Automotive Driveability:

A Guide to Engine Performance Diagnosis

By
Peter F. Meier

1
 Published by AutoServiceTech
Zephyrhills, Florida
First Edition 2007
Seventh revision 2008

Copyright 2007 by Peter F. Meier All rights reserved

No portion of the material may be reproduced in any medium
without the express permission of the author.
Contact information: email Pete@autoservicetech.com

ISBN# 978-0-6152-0377-5

2
 Introduction

Welcome!

What exactly is “driveability”? When I first started, there was no such term. A car
either ran right or it didn‟t. Today, the term “driveability” is applied to any customer
concern over how well his car‟s powertrain is performing, and may include anything
from “It runs rough” to “It gets poor gas mileage”. So for our purposes, we will be
confining our discussion to the vehicle‟s engine and related systems. However, you can
apply these diagnostic “basics” to any concern you are troubleshooting. It may seem like
extra time spent up front, and it is, but in the end you will find your repair efficiency
improved, your diagnostic accuracy improved, and your paycheck improved.

To understand what gave me the idea for this book a little background is in order.
Besides, you should know a little about me before you place any weight on what you read
and use from this book. I first picked up a wrench while still in high school back in 1975.
I was working after school at a local service station in a time when you could get your car
serviced at the same place you bought your gas. Most of the cars I first worked on would
be considered dinosaurs by today‟s standards…mechanical points for their ignition
systems, carbureted engines, and no emissions controls. I was there when electronic
ignitions were first introduced and the first computer controlled fuel systems were
released. And I remember how the “experienced” mechanics of the time were
dumbstruck by the new technology. Imagine their reaction to today‟s automobile!

I started a full time career as a motorcycle mechanic in the late 70‟s, then moved over to
the automotive field in the early 80‟s. I figure that I have over 30+ years experience, but
as a wise man once said, “It‟s not 30+ years of experience if you keep repeating the same
ones!” I learned early on that this career, especially with the rapidly changing technology
of today, requires you to keep learning to keep up. I believe in attending any training
class I can get to, and if you come to my house, you‟d find trade publications, factory
service information, and technical publications as the “bathroom” reading of choice.

I am an ASE certified Master Auto Technician and NATTS certified instructor. I

recently began teaching again at a local public technical college, helping new comers to
our field polish their skills. I still maintain a full time position as a working technician,
just so I can keep my hands dirty and my skills sharp. Writing came about almost by
accident. A few years ago, I had a problem with a Toyota EVAP code and the service
information I had was lacking. Not being the type to shine it on, I started looking for all
the information I could find and wrote it all down in a format I could use as a “toolbox
reference”. On a whim, I thought, “Why not submit it to some of the trade magazines?”
To my surprise, it was published, and I have since become a regular contributor to
MotorAge magazine, the nation‟s oldest industry trade publication.

As a writer, I try to provide information that the average technician can read at lunchtime
and put to work that afternoon. As a technician (with some notoriety in my home shop), I

3
am always asked for help in driveability diagnostics by other techs. And that‟s where the
idea for this book came from…I thought a “guide” to basic driveability diagnostics, with
simple theory and detailed individual tests for the various systems, might be of help to
technicians who are new to driveability, or less than comfortable with diagnosing today‟s
cars.

The problem then became one of just how much do I include? I hope you will find this
book useful in making you a more efficient and accurate diagnostician, and certainly
invite your feedback. I make no claim to being any type of “guru”…I‟m a working tech
just like you. The information presented in this book is as accurate as I can make it, but
you should always read and follow any manufacturer specific procedures, as well as any
industry standard safety practices, that may apply to the actual vehicle you are testing. I
also strongly encourage you to become an “information junkie”, and maintain a practice
of continuing education in order to maintain and grow as a professional automotive
technician.

Many thanks to Tom Roberts of AutoNerdz.com who was a real help, to Jay of
AutoEnginuity, John Thompson of Thompson Automotive Labs, the folks at PowerProbe
and AES, and to all those guys I work with that gave me honest feedback on this project
as it was being developed.

OK! I guess we‟re ready to start. Step into in my bay and let‟s get to it!

Peter F. Meier
2007

4
 Table of Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 3
Chapter 1: A Logical Approach to Driveability ............................................................ 6
Chapter 2: How an ECM Thinks ................................................................................. 10
Chapter 3: Global OBD2 Modes and Monitors ........................................................... 18
Chapter 4: Using Mode $06 ......................................................................................... 24
Chapter 5: Understanding Fuel Trim ........................................................................... 33
Chapter 6: It's All Electrical!........................................................................................44
Chapter 7: Tackling Diagnostic Trouble Codes........................................................... 55
Chapter 8: Scan Tools, Scopes and Other Stuff ........................................................... 64
Chapter 9: Scopes 101 ................................................................................................. 73
Chapter 10: Ignition System Testing Techniques ........................................................ 84
Chapter 11: Fuel System Testing Techniques ........................................................... 103
Chapter 12: Engine Integrity Testing ......................................................................... 118
Chapter 13: What Not to Do………………………………………………………...134
Chapter 14: And When Things Go Right!..................................................................139
Chapter 15: A Few Final Words…………………………………………………….144

5
 Chapter 1: A Logical Approach to
Driveability

Before we jump right in to system operation and testing, let‟s talk a minute about the
diagnostic process. Every competent technician I have ever met has one, unique to him
in many ways yet sharing some common elements.

For me, the process became clear when I had to help my oldest son study science in
middle school. He was learning the “scientific process” and the similarities between
what he was learning and the approach I use in diagnosing driveability complaints was
enlightening. The first step is defining the problem to be solved. For us as technicians,
that means verifying the customer‟s complaint. For example, if the complaint is a
stumble on acceleration, we need to drive the car and experience it for ourselves.

During that test drive, the second step is started…observation. This is, in my opinion,
the most critical step. Observation includes things like “When does the problem occur?
Is the car cold, or at operating temperature? Does it happen all the time, or
intermittently? Is the complaint easily duplicated or does it happen at any time with no
apparent pattern?” The more you can define the problem through your initial
observation, the easier it will be for you to isolate the cause and confirm your final repair.

But observation doesn‟t stop there. There is much more information to gather yet. If at
all possible, interview your customer to find out how and when their problem occurs.
When did they first notice it? How long has it been happening? Has it gotten more
pronounced since it first started or is it staying the same? These are only sample
questions, and yours will depend on the nature of the complaint.

After I‟ve interviewed the customer (if possible) and verified the complaint, I‟m ready to
ask the car some questions and continue gathering information. Since I‟m already in the
driver‟s seat when I pull the car into the bay, I check all the gauges for anything out of
the ordinary. Are there any warning lights illuminated or service messages present? Is
the MIL (Malfunction Indicator Lamp) on? If it is, I finish my visual inspections before
grabbing my scan tool. I am not quite ready yet to talk to the onboard computer. How
many miles are on the car? Does it look like it‟s been properly maintained? Are there
any modifications that may be affecting its driveability? I also take the time to do a
visual inspection on any other needs the car may have, so I can advise my customer.
Treat the car like it‟s your mom‟s car…especially when there is any condition that would
effect the safe operation of the vehicle.

If the MIL is illuminated or not, I connect my scan tool in order to see what the computer
can tell me. I start with Global OBD2 on my scan tool and first look to see what
monitors have been completed and to find out if any DTCs (Diagnostic Trouble Codes)
have been recorded or are pending. I write down my findings, and if codes have been set,
I next check the Freeze Frame records for information on what conditions were present

6
when the ECM decided to set the code(s). I also write this information down. The next
stop is to access the calibration information. According to industry sources for at least
one manufacturer, over 1/3 of all driveability issues are related to ECM programming.
Having the calibration ID allows me to find out if the ECM is up to date. This mode also
reports the VIN number the ECM is registered to, and I make sure it matches the car.
(I‟ve only had one, but if a junkyard ECM has been installed this is the quickest way to
find out).

One more step to take before I leave the scan tool…and that‟s to take a look at live data.
Global OBD2 data is “actual” data…no substitutions allowed for a component failure that
“enhanced” data may allow. What I look for is dependent on what type of problem I am
diagnosing, but at the least I look for PIDs (Parameter Identifications) that are out of
range, oxygen sensor operation, and fuel trim values. Depending on the complaint I‟m
working on, I may then switch over to “enhanced” or manufacturer specific modes in
order to access more specific PIDs that may not be available in Global OBD2 mode.
(More on this in later chapters).

Note here: DO NOT CLEAR THE CODES! If you do, all this information will be lost
and I may still need that. I only clear the codes when I am ready to verify my repair.

Whew! Sounds like a lot of work, doesn‟t it? Let me say that if the problem I am
working on is one I have dealt with several times in the past, I will go directly to the key
information points that I knew were there on the others. This is the procedure I use when
dealing with a problem for the first time, and if you are new to driveability, I strongly
recommend you follow this thought process completely on your first several jobs. As
you will see, thorough observation will provide you with the information to make a solid
diagnostic decision. Shortcut, swap parts, or guess and you will only be guaranteed
frustration and comebacks. I call this “tunnel vision”…when a technician has a problem
he thinks is related to one system and focuses all his attention to just that one possibility.
And the car doesn‟t get fixed.

Are we done with our observations? Not quite. If there were codes set, I need
information on the conditions necessary for the ECM to set them. I also want to know if
the code is the result of a circuit test, functional test or rationality test (see Chapter 2 for
these definitions). Many service information systems will have troubleshooting “trees”
for various codes, but I never follow them blindly. Without knowing the conditions
needed, the tests may not make any sense. Another human fallacy is skipping steps or
following them out of order…and that can make your test results worthless or allow you
to miss the failure entirely. These “trees” can, however, provide valuable clues as to
what is involved in the affected system and I do use them as additional sources of
information.

While I‟m in my service information system, I check for any applicable TSBs (technical
service bulletins) or recalls that may be open, especially on newer cars. There is no sense
in spending hours hunting a problem that the manufacturer has already identified and

7
solved for you. Besides, if the correction requires a new, modified component or ECM
reprogramming, you are never going to figure that out on your own.
OK, now we have information on the nature of the problem we are trying to diagnose.
Like the scientists, now it is time to make our hypothesis. Take a few minutes to review
all you have observed, and begin asking yourself, “What does all this have in common?
What system or component failure would match the symptoms and information I have
gathered?” How you review the information is dependent on the problem you are
working on. If it involves a system that you are new to, spend some time in the “Theory
and Operation” section of your service information to become familiar with how it works.
In the old days, everyone was pretty much the same, but not today. What works one way
for Ford may work totally different on that Audi. For example, if you are diagnosing a
fuel trim code, is the system a speed-density one or a mass airflow one? Is the problem
isolated to one cylinder, one bank or affecting the entire engine? If one cylinder, what
systems and/or components are unique to that cylinder? If one bank, what is unique to
that one bank? The key here is to take the time to think about possible causes, and not
just guess or settle for that “silver bullet”.

Once you have decided on the most likely causes, it is time to experiment like a scientist.
The goal here is to prove or disprove your hypothesis of what is wrong. And with that in
mind, you can design or utilize only those tests necessary. And, like a scientist, the
results of each test will be one more observation for you to analyze…using those results
to determine which test would next be most suited. Here is where you will save valuable
time by focusing your actual testing to only those needed to prove you right or wrong. If
your tests validate your original conclusion, the car is fixed. If not, take a moment to
rethink your original conclusions, form a new idea of possible causes and test again. In
later chapters, you will find information on basic system function along with tests listed
that you can use in your “experiment” phase.

Once you have completed your repair, there is one last critical step…verification. To
insure your customer‟s satisfaction, you should always take the time to make sure the car
is fixed and that there are no other problems that should be brought to their attention.
How you verify is up to you and the nature of the complaint. If the car ran rough at
highway speeds, test drive the car again for several miles at that speed. If a code was set,
now is the time to clear the codes (which will also reset all the monitors…see chapter on
Global OBD2 and How an ECM Thinks) and run the monitors by completing the
appropriate drive cycle or forcing the monitor to run manually. Another option is to
rerun the diagnostic tests you made earlier to see if the results are now OK. Using any or
all of these techniques will insure your customer‟s satisfaction and maintain your
reputation as “the” man to see.

(Author‟s notes: In my humble opinion, maintaining competence as a driveability

technician is centered on one thing: information. The ability to know what information
you need, how to find that information and how to put it to use. Factory service
information is available on the Internet; some manufacturers offer access for free while
others may charge a nominal amount. Links to these sites can be found at www.nastf.org
and at www.oem1stop.com.

8
In addition, the International Automotive Technicians Network offers a database of
vehicle “fixes” as well as the opportunity to network with thousands of professionals
from around the world. This is a great site to keep current on and get help if you need it.
They can be found at www.iatn.net. I also try to keep helpful links on my site at
www.autoservicetech.com. Add these information tools to your toolbox.

9
 Chapter 2: How an ECM Thinks

It‟s all about emissions, what‟s coming out of the tailpipe. The advent of computer
controlled engines was a result of tightening California and Federal emissions standards.
Of course, I‟m sure we would have begun using them anyway as consumers demanded
better fuel economy and performance. Considering that, it is imperative that you
understand how the on board computer (called the Engine Control Module if the
computer only controls engine parameters and Powertrain Control Module if the
computer controls both engine and transmission parameters) “thinks”. And since the
trend is to control more and more systems by computer, this same knowledge will assist
you in diagnosing other vehicle systems.

It‟s usually best to start from the beginning. Early ECMs had it easy, controlling fuel
mixture only through a basically carbureted engine utilizing a single mixture control
solenoid. Then ignition control was added and throttle body injection was developed.
This is the era of OBD1, first enacted by the California Air Resource Board (or CARB).
These modules only had to test their critical circuits for opens, shorts to power and shorts
to ground. If a problem was found, it would turn on the MIL light at the first occurrence.
False codes were not uncommon, and we often chased “ghosts” that didn‟t exist. ECM
failures were also common, as heat and vibration took their toll on the delicate circuit
boards and components. No reprogramming of these early units…if there was a problem,
the ECM was replaced.

For real codes, a quick test drive to see if the light came back on was usually sufficient to
verify the repair. The same is not true, however, for today‟s cars as we will see in a few
minutes. I still see technicians of all experience levels, though, that think they can apply
the same diagnostic strategies to today‟s cars that they did to OBD1 cars. That false
thinking only results in comebacks and technician frustration, and, of course, dissatisfied
customers.

OBD1 had problems. DLCs (Diagnostic Link Connectors) were not standardized so
technicians had to keep a toolbox drawer full of adaptors in order to connect to the
various manufacturers‟ automobiles. DTCs also were not standardized, and often service
information for some DTCs wasn‟t even available to anyone other than the dealer techs.
Communication protocols (how the ECM talks to your scan tool and other modules)
varied from one brand to the next, making it even harder for the independent.

OBD2 regulations became effective in the early 1990s, and since that represents the
majority of cars on the road today, that is where we will focus our discussion. (As of this
writing, OBD3 looms on the horizon!) Several changes were made that directly affected
the role of the ECM and what information had to be available to the independent shop.
Communication protocols were standardized with CAN (Controller Area Network
protocol) being mandated on all vehicles by 2008, providing a single protocol for all.
Codes were also standardized to a great extent, but the manufacturers are free to include
factory specific codes as well. And the DLCs were standardized, with modern

10
aftermarket scan tools able to detect the appropriate protocol and establish their
communications link without changing connectors or “keys”.

A major change was in the responsibility given to the ECM itself. Again, it is all about
what comes out of the tailpipe and OBD2 required that the ECM be able to recognize any
fault that would allow emissions to become excessive. (Note: OBD2 is proving very
effective at keeping emissions down. So much so that many states have eliminated
tailpipe emissions inspections in favor of checking the ECM for recorded faults or failed
tests!) And since higher emissions are usually the result of a detrimental change in
engine performance, these changes are usually accompanied by a check engine light is on
or other driveability customer complaint.

In addition to the OBD1 task of testing critical circuits for opens and shorts to power or
ground, OBD2 requires that the ECM be capable of other tests as well. The ECM must
be able to perform functional tests of emissions related systems and components, and
rationality tests of these systems and components. An example of a functional test is
Chrysler‟s EGR test. In this test, the EGR is closed by the ECM momentarily when it
would normally be open. The loss of EGR gases in the exhaust causes a momentarily
lean condition that is detected by the oxygen sensor and Short Term Fuel Trim responds
accordingly. The ECM measures how much of a change occurs in Short Term Fuel Trim
and compares it to what it expects to see. If the change is low or doesn‟t occur at all, the
ECM knows there is a problem with the EGR system and records the failed test (P0401:
EGR system fault). A rationality test is a comparison of one input reading to another to
see if they agree. An example of this type of test is a comparison of the Throttle Position
Sensor signal to the Mass Airflow sensor signal. If the ECM sees that more airflow is
being reported by the MAF than it would expect to see at the opening being reported by
the TPS sensor, it will record this failed test (P0068: MAF does not agree with TPS).
These are examples only. Even though codes are more standardized, the internal tests
made by the ECM for any particular system are unique to the manufacturer. Remember
the previous chapter where I told you to research the code setting conditions if diagnosing
a “MIL on” complaint?

There‟s still more to come, but let‟s take a moment to consider all this and how it affects
us as techs. First, if there is a code set, it‟s because the ECM ran a test and the test failed.
That makes the ECM our customer when we are repairing the problem. Our repair must
meet the ECM‟s requirements or it will fail again. Second, the ECM becomes our ally.
After all, who is going to test the systems more thoroughly? If we want to make sure our
repair is valid, we can ask the ECM to test it for us. Third, by understanding the ECM‟s
test strategies we can design tests of our own to mimic the ECM when troubleshooting.
For all these reasons, it is imperative that we understand how the ECM accomplishes all
its tasks.

To repeat, an OBD2 ECM performs three different types of tests: circuit integrity,
functional, and rationality tests. Since it is charged with monitoring all systems and
components that could affect emissions, these tests are incorporated by system. These
systems are:

11
 Comprehensive Components Monitor
Fuel System Monitor
Misfire Monitor

Oxygen Sensor Monitor

Catalyst Efficiency Monitor
Evaporative Emissions System Monitor
Exhaust Gas Recirculation Monitor
Secondary Air Injection System Monitor
Heated Catalyst Monitor
Air Conditioning System Monitor
Oxygen Sensor Heater Monitor

These individual system groupings are referred to as monitors, and each one is composed
of whatever system or components tests are deemed necessary by the manufacturer to
meet emissions testing requirements. Some may have only one test, others may include
several. The first three are deliberately separated from the others because they share a
common distinction. These monitors are called continuous monitors because they
operate over and over again during normal vehicle operation. The remaining monitors
are called noncontinuous monitors and they operate only once during any given vehicle
operation. But there‟s a little more to it, so get ready and pay attention.

Each individual monitor has enabling criteria, or conditions that must be met before any
of the individual tests that make up the monitor are performed. These can be things like
engine temperature, vehicle speed; engine has been running for a certain period of time,
etc. Some monitors require that another monitor be completed as an enabling criterion.
Once the criteria have been met, the individual tests that make up the monitor will start.
Different driving conditions may be required for these tests to be performed as well, and
these are all grouped into what is called a drive cycle or trip. A “trip” refers to the
requirements needed for an individual monitor to complete all its tests and the term
“drive cycle” is used by many manufacturers in place of “trip”. The term “drive cycle” is
also used generically to describe the conditions needed for all of the monitors to
complete.

Do you notice anything familiar about the term “trip”? Sure you do…one trip or two
trip codes. Let‟s explain all this next. If an individual test run by a given monitor is a
fail, the ECM will get the report. It will then determine whether to act on it or not. It
may request the test be run again, sometimes several times, before making a decision.
When the ECM decides that the failed system or component is a problem, it will do one
of two things. If the fault will have an immediate impact on emissions, the ECM will
turn on the MIL light to inform the driver and record the vehicle operating conditions in
place at the time it records the code and turns on the light. These types of codes are the
one trip codes…a catalyst damaging misfire or failed oxygen sensor for example. (Note:
Severe misfire will cause the MIL to “blink”, alerting the driver that something serious is
wrong.) If the problem is not so serious, the ECM will record the code as pending and

12
will wait to see if the same fault occurs on the next consecutive monitor run, or second
“trip”. These are the 2 trip codes, and emissions level misfire codes or evaporative
emissions system codes are examples of faults that would require 2 consecutive failures
before the ECM turns on the MIL light. If the same test passes on the second trip, the
pending code will be erased.

Two trip codes were put into place to minimize the “false” codes that occurred so often
on OBD1. I want you to reread that last paragraph to see if you caught something very
important to you as a diagnostic technician.

I‟ll wait…go ahead.

OK, now that you reread that paragraph, did you catch that part about consecutive? I
really want you to understand this part. Let‟s use a very common monitor that drives
techs nuts…the evaporative emissions monitor…as an example. The drive cycle for this
monitor is probably the most involved, often requiring an overnight cold soak followed
by very specific driving conditions before it will complete all its tests and finish the
monitor. Until it does so, the trip is not complete!

I don‟t care how much the car is driven in the mean time. If the conditions required by
the monitor are not met, the monitor will not complete. That‟s why, especially with
EVAP codes, you can think you have it fixed only to have it come back a month or two
later with the MIL light back on. That‟s also why you cannot apply the old OBD1
strategy of clearing the codes, driving around the block, and pronouncing it fixed if the
light doesn‟t come back on. That‟s why you have to know how these tests are run, what
the tests are made up of, and how to access the test information to perform a successful
repair the first time.

Now we need to back up a bit. Remember the distinction between continuous and
noncontinuous monitors? Continuous monitors are the misfire monitor, fuel monitor and
comprehensive component monitor. These three operate as the name
implies…continuously. Many of the DTCs associated with these monitors are “1 trip”
codes, and the ECM will illuminate the MIL the first time the tests exceed the
programmed limits. If the DTC is classified as a “2 trip” code, the ECM will record the
first failure as “pending”, and you will find this pending code listed in Global OBD2‟s
Mode $07. (I’ll show you all of the Global OBD2 modes in a later chapter.) If it is a
misfire or fuel system code, the ECM will also record the conditions present at the time
of the failure as a Similar Conditions Window. It will then continue to monitor the test
results, looking for the second failure to occur under the same conditions. This will cause
the pending code to mature and the MIL will be commanded on.

It is the noncontinuous monitors where the second consecutive trip really has the effect
on us as technicians. The remaining 8 monitors listed earlier are the noncontinuous
monitors. These monitors will run as soon as the enabling criteria and driving conditions
required are met. But remember this…each monitor has its own set of enabling criteria,
with some requiring very little to run (the oxygen sensor heater monitor for example) and

13
others requiring numerous conditions be met before they can complete (the EVAP
monitor is typically the most involved of all the noncontinuous monitors). When your
customer starts his car and drives to work, these monitors will complete as soon as their
conditions are met and only then. If your customer is just popping over to the local
convenience store a mile or so away, some of these monitors will not finish. A “trip” has
nothing to do with how far or how long the car is driven, it is only a “trip” when the
conditions have been met and the monitor has completed. And each monitor has its own
set of conditions.

The noncontinuous monitors will only run once during any given vehicle operation. This
means that once any given monitor has completed, it will not retest until the car is
restarted and the enabling criteria are met again. Back to the earlier example…if your
customer leaves for a vacation trip and drives 500 miles before shutting off his car, all the
monitors that have completed will consider that as their first “trip”. If he starts it back up
and pulls into the motel five miles down the road, all the monitors that have completed
will count that as a “trip”. At the risk of sounding like a broken record, a “trip” happens
for each monitor only when all the conditions that particular monitor requires have been
met and that monitor has completed.

Most noncontinuous monitor DTCs require “2 trips” before the MIL will be turned on
and the code recorded. That means that when repairing these codes, clearing the codes
and test driving the car around the block to see if the MIL comes back on is not sufficient
for verification. Even if you do complete the monitor, it has still only completed “1 trip”.
Early OBD2 systems will not even report these pending codes in Mode $07, but there is
help. It‟s called Mode $06 and that is another chapter in itself. OBD2 vehicles with
CAN will list any noncontinuous monitor pending codes in Mode $07.

OK, I know, that‟s a lot. Let‟s recap. All powertrain DTCs are associated with a monitor
that may be either a continuous monitor or noncontinuous monitor. In addition, the code
priority is related to its impact on emissions and is further classified as being either a “1
trip” or “2 trip” code. This means that it will either illuminate the MIL on the first failure
(1 trip) or the second consecutive failure (2 trip). In the case of fuel system and misfire
related codes, the second failure must also occur under the same conditions as the first. A
“trip” is any period of vehicle operation from key on to key off where the conditions
required by the monitor in question have been met and the monitor has completed all its
tests. This will vary by monitor. Continuous monitors will repeat their testing as
conditions are met, while noncontinuous monitors will complete only once during any
given key on to key off cycle.

Think you‟ve got it? No? Go ahead and review…

Got it now? Good, because there‟s a little more to go over.

When diagnosing a “MIL on” complaint, most technicians grab their scan tool and
retrieve the codes. Their next step is to clear the codes, even before they begin to gather

14
the information they may need to repair the fault. This is a big mistake, as you‟ll soon
see. (Refer to Chapter 1: A Logical Approach)

The first stop they should make is the Readiness Monitor screen found in Mode $01 on
a Global OBD2 compliant scan tool. Some newer tools will show that screen first,
automatically…on others, you‟ll have to make that selection from your menu screen. All
the monitors will be shown on this screen with the annotation of either ready (or
“complete”), not ready (or “incomplete”) or not available. “Ready” means that the
monitor has completed its tests at least once, “not ready” means that the monitor has not
completed its tests. “Not available” means that the vehicle you are testing does not use
this monitor at all, and these monitors can be ignored. Continuous monitors will always
show as “ready”.

Very important point on the noncontinuous monitors: Once a noncontinuous monitor

has completed, it will remain listed as “ready” unless the codes are cleared, or
battery power to the ECM is lost. What that means to us in our diagnostics is that we
don‟t know how old the test data recorded in these monitors is. The vehicle could have
been driven for weeks since the monitor last ran, if the conditions it requires haven‟t been
met. The more involved the “trip” requirement, the more likely the data is old. We also
don‟t know if there are other monitors that have suspended testing because of a fault in a
monitor it needs to complete. But that doesn‟t mean it isn‟t useful. If we clear the codes
right after we first hook up, all that information will be lost.

Noncontinuous monitors that show as “not ready” when you first connect will tell you
one of two things. Either the ECM memory has recently been reset (by clearing the
codes or disconnecting the battery), or there is a fault in another monitor that is
preventing the “not ready” monitor(s) from completing since the last reset.

Let‟s say you have a code for something simple, like a fault in the oxygen sensor heater
circuit (P0135). What other monitors do you think this would affect?

The first that comes to mind is the oxygen sensor monitor. An oxygen sensor has to be at
a minimum temperature in order to function. If the ECM has been told of a problem with
the sensor‟s heater, it knows that the sensor‟s signal will be inaccurate. Since the oxygen
sensor monitor checks the signal, this test will not be valid. The monitor will be
suspended until the heater circuit is repaired, or passes subsequent tests. (Remember that
last statement…I‟m going to return to it in a moment.)

If the oxygen sensor monitor is suspended, would the catalytic converter monitor work?
Since this monitor is a measure of the oxygen storage capacity of the converter, it relies
on the oxygen sensors for information. Typically, this monitor looks at the activity of the
pre-cat sensor and compares it to the activity of the post-cat sensor. If the post-cat
activity mirrors the pre-cat sensor, the ECM concludes that the storage capacity of the
converter is lacking. Without an accurate oxygen sensor it can‟t accurately test the
converter, and this monitor will be suspended.

15
How about the EGR monitor? Early on, I described how Chrysler tests its EGR by
looking at the impact on Short Term Fuel Trim resulting from the momentary loss of
EGR when it would otherwise be open. Since Short Term Fuel Trim is a response to the
activity of the pre-cat oxygen sensor, this monitor would also be suspended due to the
failed heater circuit. Mind you, this is only on this manufacturers model line and used as
an example for our discussion.

But you get the idea. A simple fault can affect multiple monitors. ECMs are
programmed with some form of task manager that is in charge of keeping an eye on all
this and making these organizational decisions. Since the “manager” has temporarily
suspended these other system monitors, a fault occurring after the suspension would
remain undetected. Back to our example…we repair the heater code, clear the codes and
we‟re all done, right? Not quite. What if a fault occurred in our Chrysler‟s EGR system
after the heater circuit fault? Being undetected, we won‟t know about it unless we drive
the car and complete all the system monitors. Maybe you‟ve experienced this already.
You repair the car, clear the code and send your customer on their merry way. Two days
later, they‟re back with the MIL on again, and they aren‟t happy. It may be a new code
for you, but it is an inconvenience and a disappointment for them. All they know is “You
didn‟t fix it right the first time and I had to come back.”

Sorry, but we need to back up a bit. Remember when I said, “The monitor will be
suspended until the heater circuit is repaired, or passes subsequent tests.”? You
already know that a pending code will be erased if the same fault does not occur on the
second consecutive trip. You also know that a matured code will illuminate the MIL
light. If the ECM does not see the same fault (under the same conditions for fuel
and misfire related codes) over the next 3 consecutive tests, it will turn the MIL off.

Have you ever had that problem? A customer calls to see if you can help him with a
“MIL on” complaint, only to have the light off when he finally arrives. Another scenario
is a customer with a MIL on for a misfire code. He installs his own plugs to cure the
problem because that‟s what his neighbor told him to do, but the light is still on and he
doesn‟t understand why. As it turns out, it was the plugs and the MIL mysteriously turns
itself off before he makes it in.

Even though the light is off, the code is still in there, and you can still access it with your
scan tool. This is helpful in identifying intermittent problems as well. One last
point…the stored code will remain in memory until a specified number of warm-up
cycles is completed (usually 40), then it will be totally erased as if it never happened. A
“warm-up” cycle is generally the period from engine running and reaching a specified
operating temperature, to engine shut off.

OK, that about does it for how an ECM thinks. Now for some homework…as you
perform your daily routine, make it a practice to look in your service information for
articles on how a particular manufacturer‟s monitors actually perform their tests. You
can find this info in the “Theory and Operation” section, and often in the manufacturers
TSBs (Technical Service Bulletins) as well. Don‟t forget the online resources mentioned

16
earlier. Remember, for us as technicians, it‟s all about information…what info we need,
how to find it, and most importantly, how to use it.

17
 Chapter 3: Global OBD2 Modes and
Monitors

Many of you who will read this book work for small independent shops or chains. A few
may even be dealer technicians. No matter where you work, there is a lot of information
to be found in Global OBD2 if you know where to look, and most powertrain related
diagnostic codes can be repaired using just that. If you have access to factory level scan
tools so much the better, but a lot of us don‟t have that available. So now that we
understand a little on how the ECM thinks, let‟s learn what to ask and how.

The SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) developed guidelines for manufacturers and
equipment makers to standardize the DLCs, code identifiers, and communications
protocols. They also developed standard diagnostic “modes” in a document referenced as
“SAE J1979”. (Note: If you don‟t already know, the “$” sign denotes the number as a
hexadecimal. It‟s for the computer to understand, and really has no impact on us as techs
until we dive into Mode $06.) Let‟s take a closer look at these modes and see what they
can do for us.

Mode $01: Current Powertrain Diagnostic Data

Figure 1: OBD2 Readiness Monitor status screen (OTC Genisys)

This mode provides access to “active”

data, like fuel trims, oxygen sensor
voltages, engine temperature, etc.
Some manufacturers include more data
than required, some don‟t. CAN
(Controller Area Network) vehicles,
with their increased capability, typically
show more information than non-CAN
vehicles. One key point here on the data
found in Mode $01…it is real data.
Unlike the ability of manufacturers to
substitute a value in the case of a failure
that you would find in “enhanced”
mode, the data reported in Mode $01 must be what is actually being reported to the ECM.
An example would be a failed Engine Coolant Temperature sensor that is reading -40F.
The manufacturer may program the ECM to substitute another value in order to make the
car more drivable until it can be repaired. In enhanced (or manufacturer specific) mode
on your scan tool, you may read the substitute value and miss the fault.

18
 Mode $01 also displays MIL (Malfunction Indicator Lamp) status as “on” or “off”. If
“on”, it will also indicate which control module requested the MIL. Lastly, the on board
monitor status is displayed here.

Mode $02: Powertrain Freeze Frame Data

Figure 2: Freeze frame data (OTC Nemisys and ScanMate software)

If a code is set, the conditions that were present at the time the code was recorded are
listed here. This information can give you an idea of the operating conditions that were
present when the fault occurred.

Mode $03: Powertrain Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTCs)

Mode $03 is where you will find the matured (Refer to Chapter 2) codes for both
continuous and noncontinuous monitors. You should be pretty familiar with this Mode,
even if your scan tool doesn‟t specifically call it Mode $03.

Mode $04: Clear/Reset Diagnostic Information

This mode clears codes and freeze frame data. It also does one more thing. Remember
the on board monitors we spent so much time talking about? They are also cleared and
reset, as are the test results in Mode $06.

19
Mode $05: Oxygen Sensor Monitor Test Results

This mode is specific to the on board testing of the oxygen sensors. On some models,
and on all CAN vehicles, this data is incorporated in Mode $06. Here you will find a
listing of the tests the ECM used to judge the performance of the sensors, as well as the
test limits.

Mode $06: Latest Test Results For Non-continuous Monitors

Figure 3: Typical Mode $06 test screen (OTC Genisys)

Each of the noncontinuous monitors is composed of a number of individual tests. Mode

$06 is where you‟ll find the results and standards for these tests. In 2002, regulations
were passed that also required some misfire monitor test results to be included in Mode
$06, effective in the 2004 or 2005 model year. (Ford is the only manufacturer that
includes this information for earlier OBD2 vehicles. See Chapter on Using Mode $06 for
full description). You will find this on those vehicles that went to the CAN protocol in
those model years.

Mode $06 is becoming more and more useful. It is another source of information for us
as diagnosticians and allows us to see exactly what individual test of a noncontinuous
monitor failed and by how much. It also helps to verify the repair by comparing results
before and after. There are some drawbacks, however, and I‟ll cover them in a separate
chapter.

20
Mode $07: Latest Test Results For Continuous Monitors

Some scan tools refer to Mode $07 as “DTCs detected during last drive cycle” or
“Pending DTCs”. Remember, many codes are now 2-trip codes, requiring them to be
present on 2 consecutive monitors in order to turn on the MIL. This was done to allow the
ECM to make sure there was a problem, and avoid false MILs. While you won‟t find
individual test results like you do in Mode $06, a failed continuous monitor will log a
pending (See Chapter 2) code that you will find here. Also, the same regulations that
require misfire reporting in Mode $06 also require noncontinuous monitor pending codes
to be reported in Mode $07.

Mode $08: Bi-directional Communications For On Board Testing

Currently, the EVAP system is the only one listed here. If the vehicle you are working
on supports this function, you can use it to “command” the ECM to seal the EVAP
system for you, rather than worrying about which hose to plug before you pressure test
and/or smoke test the system. Cycle the key to return the EVAP system to normal if you
do use this function.

Mode $09: Vehicle VIN and PCM Calibration

How many times have you had a driveability issue and found a TSB (Technical Service
Bulletin) suggesting a reprogramming of the ECM? Very often, the bulletin will list the
old calibration number and the new one. Use this mode to see the current calibration ID
and verify that the VIN matches the vehicle.

One last point. Generic OBD does not support all 9 modes. Look for Global OBD2 on
your scan tool‟s menu. Now let‟s take a closer look at the monitors themselves to get a
basic understanding of what they are testing. (Author‟s note: The following monitor
descriptions are generalized. While the goal of the monitors is shared, the individual
methods used will vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. Refer to your service
information sources for details on the actual test procedures used for a given vehicle
line.)

The Comprehensive Component Monitor

This continuous monitor typically is in charge of testing the ECM‟s input and output
devices related to emissions. Examples would be the Engine Coolant Temperature
sensor, Throttle Position sensor, Manifold Absolute Pressure sensor, and others. On
some models, the transmission inputs and outputs to the PCM are also checked.

21
 The Fuel Monitor

This continuous monitor keeps an eye on Short Term and Long Term fuel corrections that
can result from an incorrect air:fuel mixture being detected by the oxygen sensors. When
these corrections exceed their limits, System Lean or Rich codes are recorded.

The Misfire Monitor

This continuous monitor typically looks at the signal from the Crankshaft Position Sensor
for variances in rpm that could mean a cylinder is not producing its share of power to the
engine. Misfire codes are a common cause of “MIL on” complaints, and also one of the
most misdiagnosed. The key for you to remember is that, because it is a variance in rpm
being detected, any factor that affects an individual cylinder‟s ability to produce power is
a possible cause.

The Oxygen Sensor Monitor

This monitor may include both continuous and noncontinuous modes. Typically, the test
results in Mode $05 (Mode $06 on later models) will be for the noncontinuous mode.
Continuous mode is essentially for circuit tests, and noncontinuous mode for functional
tests.

The Catalyst Efficiency Monitor

This noncontinuous monitor essentially measures the oxygen storage capacity, and
therefore the health of, the catalytic converter(s). It uses information from the pre-cat and
post-cat sensors, comparing the two.

The Evaporative Emissions System Monitor

This noncontinuous monitor is in charge of making sure fuel vapors remain contained in
the fuel system. Manufacturers use different methods for functional integrity testing,
either based on pressure, vacuum or the newest method…natural vacuum. The monitor
tests, of course, will be based on the testing method used by the vehicle. A few key
points for you here: one, if the system uses vacuum to test itself, pressure testing with a
smoke machine may not uncover the problem and second, this monitor typically requires
the most extensive “trip” in order to complete all its tests, making verification of repair in
the bay more important.

The Exhaust Gas Recirculation Monitor

This is also a noncontinuous monitor. Its job is making sure the EGR is flowing when
it‟s supposed to and not flowing when it‟s not. Actual testing parameters vary by
manufacturer.

22
 The Secondary Air Injection System Monitor
This noncontinuous monitor is much like the EGR monitor. Secondary air injection is
typically used to aid in heating the catalytic converters after a cold start to bring them
online sooner. If it‟s adding air when it‟s not supposed to, converter damage from
thermal breakdown could result.

The Heated Catalyst Monitor

Another noncontinuous monitor. This is not in common use by most manufacturers (yet).
Refer to vehicle specific service information for testing details.

The Air Conditioning System Monitor

Yet another noncontinuous monitor. You may ask yourself what AC has to do with
emissions. Think about it…an AC system puts extra load on an engine and this could
result in higher emissions. Don‟t want that system working any harder or more often
than it has to.

The Oxygen Sensor Heater Monitor

The last of the noncontinuous monitors. Oxygen sensors need to be at a minimum

temperature in order to work and this monitor makes sure that the heaters are functional.
Without them, the sensors would take too long to come online, and would stop working
during periods of extended idle.

As of this writing, there are additional monitors being added as emissions requirements
become even more stringent. Always refer to vehicle specific service information for the
particulars on any given system. The old days of one way was the way are over. There
is an advantage for us as technicians, however. All this data is available through our scan
tools, allowing us even more ability to see what the ECM is seeing. This ability, I
believe, will make driveability diagnostics in the future both more of a challenge and
more of an ease. What will decide it for you is how committed you are in keeping up
with the changes through continuous education.

23
 Chapter 4: Using Mode $06

When Mode $06 was first introduced by OBD2, most of us didn‟t even know it existed.
Aftermarket scan tools of the time could not access all the Global OBD2 modes, and
typically only had a selection for “generic” OBD2 listed in their menus. This selection
only accessed information most techs were used to seeing: current data, stored codes, the
ability to clear codes, and freeze frame information. Most factory engineers didn‟t even
want to talk about what Mode $06 was and how it could be used by the average
technician. Of course, word did get out that it was in there and the first popular Mode
$06 use was in tracking down misfiring cylinders on Ford products. Unfortunately, Ford
was the only manufacturer at the time that thought of us as technicians, and included this
type of information. With CAN regulations now in place, this information is now
available on all brands using CAN as their module communication protocol.

But we‟re getting ahead of ourselves. You know from previous chapters that Mode $06
is the Global OBD2 mode that reports the results of the individual tests that make up the
noncontinuous monitors. To view these tests, you will need a scan tool that is capable of
accessing Global OBD2 modes. (If you haven‟t already, you also need to make sure your
scan tool is CAN compatible. If you haven‟t serviced a CAN vehicle yet, you soon will.)

Let‟s start off by seeing what exactly Mode $06 can and can‟t do for you in diagnosing
driveability problems. First, you need to understand what makes up these test results and
learn a few definitions. I‟m going to go back to an illustration we already used and take a
closer look at it.

Figure 4: Typical Mode $06 test screen (OTC Genisys)

24
You may have already noticed that all the modes we have discussed are labeled by a
number that looks like this: Mode $06. The $ sign means that the number is a
hexadecimal number. Hexadecimal numbers may include a combination of letters and
numbers to represent a decimal number, and is used in computer programming. Some
older scan tools are going to show the test numbers in this format. If so, you will need a
scientific calculator to convert these numbers to decimal. Most Windows PCs have this
function built in. You don‟t have to convert the mode numbers, just the test values. In
the example above, the numbers have already been translated to decimals for us.

The individual tests are organized by Test ID or TID, and Component ID or CID. CAN
vehicles use the terms MID or Monitor ID, and TID or Test ID. TIDs (or MIDs) are the
identifiers for the system monitor being run and the CIDs (or TIDs) are the identifiers of
the individual test within that monitor. These IDs are also numbered using the
hexadecimal format, but being an ID we don‟t have to worry about translating them
either. The test ID and component ID in the example would be TID $2B and CID $00,
and that‟s how some aftermarket scan tools will list them. At the bottom of the screen,
you will see the identifier of the module that is responsible for the test. Usually, this is
the ECM. This will also be shown by some scan tools as a hexadecimal number. In this
case, it would read ECU ID $00.

All the Mode $06 tests will show a Minimum Limit, a Maximum Limit, and a
Measured Value. A minimum or maximum limit value not shown, or listed as “NA”
means that it doesn‟t apply to this particular test. Lastly, there will be a Pass or Fail
statement, telling us whether or not this test met the ECM‟s standards when last tested.
Notice that the one I‟m using as an example is listed as Failed. In this same example, the
Minimum Limit is 35328, the Maximum Limit is not listed so, for this test, there is no
maximum, and the Measured Value is 34007. The first logical question you should be
asking is “So what does it mean?”

Good question. The answer: It means absolutely nothing…yet.

Before we can use the information, we have to first identify exactly what test it is. Then
we have to apply a conversion factor to the test values. The test values in our example
are only decimal numbers that have been converted from their hexadecimal originals.
They still must be converted to actual values. And these conversions are unique to the
tests, and the individual manufacturers. Finding this information is getting easier as the
demand for it increases. Factory service information is now available on the Internet.
You can find the links to this information at www.nastf.org. Some aftermarket sources
are selling references that list the identifiers and conversions for many manufacturers. As
of this writing, some service information services (like Mitchell On Demand and Alldata)
are including Mode $06 information in their online data bases. There are even some scan
tools, most PC based, that identify these tests for you, as well as translate the test results
into actual values that you can use. And don‟t forget networking services like
www.iatn.net.

25
Our example is from a 2004 Ford Explorer, and doing a little digging reveals that the
Ford Mode $06 TIDs starting with $2- are part of the Evaporative Emissions System
monitor. Specifically, TID $2B is the test for Phase 4 vapor generation, maximum
absolute pressure rise and max threshold.

So what does that mean?

Here is the next issue with Mode $06 test results. You have to understand what the
monitor is testing and how. Remember the discussion we had on how an ECM thinks?
(See Chapter 1) A little more information gathering is in order.

Ford uses vacuum to test its evaporative emissions system. Phase 0 is a measure of the
ability of the system to be drawn into vacuum for testing. The Canister Vent Valve is
commanded closed and the Purge Control Valve is opened in order to pull the system
down to a vacuum, measured in inches of water or “/H2O. The minimum limit for this
test is 7”/H2O. The next step is vacuum stabilization. If the target vacuum is reached,
the Purge Control Valve is closed and the ECM allows a specified period of time to pass
for the vacuum to stabilize. Then comes Phase 2. The ECM continues to countdown
until a second specified period of time passes and the ECM records the vacuum level
again, comparing it to the first reading. Some increase is allowed for due to fuel vapor
expansion in the tank, but if too much change is noted, the ECM will suspect there is a
leak. The next step is Phase 3. In this phase, the vacuum is released. This leads into
Phase 4, where the system is again sealed and the ECM waits for a specified time,
looking to see if the pressure rise due to the vapor generation caused by the amount of
fuel in the tank falls short of what the ECM would expect to see from its programming.
Phase 4 is typically used to verify any leak faults found in Phase 2.

Back to our example. TID $2B is the identifier for a Phase 4 test. Now that we know
what that means, its time to convert the values shown on our scan tool to real numbers
that we can use. According to the service information, this is how it‟s done. Take the
value, subtract 32768, and then multiply by 0.00195. The result will be in inches of
water, and can be positive or negative. OK, sounds simple enough.

We do the math and get a measured value (test result) of 2.42 “/H2O. The test minimum
limit is 4.99”/H2O. Because we understand how the tests are run, this information tells
us that, when the vacuum was released and the system resealed, the ECM was looking for
fuel tank pressure to rise to at least 4.99” and it didn‟t. It only reached 2.42”. For this to
help in diagnosing a complaint, we would have to check the related EVAP system test
results as well. Here they are:

26
TID CID Measured Minimum Maximum

$26 $00 28890 28416 28928 Passed

$27 $00 33540 NA 34816 Passed

$28 $00 34256 NA 34688 Passed

$2B $00 34007 35328 NA Failed

I‟m going to give you a few minutes to convert the values using the instructions we used
on the TID $2B values so you can get the practice.

OK, here are the tests identified and converted:

TID CID Measured Minimum Maximum

$26 $00 -7.56 in/H2O -8.49 in/H2O -7.49 in/H2O Passed

Phase 0 initial tank vacuum test

$27 $00 1.51 in/H2O NA 3.99 in/H2O Passed

Phase 2 0.040” cruise leak test

$28 $00 2.90 in/H2O NA 3.74 in/H2O Passed

Phase 2 0.020” cruise leak test

$2B $00 2.42 in/H20 4.99 in/H2O NA Failed

Phase 4 vapor generation pressure rise

These test results were taken from an actual customer complaint. He would occasionally
get a MIL on, and when the codes were pulled they would find a P0456 (EVAP system,
small leak detected) stored in the ECM. He was always told the same thing…the gas cap
was loose. The shop would tighten the cap and send him on his way. Everything would
be fine for a while, but the MIL (and the code) would return. Now it‟s in your bay.
There is no MIL on at present, and no codes stored or pending. What would you do?

Time to apply what you‟ve learned so far.

If you‟ve been paying attention, the first question you want answered is “What is the
status of the monitors? Are there any listed as “not ready” or “incomplete”? If so, would
they prevent the EVAP monitor from completing its tests?” Remember, if the monitor
can‟t run, the individual test results are suspect. Another fact to consider…even if the
monitors are all listed as “complete” or “ready”, we don‟t know how long ago it was that

27
they actually ran. When looking at Mode $06 individual test results, you have to take
them in context. Mode $06 is not a “silver bullet” or even a primary diagnostic tool. It is
just another source of information to help you pinpoint the root cause.

In our case study, let‟s assume that this is the latest test results and all monitors show as
complete. Take a hard look at the values and tell me what you see.

OK, what did you come up with?

First, we can identify how this system is tested. Since the values are pressure/vacuum
measurements, and the first test value the ECM is looking for is negative, we know that
this vehicle uses vacuum to test its integrity. Could that mean that pressure testing with a
smoke machine may not find the problem? Possibly. And here is a real benefit to
Mode $06…verifying any repair you make. By clearing the monitors (by clearing the
codes or disconnecting the battery) and then following the drive cycle required for the
monitors to run, you can go back to these test results and make sure they are all Passed.

Second, look at the test results for TID $26. While the system was able to pull down into
vacuum, it didn‟t make it by much. Keep in mind that vacuum measured in inches of
water is not the same reading you get on your vacuum gauge that measures in inches of
mercury…you can suck through a straw harder than what this system is testing at.
Another strange bit of information that may or may not mean anything to us…TID $28
shows a value of 2.90”/H2O at the end of its testing period. We know that after this, the
vent valve is opened and resealed, yet the total pressure generated in this phase only
made it to 2.42”/H2O. Something is not sealing or reading the way it should, and it‟s
probably doing so intermittently.

Here’s another benefit of Mode $06…providing clues as to the cause of the

intermittent fault. From what the information has told us so far, what do you think you
would do next? What is your hypothesis?

I tested the system with an EVAP tester and found no pressure loss anywhere in the
system. I even smoked the system looking for leaks. What else would affect the
system‟s ability to hold vacuum while testing?

How about the canister vent valve? It is normally “open” and is closed for testing. How
about the purge control solenoid? It‟s normally “closed” and is opened to allow engine
vacuum to pull down the system. What if either was sticking when it wasn‟t supposed
to? To test solenoids for this type of intermittent fault, you need to operate the valve
several dozen times to see if it fails (Solenoids typically die completely or fail only after
they get hot. Repeated operation is one way to heat the windings. Some techs also use a
heat gun or blow dryer to heat a component they suspect of an intermittent fault.) You
can use a scan tool capable of commanding the solenoid on or off, or do it manually with
a battery and some jumper wires. Anything else? How about the Fuel Tank Pressure
sensor? What if it‟s reading erratic? Again, repeat testing while watching its reading
may lead to the root problem.

28
Mode $06 can be a useful tool for gathering additional information when looking for
intermittent faults and certainly for verifying the repair you made by comparing before
and after test results. It is not a magic wand and its shortcomings must be considered
when using the information. Identifying the TIDs and CIDs, as well as finding the
information to convert the decimal values is becoming easier to find, and CAN Mode $06
is even more user friendly. As you‟ve heard me say already, it‟s all about
information…knowing what information you need where to find it and how to use it.

29
 Ford Mode $06 Misfire Tests
Ford is the only manufacturer that lists a misfire counter of sorts in pre-CAN Mode $06.
Here is a description of the TIDs and CIDs and how to use them. This same information
is in all vehicle Mode $06 results for those cars using the CAN protocol, but the MID
identifier can vary slightly. Look for MID A1 and/or A2 with percentage values similar
to the ones you are about to learn here.

Even though the misfire monitor is continuous, Ford thought having access to the
individual tests for this monitor would be beneficial to techs, so they included it in their
Mode $06 data. The misfire monitor is a two fold monitor that checks for variations in
the CKP (Crankshaft Position Sensor) signal to detect a miss. The first part is the
percentage of misfires detected over a 200 revolution period and looks for catalyst
damaging misfires, and the second part is the percentage of misfires detected over a 1000
revolution period, looking for emissions related misfires. These misfires are referred to
as Type A and Type B, respectively. Emissions related misfires are generally in the
range of 1-3% at all engine speeds, and are a 2 trip code. The misfire must either be
detected in the first 1000 revolutions at start up or on 4 different 1000 revolution checks
while running. Catalyst damaging misfires are anywhere from 4% to 30%, and depends
on rpm and load under which the misfire occurs. If a Type A misfire is detected, the MIL
will flash and a code will be set on the first trip. Lastly, since there are minor variances
in the manufacture of the teeth on the crank reluctor, the ECM must first learn this
variance before the misfire monitor will run. This is done during 3 60-40 mph decels
with no brake applied. If KAM is cleared by a scan tool or by disconnecting the battery
for longer than 5-10 minutes, this profile will have to be relearned to enable the monitor.

Mode $06 Ford misfire tests on most scan tools will look something like this:

TID $53 CID $01

Measured 420 Minimum 0 Maximum 20992 “Passed”

To review, TID stands for Test ID, CID stands for Component ID. The values shown are
in decimal form and have to be converted to a number you can understand. For most of
Ford‟s misfire tests, you multiply by .0015, and this number is a percentage. For
example, if we translate the example above, we get:

TID $53 CID $01

Measured .6% Minimum 0 Maximum 31.4% “Passed”

In other words, out of the total number of times the plug fired, a misfire was detected on
.6% of them. This is below the 1-3% Type B “threshold”, and certainly below the Type
A threshold, so the test passed. The maximum tells us that the test level used to pass this
test was based on the Type A threshold, and was done at or near idle due to the high
percentage “Pass” level.

30
Back to the opening question. If you know what the tests are, you can use them to find
the cylinders that are misfiring, even when there is no code stored or pending. You can
also use them to verify the repair, as long as the same conditions are present as when the
misfire occurred. The following is a listing and description of the Ford Mode $06 misfire
tests.

TID $50 Total misfire rate in percent as compared to

emissions threshold in percent.
Multiply values by .0015 to convert to percentages. This test is “active”, and when
checked KOEO, the measured value will always show “0”. However, if you access this
test with the engine running, you will get a number if there are any misfires occurring.
Test results are updated every 1000 revolutions.

TID $53 (TID $51 on early OBD2 Fords) Cylinder specific

misfire rates in percent and the threshold value used for test
“pass or fail”.
Probably the most commonly used Mode $06 test, this will list up to 10 separate
component IDs. These CIDs correspond to the individual cylinders, with those not used
showing inferred test results. For example, only the first 6 tests will be accurate for a 6
cylinder engine. This test updates whenever a higher misfire rate is detected and will
usually “freeze” if a code is set or pending. It is useful in IDing the cylinder or
cylinder(s) that are contributing to the misfire problem, and by how much. Multiply
values by .0015 to convert to percentage.

TID $54 Highest catalyst damaging misfire rate calculated and

threshold used.
Since the Type A threshold value varies from roughly 30% at idle to as low as 4% under
high rpm and load conditions, the threshold value shown here may help in identifying the
conditions under which the misfire occurred. If a code is set, compare this to freeze
frame data. But keep in mind, freeze frame is logged when the code is set, and in the
case of a misfire, this isn‟t the same as the instant the miss occurred. Multiply values by
.0015 to convert.

TID $55 Highest emissions related misfire rate calculated and

threshold used.
Same as TID $54, but based on lower Type B threshold of 1-3%. Multiply by .0015 to
convert.

31
TID $56 Cylinder events tested and number needed to
complete monitor
These test values do not need to be converted. They are simply total counts. The
threshold value is the number of cylinders times 500…500 “sparks” for each cylinder for
every 1000 engine revolutions. This is also an “active” test, and will show “0” measured
if checked KOEO. However, if you look at it KOER, you will get a count. Typically,
this measured value will be close to the threshold value, and indicates the monitor is
working. Note: It is possible for the misfire monitor status to show “complete” and not
be working. Check this test for a “passed” status to make sure the profile has been
learned.

Now that you‟ve learned about the pitfalls and advantages of Mode $06, start playing
with it on the vehicles you diagnose. Even if you know what‟s wrong, what is the ECM
seeing as the problem as reported in these tests? How did your repair affect the test
values? Start your own data list of TIDs and MIDs and become familiar with the more
commonly used Mode $06 results…like EVAP and Catalyst Efficiency monitors. You
can apply the same steps we took in our example to any of them. Knowledge is indeed
power, but knowledge unused will soon be lost.

32
 Chapter 5: Understanding Fuel Trim

No doubt about it. The modern internal combustion engine has a lot of demands on
it…low emissions, good fuel economy, and useable power. And it all boils down to
getting the right air-fuel mixture packed properly into the combustion chamber. The on
board monitor responsible for keeping an eye on all this is the Fuel System Monitor and
it does its job continuously, watching for excessive corrections to the fuel quantity
delivered by the ECM (Engine Control Module) and setting DTCs (Diagnostic Trouble
Codes) when things get out of hand.

Every tech learns early on about proper air: fuel ratio, that magic number where the
engine works at its best. This ratio is the ratio of air mass (weight) to fuel mass, and for a
gasoline engine, that magic number is 14.7:1. This “ideal” is called the stochiometric
ratio and is different for different fuels. A 10% ethanol fuel, for example, is 13.85:1. It
is the ratio that provides just the right amount of fuel to utilize all of the air drawn into
the combustion chamber.

When engineers are programming the ECM for a given engine, they are able to model the
air flow into that engine under various conditions. On many OBD1 cars, these theoretical
air charges are mapped into the program with corresponding injection pulse widths,
usually in the form of an rpm/load table that the ECM will use as a base to determine
what fuel quantity to supply. Most OBD2 computers calculate the pulse width based on
their internal programming for even more control over the fuel delivered. The actual air
supplied versus the theoretical supply needed for stochiometric is called lambda, and is
represented as 1.0 (meaning 1:1). A lambda less than 1 indicates that too little air was
supplied, and the mixture is rich. A lambda greater than 1 indicates the
opposite…too much air was supplied, and the mixture is lean. A gasoline engine
produces its best power when lambda is 0.85-0.95 but its best fuel economy at 1.10-1.20
(on manifold injection systems).

That seems like a fairly wide range, doesn‟t it? We still have to consider emissions,
however, and to meet current standards, a 3-way catalytic converter has to receive
exhaust gases in a much narrower lambda range…1.000 +/- 0.005! Outside of this range,
NOx emissions begin to increase and further variance can lead to increased HC and CO
emissions as well as potential cat damage. OBD2 regulations require that the ECM be
capable of monitoring the systems that could cause variances in vehicle emissions and
report unacceptable variances to the driver by turning on the MIL (Malfunction Indicator
Lamp). In addition to all of this, the designers have to take in to account vehicle aging
and its effect on lambda, building in a means to adjust the base pulse width to
compensate.

This is done by monitoring the amount of residual oxygen in the exhaust stream before it
gets to the catalytic converter, using what is commonly referred to as an oxygen sensor.
A more accurate name is the lambda sensor and its job is to tell the ECM if the residual
oxygen is greater or less than it should be as compared to lambda equals 1.0. The first

33
sensor used, and still in use, is the Zirconium Dioxide sensor. This sensor cannot
measure the actual amount of residual oxygen in the exhaust. Instead, it reacts to the
residual oxygen in the exhaust stream, with the greatest voltage change occurring when
lambda equals 1.0.

Figure 5: Graph US Dept of Energy

If there is sufficient 02 in the exhaust gases, very little ambient air (supplied through an
atmospheric “vent” in the sensor) is needed to satisfy this catalytic reaction and the
sensor voltage is low (approx 0.100v). This indicates “lean” of lambda, or lambda >1.0.
If there is insufficient 02 left, the excess is made up from the outside air source, resulting
in a higher voltage (approx. 0.900v). This indicates “rich” of lambda, or lambda <1.0.
Early ZrO2 sensors relied on the exhaust to heat them up to their operating temperature
(approx. 600 degrees C.) and would cease to function if they were allowed to cool off,
usually while idling in traffic. To increase “closed loop” on time, heaters were added to
maintain them at operating temperature and bring them on line much sooner.

The Titanium Dioxide sensor is another in common use. This sensor does not need an
atmospheric air supply, so the earlier problems of blocked off vents affecting operation
were eliminated. This sensor requires even higher operating temperatures to come on
line, and is also heated to maintain that temperature. The TiO2 sensor functions more
like a temperature sensor, in that its resistance increases with the presence of residual
oxygen. When 02 levels are high, resistance is high, and when 02 levels are low,
resistance is low. By applying a reference voltage across this resistance, the resulting
voltage drop provides the input the ECM needs to know the oxygen concentration. Like
the ZrO2 sensor, it too is designed to switch instantly at lambda equals 1.0.

34
The newest sensors are the Wide Band and Air Fuel Ratio sensors. These sensors
actually can measure lambda in a range of approx. 0.70 to 1.50. They allow closed loop
operation almost continuously and under a variety of conditions. Fuel trim control with
these sensors is, for all practical purposes, instantaneous, and graphing the normal
operation of the sensor would look like a flat line, rather than the “up and down” cycling
most of us are used to with the older sensors. That‟s why testing of these sensors requires
the use of a scan tool.

As mentioned, traditional “oxygen” or lambda sensors cannot actually measure the

residual oxygen content of the exhaust gases, but rather “switch” across 0.450v (or
lambda equals 1.0) with the greatest voltage change occurring at this point. It is
necessary, therefore, to get the sensor to do just that…switch. This is accomplished by
making constant adjustments to the injector(s) on time, or pulse width. This pulse width
modification is done after all base corrections are made and in reaction to the last
commanded pulse width given.

This is the Short Term Fuel Trim PID (STFT) you see on your scan tool. When the 02
sensor is reporting lean, the ECM adjusts STFT positive or adds fuel. This addition
causes the mixture to become richer and the oxygen content to be lower, which in turn,
causes the 02 sensor to “switch” to a higher voltage. This “switching” across 0.450v is
what keeps the cat fed a lambda mixture, allowing the cat to do its job of keeping
emissions under control.

STFT is listed on OBD2 vehicles as a percentage modifier to injector pulse width. For
example, a STFT of “5” indicates that the ECM is increasing pulse width by 5% and “-5”
indicates that the ECM is reducing pulse width by -5%. When monitored, you should see
the STFT PID constantly moving from positive to negative numbers, with “0” being
average. (Note: some ECM strategies may bias this center point just lean or rich of “0”
for additional NOx control. Other set points are used to compensate for skewed readings
caused by remaining combustible gases reacting with the 02 molecules at the sensor
itself). If this is true, the ECM has established fuel control, and the cat is happy. The
allowance manufacturers allow for how far STFT should go across “0” varies, but a
general rule is no more than +/- 5%.

35
Figure 6: Notice the STFT variance recorded (OTC Nemisys and ScanMate software)

As the engine components age and normal wear and tear set in, the original base map
programmed into the ECM has to be modified. This occurs when the ECM sees that
STFT has to stay positive or negative to maintain the 02 sensor switch across 0.450v. If
STFT has to shift from +6 to +15, for example, it is taking additional fuel to keep lambda
where it should be. The ECM sees this, and logs a more permanent correction to its
injector pulse width calculations. That is noted on your scan tool as Long Term Fuel
Trim (LTFT). Long Term Fuel Trim is a percentage modifier applied by the ECM after
all other base factors are considered and before actually firing the injector. It is a learned
value based on the amount of additional correction needed to return the STFT to a point
that it is once again moving relatively equally across “0”. It‟s the goal of the ECM to
keep STFT switching across “0” and will adjust the LTFT until it does so. These
corrections are kept in memory to be used under similar rpm/load conditions.

All of this action is going on in what is called closed loop operation. Closed loop occurs
when the oxygen sensor has warmed up to operating temperature and starts producing its
voltage signal. Ideally, the engine would remain in closed loop at all times, but certain
driving conditions prevent this. Cold start, acceleration and deceleration are examples of
times when closed loop operation is suspended, due to the mixture changes and needs
that occur at those times. Modern sensors have significantly reduced open loop
operation times, and AFS sensors are able to maintain closed loop operation under nearly
all conditions. The LTFT corrections learned in closed loop are also applied in open loop

36
Let‟s not forget the 02 sensor after the cat. While primarily an input for monitoring the
overall health of the converter, it too plays a role in fuel trim on many models. This is to
fine tune the pre-cat exhaust gases to allow for converter aging. In some cases, if a
problem is noted by the ECM in the pre-cat 02 sensor, it will rely on the information from
the rear sensor to make its short term adjustments.

Figure 7: Look carefully....see the PIDs for Rear Fuel Trim? (OTC Nemisys and ScanMate
software)

When LTFT exceeds its preset thresholds, the ECM knows that it‟s having a hard time
maintaining lambda. If this correction is positive (indicating the ECM is adding
additional fuel), a “System Lean” DTC will be set (P0171 and/or P0174). If the
correction is negative (indicating the ECM is reducing fuel quantity) a “System Rich”
code will be recorded (P0172 and/or P0175). There may also be related, manufacturer
specific, codes set. These are typically “one trip” codes that will illuminate the MIL at
the first noted failure.

When dealing with any powertrain diagnostic code, the first step is to understand what
conditions were seen by the ECM that caused it to illuminate the MIL and record the
failure. In the case of fuel adaptive codes (System Lean or Rich), the typical ECM
strategy determines that the LTFT correction needed to keep STFT crossing “0” (and thus
maintaining lambda) is at its limits, either positive (adding fuel) or negative (reducing
fuel). It does not mean that the engine is getting too much or too little fuel alone. Since
this is a continuous monitor, these conditions can occur under one or several different

37
driving conditions. Remember, LTFT is a learned correction factor, dependent on the
rpm/load of the moment, and the ECM will apply the correction under similar conditions.

So before we clear the codes, let‟s look at Freeze Frame data. It is important to write this
information down and understand that this is a snapshot of the rpm/load conditions where
the ECM lost control over lambda. On generic scan tools you will have PIDs for STFT
and LTFT only, so now is the time to make note of the one you are really interested
in…Total Trim. This is done by adding the average STFT (remember, it is constantly
changing) to the LTFT. Is that all? Not quite…we can‟t forget the influence the post-cat
sensor has on trim. This should also be added to get Total Trim. Unfortunately, not all
generic scan tools have this PID listed. Keep in mind that Rear Trim is a factor, whether
you can read the information or not. (Some enhanced scan data will list a Total Trim
PID; Toyota, for example.)

Figure 8: Screen capture showing Toyota's Total Fuel Trim PID (OTC Nemisys and ScanMate
software)

While your scan tool is connected, next check for any other stored or pending codes that
may be related. For example, other sensors supply needed information to the ECM in
order to correctly calculate the amount of fuel to add. If these sensors are reporting
falsely, fuel trim will be affected. Codes related to engine performance can also impact
fuel trim. Once you have gathered this basic information, resist the urge to clear the
codes. There is still information in there we may yet need. Clear the codes only when
you are ready to verify your repair.

38
One of the initial observations to make is the response of the lambda sensors, both pre-cat
and post-cat. Since the pre-cat sensors are the feedback to the ECM on how it‟s doing, it
is critical to optimum performance that they are on top of their game.

One method of testing the sensor‟s ability to react is the snap throttle test. Monitor the
sensors on your scan tool (a graphing function is great here) while you snap the throttle to
WOT a few times. When the throttle opens suddenly, a huge quantity of air is ingested
which will cause a momentary lean condition that should cause the sensor to go low.
Conversely, when the throttle is suddenly closed, the correction the ECM just tried to
make for the lean condition, combined with the sudden loss of air, will cause the sensor
to go high. Look for a low of approx. 0.100v and a high of approx. 0.900v. Make
sure to run this test after the engine has gone into closed loop, of course, to insure the
sensors are on line.

If you have a lab scope, you can watch the sensor‟s signal under these same conditions,
as well as measure the time it takes to “switch”. A rule of thumb for a conventional
sensor is a lean to rich switch of less than 100ms. With the right leads and a clean screen,
you can actually tell if a misfire is caused by a fuel/mechanical issue or an ignition issue
by monitoring this signal.

You can also ask the ECM what it thinks of the performance of the sensors by looking in
Mode $05 (Mode $06 on later model OBD2 vehicles). Here, the ECM will tell you what
the sensors were capable of when tested, what tests were made, and the standards for
performance.

If you see a sensor that is steadily reading low (or lean), you may be getting air in the
exhaust that is not coming from the combustion chamber. One giveaway that air is
entering the exhaust is lean codes (or positive trim corrections) combined with an engine
that feels like it‟s running the opposite, or too rich. The air entering the exhaust is
“fooling” the lambda sensor, causing the positive corrections when in reality; it‟s feeding
too much fuel to the combustion chambers. If you have access to an EGA (Exhaust Gas
Analyzer), look for abnormally high O2 content as compared to the other gases.

Aging sensors may not set a code, but can cause driveability problems, increase
emissions, and lower fuel economy. Look for STFT corrections going +/- 10% or more,
while still crossing “0” that could indicate the sensor is taking too long to react to the
change in lambda. Also look for sensors that cannot reach peak voltages or switch less
frequently than described above.

If one of the sensors is failed, what caused it too fail? Contamination from coolant
leaking into the exhaust is not an uncommon cause of premature sensor failure. Age is
also a factor, with some manufacturers of these sensors recommending replacement at
intervals as low as 30,000 miles for ZrO2 and TiO2 sensors, and 60,000 for Wide Band
and AFS sensors. When replacing sensors, it is recommended to replace in sets…both
pre-cat sensors instead of just one, and certainly pre- and post-cat sensors on at least the

39
affected bank if replacing the post-cat sensor (unless you like having a comeback for a
false cat efficiency code).

Now that we have confidence that the lambda sensor(s) are reporting accurately, it‟s time
to consider what factors will cause the ECM to make the adjustments it‟s making. Here
are a few tips that may help steer you in the right direction.

Figure 9: This data shows an ECM in fuel control with normal variances (OTC Nemisys and
ScanMate software)

Generally, STFT corrections should be between +/- 5%, with LTFT corrections not
exceeding +/-10%. Vehicle age and mechanical condition will cause some corrections
that would be considered acceptable. As I mentioned earlier, consider when the out of
range correction is being made, whether both banks (or only one) are affected, and the
factors common to a given situation. For example, for “System Lean” codes on both
banks, look for low fuel pressure or volume, restricted injectors, vacuum leaks, even an
oil dipstick that isn‟t sealing to its tube. If only one bank is affected, consider just that
side of the engine. Misfires on one cylinder will allow extra air through that will be seen
as a “lean” condition by the sensors. Generally, Total Trim corrections related to a
misfire less than 18-19% indicate an ignition related fault, while higher corrections point
to fuel or mechanical issues like a failed injector or low compression. “System Rich”
codes common to all can be caused by high fuel pressure, unregulated EVAP purge flow,
base cam timing off, low cylinder compression, or fuel contamination in the oil from
leaking injectors, just to name a few.

40
 Here are some specific tips on common Fuel Adaptive
problems

MAP Sensors and the Speed/Density System

If the actual airflow into the engine is not reported accurately, fuel trim codes are on the
way. In a speed/density system (systems using a Manifold Absolute Pressure sensor or
Vane Airflow sensor), the actual mass of air is not directly measured. Instead, it is
calculated using the input of several sensors and a programmed volumetric efficiency
table. Testing the MAP sensor is relatively easy. Using an accurate vacuum gauge,
measure the intake manifold vacuum and subtract it from the actual barometric pressure
reading in your area. The difference should be darn close to the MAP reading on your
scan tool. Remember; use actual BARO, and not the value reported on your scan tool for
this one.

MAF Sensors
The mass airflow sensor (and system) can actually measure the mass of air being drawn
into the engine. However, it too can be fooled by a problem in the MAF. Contamination
of this sensor, especially a hot wire type sensor is not uncommon as dirty air from the
intake as well as leaking combustion by-products from a poorly operating PCV system
can skew the readings and result in fuel trim codes.

There are several ways to tell if the sensor is indeed reading correctly. First, check the
MAF voltage at idle and compare it to specification. Look at fuel trims at idle and
cruise…generally, a contaminated MAF sensor will over report air mass at idle (resulting
in a negative LTFT correction) and under report air mass at higher loads (resulting in a
positive LTFT correction). You can also perform a volumetric efficiency (VE) test to
judge not only the accuracy of the MAF sensor, but the ability of the engine itself to
“breathe”. (VE is a measure of the ability of the engine to take in its theoretical air
charge under maximum conditions. For example, a 1 liter (1000cc) 4 cylinder should be
able to take in 250cc of air volume if 100% efficient. Miles Wada, an IATN member,
created a VE calculator for the Standard Motor Products Training site and you can find it
at www.smp-training.com or a link directly to it on my site at www.autoservicetech.com.
Directions on its use are also available there as well as in the Chapter on engine integrity
testing). If VE measures low, and fuel trims are high, suspect a contaminated
sensor. If VE is low, and fuel trims are normal, look for restrictions to airflow in the
intake or exhaust (like restricted exhaust, cam timing, low compression, clogged air
filter, etc.). The Calculated Load PID is a general representation of VE and can be a
quick and dirty way to see if further testing should be done.

41
MAF Systems and Unmetered Air
Any air that enters without first going through the MAF sensor will not be reported to the
ECM, and cause lambda to go high (lean). To test for this condition, record Total Fuel
Trim at idle and at 2500 rpm. Since overall airflow is low at idle as compared to 2500
rpm, unmetered air will have a greater impact on idle fuel trims. Look for LTFT
corrections that are excessively high (positive) at idle, and more normal at speed. If so,
inspect for obvious sources, like torn intake boots, cracked vacuum lines, etc. If no
obvious faults are seen, you can use the same smoke machine you use for testing EVAP
systems to smoke the intake and pinpoint where that unmetered air is getting in.

Rich corrections at idle (negative fuel trim)

EVAP purge flow at idle supplies extra fuel that the ECM didn‟t send and will cause the
exhaust gas oxygen content to be lower. So will EGR, but here it is the addition of inert
gases passing through the exhaust to the sensor and reducing the combustible gases
present at its tip. Fuel pressure regulator failure will cause idle fuel pressure to be high,
and this pressure differential will cause more fuel quantity to flow from the injectors than
normal, resulting in an excess of fuel. A leaking vacuum diaphragm in the regulator
itself will also allow fuel to be drawn in through the vacuum line and lead to negative
fuel trim corrections.

Barometric pressure PID

Especially on speed-density systems. Barometric pressure input tells the ECM how
“heavy” a given volume of air is. If you live at sea level, the air is “heavier” than it
would be at Pike‟s Peak! If the ECM thinks otherwise, it will supply an incorrect amount
of fuel with resulting fuel trim corrections.

And After It’s Fixed

Once you have repaired the fault that caused the code, make sure you reset the fuel
adaptives, either with a scan tool or by clearing the ECM memory by disconnecting the
battery. While the ECM will eventually relearn LTFT, driveability issues will certainly
be present for your customer until it does, and may have your customer coming back with
new complaints.

Fuel trims are an observation. Like misfire codes, any factor that affects the proper
mixture and combustion will cause a fuel trim adjustment. For driveability diagnosis, it
is necessary to check the total fuel trim under a variety of conditions. A scan tool capable
of recording this information is a valuable resource. Due to the refresh rate of most scan
tools, it is also helpful to choose only those PIDs you want to look at to record…your
readings will be more accurate.

42
Take fuel trim readings at idle, 2500 rpm, highway cruise and under WOT. If there is a
driveability concern, add a recording under the conditions where this concern is evident.
Look for variance between banks, indicating a fault common to only that part of the
engine. There is no chart of various fuel trim combinations and their cause, different
models and makes will respond differently. We can note, however, that a misfire of any
kind will allow more oxygen through to the exhaust and cause trims to correct lean
(positive fuel trim). Ignition related misfires will also allow unused fuel into the exhaust
system. These hydrocarbons will reach the hot lambda sensor and react with some of the
oxygen molecules there, resulting in less severe corrections in LTFT (generally under
+18%) then would fuel or mechanically related misfires that also limit the amount of
unused HC in the exhaust.

As with fuel adaptive DTC diagnosis, rich corrections (negative fuel trims) are generally
mechanical or fuel related. Think of how the systems have to work together at the time
of the concern, and what issues could arise that would result in only partial complete
combustion or allow unregulated fuel to enter the combustion chamber. If corrections are
for a lean condition (positive fuel trims), look for factors that would allow excess air in or
prevent ignition from occurring at all. Keep in mind the same faults that can lead to a
fuel adaptive DTC can cause other driveability issues. It is just as important to verify that
the ECM is receiving accurate information, and not being fooled. The adaptive DTC
isn‟t set only because its test threshold hasn‟t been reached yet. And as with any sound
diagnostic strategy, don‟t rely on the results of just one test. Instead, follow the
“scientific method” of gathering your information and making an informed diagnosis.

43
 Chapter 6: It’s All Electrical!

You can‟t even rotate tires anymore without dealing with a computer (Tire Pressure
Monitor systems). You certainly can‟t avoid it when dealing with driveability
issues…after all, a computer controls the ignition and fuel systems, and it relies on
numerous sensors for correct information and several output devices to actually perform
the tasks it commands. While it wouldn‟t be practical to provide a complete electrical
course in the contents of this book, I can give you a few pointers on testing that may help
you solve some problems that you might otherwise miss.

Let‟s start with basic electrical theory as a refresher, and to make sure you and I are on
the same page. Here‟s a basic circuit:

Figure 10: A basic electrical circuit.

For a circuit to exist, it needs four things. The first is a source. This is where the voltage
potential comes from, and on a car, it‟s the battery. The second thing we need is the
load. A load is any device that is powered by the circuit…an ECM, a sensor, or even a

44
light bulb. The third item on the list is the path that connects the load to the source and
provides the route the current will follow to make a complete trip. If we want to be able
to turn the load on or off, the last thing we need is a control. This can be a driver in the
ECM itself, a switch on the instrument panel, or a relay under the hood.

Now that we have that out of the way, let‟s talk testing. Here‟s a screen shot of a 2002
Jeep Liberty using “enhanced” data. Tell me what you see wrong.

Figure 11: Scan data showing Battery Voltage PID (OTC Nemisys and ScanMate software)

This is taken with the “Key On, Engine Off”, so ignore the running PIDs (Parameter
Identifications). The highlighted PID is the one we‟re looking at. It is showing battery
voltage as seen by the ECM, and it‟s only 9.2. This is system voltage and should be the
same as the voltage measured at the battery. System voltage plays a huge role in
driveability. It is a primary factor when the ECM is deciding how long to open the
injectors. If the ECM is “seeing” battery voltage that is lower than it actually is, then the
injectors will be sending too much fuel to the engine. Of course, the lambda sensors will
see the truth, and report this back to the ECM, with a corresponding shift in Short Term
and Long Term Fuel Trim. Can you say, “System Rich Banks 1 and 2”?

What about the charging system? If the ECM sees low voltage with the car running, it‟s
going to up the output of the alternator and could result in an overcharging of the battery.

Why would the ECM see voltage lower than it actually is?

45
Voltage drop.

That‟s when unwanted resistance in the circuit is robbing the load of the power it needs to
function properly. This can occur on the power side of the load, but is more common on
the ground side of the load. And we can test for both.

In the example above, the first diagnostic step would be to verify the system voltage at
the battery. If the battery voltage is higher than that indicated on the scan tool, the next
stop is the ECM connector. Somewhere in between the two lies the unwanted resistance
that is robbing the ECM…loose connectors in the harness, corroded connections or
chafed harnesses can all cause this unwanted resistance.

Can‟t we just measure the resistance with our ohmmeter? NO!

Ohmmeters work by sending a small current through the circuit between the test leads,
and interprets the difference between what it put in and what got out the other end as a
measurement in ohms. Unfortunately, three factors come into play. First, most
ohmmeters are not capable of measuring small changes in resistance that can affect the
performance of many of the low voltage, low current systems that the ECM uses for
information. Second, the circuit being tested is not working…and may test just fine until
it‟s turned on. A good example of this is one I‟m sure you‟ve run into…a no start caused
by a bad connection in one of those universal battery terminals. As soon as you try to
start the car, all power is lost. Let off the key and everything starts working again. That
is, until you stress the circuit connections again on the next starting attempt. Third, some
ECM circuits can be damaged if current from the ohmmeter is applied.

There is a better way, and for you to understand it I want you to do some homework.
Grab some wire, and a couple of old taillight harnesses and build a practice circuit like
the one I attached to the Jeep‟s battery. Start with just one bulb for now.

Figure 12: A little wire and a

bulb...

46
Let‟s start by measuring battery voltage. In my practice circuit, it measures 12.03 volts.
This battery is undercharged…

Now leave your negative lead on the battery terminal and move your positive meter lead
to the ground side of the bulb you wired in.

Figure 13: Taking a

measurement on the ground
side.

In my example, I measured 0.0 volts. Congratulations! You just performed a “voltage

drop” test!

A load in a series circuit like this one will use all the available voltage potential. That‟s
why we measured 0.0 volts on the other side of the load. But a load is a resistance, so
let‟s see what happens if we add an artificial one. Wire your second bulb in series with
the first and hook it back up to the battery. Here is mine:

This space intentionally left blank.

47
Figure 14: You can't see the second bulb, but can you see the results?

With the second bulb added, the result is obvious. Both bulbs are lit, but dimly. That‟s
because the voltage potential is now being shared proportionally between the two bulbs,
with their resistance being the factor. Let‟s see what our voltage drop test will show.
Measure the drop at the same point you did last time, on the ground side of the first bulb.

Figure 15: What a difference!

48
Wow, what a difference! On my practice circuit, I measured 5.20 volts. The actual
resistance of the bulb is minimal, and had I relied on an ohmmeter, I may have
overlooked it entirely. But with the circuit working, and using this method, I can see that
I have an “unwanted resistance” in the ground side and it‟s robbing my first bulb of
almost half the available voltage potential! Now let‟s see if we can find where it is. If
you start working your way back to the circuit‟s ground connection, you‟ll see this as
soon as you pass the second bulb.

Figure 16: After you pass the

unwanted resistance, your
meter reading will return to
normal.

Here is the real advantage to this testing method. As soon as you pass the point of
unwanted resistance, your meter reading will return to normal.

To Perform a Ground Integrity Test (Voltage Drop):

1. Connect your negative meter lead to the battery terminal.

2. Connect your positive meter lead to the load’s ground side as
close to the load as possible.
3. Activate the circuit you are testing.

Normal voltage drop should be 0.05 volts for the ECM and it’s inputs,
0.10 volts for most other circuits, and no more than 0.50 volts for a
starter circuit (main cables, not the solenoid circuit.)

It is important to include as much of the path as possible for your test results to reflect the
integrity of the entire circuit. You can make leads for your DVOM so you can always
attach to battery ground, no matter where you are working. The measurement you get
will tell you the amount of voltage drop between your test points.

49
Now let‟s put this to practical use. This customer is complaining that one low beam
headlight is dimmer than the other. (I know, that isn‟t driveability…bear with me.) Let‟s
check the voltage drop right at the back of the bulb.

Figure 17: Did you remember

to turn the lights on? I did...

This is too much, and could explain the reason for the complaint. This is on a 2002 VW
Jetta, and the headlights are contained in a module with a harness connector on the back
side. Let‟s see what we measure there.

Figure 18: That's better...

By using this test method, we‟ve quickly nailed down that the “unwanted” resistance is
between the connector and the bulb. Further testing proved a bad connection in the
connector from corrosion. Not uncommon, and easily repaired.

50
For driveability issues, how can we quickly confirm that the sensors and ECM grounds
are OK? Easily, with voltage drop testing and access to the DLC (Diagnostic Link
Connector).

Figure 19: An OBD2 DLC. Pin 4 is chassis ground, Pin 5 is ECM ground and Pin 16 is system
voltage.

While testing at the DLC will tell us if the ground connection to the engine or chassis and
back to the battery is OK, it won‟t tell us about the path from the sensors or ECM to the
splice pack. Typically, however, it‟s the connection that gives us problems…corrosion,
vibration, and chafing. I‟ve even seen ground connections that were inadvertently left off
by a well meaning tech.

Do you remember the testing method? Don‟t we have to have the circuit live? How do
we do that?

Simple…hold on to one of those bulbs you used for your practice circuit, and add a
connector to each end of the wiring that will fit properly into the DLC terminals. Plug
one side into Pin 16 and the other into the ground pin you want to test. Like this.

51
 Figure 20: Loading the DLC
ground for testing.

Now follow the measuring procedure we talked about. Negative meter lead connected to
the negative battery terminal, and the positive meter lead to the ground pin you‟re testing.

Figure 21: What's wrong with

this picture?

See anything wrong? The measurement is 0.16 volts, and that is definitely too much for
an ECM. Let‟s see if we can find it. Remember what I said about the importance of
attaching your negative meter lead to the battery ground terminal?

52
 Figure 22: The battery
connection is no good.

With the test bulb still attached at the DLC, I went to the battery terminal. The battery
posts are where everything starts and ends, and if you attach to the terminal you may be
missing something. Here is the measurement between the terminal and the post…and
that explains what I saw at the DLC. I cleaned the connection and retested both here and
at the DLC, and all returned to normal.

What about intermittent problems? You can use the Min/Max or record feature on your
DVOM and wiggle the connectors or harness to see if there is unwanted resistance hiding
somewhere. A scope is a great idea for catching intermittent faults…you can watch for
abrupt changes your DVOM may not be fast enough to catch.

Another tip…when tracking down the location of unwanted resistance, make sure you
use a Ground Distribution schematic so you can see what components share what
grounds, and where those ground connections are located.

Our discussion started with a loss of system voltage, and this method can be applied to
the power side as well. There are some other factors that come into play, like how much
current is flowing through the circuit before the load. More current will create more
inductive resistance that will cause some normal drop to occur. Double the guidelines I
gave you earlier for the power side, and that, coupled with a little experience, will help
you find the causes of power loss to your load testing.

It is vitally important that all components that affect the engine‟s performance have full
voltage potential coming in and a good ground coming out. Here‟s one last example for
you. Imagine a fuel pump with unwanted resistance on its ground path. This will reduce
the current flow through the pump, with a resulting loss of volume. Pressure will test
fine, but the low volume will cause a lean condition that the ECM isn‟t expecting to
happen with the resulting lean fuel trim corrections.

53
I hope you will start incorporating voltage drop testing in your diagnostic testing. With
it, you‟ll solve a lot of complaints that last tech couldn‟t!

54
 Chapter 7: Tackling Diagnostic Trouble Codes

I hope you‟ve enjoyed our journey so far, and maybe even learned a little as we‟ve gone
along. In this chapter, we‟re going to focus on specific steps to take when dealing with a
“MIL on” complaint. I‟ll also give you a few tips on diagnosing common MIL codes.
You will need to refer to and understand the information in the previous chapters to gain
the maximum benefit from this one, as I won‟t be going back over too much of what has
already been covered.

Under OBD2 guidelines, the Malfunction Indicator Lamp can only be used for emissions
related faults. But keep in mind, the manufacturers alone can determine what an
emissions related fault is. For example, some transmission faults will trigger the MIL
because continued operation with the fault will result in more load on the engine, and a
resulting increase in fuel usage and emissions output. In addition, emissions related
faults may or may not affect the driveability of the car. A gas cap that doesn‟t seal won‟t
make the car run any differently, but it will allow fuel vapors into the atmosphere…and
that‟s a no-no.

So, the first step in diagnosing a DTC complaint is to first verify any related driveability
complaint by taking a test drive. Start now taking any notes about what you are feeling,
hearing, or seeing during this initial observation. If you can, ask the customer to provide
as much background as they can on when the MIL came on, has it happened before, and
if so, what work has already been done to try and correct it. If there is no driveability
issue, we can move on into the bay and start asking the ECM what it saw and when.

Connect to the car‟s diagnostic link connector (DLC) with a Global OBD2 compliant
scan tool and access the ECM. Do you remember from the previous chapters what you
want to ask it first?

If you said, “Check the Readiness Monitor status first.” you are correct!

Figure 23: Checking the monitor status

(OTC Nemisys)

55
I want to know if all the monitors are completed. If I find any that aren‟t, I know that the
ECM memory has been cleared and the individual monitors that are still incomplete are
either just not finished yet, or being suspended due to a fault that may or may not be
listed in the ECM‟s code list. If they are all listed as complete then I‟m pretty sure that
the stored codes I find are a listing of all the faults I have to deal with. However, I don‟t
know how recent the monitor test results are and if I need to check deeper using Mode
$06, I‟ll have to take that into account.

Figure 24: Mode

$03 scan tool screen
(OTC Nemisys)

The next question I ask of the ECM is “What codes are matured?” This is found in Mode
$03, or listed on your scan tool as “Current” codes. Codes can be either a 2-trip code or a
1-trip code, depending on their impact on emissions. Now I want to see how well you‟ve
been paying attention.

Do you remember how long the ECM will keep the MIL on after it retests a code and the
test passes?

The ECM will turn off the MIL if the test that originally caused the code is passed in
three consecutive retests. For misfire and fuel system monitor tests, the retests have to be
done under the same conditions (Similar Conditions Window) that failed the first time.
What if you retrieved codes even though the MIL wasn‟t on? That means that whatever
caused the code is no longer happening and you may be dealing with an intermittent
problem or one caused by factors outside of the engine management system (bad fuel, for
example.) It also means that the ECM is counting down warm up cycles, and hasn‟t
gotten to the limit yet. When it does, and the test(s) are still passing, the code will be
erased.

56
Write down the code(s) you find in Mode $03 before moving on. Take a moment to see
if any of the codes are related in their possible causes. If you remember what we talked
about in “A Logical Approach”, you know you are still in your observation phase,
gathering the information you will need to cure this customer‟s problem.

Your next step is to check the Freeze Frame information for each code.

Figure 25: Freeze frame

data for failed O2 sensor
heater circuit (OTC
Nemisys)

Some scan tools will show this info, others will only show the freeze frame for the last
code set. Freeze frame information is found in Mode $02. This information will give
you an idea of how the car was being driven when the fault occurred. If the code is for a
misfire or fuel adaptive fault, driving the car while mirroring these conditions will help
you duplicate the complaint, and later verify your repair. Keep in mind, however, that
freeze frame information is stored only after the ECM decides to set the code. In some
cases, that means that the code may have set well after the fault first appeared. Let‟s say
a misfire code, for example, that shows the vehicle under a light load at 56 MPH. It is
very possible that the misfire actually occurred as the car was accelerated to this point
and the driver backed off as he reached cruising speed. Freeze frame information for the
noncontinuous monitors will generally reflect the conditions required by their enabling
criteria.

Whatever you find here, write it down.

The last visit I want to make (for now) is Mode $07. Here, I‟ll find pending codes (2 trip
codes that have only failed their first trip) that may shed more light on the problem I‟m
looking for. Any codes I find here, I also make note of.

OK, we‟ve checked monitor status, recorded matured and pending codes, and written
down any freeze frame information. What would you do next?

57
If you said, “Clear the codes”, that would be a big NO! But thanks for playing.

If you said, “Continue gathering information” GOOD JOB! You have been paying
attention!

If we clear the codes, we will reset all the monitors and loose any information we may
need yet. Wait until after your repair before clearing the codes.

The next step is to make sure you understand the conditions that the ECM had to see
before it decided to set the code. Remember, at this point, the ECM is the customer.
Your repair must meet the testing requirements used by the ECM or it will fail again. In
the beginning, this will require some effort on your part, but as you gain experience this
process will become easier and easier. Start with your service information provider, and
look up the code information for each code that is recorded. You will usually find this in
the DTC definition tables or as a part of the diagnostic tree under Testing information.
If you aren‟t familiar with how the system you are diagnosing works, spend some time in
the Theory and Operation section as well. And keep an eye on the TSB (Technical
Service Bulletins) listings…there is a lot of good information there. You will find details
on how many of these systems works, and you may also find that the problem you are
chasing is being caused by a component or programming issue that the factory has
identified and corrected. The more time you invest upfront, the less time you will spend
testing for the problem. If you can‟t find what you need in the aftermarket sources, you
can go directly to the factory service information sites on the Internet. A listing of these
links can be found at www.nastf.org. Some sites have free access, most charge a nominal
fee for a day‟s access.

A quick word on the diagnostic “trees” many service information providers offer. First,
if you don‟t understand what you‟re testing for and why, the results won‟t make any
sense to you. Second, it‟s human nature to avoid the difficult and move on to the easy.
Skipping steps, or performing them in a different order, may lead you right pass what
you‟re looking for. The whole reason you are reading this is to learn how to think and
test like a technician. Use the “trees” for information, clues as to what causes the ECM
to issue the code and how it tests for them. Then you can mimic the ECM‟s tests yourself
to help you find the problem.

Once you‟ve gathered the information, grab a soda or cup of coffee and take time to think
about what the cause might be. Consider the code setting requirements and how the
system works. Decide on the most likely cause and create a test to prove yourself right or
wrong. If you‟re right, try a second, different test to confirm it. If you‟re wrong, go back
to the beginning and decide on the second most likely cause and start over. From here
on, it‟s up to you, applying all you‟ve learned so far.

Next, I want to share with you a few common diagnostic mistakes I see techs make every
day, as well as share a few tips on common causes for “MIL on” complaints.

58
The first I want to discuss are the misfire codes.

Misfire codes are deniably one of the most common causes for a customer‟s “My Check
Engine light is on.” And I know you have worked with at least one tech who‟s approach
to repair was to “tune it up”. Let‟s take a look first at exactly what a misfire code is and
how it is set to put a quick end to that overly simplistic statement.

With the advent of OBD2, misfire monitors were needed to maintain a vehicle‟s
emissions quality. Typically, manufacturers detect the presence of misfires by
monitoring the signal from the Crankshaft Position Sensor (CKP). Variances in the rpm
of this signal could indicate that a cylinder didn‟t add its share of power to the engine,
temporarily slowing things down. If this continues past a manufacturer defined
threshold, a misfire code is generated. Severe, catalyst damaging, misfires are generally
referred to as “Type A” misfires while those that only result in unacceptable increases in
emissions are referred to as “Type B” misfires.

Time to put your thinking caps on. What does this brief description of the monitor‟s
strategy tell you as a diagnostic technician?

The first one that comes to mind is the fact that a misfire code can be set by any
condition that affects the cylinder’s ability to provide its equal share of power to the
engine. That means factors like low compression, poor airflow through the cylinder,
improper air: fuel mixture, in addition to weak ignition systems. The second that comes
to mind is the fact that, since the ECM is relying on the CKP, its signal integrity must be
good and manufacturing variances in the CKP‟s reluctor wheel must first be learned.
And the third that comes to mind is the fact that, since test thresholds may vary from
manufacturer to manufacturer, it is possible to have a misfire you can feel without a code
being set.

Finding the offending cylinders is getting easier. Most aftermarket scan tools with
“enhanced” data will allow you to access misfire counters…historical, current (active) or
both. Ford also now has misfire PIDs (Parameter Identifications) to help provide more
accurate information on the conditions the vehicle was under when the misfire(s)
occurred, in addition to their Mode $06 misfire information. (See chapter “Using Mode
$06)...

59
Figure 26: Ford Misfire PIDs (OTC Nemisys and ScanMate software)

Once you have the cylinders identified, take a look at the Freeze Frame information.
Keep in mind that the freeze frame data is stored at the time the code is stored, and may
actually be the vehicle condition some time after the misfire first started. Misfire
detection strategies typically measure the percentage of misfire over a 200-1000 engine
revolutions period and then require a specified number of occurrences before the ECM
will consider it a problem.

Take a look at the fuel trims stored. Generally, if the total fuel trims are above normal
but less than +18%, start your diagnosis with the ignition system. If greater than +18,
you may want to take a look at the engine‟s mechanical condition and fuel system first.

If a code P0316 (Misfire detected on first 1000 revolutions), then something is “dead”.
Suspect an engine mechanical fault first, then move on to a “no fuel” or “no spark”
inspection. A code P0300 (Random cylinder misfire detected) tells you that total misfire
percentage has been exceeded, but not yet by any one particular cylinder. Look for
intermittent faults, weak ignition systems or leaking EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation)
gases as possible causes.

For the “techies” out there, there are other methods you can use as well. There is a PC-
based program that will help you identify the missing cylinders as well as offer ideas on
possible causes based on information it gathers from the oxygen sensor signal. Vacuum-
pressure transducers are being used to analyze exhaust gas pulses at the tailpipe. Another
program is incorporated into a PC-based lab scope and allows cylinder power balance
testing as well.

In all cases, avoid “tunnel vision” and remember that misfire codes can be caused by a
wide variety of culprits. Your first challenge is to identify the affected cylinder(s), then
think about what the offending cylinders have in common. Is the problem on only one

60
bank? Is it limited to cylinders that are next to each other? Do the cylinders share an
ignition coil? Is the misfire intermittent or repeatable? Does it occur only at idle, at
highway speed, or across the board? How was the vehicle being operated when the code
was stored? Can you duplicate the problem? Are there any modifications? You get the
idea…

Misfire codes may be common, but the causes of misfires are varied and multiple. Verify
the integrity (or weakness) of the major sub systems at the beginning of your diagnosis
and you will nail misfire faults easier and faster.

Another system monitor that gives a lot of technicians fits is the EVAP
system monitor.
The Evaporative Emissions System is charged with keeping fuel vapors in the system and
out of the air. There are just a few basic ways that these systems are being tested by their
ECM‟s and knowing what they are, and what type is on the vehicle you are testing, will
go a long way to helping you find and repair these faults.

These systems are tested using vacuum (typically provided by the engine‟s intake
manifold), using pressure (using an onboard “pump”) or by a method known as Natural
Vacuum Leak Detection. The latter is fairly recent, and gaining in popularity because it
doesn‟t require the involved enabling criteria and driving conditions required by earlier
methods. Refer to your service information provider for what type of system is used by
the vehicle in your bay and read up on how it functions in the Theory and Operation
section.

EVAP codes are typically related to leaks in the system. These leaks can be caused by a
gas cap that wasn‟t tightened properly, deteriorated lines, or damaged components. And
tracking down these leaks is what I see as the biggest headache for inexperienced techs.
After all, modern systems are testing for holes the size of 0.020”, and many new cars
have the capability of detecting holes as small as 0.010”. That‟s small!

But they can be found if you understand the system. First, most systems have a means to
“purge” the fuel vapors from the canister, and a means to “vent” the system so air trapped
in the tank has somewhere to go. Most systems that use vacuum or pressure to self test
first seal the system by closing both of these solenoids. I favor using a pressure EVAP
system tester for testing for leaks; you probably know them as the “smoke” machine.

Step #1: Don’t touch the gas cap! All too often, the first thing a tech does is check to
see if the cap is tight. Only problem is, unless it‟s obviously loose and falling off, you
can‟t tell. If you tighten the cap before you pressure test the system, you may miss the
obvious. In addition, even though the cap is tight doesn‟t mean it‟s sealing properly.

Connect your scan tool and establish communication with the ECM in Global OBD2
mode.

61
 Figure 27: Using Mode
$08 to seal the EVAP
system for testing (OTC
Nemisys)

Go to Mode $08…remember what that was? If supported by the vehicle‟s ECM, you
can use this function to ask the ECM to seal the system for you while you use the EVAP
tester to check for leaks. If not, you will have to close the system manually by either
using your scan tool in enhanced mode (manufacturer specific) or by locating the vent
line and closing it off yourself. Now attach your machine to the test port provided on
most cars…you will typically find this as a green cap “Teed” into the line leading to the
purge solenoid from the canister. Set your machine to pressurize the system (I hope
you‟re using nitrogen!). Most machines have a glass vial with a “ball” in it to indicate
how much of a leak is present. Continue to pressurize until this ball has gotten as low as
it will go.

EVAP systems operate under very low pressures…make sure your

machine is not set to exceed this limit!
Ideally, the ball should go all the way to the bottom of the vial. Depending on how much
gas is in the tank, this may take a few minutes. If it doesn‟t, then there is a leak
somewhere in the system. If it does, stop your pressurization and count to “30”. Then
start again. If the ball jumps up then slowly resettles to the bottom, there is a very small
leak somewhere in the system.

If there is a leak, the next step is to isolate it. The canister is my center point. One side
leads to the engine, the other to the fuel tank, so here is where I split the system to isolate
which section it‟s in. First, the engine side. Disconnect the purge line from the canister
and plug in your machine‟s tip here. Make sure you removed the adaptor from the

62
underhood test port first. Pressurize the system. Leak still there? If so, the leak is either
in the line or the purge solenoid. If not, it‟s either in the canister or the tank side of the
system.

To test the tank side and canister at once, use a piece of rubber line to attach your
machine‟s tip to the canister‟s purge outlet. Pressurize the system and see what happens.
If a leak is indicated, move your tip to the vent line coming from the tank and try again.
Once you have a specific section isolated, then you can switch over to the “smoke”
function and pinpoint the leak. (You can also use the smoke machine to test for leaks in
the intake tract…see the chapter on Understanding Fuel Trim)

Some tank fill tubes have a one-way valve as an anti-rollover device to avoid fuel spills
in the case of an accident. On vacuum tested systems, using a pressure tester may not test
the area above this valve. To see if this is the case on the vehicle you‟re testing,
pressurize the system as described, and then crack the cap. If you hear the air rushing
out, then you are testing OK. If not, you will have to use a fuel neck adaptor to test this
portion of the system.

As always, verify your repair. Some scan tools allow access to the few manufacturers
that have a “Service Bay” test for EVAP system repair verification. On most, you will
have to either perform the drive cycle specific to the EVAP monitor or “fake it” by
performing the same individual tests the ECM would use. Use this guide when testing
for EVAP system leaks and you‟ll find them easier and faster.

OK, you‟re ready. Review all we‟ve discussed as you need to. In the following chapters,
I‟m going to show you some “tools of the trade” and then provide you with some specific
system information you can use to streamline your diagnostic tests. Ready?

63
 Chapter 8: Scan Tools, Scopes and Other
Stuff

I‟ve rewritten this chapter several times. I really don‟t want this to come off as a
commercial, but if you‟ve been in this business for any length of time, you know that it
requires a substantial investment in tools and equipment. I also want techs that are new
to our profession and to driveability in particular, to have some tips on what to look for
before shelling out their hard earned cash.

Before we get into the big stuff, a few words on basic diagnostic tools you should have.
First, an accurate vacuum gauge is a wise choice. With the eye on what‟s high tech
nowadays, a lot of younger technicians aren‟t being taught the value of this tool. Second,
you‟ll need an engine compression gauge. This tool can also be used to perform a
“running compression” test, which I explain in the chapter on testing engine integrity.
Another tool I like for testing an engine‟s overall health is the cylinder leakdown tester.
This tool actually pressurizes the cylinder to test its ability to seal, and if it‟s leaking, by
how much. Another benefit of this tool is you can hear where the leak is…from the
throttle body if it‟s an intake valve, through the exhaust if it‟s an exhaust valve, from the
oil fill if it‟s rings, and from the radiator fill neck if it‟s a head gasket.

Figure 28: Cylinder leakdown tester

To use this tool, attach the air line to its
fitting and read line pressure on the left
side gauge. Install the test line into the
cylinder (like you would your compression
gauge) and bring the cylinder to TDC of
its compression stroke. While holding the
crank steady, connect the test line to the
second gauge. The difference between the
readings is roughly the percent of leakage
present in that cylinder. In the photo, it‟s
about 30% loss. (Tests using these tools
are outlined in more detail in the chapter
on engine testing.)

Engines have to not only seal, but “breathe”, and a backpressure tester can come in
handy to confirm a restricted exhaust. This tool has an adaptor that threads into place of
the upstream oxygen sensor. By attaching the gauge, you‟ll get a measurement of
backpressure in the exhaust. A little is normal, and necessary, but too much makes the
engine struggle and choke on itself.

Basic tools for testing the fuel system include a good fuel pressure gauge. Make sure
yours is accurate to within +/- 1 psi and comes with all the necessary adaptors to connect

64
it to the vehicles you commonly work on. In addition, a fuel injector tester is a big help
in testing injector balance. This tool actuates the injectors manually so you can test each
one. It can also be used to stress the injectors while you monitor their action should you
suspect a failure occurring as they heat up.

A must have for testing ignition systems is an HEI ignition tester. It takes the place of a
spark plug and has a large gap that stresses the ignition‟s ability to produce a spark.
Spark plugs work in a high pressure environment, and simply laying a plug on an engine
ground and looking for it to arc is not enough. The larger gap of the tester helps simulate
the energy necessary to jump the gap in the cylinder. You can make a temporary one
easily by taking a new spark plug and cutting off the ground electrode. If you get a nice,
steady blue spark using either method, it‟s a good indication that the ignition system has
what it takes to get the job done.

There are literally dozens of additional diagnostic tools being marketed, and I‟m sure
they all have their place in making life easier. Start off with these basics and add as the
need or desire arises.

Let’s Talk About Scan Tools

This is a subject I get asked about a lot. For the record, there is no one perfect scan
tool…not yet, anyway. They are available all across the price spectrum and start off as
simple “code readers” that allow you to read and clear codes to factory scan tools with
complete capability for one or more specific manufacturers. Many top diagnostic techs
own more than one, depending on their particular needs. When choosing a scan tool, ask
yourself some of these questions before laying down your money.

1. What is my budget for a scan tool?

2. What cars do I normally work on?
3. What capabilities do I really need? Access to ECM only or ability to access
all modules on the car?
4. Will my supplier allow me to “test drive” the scan tool before I buy?
5. How much does it cost to keep the tool updated and how often must it be
updated? How are the updates delivered?
6. What do other techs think of the tool? (You can research this on sites like
www.iatn.net)
7. Do I want my scan tool to have a database of diagnostic and testing tips or
just information? (You’ll pay extra for the built in help)
8. Can the tool be added on to? (Scope or exhaust gas analyzer modules)
9. Do I want to go PC based or handheld? (Most manufacturer have already
gone PC, and you can buy and subscribe to the same programs the dealers
use)
10. Is the scan tool CAN compatible? Do I need multiple “keys” or can it
communicate through a single adaptor?
11. Is Mode $06 data translated and identified?
12. Will the tool work on older OBD1 cars? (If that’s your market.)

65
Among my personal choices right now is a simple handheld unit that is made by OTC
called the Nemisys. It is strictly basic information with no bidirectional controls and
limited troubleshooting tips.

Figure 29: The OTC Nemisys scan tool

The Nemisys is the small brother of the more full

featured Genisys scan tool, and is marketed under
different names by different tool companies. It is CAN
compatible, and has all Global OBD2 modes available
(though it doesn‟t translate Mode $06). Enhanced
(manufacturer specific) information is available,
including ABS and airbag codes and data. It also has a
record function (of limited size) and software that allows
data to be downloaded to a PC for review or print for
your records or to share with your customer. Snap On
has recently introduced an entry level tool as well, that
I‟m sure is similar to this one, and it is certainly worth
comparing the two if a basic scan tool is what you need.

Snap On also markets the Solus (scan tool) and the

venerable Modis (scan tool and 4 channel scope). Both
of these units are packed with features and add ons that
I‟m sure your local dealer would be glad to share with you.

Personally, I am convinced that PC is the way to go. Scan tool software is available from
a number of different sources and can be used on a laptop or handheld PDA…the choice
is up to you. The first advantage is in updating these programs. The hardware doesn‟t
change, just the software, so costs are lower. Some offer diagnostic aids as well that can
help in isolating a driveability fault. Another distinct advantage is record time, limited
only by the size of your PCs memory. This can be handy looking for that intermittent
fault that has you pulling your hair out. Lastly, a PC platform allows you to add
manufacturer specific capability as you need it, or can afford it.

The software offered by AutoEnginuity is my personal choice for a PC based scan tool.
Most technicians who have offered an opinion have been delighted with the product and
product support this company offers. It is CAN compatible, has full Global OBD2
capability, translates and converts Mode $06 data, graphs and records data and much
more. They also offer near factory level coverage for several manufacturers with more
on the way. Wireless options are also available, making it easy to read data from your
work bench instead of being strapped to the car. For an active demonstration and more
information, visit AE at www.autoenginuity.com

66
 Figure 30: Scan tool software offered by
AutoEnginuity (courtesy AutoEnginuity)

Figure 31: Sample screen of AE software

(courtesy AutoEnginuity)

This is a screen capture showing monitor

status and Mode $06 data all at once, with
colored indicators for monitors not run and
Mode $06 tests failed. (Sorry, a better
picture was not available at this time. Go
to their site for a full active demo of this
tool‟s capabilities…you‟ll be impressed.)

Whichever route you go, I would also recommend you invest in a cheap code reader that
you can plug in first. A few models had some issues with shorting out scan tools if
someone had been in there installing aftermarket accessories, and the last thing you want
to do is fry an expensive tool.

On to Scopes

In my part of the world, I see very few techs who even know how to use a scope, let
alone own one. Personally, I think that‟s a mistake. Scopes can save a lot of time in
diagnostics once you know how to use one, and the increasing focus on using computers
and high tech data lines to run nearly every system on the car will make scope knowledge
even more important in the future.

Choosing a scope is like choosing a scan tool. It depends on what you need and how
comfortable you are with using a scope. Ask yourself the same sort of questions you
would ask when choosing a scan tool. A good friend and the man most responsible for

67
helping me learn how is Tom Roberts of Autonerdz.com, a scope “guru” and trainer who
came from our ranks…a working tech. This is the advice he offers:

I do often get asked about what scope to choose. I don't

have an answer. You see, all scopes have their own set of
limitations. Some have more limitations than others. The
scope is only half the picture though. The tech is the
other half. You have to match the tech with the scope. The
most capable scope, not well matched to the user, is less
useful than a somewhat less capable unit that the tech
feels comfortable with. Almost any scope is better than
none.

That being said, sample rate performance is very important.

All the cool features don't mean much if the unit can't
perform. So, I tell techs to first narrow the field by
evaluating the DSO sample rate performance of the units
considered. Then choose based on features from that group.
I have a web based DSO Sample Rate Calculator available to
perform this comparison based on the specs and the math,
not the manufacturer's hype. It enables you to objectively
compare DSO raw performance.

(You’ll find this and other great information at www.autonerdz.com)

When it comes to the analog variety of scope, sample rate

is meaningless. They are live. Problem is, you can't
freeze, store, print, share, manipulate, or many other
things you can do with the digital storage type. They make
good trainers, but students are not very likely to
encounter them in the field. Many of the skills are easily
transferable to the DSO though. Things like trigger, time
base, voltage scaling, etc.

The calculator allows you to compare the sample rate

performance of digital scopes. All you need is two specs.
The max ADC speed and the sample buffer size. This empowers
you to determine the raw performance of DSOs you may be
considering so you can narrow the field of choices and then
focus on features on the short list. The features don't
mean much if a scope can't perform when it comes to sample
rate. You can ignore the manufacturer's hype, and make an
objective comparison using the math. This can help avoid
getting something that can't perform.

The calculator is designed to calculate samples using one

channel. Different scopes handle the use of multiple
channels differently. Is the sample buffer shared? Is the
ADC shared? Etc. But it will be at its best sample rate on
one channel. So, you can compare apples to apples.

68
Vertical resolution is another consideration. It is a
separate issue from actual sample rate (horizontal
resolution) and indicates how small a voltage change can be
detected. If you can imagine horizontal grid lines on the
screen, an 8bit scope will have 256 of them. Voltage
changes between the grid lines cannot be detected or
displayed. The voltage must rise or fall to the next grid
line to be detected. A 12bit scope has 4096 grid lines so
smaller voltage changes can be shown. This results in a
waveform with more vertical detail or resolution. A scope
with lower vertical resolution will have more of a stair
step effect on voltage changes when examined closely. A
scope with higher vertical resolution will have a smoother
more finely defined waveform.

Scopes, like scan tools, are available as handhelds or as PC based units. (See chapter on
scope use for my personal handheld favorite). Some have a built in library of testing tips
that can be of real value to a tech learning the ins and outs of scopes. While I love my
old UEI handheld, today the top handheld has got to be the Vantage Pro made by Snap
On. It is a 2-channel scope (which is just fine for most diagnostic work) and the typical
technical information database you would expect from Snap On. The Modis system uses
the same software as the Vantage Pro but is a 4-channel unit. Being incorporated into the
Modis scan tool can be an advantage to a tech who wants a complete package.

You already know that I‟m a believer in the future of PC based tools, and scopes are no
exception. They are generally faster, more detailed, and allow for a deep record time that
handhelds can‟t offer. The best value today in PC based scopes, in my opinion is the
PICO scope.

Figure 32: PICO PC based scope kit (courtesy AutoNerdz.com)

The PICO is offered as a 2-channel or 4-channel

scope, with accessories you will definitely use,
like a low amp and high amp current clamp.
Product support is excellent and there is an
online database of waveforms for you to access.
In addition, you can make notes on the screen
capture for your own personal database, or to
share with your customer. AutoNerdz.com is a
supplier of this scope and I absolutely
recommend you use them for your PICO
purchase…they offer an even more complete
accessory package, and will guide you and
answer your user questions on how to get the
most out of this tool.

69
Whatever scope you choose, there are a few accessories you will want to have. Some
scopes come with these accessories, some don‟t. The first accessory you want to add to
your scope is a low amp clamp.

Figure 33: Low amp clamp (Courtesy Automotive Electronics Services, Inc.)

The low amp clamp has multiple uses in driveability diagnosis. It

allows you to measure current with your scope on everything from
ignition coils to fuel pumps to parasitic draw on the battery. The
only limit to this tool‟s use is your own imagination.

Another must have is a high amp clamp.

Figure 34: High amp clamp (Courtesy Automotive Electronics Services, Inc.)

This does the same thing as the low amp clamp, but for higher
amperage circuits. I use this all the time for the relative
compression test that is described in the chapter on testing engine
integrity. It can also be used to test starter draw.

Lastly, make sure your scope has a secondary ignition pickup and trigger cable, like this
one.

Figure 35: Secondary ignition pickup and trigger cable (Courtesy Automotive Electronics Services,
Inc.)

This set allows you to view the ignition secondary, and trigger off of
the #1 cylinder for easier identification of the problem cylinder.
We‟ll get into the benefits of this tool when we talk about testing the
ignition system a little later on. Most scopes have a limit to the
input voltage they can handle. Without this adaptor, you will be
limited in the signals you can view.

All of these adaptors and much more, can be found at www.aeswave.com. Make sure
you give their site a visit when you‟re shopping for your diagnostic equipment. Like the
other sites listed in this book, I have personal experience with them, and their support
after the sale is always excellent. Tell them Pete sent you!

70
The last tool you are going to definitely need is a good DVOM (digital volt-ohm meter).
With hybrids gaining in acceptance, make sure your DVOM is equipped to deal with
them…Class III rated, and capable of handling an input load of 1000 volts. There is a
great tool for electrical troubleshooting that I have fallen in love with. It‟s called the
Powerprobe 3 and is like having a voltmeter and jumper leads all in one.

Figure 36: PowerProbe 3 basic kit (courtesy PowerProbe)

This tool has a voltage reading on its face,

as well as LED indicators for “hot” or
“ground”. One nice feature is the tone
telling you whether you have power at a
connection or not…a high pitched tone will
sound if power at your test point is within
0.5v of system voltage. Other features are
2 little lights illuminating the tip for seeing
in those dark spots under a dash and leads
long enough to reach the brake lights with
the tester connected to the battery. Lastly,
a toggle switch allows you to apply power
or ground to a circuit at the touch of a
button without making up your own jumper
leads. This tool is a real time saver, and is 42 volt ready. You can get more information
on this product at www.powerprobe.com.

John Thompson of Thompson Automotive Labs (www.thompsonautomotivelabs.com)

brought this interesting tool to my attention, and I thought it should be included. It‟s
called the Fuel Zapp.

Figure 37: Test engine integrity and fuel system with one tool.

This tool incorporates a fuel pressure gauge, fuel volume

gauge, engine vacuum gauge and exhaust backpressure
gauge all in one tool. No need to guess at fuel volume, this
will tell you exactly what it is. Coupled with John‟s fuel
flow calculator software, you can tell quickly where fuel
system problems are.

He is also the creator of the ACE Misfire Detective

software. When used with the PICO scope, misfires can be
isolated easily and faults found faster. For more
information, visit his website.

71
Tools are a recurring expense for techs. There is always something that you need to add
to your toolbox. And the choice of where to get those tools is as vast as the Internet.
You can buy most items from local stores or from the tool man as he makes his weekly
rounds. If you do shop the Internet, looking for those great deals, be careful. Check out
the vendors first and make sure they‟ll be there if there‟s a problem. One site I like is
owned by a technician I work with…it‟s just him and his wife, and he has tools at good
prices and knows that his service after the sale will make or break him. I recommend him
because I know the man personally…visit him at www.denlorstools.com.

Like I said at the beginning, the last thing I wanted is to sound like this is one big
commercial. And it‟s not…if you were working in the bay next to me, and asked my
opinion, this is what you would have heard. But don‟t just take my word for it. Do your
homework before making any investment in your tools. And that‟s what it is…an
investment. Your tools are your livelihood, and their ability to help you do your job
faster, easier and more effectively is ultimately the only thing that matters.

72
 Chapter 9: Scopes 101

Back in the mid-70s, engine analyzers were in common use, even marketed by several
chain repair shops as the latest and greatest thing in keeping your car running well. Of
course, these analyzers were more than just scopes, but the idea of testing the various
electrical systems with them was valid and useful. Today, that idea is just as valid if not
more so. Electrical controls are more complex and involve more systems than ever
before, and the trend is to make the entire car computer controlled. Knowledge of scope
use is, in my opinion, mandatory for technicians in the new millennium. Yet few techs
that I have worked with (less than 10%) had any clue as to how to use a scope, let alone
own one.

Many of the testing techniques described in later chapters require the use of a scope to
perform. Incorporating the use of a scope in your testing will allow you to save time and
make accurate conclusions, and move you out of the realm of the “replace with known
good component and retest” school of driveability diagnostics.

There are several advantages to using a scope. First, the trace you see is real time. Some
signals processed by the ECM occur in microseconds and would never be detected by a
DVOM (Digital Volt-Ohm Meter). For example, a simple TPS (Throttle Position Sensor)
signal to the ECM may have a dropout that causes a stumble on acceleration. This
dropout is easy to spot on a scope, but impossible to detect otherwise.

Another advantage to the scope is the ability to compare more than one signal at a time.
This can be used to compare relationships like the synchronization between the CKP
(Crankshaft Position Sensor) and the CMP (Camshaft Position Sensor). A flaw here can
affect ignition and/or injector timing and cause all kinds of driveability issues. It can also
provide confirmation on suspected worn timing chains or out of time timing belts. A
scope can be used for If – Then testing. An example of this type of testing would be the
firing of the secondary when the ignition control module opens the ground circuit to the
primary.

With that said, let‟s get to it. First, let me tell you right up front…there is no way I can
make you an expert in scope use in a few pages. It is my aim in this chapter to show you
how to use a scope for basic testing, and give you an example of its practicality. Later,
more system specific, chapters will show you specific tests you can make with your
scope to aid in your troubleshooting. I‟ll also try to warn you of basic pitfalls in using a
scope that will speed up your learning curve. If you already own a scope, take it out of
the box and blow of the dust and play with it every chance you get. If you don‟t own
one, refer to the information in the chapter entitled Scan Tools, Scopes and Other Stuff
for suggestions on how to choose a scope of your own.

A scope measures voltage…period. The trace you see on a scope‟s screen is real time,
right now, and allows you to see what the ECM (or any other module, for that matter)

73
sees. Accessories for current measurement simply convert the current signal to a voltage
signal the scope can “see”. Scopes are generally 2 channel or 4 channel, meaning they
can measure 2 or 4 signals at one time. For most technicians, a 2 channel scope is more
than sufficient. Most of the scopes designed specifically for automotive use today are
digital storage oscilloscopes that actually take in the voltage signal and process that
signal for display on the screen. That‟s what makes the scope‟s sample rate an
important consideration when choosing a scope. The better the sample rate, the more
sensitive to variations in the signal the scope will be. These scopes also offer a variety of
extra features, like sample waveform libraries, how to connect to a specific vehicle
system and automatic time and voltage division settings for a given test. Or you can use a
basic, no frills model if you are comfortable with reading schematics and understanding
how a particular system works.

Let‟s take a look at a basic scope.

Figure 38: UEI ADL7100 scope (no longer in production)

This is an old UEI ADL7100 2 channel DSO (digital storage oscilloscope) and is the one
I got started with. It was also marketed as the Snap-On LS2000 and they are still out

74
there, in E-bay land. I still use it to this day. It is a basic, no frills scope that performs
well, even after all these years of use and abuse.

Starting at the top left of the scope, you‟ll see the connectors for the 2 channels. The red
connectors are for the positive leads, and the center, black, connector is for the ground
lead. This scope has a common ground, which means that when both channels are in
use, their ground connection must be the same point. This is an important consideration
that I‟ll talk about in a minute. Moving over, you‟ll see the controls for the cursors.
There are cursors for both voltage and time, and this feature allows you to accurately
measure the voltage of a signal or how long the signal or event occurs. I guess I should
throw in some terminology here…the strength or voltage of a signal is typically referred
to as the amplitude of that signal, and the time it takes for a repeating signal to occur
(like an AC wheel speed sensor) is called the frequency.

Moving to the right side of the scope, you‟ll see the menu controls. These controls allow
you to choose one channel or two, whether you want to view a DC or AC voltage signal,
and choices on how you set the trigger. The trigger is the point where the scope acquires
the signal for display, and can be set in a variety of ways, depending on your particular
scope. (See your scope‟s owners manual for the details).

On the left side of this scope are additional menu features, like waveform library, freeze
screen, and stored data screen display.

Now to the bottom of the scope. On the right is the power switch to turn the scope on or
off. Next are channel controls that allow you to move the “0” line of the trace up or
down, and adjust the voltage divisions to match the signal you are reading. More on this
in a bit. Following that are the trigger control and time division control. The trigger
control allows you to adjust the trigger voltage in relation to the trace signal. While this
particular scope is no longer available, every scope will have these basic controls.

As I mentioned earlier, a scope measures voltage and nothing else. Connections to any
electrical component, therefore, are very similar to the way you would connect your
DVOM. The advantage to the scope is the ability to adjust the voltage and time bases to
“see” that voltage in action, and look for abnormalities that you wouldn‟t otherwise be
able to detect. And, like with your DVOM, it is always better to start off with higher
settings and work your way down until you have a clear pattern on your screen. Let‟s
start with something simple…checking battery voltage. Get out your scope and follow
along…

With your scope turned on, you will see index lines on the left and at the bottom of your
screen, like a graph. This is, after all, what the scope is doing…graphing the signal for
you. And, like a graph, you control the divisions on it. The left side is voltage divisions
and represents the voltage increments you‟ve selected. The bottom lines are the time
divisions and are likewise selected by the user. Set your scope for 5 volts per division
and select 100 milliseconds (ms) as your time divisions. This means that each vertical
index line is 5 volts, and a trace starting 2 lines up is 10 volts, 3 is 15 volts and so on.

75
The time it takes between divisions with this setting is 100 ms, 2 are 200 ms, and…you
get the idea. Now connect your scope to the car‟s battery the same way you would your
DVOM, with the positive lead to the positive battery terminal and the negative lead to the
negative terminal.

Figure 39: Basic scope connection to the battery.

Watch the trace as you connect. You‟ll see the trace start out on the left side of your
screen and move over to the right until the trace is completed. Then it starts all over
again. The faster the time division, the faster this trace will run. It can also create your
first pitfall if you‟re not prepared for it. This is called signal overlap and can make you
think there‟s a problem where none exists. It occurs when the trace on your screen is
refreshing, and the start of the new trace is overlapping the end of the last trace. If you
freeze the screen on some scopes, this overlap will be more apparent. On others, like this
old UEI scope, when the command to freeze a screen is turned on, the trace will complete
across the screen before “freezing” and eliminate overlap from being a concern.

Now that you have a trace on your screen, let‟s practice with the cursors. Using the
voltage cursor controls, measure the voltage reading on your screen. This should be
battery static voltage.

76
Figure 40: I used channel 2 and left the cursors visible so you could see them better.

Now let‟s have some fun and explore what the scope is capable of. Start the car, and
measure voltage again. It should read system charging voltage. The trace looks like a
nice straight line. I wonder if anything else is hiding in there. Let‟s decrease the voltage
divisions to get a closer look at the voltage going to the battery. We‟re also going to keep
the trace on the screen by switching channel 2 to read AC voltage only. This will take
out the DC component and allow us to keep the trace centered. I really don‟t care what
the voltage is…I‟m more curious about what may be hiding in it.

77
Figure 41: Voltage divisions have been reduced to 0.1v at the same time division. Guess it's not a
smooth line after all...

See the difference? This trace is the AC current bleeding through from the generator.
Too much, and it can cause the ECM to go nuts. The ECM can only process digital
signals and AC, by its nature, is seen by the ECM as “yes-no-yes-no” and it gets confused
as to what to do. To see it more clearly let‟s start increasing the time divisions to open up
the trace.

78
Figure 42: With the time divisions reduced to 1ms from 100ms, the trace is easier to read.

By measuring this signal from peak to peak, we can tell if it‟s too much or OK.
Typically, AC bleed through of more than 0.5 AC volts is considered too much and can
indicate a problem in the battery or the alternator itself. This one‟s OK. The pattern is a
result of the scope reading the rectified AC current that is produced in the alternator…this
is what‟s really going into the battery. Only a DSO allows you to see this deeply into a
voltage trace, and often that‟s where the problem is hiding.

What about reading an input signal to the ECM? When viewing an input signal, you
need to consult the schematic to see what type of signal it is. There are 2 basic
types…analog or digital. An analog signal is either an AC signal (like a two wire wheel
speed sensor) or a varying voltage signal (like a Throttle Position Sensor or even an
Engine Coolant Temperature sensor). A digital signal is an on/off signal like some cam
and crank position sensors. Here the signal is either “0” or a reference voltage, typically
5 volts. While the ECM can only understand digital signals, many sensors produce an
analog signal that is converted in the ECM before it can be read. Here are some
examples.

79
Figure 43: Analog signals

Figure 44: Digital signal

Both of these photos show the relationship between CKP and CMP sensors of different
designs. As a side note, the relationship between these two patterns in each photo allows
you to see if the sensors are in time with one another. Depending on the design of the
particular engine, it can also tell you if the timing chain has “jumped” timing or is

80
excessively worn, or if the timing belt is improperly timed to the crankshaft. This comes
with more experience in what a normal pattern looks like, and there are many resources
that you can access to see “normal” patterns to compare with the one you have.

Typically, a sensor with 3 wires running to it will produce a digital signal (Hall Effect
sensor) while one with 2 wires will produce an analog signal. Another pitfall you should
be aware of when viewing sensor signals…look to see where the ground for the sensor is
located. It will either be grounded to or through the engine‟s ground, or through the
ECM. An engine ground is a fixed ground but one through the ECM is a floating
ground. Knowing which is which will affect how you connect to the sensor with your
scope and the quality and accuracy of the signal you trace on your screen.

The engine compartment is a very “noisy” place electrically. Electromagnetic fields are
created by the ignition system and other components that can “bleed” into the ECM‟s
sensor lines and affect the inputs received. To avoid this, the ground circuit for many
sensors is “offset” by terminating the grounds through a resistor in the ECM itself before
heading home to the battery. It‟s a built-in voltage drop.

If you measure a sensor that is grounded through the ECM with your scope ground to the
battery connection or engine ground, the amplitude of the signal will be lower than that
actually seen by the ECM. To accurately measure a signal with a floating ground,
connect your scope‟s ground lead to the ground side of the sensor you are testing.

A similar situation occurs when measuring an AC signal from a component like a wheel
speed sensor. If you ground your scope to a fixed ground, you will not get an accurate
measurement. Instead, connect your ground to one side of the sensor, and your positive
lead to the other.

What if you want to watch a component in action, like an injector? Connecting to the
ground side (the control side) will allow you to do exactly that. I talk about this more in
the chapter on fuel system testing techniques. This testing technique allows you to check
for proper supply voltage, ground voltage drop, and gauge the overall health of the
component all at the same time. Let‟s see you do that with a DVOM!

81
Figure 45: Testing a component in action...in this case, a fuel injector.

A third pitfall of scope usage you need to know. As I mentioned, the underhood
environment is a very noisy place electrically. Use shielded test leads to help minimize
the noise you see on your scope trace, and be prepared to learn how to distinguish this
noise as it appears on your particular scope.

Accessories are available to further enhance your scope‟s capabilities, and may or may
not come with your scope. The first is a secondary ignition lead. This lead allows you to
measure secondary voltage through an inductive clamp around a spark plug wire. It also
attenuates the incoming voltage to a level your scope can stomach without burning out.
(Make sure you are aware of the maximum input voltage your scope can take before
performing some of the tests outlined later in this book.)

Another useful accessory is the amperage clamp, or amp clamp. This accessory converts
amperage readings into voltage reading that can be traced on the scope and are available
in either a high amp or low amp design. The low amp clamp is especially useful in
measuring all sorts of components, from fuel pumps to ignition coils to blower motors.
(See system specific testing sections for low and high amp clamp tests).

82
Figure 46: Using a low amp clamp to check fuel pump motor wear

Becoming proficient with a scope is a matter of study and practice. Use your scope
whenever possible on known good components to learn how to connect to them and what
a normal pattern looks like on your particular scope. Resources like www.iatn.net will
provide you with hours of reading on scope use and testing techniques that you can apply
in your own shop. In addition, there are all kinds of training material on scope use and
pattern interpretation, like the Nerd series by Tom Roberts of www.autonerdz.com. As
your proficiency grows, so will your curiosity in what exactly each pattern is trying to tell
you, and your search for answers will make you even more proficient. Soon, you‟ll find
that your diagnosis is more accurate and taking less time to complete than ever.

I told you at the beginning that I couldn‟t make you a scope expert in a few pages. Heck,
I‟m still learning myself. But at least now you know how to connect your scope and a
few of the things to look out for, and your feet are wet. Now it‟s up to you…come on in,
the water‟s fine!

83
 Chapter 10: Ignition System Testing
Techniques

Ignition systems are generally comprised of 3 types: distributor, distributorless (DIS),

and coil on plug (COP). There are variances between manufacturers of all three types,
and it would be impossible to cover them all in detail here. Regardless of the type of
system used, it still must meet the same end…delivering a high energy spark to the spark
plug to ignite the air:fuel mixture, and deliver it at the right time. I‟m sure you are
already familiar with the basic theory behind these systems, but let‟s review anyway.

The heart of the ignition system is the ignition coil. The coil is composed of a primary
winding and a secondary winding. Current flow through the primary windings creates a
magnetic field in proportion to the number of windings in the primary coil. When the
current flow stops, this magnetic field quickly collapses, and this collapse induces current
in the secondary windings of the coil. The strength of the voltage induced in the
secondary is a function of the number of windings contained in the secondary side of the
coil, the initial current flow through the primary windings and the ratio between the
number of primary windings versus the number of secondary windings.

The on time (the time current is flowing through the primary windings) of the primary
coil is referred to as dwell time. Typically, the coil is fed battery power constantly on
one terminal, and the system‟s ground control is fed to the other. The ground control
method used varies between system designs, so review the specifics for the system you
are testing. When this ground control is triggered also varies with design, and can be
directly through the rotating cam of the distributor triggering mechanical points or some
form of electronic trigger, through a separate electronic ignition module, or through the
ECM itself, using information typically provided by a CKP (Crankshaft Position Sensor)
or CMP (Camshaft Position Sensor). Some coil on plug ignitions use a power transistor
incorporated into the coil itself that actually controls the ground path by ECM command
on the transistor‟s gate.

The circuitry encompassing the ground control method through, and including the
primary windings is called the primary ignition circuit. The circuit path starting with
the secondary windings, through the distributor (if equipped), secondary ignition wire(s)
and finally to the spark plug itself, is called the secondary ignition circuit.

When the primary magnetic field collapses, a high voltage, low amperage flow is passed
through the secondary circuit to the spark plugs, where ignition of the air:fuel mixture
occurs.

A scope is an invaluable tool for diagnosing ignition systems. A secondary ignition

waveform is a window into the heart of the combustion chamber. Every factor that can
affect proper combustion: lean or rich mixture, low compression and poor sealing, weak
ignition components, can be seen in this pattern if you understand the elements and how

84
to read them. So let‟s start our discussion on ignition system testing techniques by taking
a look at what elements make up this waveform.

85
 Testing Secondary Ignition With a Scope

Figure 47: Normal secondary ignition pattern (courtesy of Autonerdz.com)

Step 1: Connect your scope to the secondary ignition lead to be tested, using the
secondary pick-up. Make sure this lead‟s ground pigtail is attached to engine ground
before starting the engine.

Step 2: Set your scope‟s time division to 1ms, and the voltage division to that specified
for the secondary pick-up you are using. (Usually 1 volt).

Step 3: Remember, electricity flows from negative to positive. Placement of your lead
on the secondary circuit will affect your pattern. System design will also affect the
pattern you see.

Step 4: Start the engine and allow it to idle. Watch or record the pattern, while looking
for abnormalities such as a consistently high firing line, or short duration period.

To put things in perspective, it helps to understand the ignition process. Voltage likes a
direct path to ground, and if we want this voltage to jump across the plug gap we have to

86
give it a path to follow. It takes 80 volts to cause current to cross an air gap of just
0.001” at atmospheric pressure. Modern spark plug gaps are typically around 0.040” to
0.060” in size, and operate under high pressure, thus requiring several thousand volts to
spark. It helps that there is a conductive path supplied by the fuel mixture in the
combustion chamber.

The first part of this waveform I want you to focus on is the firing Kv. This is the
voltage level to get all the little electrons to move to one side, or “ionize” the space
between the spark plug positive (center) electrode and the ground electrode. This is
affected by the air gaps in the secondary side of the ignition system. That is, the portion
of the ignition system from the coil to the plug tip. Peak firing Kv indicates the demand
caused by the greatest gap in the system, usually the plug gap itself. However, using the
time and voltage divisions on the scope to zoom in, we can see that this firing line is not
straight up and down.

Figure 48: Zooming in allows us to see everything that's happening. Notice the time base of 10 us.

In this example, the time base has been increased to 10 microseconds. This is the same
“straight line” firing line as you saw in the first illustration, just closer. In this case, the
spike in the middle of the upward ramp is a normal part of a distributor ignition system,
and is where the voltage energy is crossing from the rotor to the cap. It can tell you if the

87
cap and rotor are worn, or if they are out of synch. On a DIS ignition, you may see this
same waveform if the wire you are testing has a break in it…or there is an unwanted air
gap, like a plug wire that isn‟t fully seated on the plug.
Firing Kv is affected by the size of the greatest gap, the pressure the gap
is working under, and the amount of conductive hydrocarbons present
in the gap.
Here‟s a shot of a secondary pattern on a cylinder with no compression.

Figure 49: Secondary ignition on cylinder with no compression

Notice how low the firing Kv line is, and how smooth the spark line is. (We‟ll talk
more about the spark line in a moment.) Since there is no pressure present in the plug
gap, voltage demand is significantly lower. You will also see this pattern if spark is
occurring outside of the combustion chamber, arcing down the side of the plug or
through a cracked insulator for example.

Be aware of a few things when looking at firing Kv. Since it is affected by fuel mixture
and pressure, it is constantly varying (running variances of 3 to 5 Kv is not unusual).
Watch the pattern for abnormalities or inconsistencies as its running. In addition, and
contrary to what some believe, firing Kv is NOT affected by resistance in the secondary

88
circuit. Try this experiment: view the secondary pattern with one spark plug wire, then
make up a string of wires and attach them to the same plug and view it again…firing Kv
will not be changed.
Now that we‟ve handled firing Kv, let‟s move on to spark Kv. This is the voltage
needed to maintain the spark across the plug gap and is generally 1-2 Kv. It is
affected by the resistance in the secondary circuit: the wire, plug and
plug gap. Yes, the plug gap. Remember, the air:fuel mixture in the gap is conductive,
and therefore has resistance. Too much fuel and resistance is lower, too little fuel and the
resistance is higher. Spark Kv is relatively constant and a good tool for ignition system
diagnosis as well as providing clues to other factors in the combustion chamber that
affects driveability.

We have to take into account the third part of this waveform that I want to talk about: the
spark line itself. This is the portion of the waveform where the voltage energy is
actually traveling across the plug gap. Everything takes time to happen, even if measured
in milliseconds, and the time it takes for the spark to run its course is called spark
duration. Typically, spark duration lasts 1.4 to 2.0 ms. When duration starts
dropping below 0.8 ms, misfires are likely to occur. The spark line is an excellent aid in
diagnosing driveability complaints, because it is a dynamic representation of the
changing events in the combustion chamber itself. Improper combustion will affect the
resistance in the plug gap and can be seen here. For example, here‟s a waveform of an
idling misfire. Tell me what you think is going on.

Figure 50: Why is this spark

line so erratic?

It takes a lot of practice to learn how to “read” these waveforms and a lot of study to
become proficient at it. Me, I‟m still learning. Resources like www.iatn.net are excellent
sources of information. Tom Roberts at www.autonerdz.com has an excellent series on
scope usage, covering this subject and more. OK, have you come up with any ideas?

89
Based on what we know so far, the spark line is affected by resistance. The varying
voltages indicated by the “mountain range” appearance of the line tell us the resistance is
changing during the spark duration. What could cause that? What factors influence the
resistance?

If it were fuel related, the spark line change would be more constant, sloping upward if
there were not enough hydrocarbons (gas) available, and downward if there were too
many…so I don‟t think fuel is the reason. If pressure were changing that much, how?
What if the plug gap was changing? Or more precisely, if the ionized path that would
normally be located between the positive and ground plug electrodes was changing?

In this example, that is exactly what„s happening. A valve that isn‟t sealing properly, or
sticking, will cause a massive amount of turbulence in the combustion chamber. This
turbulence literally blows the ionized path in and out of the plug gap, causing changes in
the resistance of the path. You can see this for yourself on your scope by trying this
experiment while watching your scope pattern.

Figure 51: Simulating turbulence at the plug gap

Another tip for isolating the causes of an abnormal pattern is to “Divide and Conquer”
your waveform. What I mean here is that factors affecting the pattern are going to occur
either in the combustion chamber (low compression, improper mixture, etc.) or out of the
combustion chamber (worn plug wire or plug, weak coil or circuitry, etc.). To help
isolate which, use your spark tester to ground the secondary lead you want to test and

90
view the pattern again. If the abnormality still exists, it‟s either the plug itself or some
factor outside of the combustion chamber. If not, focus your testing on those factors that
would occur inside the combustion chamber.

Some scopes have the ability to perform additional features, like showing the ignition
secondary patterns for all cylinders at once in either a parade format or a raster format.
The parade pattern shows each cylinder in firing order for easy comparison of all
cylinders at once. The raster pattern overlaps all cylinders at once, making abnormalities
easier to spot.

Another excellent feature to look for is the histograph function. This feature allows you
to perform a secondary ignition stress test. Remember what we discussed on factors
that affect firing Kv?

I‟ll wait while you go back and review that information…

OK.

If you watch an ignition pattern at idle, the cylinder pressures are relatively low and the
demand for firing voltage is also low. This is not too difficult for the coils to provide,
even if they are weak. By using this feature (or recording your own pattern if this is not
available) you can force higher cylinder pressures and create maximum demand from the
coils by performing a few wide open snaps of the throttle. Any weak link in the
secondary circuit will come out of hiding.

As I told you in the chapter on scope usage, I can‟t make you an expert in a few pages.
I‟ve been playing with this for awhile and I‟m still learning. It takes time, study, and a
desire to learn. This is a good starting point, but it‟s up to you to take it from here. Hook
up to every car you can, look at systems that are known to be good and those you have
already diagnosed to learn for yourself what is normal and what is not. Tom Roberts of
AutoNerdz has an excellent resource list available on his website at www.autonerdz.com.
In addition, many of the trade magazines have online articles available for download
covering this topic and much more. I told you early on that this profession requires
continuous learning, didn‟t I? The time you invest will pay big dividends in the end.

91
 Testing Secondary Ignition By Viewing Primary
Voltage
Some ignition systems, typically COP (coil on plug) systems, require special
adaptors be installed on the coils themselves. This is not always practical or
possible, if the coils themselves are inaccessible. You can, however, view a mirror of
the secondary pattern by connecting to the primary coil itself.

A word of warning! First, make sure you use an attenuator with your scope to prevent
overloading. Primary windings can produce several hundred volts when the magnetic
field collapses and most scopes are not capable of handling this level of voltage.
Second, the firing line (firing Kv) will not be accurate and cannot be used for
diagnosis.

Step 1: Connect your scope negative lead to engine ground.

Step 2: Connect your scope positive lead to the ignition coil‟s ground terminal by
backprobing the connector.

Step 3: Set your time division to 1ms and your volt division to the setting specified by
the attenuator‟s manufacturer. It is always best to start high and work your way down to
obtain a usable pattern.

Step 4: Start the engine and allow it to idle. As with the secondary pattern, monitor the
pattern for abnormalities in the pattern and as compared to the other cylinders.

The illustration on the next page is a pattern from a COP ignition

system. The blue, red, and green traces look very similar to the
secondary pattern we saw in the last section. The bottom trace is
ignition primary current, which we will discuss in the next section.

92
Figure 52: Scope capture courtesy of Tom Roberts and Autonerdz.com

93
 Testing Primary Current
There are a lot of opinions on the usefulness of testing primary current. Many
factors can affect this waveform. For me, it’s more information to add to the rest.
And you know by now that I’m all about gathering information. This test requires
an inductive low amp clamp and a scope.

Step 1: Connect your low amp clamp to your scope. Set the voltage divisions in
accordance with the clamp manufacturer‟s specifications.

Step 2: Set your scope‟s time divisions to 1 ms and connect your clamp to the positive
lead of the ignition coil to be tested. Place your clamp as far from the coil as possible
to minimize interference caused by Electromagnetic Force (EMF) generated by the
secondary.

Step 3: Start the engine and allow it to idle while monitoring the pattern on your screen.

Figure 53: Ignition primary current pattern.

94
Now, let‟s take a look at what we‟ve got. The current starts off at “0” and then the
ground circuit to the coil is completed. This is the start of the dwell time we talked about
earlier. If you look closely, you will see a few oscillations at the start of the current flow.
As the current flows, the magnetic field begins to build and this causes resistance in the
coil to increase. That‟s what is causing the upward slope and gives this type of pattern
the name current ramp. On some coils, like this one, current is limited by the ECM and
the result is the flat “top” you see in the waveform. When the ground circuit is opened,
the waveform drops suddenly back to “0”…this turn off is very important to proper spark
generation. If the turn off is not immediate and complete, the magnetic field induced in
the secondary windings will be weakened, with a resulting misfire.

If you use your scope‟s cursor function, you can measure the voltage peak on your scope
and calculate the primary coil‟s resistance. In this case, the peak voltage is 0.8v, and with
the conversion of the clamp, that translates to 8.0 amps. Now, plug this into Ohm‟s Law:

Voltage = Amps x Resistance

13.6 (system running voltage) = 8.0 amps x (?)

13.6 divided by 8.0 = 1.7 ohms resistance

Compare your reading to specification for the vehicle you are testing. A word of caution
here: You may not get an accurate resistance reading on some designs. The focus
here should be that current is building in the primary, and the turn off is
clean…taking less than 3 to 5 microseconds. Turn off times in excess of 100
microseconds indicates a problem on the control side of the circuit.

You can also check all the coils at once by placing your clamp further upstream to the
common power feed. Some coil circuits are fused, and replacing the fuse with a fused
jumper lead allows easy access for your current clamp.

95
Figure 54: Checking current to all the coils at once.

96
 Testing Ignition Integrity
Now it’s time to put all this together and try your hand at basic scope testing of an
ignition system. Here’s the challenge: A customer comes in with a complaint of
intermittent hard starting. Once the car is running, there is no other concern. The
car runs beautifully. You’ve done the basic systems tests and found the engine and
fuel systems mechanically sound. Now we are going to look at the ignition system.

We start by checking the secondary pattern:

Figure 55: Looking for a hard start problem in the ignition. (Courtesy Autonerdz.com)

Take a close look before moving on. What do you see?

Firing Kv is 8.5 Kv, not out of range of what we would expect to see. The spark Kv is
also in normal range. Here‟s a tip for you: See the oscillations at the end of the spark
line? Generally, this indicates that there is energy left over after the spark is done and
usually indicates that the ignition system is putting out sufficient energy to perform the
job it‟s assigned. The coil produces “X” amount of energy…if too much is used to ionize

97
the gap, too little will be left to actually initiate and maintain a spark. In this example,
the oscillations are minimal with a downward slope at the end, indicating that coil energy
is not what it should be.

What about spark duration? It‟s low…about 0.8 ms. If the energy generated by the coil
is insufficient to maintain the spark, there‟s a weak spot somewhere. Let‟s try to find it
by moving to the heart of the system…the coil…and see what it‟s capable of producing.

Figure 56: Testing coil output. (Courtesy Autonerdz.com)

This capture was taken with an adaptor that stresses the coil for maximum output. You
can do the same with a spark tester or a snap throttle test, like I described earlier. To
eliminate the secondary circuit as a possibility, use a known good wire with your tester.
The idea is to generate maximum demand on the coil to see what it is capable of
producing. In this case, it‟s weak…only producing about 15 Kv. We should expect to
see at least twice that from a strong ignition system.

What can affect the output from the coil?

For the coil to produce, it’s got to have full current flow through the primary
windings and a clean turn off. The windings have to be intact, on both the primary side
and the secondary side. You could use an ohmmeter to measure these resistances, but

98
even modern DVOMs are not entirely accurate when measuring resistances this low.
How about a current waveform on the primary side instead?

Figure 57: Checking ignition primary current. (Courtesy Autonerdz.com)

See anything suspicious?

When looking at the ignition primary current, concentrate on only two things. First, is
the current needed by the coil being reached? Here, you can look up the specification for
the primary coil resistance and use Ohm‟s Law to get an idea of how much current should
be flowing. These are not always accurate, and if your pattern is suspicious,
remember this general rule of thumb. Ignition systems using mechanical points for
control generally have primary currents of 3 to 4 amps, electronic systems (DIS and
EI) generally peak in the 6 to 8 amp range, and some COP ignition systems can hit
15 amps under full load. Second, is the turn off a straight line back to “0”? If not,
suspect a control side fault that is keeping the magnetic field from collapsing at full
intensity…like a weak ECM driver, ignition control module, or excessive voltage drop
from unwanted resistance in a connector.

In this example, current level is being achieved and the turn off is complete and correct.
There is no fault in the system powering the coil, or controlling its turn off. That only
leaves one thing…the coil.

99
Let‟s see what happens when we replace the coil.
Figure 58: What a difference a good coil makes! (Courtesy Autonerdz.com)

Now, spark duration is normal. Notice the difference in the current ramp however.
Current is still the same, turn off is still good, but the ramp has a nice upward slope.
This, however, should not be used as a sole guideline for condemning a coil. The keys to
remember are current achieved and clean turn off…if you have these two but the spark is
weak, the coil is no good.

Here‟s something else to remember.

Earlier, I warned you off EMF interference when testing the primary current. Let‟s go
back to a previous illustration so you can see what I mean.

100
Figure 59: EMF or an open secondary?

Take a close look at this one again. See the downward spikes at the point of turn off? In
some cases, this can indicate an open in the secondary circuit, but not always. There are
also spikes elsewhere in the waveform, and I know this scope has a constant on “glitch”
feature that sees everything! In this case, it‟s just noise.

One more example. See if you can spot the reason for the weak spark here.

101
Figure 60: Can you spot the problem here? (Courtesy Autonerdz.com)

Take a close look at the turn off point on this coil. Notice how it slopes slightly out and
down instead of falling straight. When the coil ground is not cut off cleanly, the
magnetic field buildup in the secondary is reduced. You can see that in the primary
voltage waveform (blue trace) just above it…no spark duration. The fault here is in the
ground control circuit for the ignition coil…in this case, a bad ignition control module.

I hope you had some fun in this section, and maybe learned a little something along the
way. A scope can tell you so much in such a relatively short amount of time. If you are
still using the “replace with known good component and retest” method of diagnosis, I
hope this section has shown you the value of sound scope testing.

102
 Chapter 11: Fuel System Testing
Techniques

To diagnose any system, the first step is understanding what that system is supposed to
do. At its most basic, the role of the fuel system is to deliver a clean, constant supply of
fuel in the correct amount needed by the engine under all conditions. We can break this
down further into two separate functions: fuel delivery and fuel control.

Fuel delivery is the job of the fuel pump and its related components. While there are
variations between manufacturers, this role is handled by three basic types of fuel
delivery systems. Let‟s take a brief look at the three.

Returnable fuel system

This system is the oldest of the three. In a returnable fuel system, fuel is sent by the fuel
pump thru a supply line to the fuel injector rail. Typically, a fuel filter is installed in line
with the supply line. Installed in the fuel rail is a fuel pressure regulator. Its job is to
maintain the pressure differential between the fuel rail and the intake manifold so varying
manifold pressures do not affect fuel delivery thru the injectors themselves. Intake
pressure is a function of airflow. Higher throttle openings create higher pressure. Fuel
pump pressure is on the fuel rail side of the injector, and this intake pressure is on the
manifold side of the injector. The amount of fuel that actually flows is relative to this
pressure. Without some form of correction, the fuel flow would either be too much at
low throttle openings or too little at higher throttle openings. At the end of the fuel rail is
a return line to allow any excess fuel to return to the tank.

The drawback to this system is the heated fuel reentering the tank from the rail. This
heated fuel increases tank pressures and evaporative emissions. To cut down on this
effect, engineers came up with the next system on our list.

Mechanical returnless fuel system

Figure 61: Returnless fuel pump

As the name implies, this system does away with the
return line. The fuel pressure regulator is now part of
the fuel pump module (in most cases), so excess fuel
is immediately returned to the tank. On many
systems, the fuel filter is also incorporated in the fuel
pump module, with no exterior filter to replace.
Additional savings are realized from the use of only
one line to the engine instead of the two previously
required. On this system, fuel pressure is constant
and the PCM takes this constant into consideration when determining injector pulse

103
width. There is also typically a fuel rail dampener installed to minimize noise due to
pressure pulsations caused by the injectors opening and closing…and it can look a lot like
the regulator you may be used to seeing on returnable systems.

Electronic returnless fuel systems

This is basically the same as a mechanical returnless system with a few changes. Fuel
pressure is now controlled by the PCM or a dedicated module by varying the on-off time
of the fuel pump (pulse width modulation) and the feedback is provided by a fuel rail
pressure sensor installed in the fuel rail. In this system, there is no need for a mechanical
fuel pressure regulator. It may also be equipped with an internal or external fuel filter.

On to Fuel Control
The last leg in the fuel‟s journey before being consumed by combustion is thru the fuel
injectors. Most injectors are electrical-mechanical devices that are controlled by the
PCM. They are charged with carrying out the PCM‟s orders in final delivery of the
proper fuel amount needed by the engine. Restricted flow, sticking pintles or injectors
that won‟t close are just a few of the ways the injectors can impact the overall
performance of the engine, and faults in the injectors can be among the most challenging
to diagnose. After all, they are only responding to the PCM‟s direction, and if the PCM‟s
calculations are off due to misinformation, the injectors are simply the “bearer of bad
news”.

Figure 62: Sample fuel injectors

Fuel injectors on today‟s vehicles are most
commonly mounted directly in the intake
tract just ahead of the intake valves
(multiport injection). Most multiport
injectors can be controlled by the PCM in
one of two ways. They may fire
individually (sequential) or in pairs
(synchronous).On newer designs, direct
injection is used, with the injectors
mounted in the combustion chamber.
Older vehicles still use one or two
injectors mounted in the throttle body
upstream of the throttle plate (throttle
body injection). And let‟s not forget to mention GM‟s Central Sequential Port injection
system, which uses one injector feeding each intake tract via poppet valves, where fuel
pressure is a critical factor.

104
 Fuel Pressure and Volume Testing

As with all testing, check the vehicle service information for any special
requirements and cautions. Direct injection systems operate under extreme
pressures and may require special procedures prior to testing pressure. Fuel is
flammable, so make sure any source of ignition is disabled before opening the
system. Keep a fire extinguisher close, just in case.

Step 1: Following the manufacturer‟s procedure, relieve system pressure.

Step 2: Connect your fuel pressure test gauge according to the vehicle manufacturer‟s
guidelines.

Step 3: Test system pressure with engine off. Turn the ignition key on and off (2 - 4
times) until pressure reading peaks.

Figure 63: Peak reading with engine off.

105
Step 4: Compare this reading to the specification listed in the service manual. Record
your results. If low, this may indicate a weak fuel pump, a restriction to flow on the
inlet side of the fuel rail, or a failed fuel pressure regulator.

Step 5: Allow your gauge to rest for 30 seconds while watching the pressure reading. It
should remain relatively steady. If it falls rapidly to “0”, this may indicate a problem
with the fuel pump module check valve or a leaking injector.

Step 6: Start the vehicle and allow it to idle. Record the pressure reading on your gauge.

Figure 64: Fuel pressure with engine running.

There should be some pressure drop when testing a return type system. This is due to the
action of the vacuum controlled fuel pressure regulator. Remember what we discussed
earlier about the need for correction in the differential pressure between the fuel system
and the intake?

Step 7: With the engine still running, watch the gauge needle for fluctuation. A
fluctuating needle usually indicates air in the system, typically caused by restrictions in
the pick up screen for the pump itself. Many fuel pumps are now incorporated into a
“module” where the pump is located in a well. If this well cannot fill as fast as the pump

106
requires, fuel starvation will occur and usually results in driveability problems occurring
at highway speeds.

Step 8: Most fuel pressure testers have a relief port built in to their tool for relieving
pressure prior to removal. I use this to test fuel volume. Place the end of the tool‟s drain
tube into a clean, metered container and open the valve. Measure the amount of fuel
recovered over 30 seconds. Anything less than 1 pint is questionable. Typically, if fuel
volume is an issue, the engine will starve for fuel as soon as you open the tool‟s relief
valve. Look for a smooth flow as well…any “spitting” indicates a system restriction.

Step 9: If testing a return type system, disconnect and plug the vacuum line to the
regulator and read the pressure indicated on the gauge.

Figure 65: Fuel pressure with engine running, and vacuum to regulator disconnected.

This test will tell you the health of the regulator. The difference between this reading and
the one with the regulator connected is roughly ½ of the measured intake manifold
vacuum. (52 psi – 44 psi = 8 psi, or 16 “/Hg intake manifold vacuum). If pressure does
not rise, suspect a bad diaphragm in the regulator

Step 10: Go back to your fuel sample you collected when measuring volume and inspect
for debris or foreign material indicating a dirty fuel filter or tank. Make sure it‟s the right

107
fuel for the vehicle. Don‟t laugh; I‟ve seen spiteful spouses put all kinds of things in their
ex‟s tank…sugar, flour, even coolant.

108
 Testing Fuel Pump Integrity
This test is a quick measure of the health of the fuel pump’s electric motor, and can
also indicate restrictions to fuel flow in the system. It requires the use of a labscope
and a low amp current clamp. This description is not intended to be an exhaustive
study of these waveforms, but to introduce this testing method to you.

Step 1: Install the low amp probe around the power wire leading to the fuel pump. Make
sure this lead is powering only the fuel pump for the best reading. Typically, you can use
a short fused jumper wire in place of the fuel pump relay in the fuse box.

Step 2: Set your scope to 20ms time divisions and the voltage divisions specified by your
clamp‟s manufacturer. You should get a pattern similar to this one:

Figure 66: Normal fuel pump current waveform

This particular scope has a continuous “glitch” capture feature, resulting in the dropouts
you see on the screen. Notice that the peaks and valleys are consistent. This is the
current drawn through each individual armature winding and tells us that the electrical
contacts between the brushes and the armature are in good condition. The average

109
“voltage” reading is 0.8v, which converts to approx. 8 amps using the factor included
with the current clamp.

There are no specifications listed in most service information systems for this reading.
Generally, 6-9 amps is a normal working range. You can compare the waveform you get
to others on services like www.iatn.net. You can also start your own collection by testing
a lot of “known good” cars to see what “good” looks like.

Here‟s an example of a pump with some wear in it:

Figure 67: Notice every 8th hump in this worn pump's waveform.

Fuel pump armatures have an even number of commutator strips. Notice that every 8th
“hump” in this waveform is lower than the rest and slightly deformed, indicating some
wear in the pump motor brushes and armature. It isn‟t going to last much longer.

Also take note that the voltage division has a squiggly line next to it, indicating that the
scope is set on “AC” voltage. You can use this to eliminate the DC portion of the signal
to increase your scope‟s sensitivity and take a closer look at the actual pattern without it
being well off the screen. You cannot, however, measure the pump‟s actual amperage
draw unless you go back to DC measurements.

110
 Fuel Injector Balance Test
This test checks the fuel flow from each injector to make sure they are delivering
equal amounts. A leaking or restricted injector will cause an imbalance in the
air/fuel ratio in that cylinder, with resulting driveability complaints or possible
misfire codes. Be sure to follow all related safety procedures.

Step 1: Check your scan tool in the “enhanced” or manufacturer specific mode for this
feature. If supported by your scan tool, follow the service procedure for the specific
vehicle to perform this test.

Step 2: If unsupported, you will need a fuel pressure gauge capable of reading fuel
pressure to within +/- 1 psi, and a fuel injector actuator.

Figure 68: This fuel injector actuator allows precise control of the injector on-time.

Step 3: Install the fuel pressure gauge and the actuator as specified by their
manufacturers.

111
Step 4: Cycle the ignition key to achieve the maximum pressure reading on the gauge.
Do not start the engine. Record this pressure.

Step 5: Using the actuating tool, actuate the first injector. Notice that your pressure
reading will drop. Record this lower reading and the cylinder tested.

Step 6: Repeat steps 4 and 5 for the remaining cylinders and their injectors. Be sure
that your starting pressure in step 4 is the same for all tests.

When you‟re all done, you should have a chart that looks like this.

Sample Injector Balance Test

Injector # Starting Pressure Ending Pressure

Difference

#1 44 psi 36 psi 8 psi

#2 44 psi 37 psi 7 psi

#3 44 psi 34 psi 10 psi

#4 44 psi 35 psi 9 psi

#5 44 psi 38 psi 6 psi

#6 44 psi 37 psi 7 psi

Total of pressure drops = 47 Average pressure drop = 7.8 psi

Pressure drop acceptable range per injector = 6.3 to 9.3

Step 7: Calculate the difference between starting pressure and ending pressure for each
cylinder. This is the measured “pressure drop”.

Step 8: Add up the total “differences” and divide by the number of cylinders tested to get
an average pressure drop.

Step 9: Any injector outside of this average pressure drop by more than +/- 1.5 psi is
suspect. Clean the injectors through the fuel rail and retest if the variance is small. If a
large variance is noted, remove the injectors for inspection. In the example above,
cylinders #3 and #5 are suspect. (And just happen to be on the same bank on this
particular vehicle…hmmm?)

112
 Testing Fuel Injectors with a Scope

This test requires the use of a lab scope and a low amp current ramp. Reading
injector waveforms is a learned skill well beyond the scope of this book and these
tests are presented to introduce you to some of the basics.

Step 1: Follow the procedure specified by your scope manufacturer for connecting the
scope leads to the injector to be tested. Typically, the ground lead of the scope should be
on battery ground and the positive lead of the scope attached to the ground side of the
injector connector, using a backprobe adaptor. Note: Accessing the individual
injectors is not always possible. If not, consult the wiring diagram for a connection
point in the harness to the injectors.

Step 2: Set your scope time divisions to 1ms and the voltage divisions to 10volts. Start
the engine and allow it to idle. You should see a pattern similar to this:

Figure 69: Typical "saturation" injector waveform

113
Now that you have a pattern, let‟s take a closer look at it to see what it tells us.

Starting at the far left of your waveform, you should see the trace line even with system
voltage as measured at the battery. If not, it‟s time to pull a wiring diagram to see where
the injectors receive their power and find where the loss is occurring.

Moving on to the right of the trace line, you will see a sudden drop where the ECM is
commanding the injector “on”…this is the start of the pulse width command from the
ECM. Remember when using a scope that you are seeing the voltage in “real time” and
at a time division that allows you to see what you could never see with a DVOM or your
eyes. Note the “X” where this drop occurs. This is a measure of the voltage drop on the
ground side of the injector and should be very close to “0 volts”. Since our scope is
backprobed right at the injector (the load See chapter on voltage drop testing), any drop
measured here indicates a problem in the path back to the battery ground post. If you
were unable to reach the individual injectors, keep in mind that you could still have
a voltage drop issue between your test point and injector ground. By adjusting the
voltage and time divisions, and your scope‟s trigger, you can enlarge this portion (or any
other) to take a closer look.

Continuing to the right we see the ground pulled for a period of time. This looks flat in
this capture, but actually slopes slightly upward, and does so because the internal
resistance of the injector windings increases as the magnetic field caused by the current
flow increases.

Next is the “peak”, when the ECM turns off the current to the injector. This marks the
end of “pulse width”. Measuring the time shown your scope and record this for later.
This spike in voltage is caused by the sudden collapse of the magnetic field in the
windings, much like the spike of an ignition coil that we looked at earlier. (See chapter
on ignition system testing). This spike is an indicator of the health of the injector
windings…an internal short in them would not allow a strong magnetic field to be built,
and the resulting spike would be lower. With the difference in injector designs between
manufacturers, even between model lines in a single manufacturer, I don‟t concern
myself with actual measurements…look for variances between injectors as a more
reliable indicator of a problem.

Following the trace down from the peak, we come to the “hump”. This little, momentary,
spike is caused by the injector pintle closing. The metal pintle rod, passing thru the
internal windings, creates a small magnetic pulse that results in a voltage spike in our
trace. If your scope is sensitive enough, you may see the same little “hump” in the
ground line we spoke of earlier. Measuring the time difference between these two points
and comparing it to the commanded pulse width can indicate whether or not the pintle in
the injector is binding or not opening fully, and that will affect fuel flow to the cylinder.

Lastly, the trace line returns to system voltage and the cycle repeats. For more
information on how to read the nuances of these, and other, waveforms, check out the
sources available to members at www.iatn.net. Another valuable resource is someone

114
who first introduced me to using a scope…Tom Roberts of AutoNerdz.com. You can
find him at www.autonerdz.com

Step 3: Test the remaining injectors and record your observations.

Step 4: Remove your voltage probes and attach your low amp current clamp. Set the
voltage divisions as specified by your amp clamp‟s manufacturer and the time divisions
to 5ms. Place the clamp around the power wire leading to an individual injector and start
the engine. You should get a pattern similar to this:

Figure 70: Current waveform for a saturation style injector

Again, remember that this particular scope has a constant on “glitch” feature and is very
sensitive. The “spikes” are electrical noise picked up by the scope.

As we did with the voltage pattern, let‟s take a look at what we can tell from this
waveform. First, the current starts at “0” and builds rapidly on an upward slope. That is
why many techs refer to this pattern as a “current ramp”. ). Here you can measure the
current required, and using Ohm’s Law (Voltage = Current x Resistance), determine
the resistance of the coil windings that you can compare to specifications. In those cases
where the injectors are hidden and inaccessible without major teardown, this saves a lot
of time. In this case, the measured current flow is 1.14 amps, which equates to a

115
resistance of 11.9 ohms at 13.6 volts…in spec. for this particular vehicle. A word of
caution here: You may not get accurate resistance measurements on some designs.
The key to look for here is the same as on ignition coil primary current we discussed
earlier. Focus your observation on current build up and a clean turn off before
condemning the injector windings on resistance alone. You can also check all the
injectors at the same time by increasing the time base and checking the peaks. Just
increase the time base and move your current clamp back to the common power source
(the fuse is a good spot) and you‟ll see something like this:

Figure 71: Measuring the current flow for all injectors at once.

Remember the “hump” we discussed in the section on injector voltage? You can also see
this opening “hump” in many current ramps, again by adjusting the voltage and time
divisions on your scope. Then, by using one channel for voltage and one for current, you
can put together a complete picture that would look like this:

116
Figure 72: Put the two waveforms together for a more complete picture.

By measuring the actual time from pintle opening and pintle closing as shown on your
scope, and comparing it to the commanded pulse width from the ECM, you can get an
idea of whether or not the pintle is binding and actually carrying out the ECM‟s
command.

There‟s your primer on using a scope for testing injectors. As with any scope testing,
experience is the key. And you gain experience by hooking up your scope and using it
every chance you get. Consider building your own database of “known good” and
“known bad” patterns…you may hardly refer to them, but the practice will teach you a
lot.

117
 Chapter 12: Engine Integrity Testing

One of the first lessons you learned was that an engine had to have three things to run:
spark, fuel and compression. This section deals with the last…the ability of the engine
itself to draw in the proper air charge, compress that charge and get rid of that charge.

An engine is nothing more than a pump. It takes in air on the intake stroke, the fuel
system provides the needed fuel charge, and then the engine moves upward to compress
the mixed charge. This compression pressurizes the charge and in the process, increases
the temperature of that charge to make it easier for the spark plug to ignite it. The energy
released by combustion must be contained and that power utilized to drive the piston
back down. To make room for the next fresh air charge, the piston then moves upward
again on the exhaust stroke to push the used charge out of the chamber and into the
exhaust.

So it‟s more than just compression we need. We also need the engine to “breathe”. That
means that airflow into and out of the combustion chamber needs to be as unimpeded as
possible. When testing engine integrity, you need to verify not only that the engine can
compress and contain the mixture, but that it can take in the full amount it is capable of
and gets rid of the waste easily.

118
 Testing Relative Compression
Testing relative compression is a quick, easy test to check the ability of the engine to
compress the air charge. It requires the use of a lab scope and high amp current
clamp. The theory of this test is based on starter current draw. It takes current to
turn over the engine…the tighter the engine, the more current it takes.

Step 1: Connect the high amp clamp to your scope. (You can use channel 2 for the
clamp while you trigger off of the #1 cylinder on channel 1. This will help you isolate
any faulty cylinder you find by following the firing order.)

Step 2: Set your time division to 100 ms and the voltage divisions to that specified by
your clamp‟s manufacturer (typically 0.1 volt).

Step 3: Disable the fuel system to prevent cylinder flooding. Disconnect or disable the
ignition system to prevent the vehicle from starting.

Step 4: Place the high amp clamp around the positive battery cable lead going to the
starter motor.

Step 5: Crank the engine over and record the pattern. You should see an initial spike of
current, and then the pattern will settle out and look something like this one.

Figure 73: Relative compression pattern of a healthy 8 cylinder.

119
What you are seeing in this pattern is the starter current draw required to force each
piston upward against its own compression. A weak cylinder would require less current
and would show up on the screen looking something like this one:

Figure 74: Relative compression of an 8 cylinder with a problem.

See the flat spot just before the high peak? (Ignore the black smear; this scope has a
continuous “glitch” feature that makes these patterns look hashy.) The flat is the missing
cylinder. Because of the momentary slow down of the engine as it‟s turning over, more
current was required to get the next cylinder up against its compression resistance and
results in the peak you see. This scope will capture a compression difference of 10%, and
makes quick work of checking the ability of the engine to compress the air charge.

If you want to adjust your voltage base for a clearer picture, try this tip. Set your scope
for “AC voltage”. This will take out the DC component and place the pattern on the “0”
line, no matter how much current is present. This allows you to use a smaller voltage
division and still see the pattern on the screen. After all, I don‟t care how much current is
being used; I just want to see the relationship of current use by each cylinder.

Remember this is a “relative” test…meaning that if compression is low on all cylinders,

the pattern will look normal.

120
 Testing Engine Integrity With A Vacuum Gauge
A vacuum gauge may not be high tech, but it is still a valuable tool in testing engine
integrity and spotting problems. Use a dedicated gauge with a large face for easy
viewing. Be sure to install the gauge to an intake vacuum source (the line going to
the brake booster is my favorite connection point) and as close to the source as you
can for the most accurate reading. The following is a general guide…as with other
tests we’ve discussed; try out your testing procedure on known good cars to get a
feel for what is “normal”.

Step 1: Attach the vacuum gauge to an intake vacuum source.

Figure 75: Vacuum gauge connected to power brake booster vacuum feed

Step 2: Start the engine and allow it to idle until it reaches operating temperature.

Step 3: Observe the gauge reading and needle action and compare to the following:
(Refer to the vehicle specific service information for normal idle reading.)

121
Gauge needle steady, reading normal

This is a normal reading for most engines. Some

engine designs may read slightly lower. A quick
snap to wide open with the throttle plate should cause
vacuum to drop to approx. 5”/Hg with a rapid
rebound above normal before returning to normal
readings.

Gauge needle steady, reading lower than normal

This reading can indicate late ignition timing or a

cam that is out of time. It can also indicate an engine
that is low on compression on all cylinders or a
vacuum leak.

Gauge needle fluctuates or drops 1” to 2”, average reading normal

Suspect a possible cylinder misfire with this reading.

Test ignition system first. If gauge swing is more
prevalent (3” to 4”/Hg), sticking or burnt intake
valves are a possibility.

122
Gauge needle intermittently fluctuates, drops 1” to 2”, average reading
normal
An intermittent misfire or sticking valve can cause
this type of reading.

Gauge needle normal at idle, but fluctuates at higher rpm

Sticking valves or weak valve springs could be the

culprit here.

Gauge needle vibrates excessively at idle, smoothes out at higher rpm.

Worn valve guides are a likely suspect with this

reading.

123
Gauge needle vibrates excessively at all rpm. Reading lower than
normal.
Look for signs of a leaking head gasket. The needle
will bounce each time pressure is lost through the
leak.

“Snap Throttle” test

The next step in using the venerable vacuum gauge is the “snap throttle” test. This test
will help you check for a potentially restricted exhaust. To perform this test, snap the
throttle to wide open and release while watching the vacuum gauge. It should drop to
near “0”, and then return quickly to normal idle readings. If you see the gauge returning
slowly, it‟s time to take a closer look at the exhaust system.

Another method is to hold a steady cruise rpm of about 2500 rpm. Look for your gauge
to maintain a steady reading equal to or slightly higher than idle. A reading that
progressively drops while holding a constant throttle opening is another indication of a
restricted exhaust.

124
 Testing Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is a measure of the engine’s ability to “breathe”. It is a
comparison of how much air the engine can flow as compared to what it should be
able to flow in a perfect world. To perform this test, you will need a scan tool
capable of recording data and a Volumetric Efficiency calculator. A link for one is
available on my site at www.autoservicetech.com. This test requires you to make a
few wide open throttle passes to record the needed data, so be sure you follow all
local speed and traffic laws, and perform this test in a safe area.

This test will only work on vehicles equipped with a Mass Airflow Sensor.

Step 1: Start the engine and allow it to reach operating temperature.

Step 2: Attach your scan tool and establish communication with the ECM.

Step 3: Set your scan tool to display and record the following PIDs. (By recording only
the PIDs you want, you will maximize the refresh rate of your tool. This is a good
technique whenever you only need a few PIDs for your diagnostic testing.)

Engine rpm
Mass airflow in grams per second
Intake air temperature
Short Term Fuel Trim (both banks if applicable)
Long Term Fuel Trim (both banks if applicable)

Step 4: Perform (in a safe area and in accordance with local traffic laws) a wide open
acceleration from first gear until the vehicle up shifts, while recording the data with your
scan tool. Take 3-4 recordings.

Step 5: Back in the shop, review your data recordings and look for the point of maximum
engine rpm, just before the up shift occurred. Input the information into the calculator,
along with the engine size in cubic inches. Don‟t fudge here, enter the correct engine
displacement.

Typical volumetric efficiency for a normally aspirated engine is

approximately 80-90%. For a turbo charged or super charged engine,
look for VE numbers of 100-120%. Low VE with normal fuel trims
indicates a restriction to air flow through the engine. This can be
caused by something as simple as clogged air filter to something as
major as retarded cam timing or severe cam wear.

125
VE that is low, but fuel trims that show a correction for a lean condition
indicates that the MAF sensor is not reporting properly. Test the sensor
before condemning the engine’s condition.

Figure 76: Scan data recording for VE calculation

126
 Engine Cranking Compression Test
Testing engine compression is one of the most basic tests for engine integrity. It may
be an old test, but it is a valid today as it’s always been. Before you begin, make
sure the battery is up to the task, so all cylinders are tested under the same
conditions.

Step 1: Remove all spark plugs from the engine, and disable the fuel and ignition
systems.

Step 2: Install the compression tester in the cylinder to be tested.

Step 3: With the help of an assistant, or using a remote starter switch, hold the throttle
wide open and crank the engine over while monitoring the compression gauge.

Compression pressure as indicated on the gauge should rise quickly. Listen

carefully to the sound of the engine and you can hear the cylinder “pushing” into
the gauge. Peak compression pressure should be reached within 10 “pushes”. Near
peak readings should be reached in the first 3 to 4 “pushes”.

Step 4: Record the pressure reading on the gauge and repeat for the remaining cylinders.

Figure 77: Reading compression

Compare all readings to
specifications…any cylinder(s) that are
outside spec. require further testing to
isolate the cause. One technique that can
isolate a valve fault versus a ring fault is
the “wet” compression test. Repeat the
test, but before installing the gauge add a
small amount of oil to the cylinder
(roughly one tablespoon is sufficient). If
compression readings increase, suspect a
ring wear fault. If no change is noted,
suspect a valve
sealing fault.

Step 5: Compare readings to vehicle specific specifications. Also compare to maximum

variance allowed between cylinders.

With all your readings in one place, look for common denominators for cylinders
that are low. Is it just one cylinder, or all cylinders (indicating that maybe it’s a
“breathing” issue) affected? Are all the cylinders affected on the same bank?

127
Asking these questions will help point you in the right direction for your follow up
tests.
Sample Compression Test Table

Cylinder #1 110 psi

Cylinder #2 120 psi
Cylinder #3 105 psi
Cylinder #4 80 psi
Cylinder #5 110 psi
Cylinder #6 115 psi

What would be your next step?

Figure 78: Notice the piece of coat hanger near the end of the line. Makes it easier to get to those
hard to reach plug holes.

128
 The “Running” Compression Test
The “running” compression test is a good follow up to a low VE test result. This is
another test measuring the engine’s ability to flow air, and can help isolate an
airflow restriction cause as being in the intake side of the combustion chamber or on
the exhaust side of the combustion chamber.

Step 1: Perform a cranking compression test as described earlier, with all plugs removed
and throttle wide open.

Record these readings. Make sure the battery is fully charged so all cylinders are
tested under the same conditions.

Step 2: Reinstall plugs except for #1 cylinder.

Step 3: Install your compression gauge in #1 cylinder. Make sure the gauge‟s Schrader
valve is in place.

Step 4: Start the engine. Using the pressure release valve on the side of your gauge,
“burp” the gauge 2 to 3 times before proceeding. You should see something like this:

Figure 79: Running compression reading after "burping" the gauge.

129
Step 5: Snap the throttle to wide open and release. Record this reading.

Step 6: Repeat the test for each cylinder. Make sure to reinstall the plug for the last
cylinder tested.

Once you have all your test results, compare the running compression tests to the
cranking compression tests. Typically, running compression should be about 80% of
cranking compression.

If running compression is more than 80% of cranking compression, the

restriction is on the exhaust side of the combustion chamber.

If running compression is less than 80% of cranking compression, the

restriction is on the intake side of the combustion chamber.

As with cranking compression, look for common denominators to

further isolate the cause. And remember, a “restriction” doesn’t have
to be something physical like a clogged exhaust…it can also be any
mechanical factor that is impeding flow, like a worn cam or improper
cam timing.

130
 Cylinder Leakdown Testing
A cylinder leakdown test uses a special tool that allows you to pressurize the
combustion chamber and measure its ability to contain the charge. This is a good
follow up to a low cranking compression test, and will help isolate where the
compression loss is.

Caution: You will be pressurizing the cylinder during this test, and you will need to
hold the engine at TDC during the test. The engine will try to turn back against you
when pressure is applied, so be prepared for it and be safe…take a moment to know
where your body parts are going if it does kick back on you!

Step 1: Remove all spark plugs. This is a static test.

Step 2: Install the tool adaptor into the plug hole of the first cylinder to be tested.

Step 3: Turn the engine over in its normal direction of rotation until the cylinder to be
tested is at TDC (Top Dead Center) of its compression stroke.

You will be able to tell quickly if you are on TDC of the exhaust stroke. Your test
results will show massive leakage and there will be no resistance felt in the
crankshaft as you hold it in place. If so, disconnect the feed air and rotate the
crankshaft an additional 360 degrees and test again.

Step 4: Remove the oil fill plug, radiator cap and air boot from the throttle body.

This is where you will listen for the escaping air, if any, during your test.

Step 5: Connect shop air to the tool as directed by the tool‟s manufacturer. Adjust the
regulator as directed. (In this tool‟s case, it‟s to 90 psi).

Figure 80: Setting initial pressure

131
Step 6: Make sure the crankshaft position is secure and will not move when pressure is
applied to the cylinder.
Step 7: Install the tool adaptor from the engine to the other side of the dual gauges. Note
the reading on the second gauge.

Figure 81: The left side is line pressure; the right side is pressure in the engine. The difference is
"leakdown".

Step 8: Take the difference between the right side gauge reading and the left side gauge
reading and record it. (In this figure, it‟s 20 psi.) Divide that difference by line pressure
and multiply by 100. That is the percentage of leakdown in that cylinder.

Here, 90 – 70 = 20 psi difference. 20 divided by 90 = .222. Times 100 = 22.2%

leakdown.

Leakdown rates in excess of 10% are considered “failed” and should be

verified by retesting.

Leakage can be traced by listening for the air escaping from one of 4
places:

132
Intake valves: Air escaping from throttle body.
Exhaust valves: Air escaping from exhaust pipe.
Head seal: Air escaping from radiator fill.
Ring seal: Air escaping from oil fill.

Step 9: Repeat this test for the remaining cylinders and record your results. (Follow the
engine‟s firing order and you won‟t have to turn the crank so much!)

133
 Chapter 13: What Not To Do

This book is titled “An Introduction to Engine Performance Diagnosis” for a few
reasons. One, it is meant as an introduction into the thought processes and procedures
you will need to become proficient in diagnosing and repairing today‟s complex
automotive systems. But it also carries that title for an additional reason. When techs ask
for my help with a problem that has them stumped, it is almost always a matter of missed
basics…focusing on one system and missing the fault in another, skipping observations
or basic testing that would have led them to their problem sooner, or just not taking the
time it would require to perform at test that seemed to “hard” at the time.

So I want to share with you a story I originally published in MotorAge magazine‟s

“Garage” feature. This is a story of a simple fault that I should have found quickly and
didn‟t because I broke my own rules. I hope you‟ll learn from it that there is no
substitute for being thorough.

The complaint was simple enough, a Ford Mustang 3.8 that was idling rough and had a
MIL light illuminated. As is my usual practice, I first verified the rough idle and stumble
by taking a test drive. When I got back to the shop, I hooked up my scan tool and found
code P0301 (Cylinder #1 misfire) and P0316 (Misfire detected on start up) stored in the
ECM (Engine Control Module). This vehicle uses a DIS (Direct Ignition System) that
fires 2 plugs simultaneously. Opening the hood, I could hear the distinctive “tick” of a
spark jumping to ground outside the cylinder. Looking a little more closely, I could see
the spark jumping to the valve cover on the #1 wire. The wires looked like original
equipment, and a closer inspection revealed signs of leakage in the others.

Figure 82: Checking the secondary revealed low firing Kv.

I knew that bad wires were a common

cause of coil failures, so I hooked up my
scope to #1. The low firing line and spark
line looked an awful lot like what I am
used to seeing when the coil fails. On this
type of coil, one plug is “positive” and one
is “negative”. When the coil discharges, it
first travels thru the “negative” plug, thru
ground, then back to the coil thru the
“positive” plug. When the coil is stressed,
the internal insulation can fail, reducing
total coil output. In this low state, there is
just not enough left to jump the gap on the second plug, even though the first plug
continues to run just fine. That‟s why it‟s possible to have a DIS coil with one dead plug.

134
OK, I got this one nailed. I order a new coil and ignition wires and moved on to the next
car on my list.

Shortcutting a Diagnosis
When the parts arrived later in the day, I pulled the Mustang back in to the bay. It is a
simple installation and took no time at all. I cleared the codes and went to verify the
repair. Have you guessed yet? The miss was still there. A test drive later, and the codes
that I had originally were back.

You would think that after all the time I‟ve had in this business I would remember my
personal rules regarding diagnostics. NEVER SHORT CUT…especially on a misfire
code. Yes, I was busy. Yes, I had pressure on me to get other cars looked at and
diagnosed. Yes, I was in a hurry and didn‟t follow the rules.

Figure 83: I should have gone here first!

Remember what we discussed in

diagnosing misfires? A misfire code can
be set by any condition that doesn‟t allow
for complete combustion in the cylinder.
My normal procedure is to do a relative
compression test first, to make sure the
engine is mechanically sound. Doing that
test now indicated that the #1 cylinder
wasn‟t. If I see a low cylinder indication
on this quick and dirty test, I follow up
with a normal compression test. Look at
what I found. I muttered a few words under my breath that I can‟t relay here, but I‟m
sure you understand. I was kicking myself for breaking the rules, and now I had a major
engine fault to explain to my customer.

Was the original repair necessary? The ignition wires were for sure…the coil, however,
was a rushed diagnosis. The low firing line was a result of low compression, not low
spark energy. Remember, the firing line is typically affected by pressure, gaps in the
system, and the amount of hydrocarbons available for conduction. The scope was trying
to tell me something; I just wasn‟t listening, and saw what I wanted to see based on an
assumption.

Mistake Made, Now Let’s Fix It

The next step I take when I have a low compression reading is to perform a cylinder
leakdown test. This test uses a tool called a “differential cylinder pressure tester” and has
2 gauges on it. One indicates line pressure (supplied by shop air), and the other is the
pressure being contained in the cylinder. When connected, and the cylinder to be

135
checked at TDC (Top Dead Center) of it‟s compression stroke, the tool pressurizes the
cylinder and will give you a reading like the one I got on this Mustang. The left side
reading is line pressure…in this case, 90 psi. The right side gauge reads what pressure is
being contained in the cylinder, here its 70 psi. That‟s a 20 psi difference, or a little
more than 20% of line pressure. Standard specification is no more than 10%. With the
air line connected, I removed the oil fill cap; radiator cap and air filter housing. That
20% of air is going somewhere, and you can actually hear it escaping. That‟s the nice
thing about this tool. It allows you to hear if the loss of compression is from the valves
(air escaping from the throttle body or exhaust pipe), the rings (air escaping from the oil
fill) or from the head gasket (air escaping from the radiator).

Figure 84: A cylinder leakdown test confirmed the low compression cause...or so I thought.

This one was a no-brainer. Air was

rushing out of the throttle body with no
evidence of loss in any of my other check
points. OK, now I‟ve got it…the intake
valve is leaking. I got authorization to
remove the head, confident that this was
the problem.

With the head removed, I verified the

valve was leaking by pouring solvent into
the intake port and looking to see if any
leaked past the valve on the combustion
chamber side. It began to pour out as soon as the solvent got to the valve face. Because I
had been burned on my first diagnosis, I wanted to be extra thorough. I also checked
installed valve height to see if there might be a problem with bent valves or recessed
valve seats and found no problems there. I also inspected the push rods for damage, and
the cam lobes for wear. While the head was off, I rotated all the cylinders to the bottom
of their travel to look for damage to the cylinder walls. All looked good.

I got the head back a few days later and reinstalled it on the Mustang. I turned the key
and….the miss was still there!

What Had I Missed?

You‟ve got to know that I am really getting ticked off by now. I felt I had done a
thorough diagnosis and I had definitely found a major flaw in the leaking intake valve.
Thinking that maybe the machine shop had done something wrong, the first thing I
wanted to check was cylinder leakage with my tester. This time the results passed with
no leakage detectable. What about compression? Again, I got a low reading on #1
cylinder. What is going to make a tight cylinder low on compression? The only answer I
could come up with is that the cylinder couldn‟t breathe, but I had checked the valve train
and had found no problem. I pulled the valve cover off, and rechecked the valve
operation…measuring opening and closing heights of the valves on #1 and comparing

136
them to #2 and #3. Still no problem. There was only one answer left…it had to be in the
piston. A broken ring, maybe? I again removed the head, on my way to the piston, and
want to tease you with this photo.

Figure 85: Do you see what I should have seen?

Do you see what I should have seen the first time? Remember, you have an advantage.
I‟m already telling you that there is something there to catch.

With the piston removed, the problem was obvious.

137
Figure 86: This is not the way a rod should look.
Now do you see what should have caught
my eye? The interesting thing about this
failure is that the rod bent almost perfectly
along its axis, effectively shortening its
length. Other than that, there were no
other symptoms…no noise, no vibration,
no bearing damage.

Look closely at the stain on the cylinder

wall where the ring travel ends near the
top. The cylinder in the foreground is #1,
and that‟s #2 behind it. Notice how the
stain is thicker on #1, showing that the piston wasn‟t reaching TDC. I should have
caught this when I had the head off the first time. Would you have?

While the car was fixed, this is not a success story. My first broken rule was not
performing a thorough diagnosis and verifying the fault before I recommended the coil
pack and ignition wires. My second broken rule was not determining the cause of the
intake valve failure. Yes, I was under pressure, but that‟s no excuse. I‟m a professional,
and normally take a lot of pride in my work. This is one I am ashamed of. So learn from
the lesson I had to relearn…be thorough in your work, don‟t allow yourself to get “tunnel
vision”, and remember the basics!

138
 Chapter 14: And When Things Go Right!

Well, this is the last chapter. I‟ve enjoyed the time I‟ve spent with you and hope you‟ve
gained something for the experience. I want to leave you with one last tale of how
following the basics, taking the time to observe and think, and keeping an open field of
vision are the all important keys to being successful in diagnosing driveability issues.

This car would be hard to start first thing in the morning, sometimes stalling out
completely. It would then immediately restart and run fine. Follow along and think
about what you would do in this case.

As soon as I start the car to drive it into my bay, I understand the customer‟s complaint.
It starts rough, almost like its flooded, and at least one cylinder is not home. The MIL is
on, but not flashing. It‟s only about fifty feet to my bay, so I decide to limp it in and see
what‟s up. In the time it takes to pull in, the miss and rough running are gone and the car
is as smooth as silk.

I definitely verified the first part of the complaint. Now it‟s time to check the MIL. I
hooked up my scanner to pull the codes and freeze frame data. It wasn‟t a surprise to see
a P0300 (Random misfire) stored in the ECM. I then took a look at the freeze frame data.
Typically, I look at freeze frame information for two things. I want to get an idea of how
the car was operating when the code set, and I also want to see if any of the data stands
out as abnormal. Keep in mind that freeze frame data does not store at the instant the
fault occurs. It can take as long as thirty seconds before this information is logged in
some cases, but it can give you an idea of how the car was being driven at the time the
Diagnostic Trouble Code (DTC) was set.

The freeze frame on the Nissan told me a few things. Load value was 35% and the
vehicle speed was 28 mph. Since load is a reflection of how hard the engine is working,
this led me to think that the car was accelerating slightly. Add in the mph, and I‟m
thinking she was just coming off a dead stop. Engine temperature was 120 degrees, so
the car either was started recently or the Engine Coolant Temperature (ECT) sensor had a
problem. I experienced the miss when I started the car cold, so I was pretty sure the ECT
wasn‟t a factor. The picture I had in my mind was that of a young lady getting into her
car to go to work, experiencing what I had felt this morning and driving out of it just as I
had done.

Another important piece of information stored in freeze frame is the fuel trims. What
stood out on the Nissan was fuel trims for two banks! But this is a four cylinder, must be
a mistake, I thought. Wrongly, as it turns out. Both Short Term Fuel Trims (STFT) and
Long Term Fuel Trims (LTFT) were within 5% of “0”, indicating there were no fuel
control issues, and LTFT between the two banks only varied slightly from each other.

139
Time for a Visual

The next step I like to take in my diagnosis is a visual inspection. I want to get an idea of
how the car is maintained, if there are there any modifications, and if there is anything
under the hood that‟s obvious. The car has only 56,000 miles on it and is very clean.
Everything under the hood looks OEM. It doesn‟t take long, however, to notice the
coolant recovery bottle is nearly empty.

I removed the radiator cap and found it low as well. Between the recovery bottle and the
radiator, it took about half a gallon to fill it back up. At this point, I‟m thinking either
recent work done had required the coolant to be drained and they didn‟t get all the air out
or there was a problem that may or may not be related to the misfire. I pressurized the
system and looked for leaks, found none, and noted no pressure loss in the system. On to
the next step.

Don’t Ignore TSBs (factory technical service bulletins)

Before I get real deep into any diagnosis, I like to look for factory TSBs and recalls. I‟ve
made the mistake of spending hours on a driveability issue only to find out the fault was
in the programming or a component the factory has updated. My search turned up one
possibility, a recall on 1.8L cam and crank sensors. The bulletin provided information on
how to identify the new parts and the one I could see had the right number. A call to the
local dealer confirmed the recall had been performed. Now it‟s time to play detective.

Think like the ECM

When troubleshooting a DTC, it‟s important to know what the ECM is looking for when
it decides to turn on the MIL. If your repair doesn‟t satisfy those conditions, a comeback
is sure to be in your future. The Sentra, like many other new cars, uses the Crankshaft
Position sensor (CKP) to monitor RPM variations that would indicate a miss. If the
detected misfire is severe enough to overheat the converter, the MIL will blink. If not,
the misfire will be recorded and the MIL will not be turned on unless the miss is noted on
a second trip.

All too often, inexperienced techs focus their misfire strategy on the ignition system. I
can‟t begin to count the number of times I‟ve heard a tech say, “Misfire code? Needs a
tune up.” In reality, a misfire can result from any factor that didn‟t allow proper
combustion to occur. A gasoline engine needs three things to work: compression, fuel
and spark. And it needs them in the right quantity and at the right time. A failure in any
of these areas will result in a misfire.

My problem now is that the car isn‟t missing anymore!

140
Consider the Facts
Listening to the engine running smoothly in my bay, I didn‟t think I was going to find a
problem with the fuel or ignition systems. The low coolant level was nagging me, so I
shut the engine off and looked for signs of intermix. I could find no tell-tale “chocolate
milk” under the oil fill cap or on the dipstick. I decided to try a relative compression test
with my DSO to get an idea of the overall health of the engine.

Essentially, this test shows the amperage required by the starter at a time base that allows
me to see the effect each cylinder has on current draw. A cylinder with low compression
will take less effort to turn over than will a healthy one, and from my experience with my
scope, I can pick up on as little as a 10 psi difference between cylinders in less time than
it would take to perform a regular compression test on one cylinder.

Figure 87: Relative compression looked good on this Sentra.

To perform this test, use a high amp probe

on the starter positive cable. Disable the
fuel system so the cylinders don‟t fill with
gas, and then proceed just like you would
with a normal compression test: throttle
wide open and crank the engine. You‟ll
get a pattern something like this. Look for
a variance in amplitude of the waves. A
low “hump” indicates a weak cylinder, and
the need for a closer inspection. If your
scope has more than one channel, you can
trigger off the #1 cylinder or injector, and
then use the engine‟s firing order to identify which cylinders aren‟t pulling their weight.
My pattern looked good, but the engine was warm and my miss occurred cold.

That Nagging Feeling

If the basic systems are OK, the next consideration is whether or not they are working
together. Another possibility is that something is interfering with their ability to work.
This includes factors like ignition timing, cam timing, vacuum leaks or contamination of
the fuel charge.

Even though the cooling system held pressure when I tested it earlier, I couldn‟t confirm
why the coolant level was low, and that was bugging me. I wondered what I would find
by repeating the test with the engine warmed up. Since I had added coolant, I didn‟t
think a test for hydrocarbons with a block tester would be valid. So far, I had seen no
evidence of a leaking head gasket, at least none I was used to seeing.

141
I reconnected my pressure tester and started the car. Many times, a leaking head gasket
will cause a rapid pressure build up in the cooling system that will show up on the gauge.
That didn‟t happen on my Sentra.

When the engine reached operating temperature, I shut it off and pressurized the system.
I went for another cup of coffee. Hey, I‟m old, I need the boost! When I got back, I
found the system had lost pressure. I knew my gut was trying to tell me something!

Figure 88: It didn't loose pressure cold, but it did hot!

Normally, I don‟t like to remove the plugs on a warm engine, but I had to see what was in
there. Peeking down into #2, it was easy to see the green pool that meant coolant in a
place it wasn‟t supposed to be. I reported what I‟d found and my service writer got
authorization to tear it down for a closer look.

A Look Inside

I‟m not one of those techs who can tear down an engine and remember where everything
goes. I like to label as I go, including making notes to myself about wire routing,
grounds and vacuum lines. I find this really helps in reassembly. Ever put an engine
back together, only to have to tear something back off so the part in your hand will go
on?

142
Once the head was off, an inspection of the head gasket clearly revealed the leak.

Figure 89: No question with the gasket removed where the coolant was being lost.

Nissan uses a Multi Layer Steel (MLS) head gasket on this engine, and here‟s my theory.
I believe there was minimal leakage at the failed area when the engine warmed up. Any
coolant that was drawn into the engine while running was immediately pushed out. This
would explain the slight fuel trim variance between Bank 1 LTFT and Bank 2 LTFT I
saw in freeze frame. Coolant being burned out in the #2 cylinder was causing incomplete
combustion. That meant unused oxygen was passing by the Bank 2 Oxygen Sensor and
telling the ECM the cylinders were running lean. LTFT was correcting rich for this
condition on this bank, but only until the coolant dissipated. When the engine was shut
off, coolant collected in the combustion chamber as pressure in the cooling system bled
off. Some evaporated in the heat, but enough pooled on the piston to “flood” the spark
plug on cold start up. This resulted in the customer‟s complaint and caused the misfire
code.

There you have it…a failure (No, it doesn‟t happen to me often!) followed by a success.

143
 Chapter 15: A Final Word or Two
Well, it‟s been fun but this is the end of the line. I sincerely hope that you not only
gained something from this book, but had fun doing it. I sure had fun putting it together.

Like any new knowledge, it‟s up to you to put it to use. Knowledge unused is soon lost,
so don‟t let that happen. I hope you‟ll go back to this material time and again until it‟s all
yours. I also hope you‟ll become a “student” of things automotive. This field is
changing at a breakneck pace, and continuing your education is a vital key in keeping
yourself proficient.

Now I need your help. While I‟ve written several articles, this is the first attempt at a
book for me. Let me know what you think of it, and what you would like to see added,
expanded, removed…whatever. I really want this to be a useful tool for the working
tech. That is, guys and gals like you and me! So take the time to drop me a line at:
Pete@autoservicetech.com .

Thanks for your time and investment!

Peter F. Meier
Tampa, FL 2007

144