CE 6401 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Notes Unit 1
UNIT I STONES – BRICKS – CONCRETE BLOCKS 9
Stone as building material – Criteria for selection – Tests on stones – Deterioration and Preservation of stone work –
Bricks – Classification – Manufacturing of clay bricks – Tests on bricks – Compressive Strength – Water Absorption –
Efflorescence – Bricks for special use – Refractory bricks – Cement, Concrete blocks – Light weight concrete blocks.

1 List the various classifications of Stones / Rocks

# Classification Types Sub-classification /
based on Description Examples
A1 Volcanic Rocks Basalt, Trap
IGNEOUS Rock Stones Hyperbyssal Rocks Quartz, Dolerite, Gneiss
GEOLOGICAL Plutonic Rocks Granite, Diorite
A2 Origin
SEDIMENTARY Rock Stones Sandstone, Limestone, Shale
A3 METAMORPHIC Rock Stones Laterite, Schist,
B1 STRATIFIED Rocks Sandstone, Limestone
B2 Physical UNSTRATIFIED Rocks Granite, Trap, Marble
Classification
B3 FOLIATED Rocks
C1 SILICEOUS Rocks Silica is the main mineral Granite, Trap, Sandstone
C2 Chemical
ARGILLICEOUS Rocks Argil – CLAY Slate, Laterite
Classification
C3 CALCAREOUS Rocks Calcium Carbonate Limestone, Marble,
D1 Crystalline Stones
D2 Molecular
Amorphous Stones
Structure
D3 Cryptocrystalline

E1 Practical as Aggregates River Sand, as FA

 Granite, Trap, Basalt for CA
E2 as Cladding Panels / Veneers Marble, Granite,
E3 as Floor Tiles Marble, Granite,
E4 as Filters Stone Blocks, Pebbles,
E5 as Masonry Units Granite, Sandstone, Laterite
E6 as Roofing Panels Slate,
E7 as Roofing Tiles
Applications
E8 as Fillers in Masonry Blocks Any stone
E9 as Raw Materials for other Building Materials Lime Stone, Marl, Chalk for Cement
Slate for Cement
E10 as Structural Members other than for Masonry Granite,
E11 as Ballast ( for Railway Tracks ) Quartzite
E12 as Furniture Granite, Marble, Sandstone,
E13 as Road Paver Panels Granite, Gneiss
2 List the various PROPERTIES of Building Stones
# Property To determine the
A Crushing / Compressive Strength compressive strength
B Hardness Surface strength
C Appearance Texture and Surface Nature both naturally
appearing and after breaking
D Colour an indication of the Origin of the Stone and
its other properties
E Grain Structure As an indicator of strength, density,
F Toughness To withstand against Impact loads
G Abrasion / Attrition withstand against Wear & Tear, Friction,
H Heaviness / Weight / Density / As an indicator of strength, density,
Specific Gravity
I Durability Decide the suitability for structures like
Dams, Weirs, Foundations, etc.
J Porosity & Absorption
K Permeability As a filter medium,
L Fire Resistance
M Dressability For easy Sizing and Shaping

3 List the various tests on STONES

# FIELD Tests on Stones LAB Tests on STONES
A Smith’s Test Crushing Strength Test
B Water Absorption Test Water Absorption Test Test
C Toughness Test Abrasion Test
D Hardness Test Attrition Test
E Texture Test Impact Test
F Acid Test
G Crystallization Test
H Freezing and Thawing Test
I Microscopic Test ( also called Petrographic Test )

4 List the various methods of QUARRYING of Stones

# Quarrying Method Description
a Excavation method –
Chisel, Hammer, Pick Axe, Shovel, Crowbars
b Heating Method –
A using Hand Tools
Set fire on rock surface and then break
c Wedging Method –
Drilling, Wedging, Hammering and Breaking
B Mechanized form using drilling and cutting
Using Channelling Machines
machines
C By Blasting Using Explosives
5 List the various steps in Quarrying by Blasting
# STEPS IN BLASTING DESCRIPTION
i Boring Holes At precalculated intervals
ii Charging the Holes with Filling with gunpowder or other explosives
Explosives
iii Filling the blast borehole by packing with with stiff
Tamping sandy clay or resist backfiring or wasteful escape of
explosive power.
iv Firing Igniting the explosives
v Separation and Separating size wise
Segregation and
Secondary Breaking
vi Removing all loose material and ensuring that all the
Clearing of the Site
explosives placed in boreholes have been fired

6 List the various types of DRESSING carried out on Stones

# DRESSING Type Description
Definition of DRESSING
Stones obtained from quarrying does not contain required shapes and sizes. So, they are
cut into required sizes and shapes with suitable surfaces. This process is called dressing
of stones.
i Hammer Face Simply knocking out the sharp edges
ii Chisel Drafted A 30 – 50 mm wide margin in worked out around the face
of stone with a chisel.
Central portion remains Hammer Faced
iii Boasted Finish With BOASTER Chisel ( which has an edge of 60 mm ),
non-continuous PARALLEL marks are made on the full
surface ( Vertically or Horizontally or Inclinedly )
iv Reticulated Finish  20 mm wide margin is made on all edges
 Irregular sinkings – 10 mm wide and 5 mm deep are
made throughout the inner area randomly
v Rubbed Finish Full surface RUBBED with a Rotating Steel Disc
vi Plain Finish Surface smoothened using Saw or Chisel
vii Polished Finish Polished using hand tools or machines or both to get
Shining finish
viii Tooled Finish Continuous parallel chisel marks
( Vertically or Horizontally or Inclinedly )
ix Sand Blasting For cleaning old weathered surfaces to expose new surface
Fine Sand or powdered Carborundum is blown on Stone
Surface at high pressure using compressed air
x Axed Finish
xi Combed finish Combed finish -- for soft stones. Steel comb of sharp teeth
Or is dragged on the surface of soft stone. done in all
DRAGGED Finish
directions of surface. also called as DRAGGED finish.
xii Circular finish The surface of stone is made into rounded shape. Circular
finished stones are mainly used for columns.
xiii Molded finish Using machines or tools, stone surfaces are molded into
desired shapes which also provide good appearance to the
work.
xiv Furrowed finish Furrowed finish has beautiful appearance in which sides
are sunk up to 20mm width and the middle portion is
projected by 15mm. 10 mm grooves are made on the
projected portion. This is used to make the quoins
prominent.
xv Punched finish Punched finish is obtained by punching the stone using a
machine which depresses the surface of stone and creates
hollows and ridges on it.
xvi Scrabbling finish The irregular projections on stone surface are removed
using scrabbling hammer and the resultant rough surface
finish is called as scrabbling finish.
xvii Vermiculated finish This is similar to reticulated finish except that the sinking
in this case is more curved and is like worm eaten
appearance.
xvii Sunk Finish Sunk finish is achieved by depressing the original surface
i into wide groves, marks, inclined surfaces etc.
xix Quarry faced finish Quarry faced finished stones are stones which have smooth
surface and do not require any dressing. These types of
stones are sometimes directly available from quarrying.
These are also called as self-faced stones or rock faced
stones.

7 List the Agencies / Forces / Elements

causing DETERIORATION / DAMAGE of
Stones
# Agencies / Type of Deterioration caused on Stone
Forces /
Elements
i Rain Alternative Wetting and Drying due to Rain and Shine causes
gradual weathering of rocks and stones. Also the acids and
gases in the rain water too damage the stones
ii Temperatur Frequent temperature changes between Day Hot and Night
e Chill cause Expansion and Contraction causing cracking of
rocks and mainly shrinkage and cracking of joints and mortars
under the stones
iii Wind The moisture and dust brought about by the wind slowly
weather the stones; also the grit and dust carried by winds
strike the stones causing wear and tear . Water Particles from
Atmospheric Humidity enter the pores on stone surface and the
dampness developed therefrom leads to deterioration
iv Frost Water in the pores of stones under freezing temperatures, freeze
into ice, which expands and splits the stones.
v Atmospheri Acids, Gases, Fumes, Dusts and other impurities from the
c Impurities Atmosphere spoil the stones

Eg. Fumes and Gases from the Agra Mathura Refinery spoil
the white colour of Taj Mahal Marble turning into yellow
vi Vegetation Growth of vegetation on stones causes Roots to penetrate into
the stones cracking them; also the green cover increases
humidity and dampness
Also certain acids secreted by the roots deteriorate the stones
vii Living Small insects / worms can found inside fully sealed stones ;
Organisms they had entered through micropores during their egg stage /
larvae stage and can live INSIDE without outside contact. But
their presence is a weakening factor for stones.
Also some organisms can bore through the stones and cause
damage
vii Movements When two or more different stones are used together, chemicals
i of formed in one stone may leach and spread to the other stone
Chemicals damaging it.
ix Vibrations Vibrations from industrial activities, traffic and transportation
can cause gradual damage to the stones.
x Human Human Interventions and Interferences like Painting the Stone
Activities Surfaces with Toxic Paints, Drilling for Construction, Blasting,
placing of overburden, Cooking with firewood on direct stone
surface during festivals, etc. will deteriorate the stones
xi Natural Heavy Floods, Cyclones and Fires can also damage the natural
Disasters and building stones

8 List the various methods of PRESERVATION of Stones

# Preservation Method Description
i Pore Filling Pores on Stone Surface are prone entry of Moisture,
Impurities, Organisms, etc.
ii Coating with Use preservatives which will provide
Preservatives waterproofing but will allow Breathing / Movement
of Air
iii Avoid Stones Eg. Do not use limestone or stones containing
susceptible to Carbonation of Lime in industrial towns with
Surrounding smoke
Climate and
Industrial Air Quality
iv Avoid 2 or more DO NOT USE together
stone types which Limestone and Sandstone
are CHEMICALLY Magnesium Limestone and Granular Limestone
 Incompatible
v Use appropriate OPC Mortar may not be Physically compatible
Binder which will be with a given stone type;
Physically and Lime mortar may be suitable instead
Chemically
Compatible
vi Avoid Vegetation Always remove vegetation before roots and
Growth branches develop
9 List the various PRESERVATIVES used for Stones
# Type of Preservative Description
i Coal Tar
ii Linseed Oil
iii Bartya Solution
iv Alum and Soap Solution
v Paraffin
vi Paints

1 List the various classifications of Stones / Rocks

2 List the various PROPERTIES of Building Stones
3 List the various tests on STONES
4 List the various methods of QUARRYING of Stones
5 List the various steps in quarrying by Blasting
6 List the various types of DRESSING carried out on Stones
7 List the Agencies / Forces / Elements
causing DETERIORATION / DAMAGE of
Stones
8 List the various methods of PRESERVATION of Stones
9 List the various PRESERVATIVES used for Stones
10
11
12
13
14
What is Dressing of Stones?
Stones obtained from quarrying does not contain required shapes and sizes. So, they are cut into
required sizes and shapes with suitable surfaces. This process is called dressing of stones.

It is preferable that the stones should be dressed at quarry site which reduces cost of transportation.
The weight also gets reduced which is easy for transportation.

Stones contain soft surfaces at fresh stage directly after quarrying, so, dressing can be easily done.
Dressing of stones provides good appearance to stones and makes them useful for masonry works.

Different Finishes of Stones

Various types of finishes are available for dressing of stones. Use of each finish depends upon the type
of work and the variety of finishes are as follows:

 Axed finish
 Boasted finish
 Combed finish
 Circular finish
 Chisel-draughted margins
 Molded finish
 Furrowed finish
 Plain finish
 Polished finish
 Hammer dressed finish
 Rubbed finish
 Reticulated finish
 Punched finish
 Tooled finish
 Scrabbling finish
 Vermiculated finish
 Sunk finish
 Quarry faced finish

Axed Finish of Stones

Axe is used to get the required surface of hard stones like granite etc. This finish is called as axed
finish.

Boasted Finish of Stones

Boasted finish is also called as droved finish. This type of finish contains intermittent parallel lines
which are horizontal or vertical or inclined. This finish is obtained by a tool called boaster which have
an edge of width about 60 mm.

Combed Finish of Stones

Combed finish is suitable for soft stones. Steel comb of sharp teeth is dragged on the surface of soft
stone. This is done in all directions of stone surface. This is also called as dragged finish.
Circular Finish of Stones

The surface of stone is made into rounded shape. Circular finished stones are mainly used for
columns.

Chisel-Drafted Margins for Stones

Chisel draughted margins are provided on stones which represents uniform joints in stone masonry.
These margins may be pitched or square or chamfered. This is done by using chisel.

Molded Finish for Stones

Using machines or tools, stone surfaces are molded into desired shapes which also provide good
appearance to the work.
Furrowed Finish for Stones

Furrowed finish has beautiful appearance in which sides are sunk up to 20mm width and the middle
portion is projected by 15mm. 10 mm grooves are made on the projected portion. This is used to make
the quoins prominent.

Plain Finish for Stones

In case of plain finish, the surface of stone is made very smooth using saw or chisel.
Polished Finish for Stones

Polished finish is provided for marbles, granites etc. which are mostly used as floor tiles. Polishing can
be done by hand or machines.

Hammer Dressed Finish for Stones

Hammer dressed finish is adopted to stones which does not contain sharp edges or corners. These
types of stones are well suitable for masonry works. Waller’s hammer is used for finishing. Hammer
dressing contains square or rectangular shaped marks.
Rubbed Finish for Stones

Rubbed finish is achieved by rubbing the surface of stone with another hard surface or with suitable
machine. The rubbing is fastened by using water and sand.

Reticulated Finish for Stones

Reticulated finish is a special type of finish in which a margin of 20 mm wide is marked on the sides
of surface and irregular sinking type finish is made in the middle area. For that sinks also margin of 10
mm wide with 5 mm depth is provided. Finally, dots are marked in the sunk surface using pointing
tool.
Punched Finish for Stones

Punched finish is obtained by punching the stone using a machine which depresses the surface of
stone and creates hollows and ridges on it.

Tooled Finish for Stones

It is a classic finish which consists parallel continuous marks. The marks may be either horizontal or
vertical or inclined. The marking is done by chisel.
Scrabbling Finish for Stones

The irregular projections on stone surface are removed using scrabbling hammer and the resultant
rough surface finish is called as scrabbling finish.

Vermiculated Finish for Stones

This is similar to reticulated finish except that the sinking in this case is more curved and is like worm
eaten appearance.
Sunk Finish for Stones

Sunk finish is achieved by depressing the original surface into wide groves, marks, inclined surfaces
etc.

Quarry Faced Finish for Stones

Quarry faced finished stones are stones which have smooth surface and do not require any dressing.
These types of stones are sometimes directly available from quarrying. These are also called as self-
faced stones or rock faced stones.
What is Stone Quarrying?
Quarrying is the process of collecting stones from the natural rock surfaces. Site selection and methods
used for quarrying for construction works is discussed.

Quarrying of stone is completely different from mine. Mine belongs to underground operation only
whereas quarry is carried out on exposed surface of natural rocks.

So, the stones collected through quarrying is used for various engineering purposes. Stone quarrying is
generally done at hilly areas where large quantity of stone is available.

Site Selection for Quarrying of Stones

The quarry should be selected based on some conditions as follows.

 The site should be near to human living areas where labor and tools are always
available, required materials also should be available.
 At least one of type transportation facilities (road or railway or port or all) should
be available.
 Clean water source should be available near the quarry site.
 Good quality and quantity of stone should be available.
 The site should be far from permanent structures like bridges, dams etc. because
the vibrations due to blasting in the site may cause harm to them.
 Non-living area should be available to dump the refuse obtained in quarrying.
 Proper drainage facility should be available.
 Geological information of site should be read.

Considerations for Quarrying of Stones

After the site selection, some important considerations are to be followed before starting quarrying of
stones. Which are as follows:
  The rock surface should be properly checked for cracks and fissures. The
presence of these may cause planes in the stones, along which they may split.
Then, the quarrying will be easy and quick as well as economical.
 Layout should be prepared which contains different stages involved in quarrying
operation.
 The machines used should be tested to operate them easily and quickly.
 If the top surface of site contains soft soil, then it should be removed and
dumped.
 The removal of stones should be done carefully otherwise there may be chances
of landslides or slips which can cause severe damage to the lives of labor.

Methods of Quarrying of Stones

Quarrying can be done by three methods as follows:

 Hand tools
 Machine quarrying
 Blasting

Quarrying of Stones using Hand Tools

In case of soft stones or for smaller works, quarrying is done by using hand tools. There are various
ways to quarry using hand tools and they are:

 Excavating
 Heating
 Wedging

Excavating

Excavating is preferred in case of soft stone surfaces. Hammers, pick axes, shovels are used to
excavate the stones.
Heating

The top surface of rock is heated by placing wood with fuel on it. The fire will be allowed for some
hours and the top surface gets heated and separates from the rock. This separated portion is removed
by pick axes, crowbars etc.

The stones obtained by heating will be in good shape if the rock formation contains horizontal layers
at shallow depth. So, the stone obtained will be directly used for masonry works.

Wedging

This method is applicable when the rock contains cracks or joints in it. Steel wedges or steel points are
put in these cracks or fissures and hit them with hammer.
Then the rock portion separates from parent rock. If natural cracks are there, then artificial holes are
drilled in the rock and wedging is done.

Machine Quarrying of Stones

Machine quarrying is done by using channeling machines in the site. This type of machine is driven by
steam, compressed air or electricity.

A groove is made using this machine around the rock and the horizontal holes are drilled underneath
the block. Hence, the block gets separated from its bed.

A large groove of 24-meter length and 50 to 75 mm width and with a depth about 2 to 3.7 meter can
be made using channeling machine. So, larger blocks of stones can be obtained using this method.

Marbles, lime stones, etc. are quarried using machine quarrying.

Blasting for Quarrying of Stones

In this method explosives are used to separate the stones from parent rock. This process is applied in
case of hard stone or hard rock which does not contain any cracks or fissures.

The holes are drilled in the rock and explosives are arranged in the holes and blasted with proper
safety measures. The stones obtained through this process are not larger in size.

So, the main purpose of blasting is to obtain small stones which are used as ballast for railway works,
aggregate in concrete works etc..