BIOLOGY Grade 8

The Cell Cycle

• The chromosomes of a cell change form as

the cell transitions from one stage to
another in a typical cell cycle
• A cell of a multicellular organism has
“choices” and goes through many
functional stages.
• Each cell receives complete genetic
instructions in order to “choose” its next
path.
 Cell Cycle
INTERPHASE - the time when the
cells are NOT dividing. The process
has 3 stages;
1) G1 phase
2) S phase
3) G2 phase

DIVIDING STAGE
- Karyokinesis – nuclear division
M Phase which can be by
Mitosis or Meiosis
- Cytokinesis – cytoplasmic
division involving the formation of
Cleavage furrow
Cell plate
 Eukaryotic Cell division
-Mitosis is a type of nuclear division
that produces daughter nuclei
that contain exactly the same
number of the chromosomes
as that of the parent nucleus.

-Meiosis is a type of division that

produces gametes that have only
one set of chromosomes. Called
reduction division, it produces
nuclei that contain only half the
chromosome number of the parent
nucleus.
Two Major Periods of
the Cell Cycle:

■ Interphase (in green),

in which the cell grows
and carries on its usual
activities
■ Cell division or the
mitotic phase (in
yellow), during which it
divides into two cells
INTERPHASE
• the period from cell formation to cell
division
• (The term interphase reflects this idea of a
stage between cell divisions.) RESTING PHASE
– However, this image is misleading because during
interphase a cell is carrying out all its routine
activities and is “resting” only from dividing
 Metabolic phase or Growth phase - a more
accurate name
INTERPHASE
• cell prepares for the next cell division
• Divided into G1, S, and G2 subphases (the Gs
stand for gaps before and after the S phase,
and S is for synthetic)
– the cell grows by producing proteins and
organelles
– chromatin is reproduced only during the S
subphase
G1 (gap 1 subphase):
• The cell is metabolically active, synthesizing
proteins rapidly and growing vigorously
• most variable phase in terms of length
– lasts several minutes to hours, but in those that
divide slowly, G may last for days or even years
1

– Cells that permanently cease dividing are said to

be in the G0 phase.
 virtually no activities directly related to cell
division occur
• ends, the centrioles start to replicate in preparation
for cell division
 S phase:
• DNA is replicated, ensuring that the two
future cells being created will receive
identical copies of the genetic material
• New histones are made and assembled into
chromatin

One thing is sure, without a proper S phase,

there can be no correct mitotic phase.
G2 (gap 2 subphase):
• final phase of interphase
• Enzymes and other proteins needed for
division are synthesized and moved to their
proper sites
• By the end of G2, centriole replication is
complete.
– The cell is now ready to divide.
– Throughout S and G , the cell continues to grow
2

and carries on with business as usual.

Questions:

• Before a cell must divide, what must it

needs to be accomplished in interphase?
Why?

• What will happen if the cell will not

undergo on this process? Or there are
malfunction happened on this part?
 DNA Replication
• Before a cell can divide, its DNA must be
replicated exactly, so that identical copies of the
cell’s genes can be passed to each of its
offspring.
• During the S phase, replication begins
simultaneously on several chromatin threads
and continues until all the DNA has been
replicated.
• Human DNA molecules are very long.
Replication of a DNA molecule begins at several
origins of replication.
Keeping Cells Identical

The instructions for

making cell parts
are encoded in the
DNA, so each new
cell must get a
complete set of the
DNA molecules

15
 DNA Replication

DNA must be
Original DNA
strand
copied or
replicated
before cell Two new,
division identical DNA
Each new cell
strands

will then have an

identical copy of
the DNA
16
Identical Daughter Cells

Two
identical
daughter
cells

Parent Cell

17
DNA Replication
 Interphase
Interphase is the period of a cell’s life when it
carries out its normal metabolic activities and
grows. Interphase is not part of mitosis.
 During interphase, the DNA-containing material
is in the form of chromatin. The nuclear envelope
and one or more nucleoli are intact and visible.
Eukaryotic Chromosomes

All eukaryotic cells store genetic

information in chromosomes
 Most eukaryotes have between 10 and 50
chromosomes in their body cells
 Human body cells have 46 chromosomes or
23 identical pairs

21
Eukaryotic Chromosomes

Each chromosome is composed of a

single, tightly coiled DNA molecule
Chromosomes can’t be seen when cells
aren’t dividing and are called chromatin

22
 Compacting DNA into
Chromosomes

DNA is
tightly
coiled
around
proteins
called
histones

23
 Chromosomes in
Dividing Cells

Duplicated
chromosomes are
called
chromatids &
are held
together by the
centromere

Called Sister Chromatids 24

 Karyotype

 A picture of the
chromosomes from a
human cell arranged in
pairs by size
 First 22 pairs are
called autosomes
 Last pair are the sex
chromosomes
 XX female or XY male

25
 Interphase

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Photographs from: http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/biol1110/Stages.htm

BIOLOGY Grade 8
 Cell
Division
Mitosis &
Meiosis

Image: Cell Division, Wikipedia From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 CELL DIVISION
• Essential for body growth and tissue repair
– Cells that continually wear away, such as cells of the
skin and intestinal lining, reproduce themselves almost
continuously.
– Liver cells, divide more slowly (to maintain the size of
the organ they compose) but retain the ability to
reproduce quickly if the organ is damaged.
– cells of nervous tissue, skeletal muscle, and heart
muscle lose their ability to divide when they are fully
mature, and repairs are made with scar tissue
Key roles in Cell division

-The cell division process is an

integral part of the cell cycle

-The continuity of life is based on

the reproduction of cells or cell
division

-Cell division continues to

function in renewal and repair,
replacing cells
Chromosomes

31
Cell Reproduction

32
 Boy or Girl?
The Y Chromosome Decides

Y - Chromosome

X - Chromosome
33
 Types of Cell
Reproduction
Asexual reproduction involves a single
cell dividing to make 2 new, identical
daughter cells
Mitosis & binary fission are examples
of asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two cells
(egg & sperm) joining to make a new
cell (zygote) that is NOT identical to
the original cells
Meiosis is an example

34
Five Phases of the
Cell Cycle
G1 - primary growth phase
S – synthesis; DNA replicated
G2 - secondary growth phase
collectively these 3 stages are
called interphase
M – karyokinesis (mitosis)
C - cytokinesis

35
 Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

2 major phases:

• __________ (3 stages)
– DNA uncondensed

• ________ (4 stages + cytokinesis)

- Nuclear division & division of
cytoplasm
– DNA condensed

Image: Cell cycle by Richard Wheeler From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 M (mitotic) phase
• Events of Cell Division (involves two distinct
events)
■ Mitosis (mi-to’sis; mit=thread; osis=process), the
division of the nucleus
■ Cytokinesis (si-to-kĭ-ne’sis; kines=movement), the
division of the cytoplasm

o A different process of nuclear division called meiosis

(mio’sis) produces sex cells (ova and sperm) with only
half the number of genes found in other body cells.
 Mitosis
Division of somatic cells (non-reproductive
cells) in eukaryotic organisms.

A single cell divides into two identical

daughter cells.

Daughter cells have same # of

chromosomes as does parent cell.

Images: Cell cycle by Richard Wheeler;

Overview of Mitosis, Mysid From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Mitosis
• the series of events that parcels out the
replicated DNA of the mother cell to two
daughter cells
• four phases—prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase
• actually a continuous process, with one phase
merging smoothly into the next
• duration varies according to cell type, but in
human cells it typically lasts about an hour or
less
 Mitosis

4 sub-phases:
1st – Prophase

2nd – Metaphase

3rd – Anaphase

4th – Telophase

followed by

Cytokinesis
Secret to remembering phases in order…

Image: Mitosis diagram, Marek Kultys From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
Early Prophase
• The chromatin condenses,
forming barlike chromosomes.
• Each duplicated chromosome
consists of two identical
threads, called sister
chromatids, held together at
the centromere.
• As the chromosomes appear,
the nucleoli disappear, and the
two centrosomes separate
from one another.
Early Prophase
• The centrosomes act as focal
points for growth of a
microtubule assembly called the
mitotic spindle.
• As the microtubules lengthen,
they propel the centrosomes
toward opposite ends (poles) of
the cell.
• Microtubule arrays called asters
(“stars”) extend from the
centrosome matrix.
Late Prophase
• The nuclear envelope
breaks up, allowing the
spindle to interact with the
chromosomes.
• Some of the growing
spindle microtubules
attach to kinetochores
• Such microtubules are
called kinetochore
microtubules.
Late Prophase
• The remaining spindle
microtubules (not attached to
any chromosomes) are called
polar microtubules.
• The microtubules slide past
each other, forcing the poles
apart.
• The kinetochore microtubules
pull on each chromosome
from both poles in a tug-of-
war
 Prophase

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Photographs from: http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/biol1110/Stages.htm

Metaphase
• two centrosomes are at
opposite poles of the cell
• chromosomes cluster at the
midline of the cell, with their
centromeres precisely aligned
at the equator of the spindle
- This imaginary plane midway
between the poles is called the
metaphase plate
- Enzymes act to separate the
chromatids from each other.
 Metaphase

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Photographs from: http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/biol1110/Stages.htm

Anaphase
• The shortest phase
• begins abruptly as the centromeres
of the chromosomes split
simultaneously
• chromatid now becomes a
chromosome in its own right
• kinetochore microtubules, moved
along by motor proteins in the
kinetochores, gradually pull each
chromosome toward the pole it
faces
Anaphase
• At the same time, the polar
microtubules slide past each other,
lengthen, and push the two poles
of the cell apart
• moving chromosomes look V
shaped
• centromeres lead the way, and the
chromosomal “arms” dangle
behind them
• Diffuse threads of chromatin would
trail, tangle, and break, resulting in
imprecise “parceling out” to the
daughter cells.
 Anaphase

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Photographs from: http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/biol1110/Stages.htm

Telophase
• begins as soon as chromosomal
movement stops
• Like prophase in reverse
• The identical sets of chromosomes
at the opposite poles of the cell
uncoil and resume their threadlike
chromatin form
• new nuclear envelope forms
around each chromatin mass,
nucleoli reappear within the nuclei,
and the spindle breaks down and
disappears
Telophase
• Mitosis is now ended.
The cell, for just a brief
period, is binucleate
(has two nuclei) and
each new nucleus is
identical to the original
mother nucleus.
 Cytokinesis
• the division of the cytoplasm
• begins during late anaphase and is completed after
mitosis ends
• A contractile ring made of actin filaments draws the
plasma membrane inward to form a cleavage furrow
over the center of the cell.
• Furrow deepens until it pinches the cytoplasmic mass
into two parts, yielding two daughter cells
• Each is smaller and has less cytoplasm than the mother
cell, but is genetically identical to it.
 Cytokinesis
• Cytokinesis begins during late anaphase
and continues through and beyond
telophase. A contractile ring of actin
microfilaments forms the cleavage
furrow and pinches the cell apart.