side only thus structural
action is only at one direction. Total load is carried in the direction
perpendicular to the supporting beam. If a slab is supported on all the
four sides but the ratio of longer span (l) to shorten span (b) is greater
than 2, then the slab will be considered as one way slab. Due to the huge
difference in lengths, load is not transferred to the shorter beams. Main
reinforcement is provided in only one direction for one way slabs.
Two way slabs are the slabs that are supported on four sides and the ratio
of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is less than 2. In two way slabs,
load will be carried in both the directions. So, main reinforcement is
provided in both directions for two way slabs.
Q46. What is the maximum % of Steel in columns and beams?
Ans. In beams, slabs maximum percentage steel is 4% of gross area. In

columns, maximum percentage of steel is 6%( without lapping) and 4%(
with lapping).In doubly reinforced beams it is 4% for both the steel in
tension and compression side and a total of 8% gross area.
Q47. What is concrete cover or cover to reinforcement?
Ans. Concrete cover, in reinforced concrete, is the least distance between

the surface of embedded reinforcement and the outer surface of
the concrete. The concrete cover depth can be measured with a cover
meter.
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Q48. What is clear cover, nominal cover and effective cover?
Ans. Clear cover: This is the distance from the face of the member to the
outermost face of the reinforcement including shear or torsion Stirrups or
links.
Nominal cover: This is the same thing as clear cover albeit with a different
name. This term is used by the code. It is the distance measured from the
face of the member to the outermost face of the reinforcement including
Stirrups or links. It is the dimension shown in drawings and detailing.
Effective cover: This is the distance measured from the face of the
member to the center of area of the main reinforcement, that is tension
or compression reinforcement. This is the dimension usually used for
design calculations.
Q49. What is the minimum clear cover provided in various

structural elements?
Ans. CLEAR COVER TO MAIN REINFORCEMENT:
 FOOTINGS : 75 mm
 RAFT FOUNDATION.TOP : 50 mm
 RAFT FOUNDATION.BOTTOM/SIDES : 75 mm
 STRAP BEAM : 50 mm
 GRADE SLAB : 20 mm
 COLUMN : 40 mm
 SHEAR WALL : 25 mm
 BEAMS : 25 mm
 SLABS : 15 mm
Q50. What is the bending moment (BM) & Shear force (SF)?
Ans. Bending moment at a section is defined as the algebraic sum of the

moments about the section of all the forces (including the reaction) acting
on the beam, either to the left or to the right of the section.
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Shear force at a section in a beam is defined as the algebraic sum of all
the forces including the reactions acting normal to the axis of the beam
either to the left or to the right of the section.
Q51. Explain moment of inertia and its importance.
Ans. The moment of inertia (I) is the capacity of a cross-section to resist

bending. It is always considered with respect to a reference axis and how
that cross-sectional area is distributed about the reference axis, usually a
centroidal axis. Also known as the second moment of the area, the
moment of inertia is expressed mathematically
as where A is the area of the plane of the object and y is

the distance between the centroid of the object and the x-axis. Engineers
use the moment of inertia to determine the state of stress in a section,
calculate the resistance to buckling, and determine the amount of
deflection in a beam.
Q52. What are the major problems in using pumping for

concreting works?
Ans. In pumping operation, the force exerted by pumps must overcome

the friction between concrete and the pumping pipes, the weight of
concrete and the pressure head when placing concrete above the pumps.
In fact, as only water is pumpable, it is the water in the concrete that
transfers the pressure. The main problems associated with pumping are
the effect of segregation and bleeding. To rectify these adverse effects,
the proportion of cement is increased to enhance the cohesion in order to
reduce segregation and bleeding. On the other hand, a proper selection of
aggregate grading helps to improve the pumpability of concrete.
Q53. Why is sulphate-resisting cement not used in marine

concrete?
Ans. The main components of Portland cement are tricalcium silicate,

dicalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate and tetracalcium aluminoferrite. In
sulphate-resisting cement, it contains a low amount of tricalcium
aluminate in order to avoid sulphate attack. Otherwise, tricalcium
aluminate would react with sulphates to form calcium sulphoaluminate
and gypsum that cause expansion and crack the concrete structure.
However, for marine concrete sulphate-resisting cement should not be
used because tricalcium aluminate has high affinity for chloride ions. This
is based on the possible reaction of chloride ions and tricalcium aluminate
23
to form calcium chloroaluminate hydrate and the reduction of which may
increase the rate of chloride attack to the concrete marine structure and
result in faster corrosion of steel reinforcement in marine structures.
Q54. What is the importance of air void content in bituminous

pavements?
Ans. The air void content of bituminous materials is an important control

parameter for the quality of bitumen being laid and compacted. If the air
void content is too high, it allows for intrusion of air and water. Moreover,
it also increases the rate of hardening of binders which produce
premature embrittlement of pavements. In addition, too high a void
content will also lead to differential compaction subject to traffic loads and
result in formation of ruts and grooves along the wheel track. However, a
minimum amount of air void should be maintained to avoid instability
during compaction process and to provide space for bitumen flow in long-
term consolidation under traffic loads.
Q55. What is the function of a separation membrane between

concrete pavement slab and sub-base?
Ans. The separation membrane between concrete pavement slab and

sub-base has the following functions: (i) It aids in reducing the frictional
forces between concrete slab and sub-base and helps to movement of
concrete slab with respect to sub-base owing to changes in temperature
and moisture. (ii) It prevents the loss of cement and water in immature
concrete which significantly affects the strength and durability of
hardened concrete. (iii)It avoids the mixing up of sub-base materials and
freshly placed concrete. Polythene sheeting, which is a waterproof
material, is commonly used as separation membrane.
Q56. What is the function of drilling fluid in rotary drilling in site

investigation?
Ans. Drilling fluid in rotary serves two main purposes: (i) Facilitate the
rotation of drilling tube during rotary drilling; (ii) Act as a cooling agent to
cool down heat generated during drilling operation. Traditionally, water is
normally employed as drilling fluid. However, it suffers from the following
drawbacks: (i) It affects the stability of nearby ground with the
introduction of water into the borehole (borehole for soil; drillhole for
rock); (ii) It affects the quality of sample by changing the water content
of soil samples collected from the borehole/drillhole. Substitutes are
available in market to replace water as drilling fluid (e.g. white foam).
24
Q57. What are the advantages of using top-down approach in
basement construction?
Ans. The advantages of top-down approach are listed below: (i) The
structures above ground can be carried out simultaneously with the
structures below ground. This greatly reduces the time for construction.
(ii) By using this approach, settlement can be reduced. (iii) Since the
permanent columns and slabs can be utilized to support loadings during
construction, it saves the cost of formwork.
Q58. What are the methods to tackle negative skin friction?
Ans.
(i) Use slender pile sections (e.g. H-pile or precast pile) because smaller
pile area when subject to the same working load would produce higher
deformation, thus increasing the relative downward movement of piles.
(ii) In a certain region of H-piles for ground water table fluctuation,
painting is applied on the surface of H-piles because the rise and fall of
water table contribute to the corrosion of H-piles. On the other hand, to
reduce the effect of additional loads brought about by negative skin
friction, bitumen is applied on the pile surface corresponding to the region
of soils that has negative skin friction. However, bitumen should not be
applied to the whole section of H-piles because it would be unable to
derive the designed frictional reaction from soils.
(iii) Design the piles as end-bearing so that they can take up more load.
Q59. What is the difference between working stress approach and

limit state approach?
Ans. For working stress approach, service loads are used in the whole
design and the strength of material is not utilized in the full extent. In this
method of design, stresses acting on structural members are calculated
based on elastic method and they are designed not to exceed certain
allowable values. In fact, the whole structure during the lifespan may only
experience loading stresses far below the ultimate state and that is the
reason why this method is called working stress approach. Under such
scenario, the most economical design can hardly be obtained by using
working stress approach which is now commonly used in the design of
temporary works. For limit state approach, for each material and load, a
partial safety factor is assigned individually depending on the material
properties and load properties. Therefore, each element of load and
material properties is accurately assessed resulting in a more refined and
25
accurate analysis of the structure. In this connection, the material
strength can be utilized to its maximum value during its lifespan and
loads can be assessed with reasonable probability of occurrence. Limit
state approach is commonly used for the majority of reinforced concrete
design because it ensures the utilization of material strength with the
lowest construction cost input.
Q60. What are the functions of different components of paint?
Ans. For normal paint application, there are mainly three main
components of paint, namely primer, undercoat and finishing coat.
Primer: This is the first layer of a typical painting system and it is used to
inhabit corrosion and provide a good bond for subsequent coats.
Undercoat: This component acts as a barrier to corrosion agents and even
out irregularities of bonding surface. It also serves to hide the underlying
background and prevent the details and colour of the area of application
to affect the designed colour and finishing details of paint. Finishing coat:
This is the final layer of a typical painting system and it protects the
underlying layers from the effect of adverse weather conditions (e.g.
sunlight) and to provide the designed properties of paint like colour,
impermeability, wearing resistance, etc.
Q61. What is the difference between fasteners, bolts and screws?
Ans. Fastener is a general term to describe something which is used as a

restraint for holding things together or attaching to other things. The
main physical distinction between screws and bolts is that screws are
entirely full of threads while bolts contain shanks without threads.
However, a better interpretation of the differences between the two is
that bolts are always fitted with nuts. On the contrary, screws are
normally used with tapped holes.
Q62. What does slaking of lime refer to?
Ans. The addition of limited quantity of water breaks the lumps of lime.
This process is called slaking of lime.
CaO + H₂O ——>Ca(OH)₂
This reaction is exothermic and produces hissing sound .It’s suspension in

water is called as milk of lime. Quick lime slaked with soda gives soda
lime. When dry slaked lime is subjected to the action of chlorine,
bleaching powder is formed.
26
Q63. Does the compressive strength of OPC increases with time?
Ans. Strength of 43 grade OPC at the end of 3 days is 23, 7 days is 33

and 28 days is 43. So, it increases with time.
Q64. What are the steps involved in the concreting process,

explain?
Ans. The major steps involved in the process of concreting are as follows:
1. Batching
2. Mixing
3. Transporting and placing of concrete
4. Compacting.
1. Batching: The process of measurement of the different materials for

the making of concrete is known as batching. Batching is usually done in
two ways: volume batching and weight batching. In case of volume
batching the measurement is done in the form of volume whereas in the
case of weight batching it is done by the weight.
2. Mixing: In order to create good concrete the mixing of the materials
should be first done in dry condition and after it wet condition. The two
general methods of mixing are: hand mixing and machine mixing.
3. Transportation and placing of concrete: Once the concrete mixture is
created it must be transported to its final location. The concrete is placed
on form works and should always be dropped on its final location as
closely as possible.
4. Compaction of concrete: When concrete is placed it can have air
bubbles entrapped in it which can lead to the reduction of the strength by
30%. In order to reduce the air bubbles the process of compaction is
performed. Compaction is generally performed in two ways: by hand or
by the use of vibrators.
Q65. What are the specifications for tamping rod used in impact
test for aggregates?
Ans. According to the IS code 2386, a 16 mm steel rod with rounded

edge is used for tamping the sample filled inside the cylinder in three
layers, 25 times each.
Q66. How much binding wire is required for one ton
reinforcement?
27
Ans. Binding wire required to tie 1 Ton of 28 mm or 32 mm bars will be
close to 7 kg. More the diameter of the bar, lesser is
the requirement of binding wire. You can procure binding wire depending
on the requirement. Approximately it is taken as 9 to 13 kg of binding
wire per ton.
Q67. What is Lean Concrete?
Ans. Lean concrete is a mix where the amount of cement is lower than
the amount of liquid present in the strata. This makes it ideal as a base
layer where other kinds of concrete are placed on top. It is good for
providing a flat bottom in uneven or dirt terrain(M10).
Q68. What is transverse and longitudinal cracking? How does it

happen?
Ans. Transverse cracks are cracks that are perpendicular to roadway

alignment. Longitudinal cracking is parallel to the alignment.
The rule is that concrete will crack. This is generally due to temperature
changes with shrinkage during curing which causes tension in the
concrete. Concrete will expand and contract with temperature changes. If
there is no room for the concrete to expand or contract, the concrete will
crack.
Q69. Why a structure is said to be indeterminate?
Ans. Any structure should be stable, and does not move undesirably
under applied loads. It should maintain its position under applied loads.
Indeterminate structures are series of connected elements used in
building members like beam, truss, and frames and will consist of
additional elements not required for keeping the structure stable.
Example of indeterminate structures is continuous beam, fixed beam,
propped cantilever beams, etc. The main factor that contributes to
making a structure indeterminate is support conditions (being fixed at
ends, and continuous joints at member ends). A fixed end will have three
unknowns, and hinged end will have two unknowns)
Indeterminacy can be classified into static indeterminacy and kinematic
indeterminacy.
28
Q70. What is AASHTO Soil Classification?
Ans. The classification system based on the study conducted by the

association of state highways and transportation gives guide lines for soil
and aggregate classification. This is to find the ideal subgrade mixture in
the highway construction. AASHTO classifies soils into seven groups, A-1,
A-2, A-3, A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7, which is based on their relative quality
suited for the subbase, embankment material and subgrade etc.
This system was developed by Terzaghi in the year of 1929. It requires
three major systems as below.
1. Mechanical analysis.
2. Liquid limit.
3. Plasticity index.
Q71. What are Atterbergs Limits?
Ans. Atterberg is an agriculturalist who proposed a concept of dividing

entire cohesive range of soil into five stages of soil wetness. It is defined
as the basic measure of critical water content levels for a fine grained soil.
Soil consistency levels are classified according to Atterberg limits. It is the
limit for water content and it is used to define soil behavior. These limits
corresponds to soil moisture content and expressed in terms of
consistency ranging from harsh to viscous flows. Depending upon soil
water content, it appears in four states as follows, 1) Soil, 2) Semi-solid,
3) Plastic and 4) Liquid.
Significance of Atterberg limits:

It represents low level of moisture content changes from crumbling to
plastic consistency. Varying the Atterberg limits provide significant
improvements to the cohesive strength. It is used to collect general
information about soil and its strength, compressibility and their
permeability properties. It is used to obtain empirical correlations for
engineering properties.
Atterberg limits are used for doing soil classification, comparison and
identification of soil.
Q72. What is consolidation?
Ans. It is the process by which the volume of soil is decreased by

removal of water from the pores of the soil mass. The consolidation of soil
has three stages like initial consolidation, primary consolidation and
secondary consolidation. The initial consolidation is mostly caused by
preloading of soil. Primary consolidation is caused due to the transfer of
29
excess hydrostatic stress into inter-granular stress by the removal of
water in the pores.
Secondary consolidation will take place after thorough dissipation of
hydrostatic stresses. In this consolidation, the distortion of the soil
happens due to the soil fabric readjustment.
Q73. Define creep in concrete.
Ans. Creep is the tendency of the material to move or undergo

deformation permanently due to the application of the long - term stress.
When the concrete is subjected to loading, the structure undergoes elastic
or inelastic deformations.
The elastic deformation of concrete occurs due to the external loads. The
inelastic deformation shows, when the concrete experiences the sustained
long-term load. This inelastic deformation is known as creep.
Creep is severe in the structure when the concrete is exposed to heat for
long periods and increases as they are near to their melting point. It does
not occur suddenly due to the application of stress. The long-term stress
or pressure acting on the concrete can make or change their shape.
Therefore, they are called as time-dependent deformation.
Creep does not cause the concrete to sudden break or fail on the
deformation. Creep is considered when the concrete structures are
designed initially.
Q74. What is CPM- Critical Path Method?
Ans. It is a step−by−step project management method to categorize

activities on critical path. It is an approach to project scheduling which
splits the project into many work tasks, displays them in a flow chart, and
then computes the time for project depends on calculated durations for
every task.
Only one critical path is available in several projects, few projects may
have more than one critical path based on flow logic applied in the
project.
It is longest path of network diagram and activities in this path have an
effect on project deadline.
30
Q75. State and Explain Darcy’s Law?
Ans. This is defined as basic law which governs the fluid flow through
porous media.
This law is only valid for slow laminar flow attributes of ground water
movement through most earth materials.
Laminar flow is also represented as smooth flow where flow lines
although not necessarily parallel, stay distinctive, and stick to normal
overall flow vector direction.
This law is described as flow rate per unit time has direct proportionality
with hydraulic flow gradient which is laminar through saturated mass of
soil.
Darcy's law apparatus
Formula:
It is states that linear relationship amid velocity of flow and hydraulic

gradient for any particular soil under steady condition of laminar flow.
This law is explained by using following equation.
• Here, q is flow rate, A is total cross sectional area of soil mass, i is
hydraulic gradient , k is Darcy's Permeability coefficient of, and v is

velocity of flow.
31
Q76. What is development Length?
Ans. Development length is the minimum length of a steel rod that is

inserted inside the concrete column, to ensure the sufficient adhesion
force between the concrete and steel. This will also ensure that the steel
rod does not pull out of the concrete column.
If the bending force exceeds the maximum permissible limit, then the
restraining force between the beam and the concrete column will not be
sufficient to hold the beams at its position. The beam will come out of the
concrete column, if the development length is not provided at the time of
construction. The development length is needed to provide support to the
beam, to reduce the chances of beam coming out of the concrete column.
Hence, it acts as a supporting member for the reinforced beam in the
concrete column.
Q77. Name and define some engineering properties of soil.
Ans. Some of the common engineering properties in soil are as follows.
1) Cohesion:
Cohesion is the property of soil in which the soil grains exhibit a strong
the attraction forcesin between them. This kind of soil is called cohesive
soil. Examples of cohesive soil are silty clay, sandy clay, clay silt etc.
Granular soil has little clay or no clay content in it. Such granular soils
have poor cohesive property.
2) Angle of internal friction:

It is the measurement made for the ability of soil to resist the shear
stress. It actually measures the angle between resultant force and normal
force due to failure that happened due to the shear stress.
3) Capillarity:
Capillarity is a process in which the water either rises or falls in the tube
due to the attraction force between molecules of water and between the
molecule of water and tube.
In the saturated condition, the water from the water table moves upwards
through the pores in the soil particles through capillary action. This
capillary rise will be minimum in case of coarser soil with large pores.
4) Permeability:
Permeability is one of the important properties of soil where the water
32
moves through the voids, which leads to the seepage and loss of water.
During the pond construction, the soil with less permeability should be
used, which will ensure minimum loss of water.
Q78.What do you understand by Factor Of Safety?
Ans. The factor of safety is calculated by dividing the value of ultimate

strength by the working strength of the structure. The factor of safety is
important to be considered for ensuring the safety of structures.
The factor can be used to infer the magnitude of extra load that a
structure can withstand without any failure. The value of factor of safety
should not be less than 1.
If the value of factor of safety is assumed too high, then the design
becomes uneconomical. It is not suitable for the actual practice. Hence,
the factor of safety should be in the range to make the structure
economical and practical.
The high factor of safety should not be taken into account during the
design of the lightweight structure.
Factors affecting the value are as follows, 1) type of material used in the
construction, 2) type of the component, 3) type of load which acts on the
structure and 4) behaviour of material.
Q79. What is a Friction Pile?
Ans. In the pile foundation, the load on the structure is transferred across
the full height through the frictional force developed by the surrounding
soil. The pile using this load transfer mechanism is known as friction pile.
It is otherwise called as cohesion pile.
It is one type of pile foundation. If there is no strong soil present at the

considerable depth below the ground level in the site, the bearing pile
33
becomes very long and uneconomical. For this condition, the friction pile
is employed. The length of the friction pile is dependent upon the shear
strength of the soil present in the site, applied load and size of the pile.
The load carrying capacity of the pile is improved by increasing the pile
diameter, depth of the pile, and making surface of the pile rough. The
material used for piles are timber, concrete, steel and composite. The pile
foundation is installed by three methods such as driven piles, cast-in-situ
piles and driven and cast-in-situ pile.
Q80. Explain Gravity walls and consideration for design?
Ans. Gravity walls are simple retaining wall that relies solely upon the
own weight to reach stability. They are of huge size and made of plain
concrete. These walls are flexible and do not need the rigid footing below
them. In the history, gravity walls were made up of huge mass of stone
or concrete.
The structure will be constructed and designed for the purpose of resisting
the horizontal soil pressure. The ground elevation changes will surpass
angle of repose of soil. The soil wedge will be supported by the retaining
wall. Here, wedge of the soil will lengthen beyond the failure plane. The
soil type will decide the weakest plane of failure.
The vital consideration that needs to be counted for the proper design and
the installation of gravity walls is used to identify the tendency of retained
materials to move along the gravity towards downstream. This is to be
restricted. It leads to lateral soil pressure creation behind the wall. The
pressure will depend on the cohesive strength and internal friction angle
of the retained material. The magnitude and direction of movement of
retained structure is also varying.
Q81. Define passive pressure.
Ans. When the displacement of the retaining wall is towards the backfill
due to any natural reason, the pressure that is built up on the retaining
wall due to displacement is defined as the passive pressure of the earth.
Due to the Passive pressure, the pressure of the earth soil increases and
due to the increased earth pressure, the retaining soil gets compressed,
which results in the development of the shearing strength along the plane
of the failure wedge in the direction of the retaining wall.
34
Q82. What is permeability of soil?
Ans. It is defined as the soil property which permits the water to flow
through its pores space present in the soil.
Factors Affecting the Permeability:
• Grain size
• Void ratio.
• Adsorbed water
• Degree of Saturation
• Entrapped air and Organic matter.
• Impurities in present in water.
Q83. What do you understand by the word planning with respect

to construction?
Ans. Planning means specifying the action by relating the answers for the
following questions such as, what is to be done, where to be done, how to
be done, and when to be done. Planning is the first step of the
construction project management.
Construction project planning is a bridge between experience of past
projects and proposed action that produces the favourable results in
future. There are mainly three types of construction project planning as
follows, 1) Strategic planning, 2) Operational planning and 3) Scheduling.
-In strategic planning, the strategy is prepared to run the project. The
project should be completed before the completion time provided by
owner. It is done by preparing the bar chart network diagrams. The
critical path method (CPM) is also adopted to do this work.
-Operational planning is done to elaborate the strategic planning by
defining sub activities in the main activity. The construction of foundation
includes the work related to digging, material placement, formwork etc.
-Scheduling refers to planning of activities in sequence, so that project
takes minimum time to complete. The critical path method (CPM) is
adopted for this work.
The process of planning includes the examination of the alternatives for
doing particular work and choosing the best alternative among those
alternatives for completing the project on time.
35
Q84. State the main characteristics of Planning Phase in
Construction Life Cycle.
Ans. It is termed as, the most crucial phase of an entire project.

• It is otherwise termed as construction phase plan (CPP).
• It is considered important for every project and it should not be
complicated.
• It must be significant to the project.
• It consists of detailed feasibility study, appraisal, project approval, and
detailed engineering survey and design.
Planning phase includes the following:

• Project description along with the important dates and team member's
details.
• Design and analysis of structure and its elements.
• Layout and dimensions of the structure.
• A set of explicit drawings and specifications.
• It must contain tender form of the project.
• Proper standards of safety and performance. The outcome is usually a
structural system that meets the functional safety requirements and is
expected to be the most economical.
• Technologies utilized in construction.
• The detailed estimation of the whole project.
• Preparation of bill of quantities (BOQ).
• It provides standard specification and detailed drawings of the project.
• Arrangements to involve construction workers like induction process,
safety facilities, and emergency related processes like fire, earthquake,
etc.
• It must describe scale of the project along with the complications
involved in the work undertaken, also addressing the risks involved for
the people directly associated with it.
Q85. What is pore water pressure?
Ans. In between the soil mass, the pore are present that will be filled by
air and water. Water present in the pore develops the pressure within it,
which is said to be pore water pressure. Sometime it is otherwise termed
as neutral stress. The pressure developed in pore are depends upon the
depth of ground water and seepage flow condition.
It is denoted by the symbol u. It is calculated using the relation given

below.
36
Here, the term g w is density of water and zw depth of water in soil.
It is used for finding the effective stress beneath the soil. Difference
between pore water stress and total stress is said to be effective stress.
The pore pressure in soil is divided into two categories as follows,
1) negative pore pressure and 2) positive pore pressure.
Q86. Are you familiar with Remote Sensing? What is it about?
Ans. It is a technique used to observe the earth from a satellite, which is

in orbit around the earth. The objective is to procure the information
regarding the resources available in the Earth. This is done by assessing
the incident radiation from the satellite as it is passed through the earth
atmosphere filter.
The electromagnetic radiation is reflected by the surface of Earth. The
received information is in the form of color intensity recorded as unit form
of pixels. The intensity of pixel gives the wavelength reflected by different
objects. Each object will have a signature in terms of intensity. Based on
this prior information, objects are identified in the raster map.
Therefore, transportation engineers are supplied with the map extracted
and processed from the raw image received from the satellite. The road
networks and the areal extent of a locality can be easily and accurately
identified from the map obtained from remote sensing.
The quantity of satellite systems in the orbit are indicative of the accuracy
of information received. Suborbital sensor systems also provide with
reliable data. Analyzing the remote sensing data to convert them into
usable information is important for applications related to transportation
engineering.
Q87. What is Shotcrete?
Ans. It is a concrete or occasionally called as a mortar which is

transmitted via hose and pneumatically projected at maximum velocity on
a surface, like a technique used for construction.
For this type of concrete, reinforcement is done by using steel mesh,
conventional steel rods, and/ or fibers.This is a sprayed concrete type.
The batching is done with a predetermined ratio of aggregates and
cement mixed with water or without water. It goes through placement
and compaction concurrently due to force that is projected with nozzle.
This type of concrete can be forced onto surface which is in any shape or
type, including overhead areas and vertical areas. The work through this
type of technology is immediate, easy and more economical. During
37
construction period, technical properties of shotcrete such as compressive
strength and elastic modulus reveals a significant influence on tunnel
protection, construction of building, and canal lining, etc.
Q88. Describe spread footings.
Ans. Spread footing is a type of the shallow foundation. It is defined as

the structural members used to support the column and walls as well as
transmit and distribute the load coming on the structure to the soil
beneath it.
The base area of the spread footing is calculated using the following
formula.
Here, Qt is the total load coming on the spread footing, q is bearing

capacity of soil, q is base area of the spread footing.
Spread footing is classified in two types as below.
• Isolated footing
• Strip or continuous footing

The shape of the spread footing may be circular, square and rectangular
in plan.
There are following benefits of providing the spread footing as foundation

in the building,
• The spread footing transmits and distributes the load from structure
over the larger area of soil beneath it for providing greater stability.
• Spread footing has very less risk of the failure as compared to other
types of footing.
• Spread footing increases the life of the buildings by controlling the
damage in the structures.
• Spread footing has number of points of contact with the structure and it
will be able to provide support to the structure continuously.
• Spread footing is easy to provide in the building structures.
Q89. What is a strap footing?
Ans. Strap footing is the footing, which combines two footings with
column and together with a connecting strap beam. These types of strap
footing are given at the place where the spacing is greater than usual and
usually happens at the property boundary.
38
The strap footing distributes the load from heavy column and the column
which is eccentrically rested over the footing. This footing will uniformly
transmit the loads due to moment caused by the eccentricity onto the
soil.
Strap footing is the best alternative for the trapezoidal or rectangular
combined footing. Strap footing is more economical compared to the
combined footing. The common disadvantage in the strap footings are
that the bearing will not be provided by the strap footing and the strap
uses ridge type beam to transfer the moment between the footings. Strap
footings are usually rectangular shaped or square shaped.
Q90. Explain the phenomenon of thawing and its effects.
Ans. When water seeps through the pores of the soil or rock and that
water freezes due to climate change and the freezing process develop the
crack in the rock. Due to warm weather, frozen water in crack or pores
will melt. This process is termed as thawing. Due to freezing and thawing
process, the soil will experience settlement.
The water gets to expand, when it is cooled and will freeze, while the
temperature in the soil will gets lower than freezing point of water. The
water in the voids gets frozen and tends to expand the soil. The
expansion causes the soil to move upwards. The vertical expansion of soil
refers to the frost heave.
It seriously damages the structure such as foundation and pavements of

the building through upward movement of soil, as the upward movement
of soil will not necessarily move in the uniform pattern. The frozen soil will
thaw or melt when the temperature rises. It will result in melting of water
in the pore spaces of soil. Melted water near the surface cannot drain
through or below the frozen soil. This causes increasing in water content
in the top layer of soil. The strength of the soil will get reduced and
settlement of the structure may occur as a result.
Q91. What is superelevation in road design?
Ans. Superelevation is used to create banking on corners. It’s where the

whole road slopes one way, usually towards the inside of the bend. It is
the inward transverse slope provided throughout the length of the
horizontal curves to counteract the centrifugal force and therefore to
check the tendency of the vehicle to over turn or skid.
Outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to the inner edge of
the pavement, the ratio of the height raised to the width of the pavement
39
is called super-elevation.
It’s also called positive camber, whereas if the road slopes away from the
inside, or the apex, it’s called adverse camber. The reason it works is
because when a vehicle turns a corner, physics means that it fights
against the urge to carry on travelling straight ahead. By banking the
road, more of the force is taken up through the suspension and less by
the tyres, therefore a vehicle can go faster before the tyres begin to skid.
Superelevation benefits vehicles travelling in both directions because it
increases their cornering ability. If the road was cambered like a straight
piece of road (higher in the middle) it would only benefit vehicles
travelling closest to the inside or apex of the corner.
Q92. What is a compactor? What are its various types?
Ans. A compactor is an equipment used to reduce or compress the size of

a material. In the construction industry, the compactor is used to
compress or compact the soil and make the land suitable for construction
purposes. There are several types of compactors used at construction
sites. Each compactor serves a different purpose.
Plate Compactors
The plate compactors are used for small surfaces. A plate compactor has
a vibrating base plate. The vibrating base plate is then used to create a
flat base or a level grade. The vibrating base plate usually consists of a
hammer that assists in creating a flattened base for construction
purposes.
Jumping Jack Compactors

A jumping Jack compactor is a handheld compactor which has a pointed
blade type equipment. Because of the blade equipment, such compactors
are extremely beneficial when it comes to constructing trenches and holes
for water and gas supply. These are also known as motorbikes because of
the way it is held and the manner in which it operates.
Road Roller Compactors

Road roller compactors are the most frequently and commonly used type
of compactors by construction companies as it assists in flattening and
compacting road or a piece of soil and land. They are used to smoothen
the surface of roads after constructing it. They are usually preferred for
asphalt roads.
Pneumatic Tired Rollers

These rollers have tired rollers on both the axles. Such tired rollers are
40
apt for flattening and compacting coarse-grained soils. However, they are
not applicable to create a uniform surface like road roller compactors. The
pneumatic tired rollers have tires made of rubber which are able to
perform compactions at other sites that do not necessarily need an even
surface. Pneumatic tired rollers move quicker than road roller compactors.
So, if you want to level a surface in quick time, then you can consider
using pneumatic tired rollers.
Q93. Define water cement ratio and state its affect on strength of
concrete.
Ans. Ratio of water with respect to cement, expressed in terms of weight

in the water-cement mixture is known as water-cement proportion. Water
and cement mixed together yields to the formation of concrete. The
correct proportion is needed to ensure the binding properties of the
water-cement mixture.
The water-cement ratio is calculated as below.
Here, ww is the weight of water in the mixture and wc is the weight of

cement in the mixture.
The value of ratio below 0.4 is considered to be lower water-cement ratio.

When the value of ratio lies between 0.6 and 0.7, it is considered to be
normal water-cement ratio. Generally, it is preferred to use a water-
cement ratio of 0.5. From the test conducted in laboratories, it is
observed that water-cement ratio must lie between 0.46 and 0.57.
The strength of the concrete depends highly on this ratio. Hence, it
becomes vital to maintain a perfect ratio in the mixture. Lower ratio is
preferable, where the structure needs to carry large compressive loads.
Q94. What is a total station and what are its advantages?
Ans. It is a ground surveying device used for measuring angles in both

horizontal and vertical planes and also changes in the elevation using the
trigonometric levels. Total station is a distance measuring electronic
device and also a form of electronic theodolite. The angles and distance
for the instrument to other point can be determined using total station.
Those values are used to compute the actual position (includes elevation
and coordinates).
It consists of telescope with vertical and horizontal cross hairs and Vernier
for reading the vertical angles. A graduated arc plate is provided for
41
reading the horizontal angles. In electronic theodolite, the detail study of
those data can be read out. The telescope mounted on the instrument can
be rotatable vertically through horizontal axis. In case of the standard
theodolite, two vertical arms are provided on its horizontal axis to support
the telescope.
The arms are connected to the graduated plate, which can rotate
horizontally with respect to circular plate. Horizontal angles can be
measured using those arms attached to the graduated plate.
Advantages of the total station instrument are as given below.

• It supports all local languages,
• It has an integrated database,
• User friendly and easy to setup the instrument,
• No writing errors,
• No recordings,
• Graphical views of land will be easy to understand and
• Saves time and faster in work.
Q95. Name the most used planning softwares/tools used by

construction companies.
Ans. Most commonly used tools/softwares for planning are:
- Primavera
- Microsoft Project (MSP)
- Microsoft Excel
- Candy, etc
Q96. What are shakes and their types?
Ans. Shakes are timber defects that occur around the annual ring or
growth ring of a timber. In other words, cracks or splits in the woods are
called shakes.
It may or may not be a structural problem depending upon depth and

use. The main problem is aesthetic. Where the appearance is important,
shakes are undesirable.
Types of shakes: Shakes can be classified into three main categories:-
i. Star Shakes: This type of shake starts propagating from the bark
towards the sapwood and sometimes even towards the heartwood
along the lines of medullary rays. Cracks are wider on the outer
edge or bark and narrower on the inside (usually sapwood,
42
sometimes heartwood). The main reasons behind star shakes are
extreme heat or frosting during the growth of the trees and rapid or
uneven seasoning after cutting off the timber. Extreme heat or frost
causes temperature difference, which causes shrinkage leading to
the crack.
ii. Cup and/or Ring Shakes: Cup shakes follow the annual growth ring.
It is capable to separate the growth ring partially or completely.
When the crack separates the annual ring completely, it is called
ring shakes. So, all ring shakes are cup shakes, but all cup shakes
are not a ring shape. Excessive frost action is the main reason for
this type of crack.
iii. Heart Shakes: Unlike star shakes, heart shakes starts propagating
from the pith to the sapwood along the lines of medullary rays.
Shrinkage of the interior part of the timber causes this crack.
Q97. What are the properties of a Good Mortar?
Ans. It is always desirable to use the best mortar in constructions.

Therefore, the properties of a good mortar must be investigated.
Generally, good mortar possesses following properties-
-The main quality that mortar should possess is adhesion. Good mortar
should provide good adhesion to building units (bricks, Stones etc).
-Mortar should be water resistant. It should have the capability of
resisting the penetration of water.
-Deformability of mortar should be low.
-Mortar should be cheap.
-Mortar should be easily workable in the site condition.
-The mobility of mortar should be good. It helps the mortar to be paved
thinly and evenly.
-It should possess high durability.
-To improve the speed of construction, good mortar should set quickly.
-Cracks should not be developed in the joint formed by mortar. It is
desirable to last for long period of time without losing the appearance.
Q98. What are the various characteristics of a good brick?
Ans. It is always desirable to use the best quality brick in constructions.

Therefore, the Characteristics of a good brick must be investigated.
Generally good bricks possesses following properties-
 Bricks should be uniform in colour, size and shape. Standard size of

brick should be maintained.
 They should be sound and compact.
43
 They should be free from cracks and other flaws such as air
bubbles, stone nodules etc. with sharp and square edges.
 Bricks should not absorb more than 1⁄5 of their own weight of water
when immersed in water for 24 hours (15% to 20% of dry weight).
 The compressive strength of bricks should be in range of 2000 to
5000 psi (15 to 35 MPa).
 Salt attack hampers the durability of brick. The presence of excess
soluble salts in brick also causes efflorescence. The percentage of
soluble salts (sulphates of calcium, magnesium, sodium and
potassium) should not exceed 2.5% in brunt bricks.
 Brick should not change in volume when wetted.
 Bricks should neither over-burnt nor under-brunt.
 Generally, the weight per brick should be 6 lbs. and the unit weight
should be less than 125 lbs. per cubic ft.
 The thermal conductivity of bricks should be low as it is desirable
that the building built with them should be cool in summer and
warm in winter.
 Bricks should be sound proof.
 Bricks should be non-inflammable and incombustible.
 Bricks should be free from lime pitting.
Q99. What is back sight, fore sight and intermediate sight?
Ans. Back Sight.

A back sight (B.S) is the first staff reading taken after setting up the
instrument in any position. This will always be a reading on the point of
known elevation.
Fore Sight.
A fore sight (F.S) is the last staff reading taken before moving the
instrument. This will always be reading on a point whose elevation is to
be determined. This reading indicates the shifting of the instrument.
Intermediate Sight.
An intermediate sight (I.S) is any staff reading taken on the point of
unknown elevation after the back sight and before the fore sight. This is
necessary when more than two staff readings are taken from the same
position of the instrument.
Q.100. What is the life span of an R.C.C structure?
Ans. The generally accepted life span of an RCC structure is 40 to 50

years. The structure can be designed for up-to 100 years by incorporating
durability requirements in the structural design. These would include
enhanced cover and additionally reducing steel stress and limiting
quantity of steel besides richer concreting.
But in practise, buildings designed as per IS codes and with reasonable
44
maintenance can give a life of 60 to 70 years.
However, the RCC frame may be designed, but buildings consists of other
components too…brickwork, plaster, windows, flooring, electrification,
plumbing etc. So irrespective of RCC design, the life of building will also
be governed by life of other materials used.
Q101. What is Bar Bending Schedule?
Ans. Bar Bending Schedule is a list details of bent reinforcement bars

used in any given structural concrete (RCC) element. The list contains bar
mark, its diameter, length, shape and weight.
Bar bending schedule is used by site engineers/home owners to estimate
the quantities of various diameters of bars used in a construction, perform
bar bending at site, and check the reinforcement work done by the
contractor.
Q102. What is a retaining wall? What are its different types?
Ans. A retaining wall is used to resist soil mass or backfill. The materials
that are used to create the retaining walls are rocks, or the boulder. It
has the ability to retain the position of the soil at its location for the
longer life span.
The various types of retaining walls are as follows:
1) Gravity wall- A wall is defined as the gravity wall, if it has the ability to
resist the pressure or the force from the self-weight or dead load of wall.
It helps to enhance the stability of the wall for leaning back at the location
by its own self weight.
2) Cantilever wall- These walls are basically large retaining walls and have
applications for the transformation of the horizontal pressure from back of
the soil to vertical pressure. The wall has a vertical stem, base and a slab
which has two different regions classified as a heel slab and toe slab.
3) Anchored wall- This type of wall has highest strength, which usually
supports the soil through the anchoring. The wall has the property of
slenderness, else it will be considered as weak. The wall has long end
cables which sustains the property of the soil by means of injecting
pressurized concrete.
Best Luck!!!
45
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CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNICAL

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

Ans. In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in

concrete/pavement construction, following tests are carried out:

1. Crushing Test on Aggregate:

The aggregate crushing value gives a relative measure of the resistance

2. Abrasion Test on Aggregate:

To determine the abrasion value of the coarse aggregate, this test is

3. Impact Test on Aggregate:

The aggregates should have sufficient toughness to resist their

4. Soundness Test on Aggregate:

The soundness test is carried out to learn the resistance of aggregates to

5. Shape Test on Aggregate:

Flakiness index test is used to determine the particle shape of the

6. Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Test on Aggregate:

The specific gravity of an aggregate is a measure of a strength or quality

7. Bitumen Adhesion Test on Aggregate:

Bitumen gets attached well to all normal types of road aggregates

Q 2. List down the physical properties of Portland Cement.

Ans. Physical Properties of Portland Cements

FINAL SETTING TIME

Q4. What Are The Different Type Of Slump Test Indications?

o True Slump: This type of slump is characterized by the general drop

o Shear Slump: It indicates that the concrete mix is deficient in

o Collapse Slump: This type of slump is indicates that the mix of

Q5. What are the different methods of measuring workability of

Ans. Following are the methods for measuring the workability of

2. Compacting factor test

4. Flow table test

Slump Test Method

 Fill the concrete into frustum of a steel cone in three layers

 Hand Tap concrete in each layer

Compacting factor test (to distinguish between low slump mixes)

 Dropped into a lower hopper to bring it to a standard state and then

 The cylinder and concrete weighed (partially compacted weight)

 The concrete is fully compacted, extra concrete added and then

Vebe time is defined as the time taken to complete covering of the

 A slump test is performed in a container

 A clear perspex disc, free to move vertically,

 is lowered onto the concrete surface

 Vibration at a standard rate is applied

Flow table test (to differentiate between high workability mixes)

1. A conical mould is used to produce a sample of concrete in the

Flow = final diameter of the concrete (mean of two measurements at

Q6. What is the standard and nominal size of Bricks in India?

Ans. In India, standard brick size is 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm as per

Q7. What are admixtures in Concrete? Describe five main

Ans. Chemical admixtures are the ingredients in concrete other than

Air-entraining admixtures facilitate the development of a stable air-

Water-reducing admixtures usually reduce the required water content

Accelerating admixtures increase the rate of early strength

Superplasticizers, also known as plasticizers or high-range water

Q8. What is the appropriate duration of curing for concrete? What

Ans. The Indian Standard IS 456 – 2000 recommends that curing

-Spraying of water: on walls, and columns can be cured by sprinkling

Q9. What is/are the standard IS Code(s) used for Concrete?

Ans. Indian Standard Codes (IS Codes) for Concrete

1. Plain and Reinforced Concrete - Code of Practice IS 456 2000

2. Method of test for strength of concrete IS 516 1959

3. Methods of sampling and analysis of concrete IS 1199 1959

5. Code of Practice for Prestressed Concrete IS 1343 1980

6. Concrete mix proportioning - Guidelines IS 10262 2009

Q10. What is/are the standard IS Code(s) used for Concrete?