SEKOLAH MENENGAH SERI TEMASIK

LESSON NOTES
BIOLOGY
4G

CHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISION

LESSON NO: 1 DATE : 16.6.2016
TIME : 8.30 ~ 12.00pm
SUBMISSION DATE : 23.6.2016
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Topic : Analysing mitosis.

Learning Objectives: 1. To understand mitosis.

2. To understand the phase in mitosis.

Students are able to learn: the process of cell division in human body.

Name : _______________________________________________

Class : _______________________________________________

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5.1 Mitosis
The necessity for the production of new cells in living organisms
1. Cells in the body are continuously dividing, growing, and dying. Dead cells need to be replaced
with new cells. All organisms grow and change through cell division.
2.
(a) New cells are produced from existing cells, through a process known as mitotic cell division.
(b) Mitotic cell division involves the process of nuclear division called mitosis, followed by a
cytoplasmic division called cytokinesis.

The types of cells that undergo mitosis

1.
(a) In plants, mitotic cell division occurs actively in the meristematic tissues of the root tips and
bud tips.
(b) Meristematic tissues are also found in terminal buds, the vascular cambium and cork
cambium.
(c) Active cell division in meristematic tissues allows growth and elongation of a plant to take
place at a faster rate.
2.
(a) In animals, growth takes place in every part of the body and is not just confined to certain
parts as in plants.
(b) For example, the human skin has Malpighian layers that undergo mitotic cell division to
produce new skin cells to replace dead skin cells. During the growth process, the Malpighian
layers also add to the skin surface area.

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Chromosomes and chromosomal number
1. The cells in a sexually reproducing organism can be divided into
(a) somatic cells (b) reproductive cells or gametes
2.
(a) Somatic cells comprise all the cells in an organism, except for the reproductive cells.
(b) Somatic cells are formed through mitosis.
3. Reproductive cells are formed through meiosis.
4. Every cell has thread-like structures in its nucleus called chromosomes.
5. The number of chromosomes present in the cells of each species of an individual organism is
constant. This number is referred to as the chromosomal number of the species.
6.
(a) All individuals of the same species have the same chromosomal number but the cells of
individuals of a different species have a different chromosomal number. For example, onions
have 16 chromosomes while the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, has eight chromosomes.
(b) Since chromosomes in the nucleus exist in pairs, the chromosomal number is said to be
diploid and is designated as 2n. Therefore, for the onions, 2n = 16 and for Drosophila
melanogaster, 2n = 8.
7. The gametes contain only half the number of chromosomes or only one of each pair of
chromosomes, that is, a single set. The chromosomal number is said to be haploid, and is
designated as n. Therefore, in an onion, n = 8 and in a Drosophila melanogaster, n = 4.
8.
(a) All somatic cells in the human body have 46 chromosomes.
(b) Each gamete only has 23 chromosomes.
(c) Red blood cells do not have nuclei, and consequently no chromosomes.
9. All somatic cells have two sets of chromosomes: one set inherited from each parent. Therefore,
one set of the chromosomes is of paternal origin, whereas the other is of maternal origin.
10. The presence of two sets of chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell is known as the diploid
number of chromosomes (2n).
11. In humans, one set of chromosomes consists of 23 chromosomes. Hence, our somatic cells
have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs or 2n = 46 while each gamete only has 23
chromosomes.
12. The two chromosomes in each pair have the same structural features and are referred to as
homologous chromosomes. Each member of the pair is called a homologue.
13. Both chromosomes of each pair carry genes for the same trait (for example, eye colour) at the
same location.
14. Cells with two sets of homologous chromosomes are called diploid cells (for example, somatic cells)
while cells which contain only one set of chromosomes are called haploid cells (for example, sperm
and egg cells).
15. Of the 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes in humans, one pair is the sex chromosomes.
Females have two X chromosomes (XX) while males have an X chromosome and a Y
chromosome (XY).
16. Each of the gametes or reproductive
cells contains only one set of
chromosomes or one of each kind of
chromosome found in a somatic cell.
Therefore, each human gamete only
contains one set of 23 chromosomes or
haploid number of chromosomes (n).

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 Mitosis maintains the chromosomal number of species and ensures genetic material is passed
on to the offspring
1.
(a) Each daughter cell that is formed through mitosis receives genetic material inherited from
the parent cell.
(b) The genetic material, the DNA, is carried in the chromosomes.
2. The DNA consists of a double helix which contains hundreds or thousands of genes.
3. Each gene in the chromosomes of a parent cell is a unit of inheritance that must be passed down
to its offspring.
4. This genetic information is passed down to the offspring when the nucleus divides to produce
two identical nuclei by mitosis.
5. Each daughter cell contains the same chromosomal number and genetic material as the parent cell.
6. Hence, mitosis doubles the number of cells without changing the genetic content of the cell.

What is a chromosome?

1. A chromosome consists of DNA molecule and protein.

2. DNA carries the genetic material that organisms inherit from their parents.
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3. A DNA molecule consists of hundreds or thousands of genes.
4. When the chromosomes are not condensed and visible as thread-like structures, they are called
chromatin.
5. During the S phase, the DNA molecule replicates, forming two identical DNA double helices.
6. The replication of DNA produces a duplicated chromosome with two sister chromatids.
7. Each DNA double helix is contained within a sister chromatid. Hence, the two sister
chromatids contain identical copies of DNA molecules.
8. During mitosis, the two sister chromatids separate and each becomes an independent
daughter chromosome.
9. When cell division begins, the chromatin becomes condensed, coiled and folded. At this
stage, the chromosome becomes compact and thick and can be easily seen under the light
microscope. It has a narrow region in the centre called the centromere.

The cell cycle

1. The cells of a multicellular organism progress through a well-defined sequence of stages leading
to the division and formation of new cells.
2. A cell cycle extends from the time a new cell is produced until the time the cell completes a
division.
3. The cell cycle is divided into two major phases:
(a) Interphase (G1, S and G2 sub-phases)
(b) Mitotic cell division or the M phase
4. The different phases of the cell cycle are outlined in Figure 5.2.

Interphase
1. In humans, the cell cycle occurs gradually
and continuously for 8 to 24 hours.
2. Interphase accounts for about 90% of the
cell cycle.
3. Interphase is also the stage at which cells
grow larger and prepare for cell division.
4. During interphase, the nucleus is big and
well defined (Photograph 5.2).

5. The chromosomes are not condensed and are visible as thread-like structures called chromatin.
6. A pair of centrosomes (found only in animal cells) is also formed in the cytoplasm. Each
centrosome consists of a pair of centrioles.
7. Each pair of centrioles will later migrate towards the opposite poles of the cell and help in the
formation of the spindle fibres.
8. After a period of time, depending on the type of cell and the nutrients available, the cell will start
to divide.
9. Interphase is divided into three shorter stages or sub-phases:
(a) G1 phase (gap or growth phase 1)
(b) S phase (DNA synthesis)
(c) G2 phase (gap or growth phase 2)
10. The events that take place at each sub-phase are detailed in Figure 5.2.

What is DNA replication?

When one DNA double helix replicates, two identical DNA double helices are formed. Each DNA double helix
has the original strand and a new strand.

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G1 (growth phase 1)
 During this stage, the cell begins to acquire and synthesise the materials required for cell division.
 Proteins and new organelle are being synthesised.
 The metabolic rate of the cell is high.
 G1 is a crucial phase because during this phase, cells will decide whether or not to divide and
complete the cycle to form new cells. If the external conditions are conducive for growth, then
the cell enters the S phase.
 During GI, chromosomes are extremely fine and cannot be seen under the light microscope. At
this stage, the chromosomes are known as chromatin.

S phase (DNA synthesis)

 Synthesis of DNA
(genetic material) occurs.
 The DNA undergoes
replication.
 A duplicated
chromosome
consists of two identical
sister chromatids.
 Both sister chromatids
contain identical copies of
the chromosome's DNA
molecule.

G2 (growth phase 2)
 The cell continues to grow and remains metabolically active.
 Enzymes and proteins are synthesised for cell division.
 The cell accumulates energy and completes its final preparations for division.

The processes of mitosis and cytokinesis

1. After the interphase stage, the dividing cells enter the

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2. The M phase or mitotic cell division phase can be divided into two major parts:
(a) Mitosis (b) cytokinesis
3. Mitosis can be further subdivided into four phases, namely,
(a) prophase (c) anaphase
(b) metaphase (d) telophase
4. The phases are continuous, with each merging into the next one.
The phases of mitosis in animal cells:

PROPHASE
chromosomes become shorter, thicker
and visible under a light microscope.
 Each chromosome consists of two sister
chromatids joined together at the
centromere.
 In the cytoplasm, spindle fibres begin to
form between the centrioles.
 Each pair of centrioles then migrates to lie
at the opposite poles of the cell.
 Each pair of centrioles acts as a central
point from which the spindle fibres
radiate. The central point is known as the
spindle pole.
 The spindle fibres from the opposite
spindle poles are attached to the
centromeres of each sister chromatid.
 In plant cells the spindle forms without the
presence of centrioles.
 The chromosomes condense and
 At the end of prophase, the nucleolus
become tightly coiled. The
disappears and the nuclear membranes
disintergrates

METAPHASE

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  The centromeres of all the chromosomes are lined up on the
equator of the cell called the metaphase plate.
 The spindle fibres are now fully formed.
 The chromosomes are arranged randomly at the metaphase
plate.
 The two sister chromatids of each chromosome are still
attached to each other at the centromere.
 Metaphase ends when the centromeres divide.

ANAPHASE
 The two sister chromatids of each
chromosome separate at the centromere:
 The sister chromatids are pulled apart to
the opposite poles by the shortening of the
spindle fibres that connect the
chromosomes to the poles.
 Once separated, the chromatids are
referred to as daughter chromosomes.
 Anaphase ends when the chromosomes
reach the poles of the cell.
 Since the sister chromatids are identical
copies of the original chromosomes, each
pole of the cell will have a set of complete
and identical chromosomes as in the
parent cell.

TELOPHASE

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  Telophase begins when both sets of chromo-
somes reach the opposite poles of the cell.
 The chromosomes start to uncoil and revert
to their extended state (chromatin) again.
 The spindle fibres disappear and a new
nuclear membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes.
 The nucleolus re-forms in each nucleus.
 The process of mitosis is now complete.

Cytokinesis
1. Following mitosis, the cytoplasm of the cell divides through a process called cytokinesis to form
two daughter cells, each having one nucleus.
2. Through cytokinesis, the daughter cells formed have all the organelles, nutrients and other
components needed to survive and maintain themselves.
3. Cytokinesis is the process of cytoplasmic division.
4. It usually begins before nuclear division is complete, that is, towards the end of telophase.

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The importance of controlled mitosis
1. Cells must divide in a controlled and orderly manner and be precise in distributing an exact
copy of each of their chromosomes to the new cells.
2. This, is important because the genetic information carried by the chromosomes is necessary for
the proper functioning of an organism.

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 3. Mitosis ensures that the genetic content and the number of chromosomes in the parent cells are
maintained in the daughter cells from one generation to the next.
4. The rate and timing of cell division is important for normal cell growth, development and
maintenance.
5. Different cells divide at different frequencies. For example, human skin cells divide throughout
their lifespan while liver cells only divide when necessary to replace damaged and injured tissues.
Nerve and muscle cells do not divide at all once they mature.
6. The entire cell cycle and cell division is closely regulated.
(a) Each cell has a system consisting of specific proteins which control and direct the sequence
and progression of phases in the cell cycle.
(b) The control system within the cells ensures that cell division is complete and the cell divides
in a controlled manner.
(c) Certain genes are also involved in the synthesis of certain proteins that can stimulate the
replication of chromatin during the S phase.

The effects of uncontrolled mitosis

1. When a cell divides by mitosis repeatedly, without control and regulation, it can produce cancer
cells.
2. Cancer is a disease caused by uncontrolled mitosis due to severe disruption to the mechanism
that controls the cell cycle.
3. Cancer cells divide freely and
uncontrollably without heeding the cell
cycle control system.
4. Cancer cells compete with the
surrounding normal cells to obtain
sufficient nutrients and energy for their
own growth.
5. A cancer cell that is not destroyed will
divide uncontrollably to form a tumour,
an abnormal mass of cells (Figure 5.6).

6. Cancer cells can intrude on and spread to other tissues which then lead to the malfunction of the
tissues and ultimately death.
7. Cancer can be caused by many factors such
as
(a) damage to the DNA
(b) changes in genes (mutation) that
control cell division
(c) ionising radiation, for example, X-
rays, ultraviolet rays and gamma rays
(d) certain chemical compounds like tar
in tobacco smoke
(e) carcinogenic compounds (cancer-
causing compounds) such as formal-
dehyde

The application of knowledge of mitosis in cloning

The knowledge of mitosis is applied in cloning and the tissue culture technique.

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Cloning
1. Cloning is the process of producing clones or genetically identical copies of a cell, tissue or an
organism through asexual reproduction.
2. Animal cloning involves the transfer of the nucleus from a somatic cell to an ovum or
embryonic cell with the nucleus removed.
3. Many animals have been successfully cloned ever since the first mammal, a sheep named Dolly,
was cloned in 1996 (Figure 5.7).
4. Cloning is a form of asexual reproduction because the organisms produced have the same genetic
content and chromosomal number as the parent organism. This is a common characteristic of
asexual reproduction.
5. The nucleus that directs the development of the offspring comes from a diploid cell produced
through mitotic cell division and not through the fusion of gametes produced by meiotic cell
division.
6. The successful cloning of Dolly has demonstrated that under the right conditions, inactive genes of
specialised adult cells can be expressed and made functional once again.

How is animal cloning carried out?

An animal is cloned using a nucleus obtained from an adult tissue. Dolly, the sheep, is genetically identical
to the somatic cell donor.

Tissue culture technique

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 1. Many types of plant and animal cells can be extracted from organisms and cultured in a
nutrient medium outside the organisms.
2. Tissue culture technique involves the growth of cells or tissues outside the organisms in a
suitable culture medium, which contains nutrients and growth hormones (in vitro
methods).
3. In vitro literally means 'in glasses'. The term refers to experiments conducted outside the
body of an organism, namely in test tubes or conical flasks.
4. The main purpose of tissue culture is to produce plant and animal cells through asexual
reproduction.
5. Each cell has the full genetic potential (just like a zygote) to form all parts of a mature
organism. This means a single plant cell can develop to become a complete plant.
6. Different parts of plants that can be cultured include young shoots, meristematic tissues, leaves,
roots, seeds, embryos, cells and protoplasm.
7. In Malaysia, the tissue culture technique is used to propagate plants such as oil palm, rubber
trees, orchids and tomatoes.
8. Through the tissue culture technique:
(a) thousands of new young plants or Boned plants with desirable characteristics and traits such
as strong resistance towards diseases can be produced from somatic cells taken from the
parent plant.
(b) thousands of identical young plants, all having the same characteristics and genetic content as
the parent plant can be produced.
(c) a large number of identical plants can be grown or propagated for commercial purposes.
9. With the latest developments in genetic engineering the genes of a plant can be altered and
engineered to produce higher yields.
10. These transgenic plants carry a foreign gene that has been introduced into their genetic
constitution so that they possess new and different traits.
11. Transgenic plants have improved food quality. These plants can be propagated through the
tissue culture technique.
12. Transgenic crops like wheat, soya bean and cotton which are resistant to herbicides, pests and
diseases have been successfully created by biotechnologists.

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How is the tissue culture technique carried out?
1.  All the plantlets produced this way are
 Small pieces of a plant's leaf, shoot, bud, stem genetically identical. Therefore, all the adult
or root tissues are cut out. plants that develop from them share the
 These cut out plant tissues are called same traits.
explants.
2.
 Alternatively, enzymes are used to digest the
cell walls of tissues, for example, the mesophyll
tissue from a leaf.
 This results in naked cells without cell walls
called protoplasts.
3.
 The explants or protoplasts are sterilised and
then placed in a glass container which contains
a nutrient solution with a fixed chemical
composition. A culture medium or growth
medium normally consists of a complex
mixture of glucose, amino acids, minerals and
other substances required for the growth of the
tissues.
 The culture medium and the apparatus used
must be in sterile conditions and free from
microorganisms which can contaminate the
tissue culture.
 The pH and temperature of the culture
medium also need to be maintained at
optimum levels.
4.
 The explants or protoplasts begin to divide by
mitosis.
 Cell division produces aggregates of cells.
 The aggregate of cells develop into a callus;
an undifferentiated mass of tissue.
5.
 The callus develops into a somatic embryo.
 The embryo develops into a plantlet which can
later be transferred to the soil for growth into
an adult plant.

Advantages of cloning
1. Cloning allows biotechnologists to multiply copies of useful genes or clones.
(a) For example, the bacterium Escherichia coli has been genetically manipulated to produce
bovine growth hormones.
(b) The clones of these bacteria can synthesise a large amount of the hormone.
(c) The hormone can then be injected into cows to increase the quality of their milk.
2. Clones can be produced in a shorter time and in larger numbers.
(a) In medicine, for example, the Escherichia coli strain can be cloned to produce insulin.
(b) Insulin is a hormone that lowers the level of blood sugar by converting excess glucose into
glycogen in the liver.
(c) Insulin is produced by the pancreas. A lack of insulin can cause diabetes mellitus.
(d) People with diabetes mellitus require a constant supply of insulin.
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 (e) In the past, insulin was obtained by extracting it from the pancreas of animals such as cows
after they had been slaughtered.
(f) The insulin is then purified and used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus.
(g) The problem with this method is that it is costly and the amount produced cannot meet the
demand for insulin.
(h) Today, through genetic engineering, the gene that codes the synthesis of human insulin is inserted
into the bacteria's genome.
(i) The genetically modified bacteria are then grown on a large scale.
(j) The bacteria multiply rapidly by binary fission, and the human gene replicates together with
the bacteria's own genes.
(k) The bacterial clones or transgenic bacteria that are being produced are identical because
each clone contains the gene to synthesise insulin.
(l) The bacterial cells are then lysed so that insulin can be extracted. Because bacteria multiply
rapidly and can be grown in large numbers, insulin can be produced on a large scale for
commercial purposes.
(m) Insulin produced in this way can be made in large quantities, is less expensive and more
readily available.
3.
(a) Plants that reproduce from seeds take a long time to grow and produce fruits.
Cloned plants, however, can produce flowers and fruits within a shorter period.
(b) Furthermore, as clones reach maturity in a shorter period of time, less time and
effort are needed to properly supervise them in the earlier stages.
4. Many transgenic crops like wheat, soya bean and cotton which are resistant to herbicides, pests
and diseases have been created.
(a) Plants are also engineered to produce better quality yields. For example, a gene from the
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is transferred to the cotton plant to create a new transgenic
cotton plant which is resistant to the Bt larvae. This gene codes the synthesis of the Bt protein
which kills the larvae that feed on cotton plants.
(b) Delayed ripening in tomatoes is another example of the beneficial traits possessed by
transgenic plants. This type of tomato appears fresh and firm and has a longer shelf life
(Photograph 5.4).
(c) Transgenic plants can be cloned using the tissue culture technique to produce thousands of
plantlets (clones) with similar resistance to pests and diseases. Farmers are now planting many of
these genetically modified (GM) crops.

5.

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 (a) Cloning and tissue culture techniques involve vegetative reproduction which does not need
pollinating agents.
(b) Thus, propagation can take place at any time without the need for pollination.
6. Certain transgenic bacteria can be used to control environmental pollution.
(a) For example, the gene for the synthesis of lipase is isolated from animals and inserted into the
bacterial genome to create a new strain of bacteria that can clean up oil spills in the ocean.
(b) There are also some bacterial clones which are able to break down toxic waste materials and help
clean up toxic waste dumps.
(c) For example, one such bacterium is able to remove sulphur from coal before it is burnt.
(d) Therefore, transgenic bacteria are able to help humans overcome pollution by cutting down the
time and cost of cleaning required for the removal of oil spills and toxic wastes.

Disadvantages of cloning

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