CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION Cell Division

- It involves the distribution of identical genetic material or DNA to two

daughter cells.
Learning Competencies - What is most remarkable is the fidelity with which the DNA is passed
The learners:
along, without dilution or error, from one generation to the next.
 characterize the phases of the cell cycle and their control points
- Cell Division functions in reproduction, growth, and repair.
(STEM_BIO11/12Id-f-6)
 describe the stages of mitosis and meiosis given 2n=6 (STEM_BIO11/12-Id-f-7)
 discuss crossing over and recombination in meiosis (STEM_BIO11/12-Id-f-8) Core Concepts:
 explain the significance or applications of mitosis/meiosis (STEM_BIO11/12-Id-f-9) • All organisms consist of cells and arise from preexisting cells.
 identify disorders and diseases that result from the malfunction of the cell during • Mitosis is the process by which new cells are generated.
the cell cycle (STEM_BIO11/12-Id-f-10) • Meiosis is the process by which gametes are generated for reproduction.
Specific Learning Outcomes • The Cell Cycle represents all phases in the life of a cell.
 Identify and differentiate the phases of the cell cycle and their control points • DNA replication (S phase) must precede mitosis so that all daughter cells
 describe and differentiate the stages of mitosis and meiosis given 2n=6 receive the same complement of chromosomes as the parent cell.
 discuss and demonstrate crossing over and recombination in meiosis • The gap phases separate mitosis from S phase. This is the time when
 explain the significance and applications of mitosis and meiosis molecular signals mediate the switch in cellular activity.
 construct a diagram of the various stages of mitosis and meiosis • Mitosis involves the separation of copied chromosomes into separate cells.
 identify disorders and diseases that result from malfunctions in the cell during the • Unregulated cell division can lead to cancer.
cell cycle • Cell cycle checkpoints normally ensure that DNA replication and mitosis
occur only when conditions are favorable and the process is working
THE CELL CYCLE AND CANCER correctly.
- Cells need to undergo cycles as part of their growth and to repair or replace • Mutations in genes that encode cell cycle proteins can lead to unregulated
damaged parts. growth, resulting in tumor formation and ultimately invasion of cancerous
- Cell cycle enables a living thing to continue its existence by multiplying cells to other.
itself in controlled and systematic processes.
What are the cell cycle control system?
What is the role of growth factors in cell division? The Cell Cycle control system is driven by a built-in clock that can be
- Growth factors can also stimulate cell division. Growth factors serve as adjusted by external stimuli (i.e., chemical messages).
signals that tell the cell to move through the cell cycle and to divide.
What are cancer cells? Checkpoint — a critical control point in the Cell Cycle where ‘stop’ and ‘go-ahead’
- They are a group of cells involving abnormal cell growth with the potential signals can regulate the cell cycle. Animal cells have built-in ‘stop’ signals that halt
to invade or spread to other parts of the body. the cell cycles and checkpoints until overridden by ‘go-ahead’ signals. Three major
How do normal cells follow the cell cycle? checkpoints are found in the G1, G2, and M phases of the Cell Cycle.
- With the presence of growth factors, the cell divides; if absent, the cell stops
dividing. 1. G1 Checkpoint — the Restriction Point
How do cancer cells follow the cell cycle?  The G1 checkpoint ensures that the cell is large enough to divide
- Cancer is unchecked cell growth. Mutations in genes can cause cancer by and that enough nutrients are available to support the resulting
accelerating cell division rates or inhibiting normal controls on the system, daughter cells.
such as cell cycle arrest or programmed cell death. As a mass of cancerous  If a cell receives a ‘go-ahead’ signal at the G1 checkpoint, it will
cells grows, it can develop into a tumor. usually continue with the Cell Cycle.
What is the relationship between the cell cycle and cancer?  If the cell does not receive the ‘go-ahead’ signal, it will exit the
- Cancer uses mitosis to create a lot of bad cells for the body. Cell Cycle and switch to a non-dividing state called G0.
 Most cells in the human body are in the G0 phase.
2. G2 Checkpoint — ensures that DNA replication in S phase has been
THE CELL CYCLE AND ITS CONTROL POINTS successfully completed.
 3. Metaphase Checkpoint — ensures that all of the chromosomes are maintains the constant number of chromosomes in all body cells of an
attached to the mitotic spindle by a kinetochore. organism.
- There are four (4) stages under the process of mitosis: Prophase, Metaphase,
Kinase — a protein which activates or deactivates another protein by Anaphase and Telophase.
phosphorylating them. Kinases give the ‘go-ahead’ signals at the G1 and G2
checkpoints. The kinases that drive these checkpoints must themselves be activated. MEIOSIS
- is a type of cell division that occurs only among gametes or reproductive
• The activating molecule is a cyclin, a protein that derives its name from its cells (sperm and egg).
cyclically fluctuating concentration in the cell. Because of this requirement, - consists of two rounds of nuclear division;
these kinases are called cyclin-dependent kinases or CDKs.  the first division is called reduction-division, it involves separation
• Cyclins accumulate during the G1, S, and G2 phases of the Cell Cycle. of homologous chromosomes resulting in two haploid nuclei
• By the G2 checkpoint, enough cyclin is available to form MPF complexes  the second division (equational division) results in four haploid
(aggregations of CDK and cyclin) which initiate mitosis. nucleithat are non-identical to the parents as a result of crossing
• MPF functions by phosphorylating key proteins in the mitotic sequence. over (exchange of genetic material of homologous chromosomes).
• Later in mitosis, MPF switches itself off by initiating a process which leads - Meiosis is important for continuity of life in eukaryotes. It is essential in the
to the destruction of cyclin. production of sex cells/ gametes (gametogenesis); needed for the
• CDK, the non-cyclin part of MPF, persists in the cell as an inactive form maintenance of an equal number of chromosomes in the offspring;
until it associates with new cyclin molecules synthesized during the responsible for the genetic variations in the next generation.
interphase of the next round of the Cell Cycle.

TAKE NOTE: The G0 phase (referred to the G zero phase) or resting phase is a
period in the cell cycle in which cells exist in an inactive state. G0 phase is viewed as
STAGES OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
either an extended G1 phase, where the cell is neither dividing nor preparing to
Mitosis (apparent division) — is nuclear division; the process by which the nucleus
divide, or a distinct dormant stage that occurs outside of the cell cycle.
divides to produce two new nuclei. Mitosis results in two daughter cells that
are genetically identical to each other and to the parental cell from which
they came.
TWO MAJOR TYPES OF CELL DIVISION Cytokinesis — is the division of the cytoplasm. Both mitosis and cytokinesis last for
around one to two hours.
Understanding the concept of cell division gives us a clearer view of how Prophase — is the preparatory stage, During prophase, centrioles move toward
cells in our body work in order to maintain its normal functioning. It explains how opposite sides of the nucleus.
critical their roles are in the continuity of life. For organisms to grow and reproduce  The initially indistinct chromosomes begin to condense into visible
cells must divide, this is done through a process called Cell division. It is a basic threads.
process of life that all organisms undergo,although it occurs in different ways in  Chromosomes first become visible during early prophase as
different species. There are two major types of cell division namely: mitosis and long, thin, and intertwined filaments but by late prophase,
meiosis. chromosomes are more compacted and can be clearly
discerned as much shorter and rod-like structures.
MITOSIS  As the chromosomes become more distinct, the nucleoli also
- is a type of cell division that produces daughter cells that are genetically become more distinct. By the end of prophase, the nucleoli
identical to the originally dividing cells (parent). become less distinct, often disappearing altogether.
- occurs among somatic cells or the body cells Metaphase — is when chromosomes become arranged so that their centromeres
- is the reason why our body is capable of growth and development, for become aligned in one place, halfway between the two spindle poles. The
example the increase in size or in length of an organism, the healing of long axes of the chromosomes are 90 degrees to the spindle axis. The plane
wound to replace damaged cells. of alignment is called the metaphase plate.
- This process is responsible for the growth and development of an organism, Anaphase — is initiated by the separation of sister chromatids at their junction point
repair and replacement of damaged cells and organelles, and helps in at the centromere. The daughter chromosomes then move toward the poles.
Telophase — is when daughter chromosomes complete their migration to the poles. The synapsed tetrads are found aligned at the metaphase plate (the equatorial plane
The two sets ofprogeny chromosomes are assembled into two-groups at of the cell) instead of only replicated chromosomes.
opposite ends of the cell. The chromosomes uncoil and assume their Anaphase I — Chromosomes in each tetrad separate and migrate toward the
extended form during interphase. A nuclear membrane then forms around opposite poles. The sister chromatids (dyads) remain attached at their
each chromosome group and the spindle microtubules disappear. Soon, the respective centromere regions.
nucleolus reforms. Telophase I — The dyads complete their migration to the poles. New nuclear
membranes may form. In most species, cytokinesis follows, producing two
Meiosis — reduces the amount of genetic information. While mitosis in diploid cells daughter cells. Each has a nucleus containing only one set of chromosomes
produces daughter cells with a full diploid complement, meiosis produces (haploid level) in a replicated form.
haploid gametes or spores with only one set of chromosomes. During sexual
reproduction, gametes combine in fertilization to reconstitute the diploid Second Meiotic Division
complement found in parental cells. The process involves two successive The events in the second meiotic division are quite similar to mitotic
divisions of a diploid nucleus. division. The difference lies, however, in the number of chromosomes that each
daughter cell receives. While the original chromosome number is maintained in
First Meiotic Division mitosis, the number is reduced to half in meiosis.
The first meiotic division results in reducing the number of chromosomes
(reduction division). In most cases, the division is accompanied by cytokinesis. Prophase II — The dyads contract.
Metaphase II — The centromeres are directed to the equatorial plate and then
Prophase I — has been subdivided into five substages: leptonema, zygonema, divide.
pachynema, diplonema, and diakinesis. Anaphase II — The sister chromatids (monads) move away from each other and
 Leptonema — Replicated chromosomes have coiled and are already migrate to the opposite poles of the spindle fiber.
visible. The number of chromosomes present is the same as the number in Telophase II — The monads are at the poles, forming two groups of chromosomes.
the diploid cell. A nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes and
 Zygonema — Homologue chromosomes begin to pair and twist around cytokinesis follows. The chromosomes uncoil and extend.
each other in a highly specific manner. The pairing is called synapsis. And
because the pair consists of four chromatids it is referred to as bivalent Cytokinesis — The telophase stage of mitosis is accompanied by cytokinesis. The
tetrad. two nuclei are compartmentalized into separate daughter cells and
 Pachynema — Chromosomes become much shorter and thicker. A form of complete the mitotic cell division process. In animal cells, cytokinesis
physical exchange between homologues takes place at specific regions. The occurs by the formation of a constriction in the middle of the cell until two
process of physical exchange of a chromosome region is called crossing- daughter cells are formed. The constriction is often called cleavage, or cell
over. Through the mechanism of crossing-over, the parts of the furrow. However, in most plant cells this constriction is not evident.
homologous chromosomes are recombined (genetic recombination). Instead, a new cell membrane and cell wall are assembled between the two
 Diplonema — The two pairs of sister chromatids begin to separate from nuclei to form a cell plate. Each side of the cell plate is coated with a cell
each other. It is at this point where crossing-over is shown to have taken wall that eventually forms the two progeny cells.
place. The area of contact between two non-sister chromatids, called SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
chiasma, become evident.
 Diakinesis — The four chromatids of each tetrad are even more condensed Significance of Mitosis
and the chiasma often terminalize or move down the chromatids to the 1. It helps in maintaining the same number of chromosomes in daughter cells
ends. This delays the separation of homologous chromosomes. after division.
2. It is responsible for growth and development of multicellular organisms.
In addition, the nucleoli disappear, and the nuclear membrane begins to 3. It helps in repairing damaged tissues.
break down. 4. It helps the cell to maintain proper size.
5. Mitosis is important for sexual reproduction indirectly. It allows the
Metaphase I — The spindle apparatus is completely formed and the microtubules sexually reproducing organism to grow and develop from a single cell into a
are attached to the centromere regions of the homologues. sexually mature individual. This allows organisms to continue to reproduce
through the generations.
 6. It is responsible for the asexual reproduction, such as: budding (Hydra,  sister chromatids during meiosis II
yeasts), binary fission (prokaryotes such as bacterium),vegetative
reproduction.

Significance of Meiosis
1. It is responsible for gametogenesis or the formation of sex cells or gametes
(spermatogenesis and oogenesis) that are responsible for sexual
reproduction.
2. It maintains the constant number of chromosomes by halving the same. This
is important because the chromosome number doubles after fertilization.
o Chromosomes are the cell’s way of neatly arranging long strands
of DNA. Non-sex cells have two sets of chromosomes, one set
from each parent. Meiosis makes sex cells with only one set of
chromosomes. For example, human cells have 46 chromosomes,
with the exception of sperm and eggs, which contain only 23
chromosomes each. When a sperm cell fertilizes an egg, the 23
chromosomes from each sex cell combine to make a zygote, a new
cell with 46 chromosomes.
3. It is responsible for variation of traits among organisms. The shuffling of
the traits from the maternal and paternal chromosomes produces new
combination of traits and variations.
o One of the benefits of sexual reproduction is the diversity it
produces within a population. That variety is a direct product of
meiosis. Every sex cell made from meiosis has a unique
combination of chromosomes. This means that no two sperm or
egg cells are genetically identical. Every fertilization event
produces new combinations of traits. This is why siblings share
DNA with parents and each other, but are not identical to one
another

ERRORS in mitosis and the outcomes, diseases, or

disorders that may happen:
 incorrect DNA copy (e.g., cancer)
 chromosomes are attached to string-like spindles and begin to move to the
middle of the cell (e.g., Down Syndrome, Alzheimer’s, and Leukemia)
Other chromosome abnormalities:
 arise from errors in meiosis, usually meiosis I;
 occur more often during egg formation (90% of the time) than during sperm
formation;
 become more frequent as a woman ages.
 Aneuploidy — is the gain or loss of whole chromosomes. It is the most
common chromosome abnormality. It is caused by non-disjunction, the
failure of chromosomes to correctly separate:
 homologues during meiosis I or