CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Science is a special type of discipline with peculiar characteristics, the

prominent among which is the approach is known as scientific methods.
Scientific method is a logical, rational and systematic process by which
knowledge in science is acquired. The steps involved in scientific method are
observation, hypotheses, predictions, experimentations, conclusion and host of
others (Ezeh, 2013).

Science is both a process (scientific method) and a product (Knowledge,

fact and principle) (Ezeh, 2013). Both process and product of science are
acquired through education and this is specialized type of education such as
science education. Science plays important role in the society because it relates
to our daily life and career. The importance of science in our society made the
federal government of Nigeria, through the federal ministry of education to
introduce science subjects in the nation’s secondary school curriculum,
chemistry is one of such subjects introduced.

Chemistry is a branch of science which deals with the properties,

composition and structures of matters. The cardinal objectives of chemistry
education are to prepare student to acquire; adequate laboratory and field skills
in chemistry; meaningful and relevant knowledge in chemistry; ability to apply
scientific knowledge to everyday life in matter of personal and community
health and agriculture; lastly reasonable and functional scientific attitudes
(Federal Ministry of Education, 2004). Despite the importance of chemistry
students’ achievement in the subject from West African Secondary School
Certificate Examination (WASSE) has been poor (Glasson, 2009).
 Enechi (2009) stated that some chemistry teachers fail to conduct
chemistry practical along-side every topic treated during lessons, until a few
days to examination when they will use WAEC specimens to conduct practical
for their students. Eze (2011) inferred that practical work is a unique strategy of
teaching and learning of chemistry because it enables science students to
observe and manipulate materials to demonstrate certain aspect of the subject
matter, which have been learnt in the class through lectures, discussion and
textbooks.

Reserachers have seen the need to make teaching and learning interactive
and learner-centered. According to Adejoji (2006) and Offiah (2007), poor
teaching methods such as lecture and demonstration used by secondary school
teachers without involving students have been found to contribute to poor
achievement in chemistry.

Chemistry as a science subject have two components; the theory and the
practical aspect which makes the teaching and learning of science real.
Laboratory is a building or room used for scientific research, experiment and
test, laboratory experiments are characteristics features of science teaching at all
levels of education (Adane and Adams, 2011).

Nowadays, it is rare to find any science course without a substantial

component of laboratory activities in teaching students in the institution. During
laboratory experiement, students are provided with specimen or work guide,
manual and some sort of experiment which help them to investigate scientific
problems in order to understand theories and principles of science subjects
(Adane and Adams, 2011). Students have a lot to benefit from practical which
may include increasing students’ interest and ability in science subjects as well
as the achievement in science.
 However, meaningful learning is possible from a given laboratory
experiments and materials that help them to construct their knowledge of
phenomena and related scientific concepts. Demonstration by instructions can
also be used as an option to support theories without adequate facilities to let
students do the experiments by themselves. There are reports that emphasize
teaching a science with the help of laboratory experiment especially in West
African Examination Council (WAEC) and Senior Secondary Certificate
Examinations (SSCE). The second is that a student is given an opportunity in
identifying the main objectives of the work and in planning and executing it,
identifying the conceptual and suggesting practical alternations and
improvement (Teix Erra-Dias, Pedrosade Jesus, Neri Souza and Wates, 2005).

The later thus could result in a significant positive impact on students’

abilities to learn both the desired practical skills and also the underlying theory.
Lack of funds for proper equipping of school laboratory has no doubt
encouraged the preference of alternative as compared to practical chemistry.
Thereby affecting the requisition basic practical skills in practical work in
senior secondary schools.

Lack of qualified teachers to handle the practical exercise properly and in

accessibility of the laboratory can as well affect the students’ achievement in
chemistry negatively. This work therefore sought to examine the effect of
alternative to practical as to laboratory practical.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

In view of the general opinion held by many people that the standard of
education is falling in Nigeria and bearing in mind that practical has quite a
significant influence in the development of the child in chemistry. That is why it
has been positively argued that chemistry practical can effectively help the
students in attainment of manual skills and certain abilities in chemistry.
 In Nigeria, students’ achievement in secondary school chemistry has not
been encouraging. In spite of the desire for technological development, which
needs chemistry education there is persistent poor academic achievement of
students in the subject, particularly in practical chemistry. So many factors can
be attributed to students’ poor achievement in chemistry practical; they include
teachers’ use of the inappropriate instructional approaches, lack of adequate
laboratory facilities, poor organization of laboratory activities, lack of
commitment to laboratory work by both teachers and students, partial or total
absence of laboratory, lack of qualified chemistry teachers and mode of
laboratory activities that are used in chemistry laboratories. This work therefore
sought to examine the effect of alternative to practical as to laboratory practical.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of laboratory
practical chemistry and alternative to practical chemistry on students’ academic
performance in senior secondary certificate examinations (SSCE) chemistry in
secondary school schools.

The study is specific terms will;

i. Determine the effect of laboratory practical and alternative to practical

chemistry at secondary school level in Obudu Local Government
ii. Examine the problems that are responsible for low performance in
chemistry
iii. Compare the effect of laboratory practical to alternative to practical
chemistry.

1.4 Significance of the Study

It is believe that the study of laboratory practical and alternative to

practical chemistry and students’ performance in senior certificate examinations
(SSCE) examination will help the teacher to tackle the problem directly.
 The findings on this study will also highlight the difficulties encountered
by students in chemistry as a result of the preference of alternative to practical
chemistry in some selected secondary schools in Obudu Local Government
Area. To fashion out appropriate strategies that would enhance the teaching and
learning of chemistry.

1.5 Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study;

i. To what extent does there exist significant difference in the mean

achievement scores of students taught and examined with laboratory
practical chemistry and those taught and examine with alternative to
practical chemistry
ii. To what extent does there exist significant difference in the mean
achievement scores of male students’ taught and examined with
laboratory practical chemistry and those taught and examined with
alternative to practical chemistry.
iii. To what extent does there exist significant difference in the mean
achievement scores of female students taught and examined with
laboratory practical chemistry and those taught and examined with
alternative to practical chemistry.

1.6 Research Hypotheses

i) There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of

students taught and examined with laboratory practical chemistry and
those taught and examined with alternative to practical chemistry.
ii) There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of
male students taught and examined with laboratory practical chemistry
and those taught and examined with alternative to practical chemistry.
 iii) There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of
female students taught and examined with laboratory practical
chemistry and those taught and examined with alternative to practical
chemistry.

1.7 Delimitation of the Study

This research work ‘Effect of laboratory practical and alternative to

practical chemistry and students’ performance in chemistry in senior secondary
school certificate examinations cover all secondary schools offering chemistry
subject in Obudu Local Government Area. It will concerned primarily those
students offering chemistry in senior secondary III. The emphasis will be on
students’ academic performance through effect of laboratory practical and
alternative to practical chemistry.

1.8 Assumption of the Study

For this study to be carried out, a number of assumptions were made:

i. It is assumed their students’ performance in chemistry is low because

they do not have a basic knowledge of the laboratory practical aspect.
ii. It is assumed that the preference of alternative to practical instead of
the actual laboratory practical chemistry has contributed to the poor
performance of students in senior secondary school certificate
examinations (SSCE) chemistry practical.
iii. It is assumed that actual laboratory practical should be conducted by
qualified teachers with the students as this will make for better
understanding of the subject and also boost students’ performance.

1.9 Theoretical Framework

Piaget’s cognitive constructivist learning theory Piaget’s cognitive

constructivist theory was propounded in (1973) and proposed that children
progress through a sequence of four stages, assumed to reflected qualitative
difference in structures in the different developmental stages, learners cannot be
taught key cognitive tasks if they have not reached the particular stage of
development. Piaget emphasized on the holistic approach to learning. To him a
child constructs understanding through exploring and experiencing his or her
environment.

Later in (1985) Piaget expanded this theory to explain how new

information is shaped to fit with the learner’s existing knowledge, and existing
knowledge is itself modified to accommodate the new information. The major
concepts in the cognitive process include;

 Assimilation: It occurs when a learner perceives new objects or events in

terms of existing schemes or operations. This information is compared
with existing cognitive structures.
 Accommodation: It occurs when existing schemes or operations have
been modified to account for a new experience
 Equilibration: It is the master developmental process, encompassing both
assimilation and accommodation. Anomalies of experience create a state
of disequilibrium which can be only resolved when a more adaptive,
more sophisticated mode of taught is adopted.

Piagetian constructivist theory generally regards the purpose of education

as educating the individual child in a fashion that supports the child’s interest
and needs; consequently, the child is the subject of the study, and individual
cognitive development is the emphasis. This is a child-centered approach that
seeks to identify, through scientific study and the natural part of cognitive
development. It is also assumes that learners come to classrooms with ideas,
beliefs and opinions that need to be altered or modified by a teacher who
facilitates this alteration by devising task and questions that create dilemmas for
the learners. Considering the educational reflections of this theory, Piaget sees
the child as continually interacting with the world around the child, solving
problems that are presented by the environment and learning occurs through
taking action to solve these problems. The laboratory work in this study will
also be based on these principles.

Within Piaget’s theory, the basis of learning is discovery; to understand is

to discover, or reconstruct by rediscovery and such conditions must be complied
with if in the future individuals are to be developed who are capable of
production and creativity and not simply repetitive. According to Piaget,
children go through stages in which they accept ideas they may later discard as
wrong. Understanding therefore, is built up step by step through active
participation and involvement. Piaget further states that children begin to think
logically between the age of 8 and 11 years, a stage he called the concrete
operational stage of development. The average age for senior secondary schools
year three (SS III) students (the targeted population for the study) is 16 years
and above which implies that learners at this age can apply logical thought to
practical works and be able to understand them better.

1.10 Definition of Terms

In this research, certain words which have been used to convey their
meanings as reflected in the study are defined.

These are;

i. Alternative: This implies option for other possibilities that have been
exhausted.
ii. Apparatus: These are equipment needed for laboratory activities
iii. Chemistry: Is the scientific study of the structure of a substance how
they react when combined or in contact with one another and how
they behave under different conditions.
iv. Curriculum: This is a room or building used for scientific research,
experiment and test.
v. Practical: This is concerned with reality and actions rather than
theories and ideas.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

The review of literature for this study is organized under the following
sections and sub-sections: Conceptual framework, review of empirical studies
and summary.

- Conceptual framework
 Nature of school laboratory chemistry practical
 Nature of alternative to practical
 Chemistry laboratory practical and performance in school chemistry
 Secondary school chemistry instruction
 Quality of school chemistry practical
 Frequency of school chemistry practical
 Availability of facilities and equipment
 Gender and academic performance in school chemistry
- Review of related empirical studies
 Studies on laboratory works in science education
 Studies on students’ performance in science education
 Studies on gender and academic performance in science education
- Summary of literature review

2.2 Conceptual Frame Work

Nature of School Laboratory Chemistry Practical

To date, many studies have been conducted on the importance of

laboratory work while teaching science. Currently, science educators and
teachers agree that laboratory work is indispensable to the understanding of
science (Cardak et al, 2007; Ottander and Grelson, 2006, Tan, 2008). The main
purpose of laboratory work in science education is to provide students’ with
conceptual and theoretical knowledge to help them learn scientific concepts,
and through scientific methods, to understand the nature of science laboratory
work also gives the students the opportunity to experience science by using
scientific research procedures. In order to achieve meaningful learning,
scientific theories and their application methods should be experienced by
students. Moreover, laboratory work should encourage the development of
analytical and critical thinking skills and encourage interest in science (Ottander
and Grelson, 2006).

Teaching and learning of science has over the years tried to mimic what
real scientists method, the inquiry process, the content of science and the habits
of scientists are all re-contextualized in the science curriculum for schools in
many parts of the world (Ling & Towndrow, 2010). In mimicking the real
scientist; the rationale for using chemistry practical as a form of instructional is
sometimes forgotten.

Nzewi (2008) asserted that practical activities can be regarded as a

strategy that could be adopted to make the task of a teacher (teaching) more real
to the learners opposed to abstract or theoretical presentation of facts, principles
and concepts of subject matters. Laboratory experiments (activities) are
characteristic features of science teaching at all levels of education (Adane and
Adams, 2011).

Today it is rare to find any science course or subjects without standard

component of practical or laboratory activity in institutions. Students have a lot
to benefit from practical or laboratory activity in institutions. Students have a lot
of benefit from practical which may include increasing students’ interest and
abilities in science subjects as well as their achievement in science subjects as
well as their ad stated that meaningful learning is possible from a given
laboratory experiments if the students are given sample opportunities to operate
equipment and materials that help them to construct their knowledge of
phenomena and related scientific concepts.

Nature of Alternative to Practical Chemistry

The alternative to practical paper is simply an alternative mode of

assessment to the practical examination paper. It requires the same kind of
practical work in preparation as the practical examination paper (Cambridge
International Examinations, 2016). Alternative to practical paper assess
students’ practical skills, including both data handling and familiarity with
standard laboratory equipment. Any candidates without experience of doing
practical work will be disadvantaged in this paper. In addition, students without
practical knowledge will not be able to perform well in the acceptab to practical
paper or examinations.

The acquisition of process skills has persisted over the years. This is
because, the acquisition of science process skills are the bases for scientific
inquiry and the development of intellectual skills and attitudes that are needed
to learn concepts (Nwago and Chukelu, 2011).

Ibe, (2004) asserted that science process skills are abilities which can be
developed by experienced and used in carrying out mental and physical
operations. Thus, science process skills serve as a solutions to scientific
problems. Despite the important of chemistry in senior secondary certificate has
been matter of concern to many well-meaning individuals, institutions and
organization as well as to various levels of government (Kpolovie, Ololube and
Ekwebekem, 2011). In spite of the importance and popularity of chemistry
among Nigerian students. Performance at senior secondary school level had
been poor.

The table below shows that performance of students’ failure rate from
2010 – 2012.
Table I: Percentage of students’ failure rate in chemistry subject in WASSCE
from (2010 – 2012).

Subject % of failure % of failure % of failure Average

Chemistry 2010 2011 2012 Failure
21.08 22.82 23.52 22.52
Source: WAEC, 2012

2.3 Chemistry Laboratory Practical and Performance in School

Chemistry

Chemistry practical have been and are being used in chemistry teaching
to support theoretical chemistry instruction. The success of any given chemistry
practical task depends on the intended learning objectives of that task. Learning
objectives of chemistry practical tasks can be divided into catergoeis, for
example category A and B. in category A, the practical tasks should enable the
learner to:

i. Identify objects
ii. Learn a fact(s)
iii. Identify phenomena

In category B, the practical tasks should be to enable learners to;

Learn a concept

Learn a relationship and

Learn a theory (model ) (Muller, 2004).

The science educators’ criticism on chemistry practical are in tasks with

objectives in category ‘B’ and not those in category ‘A’. Miller (2004) describes
the tasks with objectives in category ‘A’ as being effective as many other forms
of instructions. The observable aspects of practical tasks are often remembered
many months or even years later if the event is a striking one. For example,
seeing a piece of sodium put into water or the ‘pop’ sound of burning hydrogen
gas.

The role of chemistry practical is to help students make link between two
‘domains’ of knowledge: the domain of objects and observable properties and
events on the one hand, and the domain of ideas on the other (Muller, 2004).
The learning objective of category ‘B’ above are more strongly involved in
chemistry practical than those in category ‘A’. students are unlikely to grasp a
new scientific concept or understand a theory or model (Category B objectives)
as a result of any single chemistry practical task, however well designed.
Students acquire deeper and more extended understanding of an abstract idea or
set of ideas in a gradual process, hence the need for frequent and varied
practical activities.

The effect of practicals in learning chemistry in schools may be

influenced by several factors, factors such as nature, quality and frequency of
chemistry practicals, facilities and equipment available and gender of the
learners among others are leading influence on the teaching and learning of
chemistry. They have crucial role in determining difference attitudes and
learning styles of students and consequently different educational impact on
different individuals (Nieswandt and McEneany, 2009). This affects how
chemistry instruction takes place in schools and indeed the students’
performance in the chemistry examination.

2.4 Secondary School Chemistry Instruction

Instruction in chemistry is done through practical and theory work.

Typically, the term practical means experience in school setting where students
interact with materials to observe and understand the natural world. The
practical are mainly done as student experiments in the laboratory and as
teacher demonstrations either in laboratories or in classrooms, while the theory
is often done in the classroom. (Twoli, 2006).

In secondary schools, chemistry laboratory activites are designed and

conducted to engage students individually or in small groups (students
experiment) and in large group demonstration setting (teacher demonstration)
(Hofstein and Mamlok-Naaman, 2007). Successful learning of chemistry
depends partly on correct use of a teaching method whose activities target most
learning sense. Since chemistry is a subject that encourages ‘hands on’
experiences, more practical oriented modes of instructions should be selected
(Twoli, 2006).

Practical are a very prominent features of school science in many

countries and a high proportion of lesson time is given to them. Science
practical are very much a characteristic of the school science curriculum. They
have been part of school science curriculum for over a century, and their
unquestioned (Bennet, 2003). For example the West African Examination
Council (WAEC) syllabus had over the years recommended that the teaching of
all science subjects listed in the syllabus should be practical based, and after
several decades of emphasizing the assumed importance of practical in science
teaching and learning.

Like other sciences, chemistry teaching and learning is supported by

laboraroty experiments (practical sessions) (Reid and Shah, 2007). Chemistry
practical classes (experiment) are believed to help students in understanding
theories and chemical principles which are difficult or abstract (Lagowski
2002). Moreover, practical offer several opportunities to students such as;
handling of chemical safely and with confidence, acquiring hands-on experience
in using instruments and apparatus, developing scientific thinking and
enthusiasm to chemistry, developing basic manipulative and problem solving
skills, developing investigative skills, identifying chemical hazards and learning
to assess and control risks associated with chemicals (Ladage, 2009). However
Hofstein (2004) argues that research has failed to show a simplistic relationship
in the laboratory and learning chemistry. These are concern about the
effectiveness of laboratory work in helping the students understand the various
aspects of scientific investigation (Schwartz et al, 2004).

Traditionally, chemistry curses at all level have included instruction in

laboratory setting where students follow procedures directing them to mix
chemicals, make measurements, analyse data and draw conclusions. At the
elementary, secondary and early college levels, chemistry practical frequently
consists of what is generally described as “cook book” exercise (Shakhashiri,
2009). The goals and desired outcomes of chemistry can also be supported and
improved through the use of information and communication technology (ICT).
ICT is considered as a versatile source of scientific data, theoretical information
and offers a visible means to support authentic learning in chemistry (Awad,
2014). Prior to internet being available, the only learning facilities and
equipment and the only authority figures were teachers. However, (Awad,
2014) reports that there are so many learning materials such as html documents,
e-books and electronic encyclopedia in the internet and also many ways to get
in touch with authority figures such as scientists and other school teachers, all
what a student may want to know can be obtained through searching the
internet.

2.5 The Quality of School Chemistry Practical

The quality of chemistry practical varies considerably around the world

(Lunetta, Hofsten and Cough, 2007). Most curricula spericity that practical and
investigate activities must be carried out by students. However, there is a gap
between policy and practice, between what is written in curriculum in
documents, what teachers say they do, and what students actually experience.
 Despite curriculum reform aimed at improving the quality of chemistry
practical, students spend too much time following recipes and consequently,
practicing lower level skills (Dillon, 2008). Similarly, where students’ only
carryout instructions from worksheets to complete a practical activity, they are
limited in the ways they can contribute. As a result, students fail to perceive the
conceptual and procedural understandings that where the teachers’ intended
goals for the laboratory activities (Lunetta et al, 2007). This is a case of under-
utilization of the opportunities provided by practical activities. If teachers do not
select appropriate chemistry practical, this may end up in laboratory work of
doubtful quality. Such an approach is demotivating for students and a poor use
of teaching and learning resources and which may end up contributing to poor
performance in the subject.

2.6 The Frequency of School Chemistry Practical

Teachers usually control the frequency and to some extent, the quality of
chemistry practical in schools. The volume and variety of chemistry practical in
schools has lessened over time (Ofsted, 2005) reports that teachers had to teach
didactically to get through the content according to the examining body
specifications.

Practical in chemistry are expensive, particularly the cost of replenishing

apparatus and chemicals. When combined with insufficient budgets to provide
enough technical support, materials and equipment and lack of time to prepare
the chemistry. Practical, the frequency of performing practical definitely suffers
(Dillon, 2008). Apart from being expensive on resources and time, students
laboratory experiments are more difficult to plan or organize and supervise
(Twoli, 2006). Nation Endowment for Science, Technology and the Arts
(NESTA) (2005) survey of science teachers in (in UK) on factors affecting
teachers’ use of chemistry practical found that 64% lacked time for experiment
while many teachers said that safety rules and had put them off 87% of
respondents said learning which allowed more experiments said learning while
allowed more experiments and scientific enquiry would have a more significant
impact on performance.

According to Dillon (2008) UK science teachers are not alone in

reporting lack of time as a barrier to doing more chemistry practical. For
example, a study in Hong Kong, found that science teachers generally find
enquiry-based laboratory work very difficult to manage. The high cost and
constraints of chemistry practical limit the number of lessons planned involving
chemistry practical and hence the frequency of chemistry practical goes down.

2.7 Availability of Facilities and Equipment

The place of experimental work in laboratories has always assumed a

high profile at all levels of chemical education (Reid and Shah, 2007).
Laboratory classes are an ideal place to integrate the active learning approach.
Science laboratories have long played a unique roel in science education,
providing an opportunity for inquiry-based investigative learning (Hofstein and
Lunetta, 2004). These classes provide an opportunity for hands-on experiences
designed to help students further understand concepts learned in the classroom
(Reid & Shah, 2007).

In secondary schools where the provision of science laboratories are less

than satisfactory, the teaching and learning of chemistry is hindered in a number
of ways;

i. When classes are not taught in the specialized rooms, the opportunities
to investigate and engage in chemistry practical are reduced hence the
effectiveness of teaching and
ii. Time tabling difficulties make the nature and frequency of chemistry
practical and learning more difficult to manage.
 There is a clear need for the standards of accommodation to be improved
and improvement of laboratory stock. If the nature and quality of chemistry
practical are to improve, then there is a continuing need for the upgrading and
refurbishment of laboratories, and for new laboratories to be built in schools
(Ofsted, 2005). Some barriers effective chemistry practical associated with
facilities include; too many students in practical classes and the associated
behavourial problems; insufficient funding being developed to science
departments; under resources and old fashioned laboratories in schools. These
barriers impact heavily on the nature, quality and frequency of chemistry
practical.

2.8 Gender and Academic Performance in School Chemistry

Gender and its manifestation in various human activities appears to be

strong predictive of predictor of human conduct. In education, many differences
have been documented between achievement of males and females. Many
researchers and educationalists feel that gender difference is one of the factors
that affect academic performance (Ssempala, 2005). Gender has a crucial role in
determining difference attitudes and learning styles and consequently difference
impacts of educational activities on different individuals. The sex role stereo
type students are attached to could influence how they perform in both practical
and theoretical aspects of chemistry examination (Akpa, 2005). The biased way
in which science is presented at school and portrayed by media continues to
feed usual gender stereotypes. Gender difference in competence beliefs
concerning science are reported as early as kindergarten level (Cuomo, Serpico
and Balzano, 2007).

Science learning is a typical gender role-stereotyped domain in which

boys and girls tend to be strongly conditioned by the self-perception of their
competence and skills. This may result in resistance and lack of confidence
(typical in girls) or in over estimation and excess of desire to be in the line light
(typical in boys) (Cuomo, et al, 2007) which has strong impacts on academic
performance, for example, although the performance of girls is always poor
than that of boys (Kakinda, 2007). Other observations by the permanent
European Resource Centre for Informal Learning (PENCIL) pilots projects
(Cuomo, et al, 2007) showed that educational programms can be designed
which are alternative for both girls and boys, leading to success in science
learning. Therefore, gender is an important factor that contributes to
performance in chemistry.

Studies by Nzewi (2010); Ogunleye and Babajide (2011); posited that

gender is insignificant in science achievement. Oludipe (2012) also opined that
promoting achievement in students’ understanding of science does not depend
on gender rather it is through determination of the students. Agomuoh (2010);
Ukozor (2011) found that gender influences students’ conceptual shift in favour
of the male. Studies by Agomuoh (2010) have shown that students achievement
are gender dependent using constructivist based instructional method.

2.9 Review of Related Empirical Studies Related Studies on Laboratory

Work in Science Education

Chukelu (2009) conducted a research on effect of Biology practical

activities on students’ process skill acquisition. A quasi experimental design
was employed for the study. The sample consisted of one hundred and eleven
(11) senior secondary one biology students selected through simple random
sampling technique. The instrument for data collection in the study has 20 items
Science Process Skill Acquisition Test (SPSAT). The data was analysed using
mean and standard deviation to answer the research question and Analysis of
Covariance (ANCOVA) to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. The
results revealed that practical activity method was more effective in fostering
students’ acquisition of science process skills than the lecture method. The
interaction effect between teaching methods and gender of the subject was not
significant. Based on the findings of this study, the use of practical activity
method to foster the acquisition of science process skills in Biology students
was recommended to biology teachers. The similarity between the revewed
study and the present study is that the studies are both conducted in the
laboratory. They used the same experimental research design. Both studies used
gender as a moderating variable. The difference between the two studies is that
the present study is investigating on the effect of laboratory practical chemistry
and alternative to practical chemistry on students’ academic performance in
chemistry.

Suleyman (2011) studied the effect of cooperative learning and

identifications of laboratory equipment in science-technology laboratory course
in Turkey. The sample for the study was forty three (43) SS I students who took
science technology laboratory application course in the 2010 and 2011
academic year. One group was selected via clustered sampling as the control
group using the traditional learning method and the other as the experimental
group which is cooperative learning method. The data were gathered using four
measurement tools; the Preliminary Knowledge Test (PKT). The science
technology laboratory achievement test (STLAT), the identification of
experimental equipment test (IEET), and the science technology laboratory
course attitude scale (STCAS), the STCAS reliability coefficient (Cronbach
alpha) was 0.79, result of the study showed that the experimental group
compared to the control grouped, scored higher in academic achievement, in the
identification of laboratory equipment, and the attitudes towards science, and
the difference were statistically significant.

This study has a link with the present study in the sense that they have the
same research design. However, there is deviation; the reviewed study was
carried out on effect of cooperative and traditional learning on identification of
laboratory equipment in science-technology laboratory course in Turkey. The
present study was conducted in Cross River in Nigeria on effect of laboratory
Practical Chemistry and problems that are responsible for low performance in
chemistry.

2.10 Related Studies on Students’ Performance in Science Education

Wachanga and Mwangi (2004) conducted a research in Kenya Nkaru

District on the effects of the cooperative class experiment (CCE) teaching
method on secondary school students’ performance in chemistry. The study
employed a quasi-experimental design, specifically the pretest and post-test,
control group design. The sample consisted of one hundred and fifty two (152)
students selected through simple random sampling technique. The instrument
for data collection in the study was a 30 short answer Chemistry Achievement
Test (CAT) with a Kuder-Richardson K-R 20 reliability coefficient of 0.82. The
hypotheses were tested at P < 0.05 level of significance using t-test analysis.

The study is linked to the present study in the sense that the two studies
used laboratory teaching methods, they have the same research design. The
difference between the studies is that present study was conducted in Cross
River, Nigeria and the study. Intends to investigate the effect of laboratory
practical chemistry and alternative to practical chemistry on academic
performance in chemistry.

Cengiz (2010) carried out study on effect of the virtual laboratory on

students’ achievement and attitude in chemistry. The study employed a quasi-
experimental research design, specifically the pre-test and post-test,
experimental-control group model. The Kuder-Richardson coefficient reliability
was 0.86 for Ks and 24 items for students attitudes scale (SAS), were selected
with Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of 0.92 from two scales employed
during the study.
 The sample of the study was 341 high school students. The data collected
were analysed by using SPSS/PC version 120 statistical programs. Two
different t-tests were performed. The results of the study showed the virtual
laboratory application made positive effects on students’ achievement when
compared to traditional teaching methods. The study is related to the present
study in the sense that they were conducted with the context of laboratory work;
the studies employed quasi-experimental research designs and are within the
field of chemistry education.

However, the present study differs from the reviewed study as a result of
the study intends to investigate the effect of laboratory practical chemistry and
alternative to practical chemistry on students’ performance in chemistry.

Afolabi and Akinyemi (2009) conducted a research on the effect of

constructivist problem based learning technique on the academic achievement
of physics students with low ability levels in Nigeria secondary schools. Quasi-
experimental design, specifically pre-test and post-test control group design was
adopted for the study. A purposive sampling technique was used to select two
schools out of forty (40) co-educational secondary schools in Taraba. One
hundred and fifty (150) SS II physics students were used for the study. Physics
Achievement Test (PAT) and Physics Ability Level Test (PALT) were used to
collect data.

The Kuder-Richardson coefficient of internal consistency for PAT and

PALT were 0.72 and 0.76 respectively. Three hypotheses were tested at 0.05
level of significance using t-test analysis. The result of the findings showed that
physics students with low ability level taught with based learning technique
performed significantly better than those taught with conventional method.

The reviewed study is related to the present study because the two studies
are based on constructivist teaching method that is students-centered
instructional method and they used the same research design. However, the
difference is that the reviewed study was on the effect of constructivist problem
based learning technique on the academic achievements of physics students
with low ability levels in Nigeria secondary schools but the present study
investigates the effect of laboratory practical chemistry and alternative to
practical chemistry on students’ academic performance in chemistry.

Obiekwe (2008) investigated the effect of constructivist instructional

approaches on students’ achievement and interest in basic ecological concepts
biology. The study adopted a quasi-experimental design of pretest, post-tests,
non-equivalent control group. A purposive random sampling technique was
used to select from ninety four (94) schools (2 boys and 2 girls schools) in
Ogidi education zone of Anambra State. Out of the four schools (4), one male
and female school were assigned as control group. The experimental group was
taught ecological concepts using constructivism instructional approach. While
the control group was taught using conventional (lecture) method.

Biology Achievement Test on Ecological Concepts (BTEC) and Biology

Interest Inventory on Ecological Concepts (BIIEC) were used to collect data.
The data were analyzed using mean, standard deviations and ANCOVA. Results
from the data on Biology Interest Inventroy on Basic Ecological Concepts
Indicated the constructivist instructional approach was more effective in
facilitating students’ interest in ecological concepts than the conventional
(Lecture) method.

Constructivists’ instructional approach is an innovative teaching method

which also in inquiry in nature. Because it encourages active learning, it
stimulate interest and this explains why it yielded a more positive effect on the
student more than the lecture method that is didactic in nature.
 The reviewed study is related to the present study, the studies are student-
centered instructional approaches carried out within the context of laboratory;
both studies used the same research design. However, the present study differs
from the reviewed study because the present study investigated the effect of
laboratory practical chemistry and alternative to practical chemistry on
academic performance of students in chemistry.

2.11 Studies on Gender and Academic Performance

Oludipe (2012) investigated the influence of gender on junior secondary

students’ academic achievement in basic science using cooperative learning
teaching strategy. One hundred and twenty (120) students obtained from intact
classes of three (3) selected junior secondary schools in three selected local
government area of Ogun State, south west Nigeria participated in the study.
This study employed a quasi-experimental design. Achievement Test for Basic
Science Students (ATBSS) was the instruments used to collect the relevant data.
The data collected was analysed using descriptive and independent sample t-test
statistical methods. Findings if this study revealed that there was no significance
difference between the academic performance of male and female student at the
pretest, post-test and delayed post-test level respectively. In the light of the
above study. The present study investigated the influence of gender on
laboratory practical chemistry and alternative to practical chemistry on students’
academic performance in chemistry.

Igboegwu, Nwafor and Okonkwo, (2012) determine the influence of

gender and location of schools on students’ achievement in chemistry. The
study was carried out in Anambra state secondary schools. The study was
guided by research questions and hypotheses. The sample for the studies was
made up to 1889 subjects comprising of 844 males and 104 females. The
sample was drawn through multistage proportionate random sampling
techniques. The study was based on students’ achievement in chemistry
Achievement Test (CAT) for senior secondary school class two (SS II).

The validity and the reliability of the instrument were established. CAT
has a reliability coefficient of 0.82. Mean and standard deviation were used to
answer the research questions while ANOVA statistics was used to test the null
hypotheses. A Scheffe test was also done for a step-wise comparisons of the
means. The findings of the studies showed a higher but not statistically
significance difference in the achievement of male and female students in
favour of females. However, the present study intends to investigate the
influence of gender on laboratory practical chemistry and alternative to practical
chemistry on students’ academic performance in chemistry.

Okoli, Iwozor, and Obioma, (2011) investigated gender differences in

computational problems in chemistry among senior secondary school students.
A total items were constructed on three concepts treat in the experiment and
administered to four hundred (400) SS II students drawn from twenty randomly
selected secondary schools in four local government areas of Delta State. Two
hypotheses were formulated and tested using the t-test at 0.05 level of
significant. Analysis of the results revealed that the male students failed to
achieve significantly higher in computational problems in chemistry than their
female counterparts. The present study is aimed at investigating whether there is
significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male students taught
and examined with laboratory practical chemistry and alternative to practical
chemistry and also if there is significant difference in the mean achievement
scores of female students taught and examined with laboratory practical
chemistry and those taught and examined with alternative to practical
chemistry.

Ukozor, (2011) carried out research on the effect of constructivist

teaching strategy on senior secondary school students’ achievement and self-
efficacy in physics. The study employed one hundred and eighty four (184)
students from four (4) secondary schools (two boys and two girls’ schools
respectively). Non-equivalent control group design was adopted. Five research
questions were posed and three null hypotheses guided the study mean and
standard deviation was used in answering the research questions and ANCOVA
was used in testing the hypotheses, a significant effect of gender on students’
academic achievement was found. In the light of the above result, therefore the
present study intends to investigate the influence of gender on laboratory
practical chemistry and alternative to practical chemistry on students’ academic
performance in chemistry.

Nwosu, (2011) examined gender difference in the utilization of

information and communication technology (ICT) among undergraduate
students. On research question and one null hypotheses guided the study. The
sample for the study comprised hundred (100) female, and male students of
faculty of education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The instrument for data
collection was questionnaire, mean scores and t-test statistics were used for data
analysis. Result showed that female and male students utilized ICT differently
and male utilize ICT more than females. Also the hypothesis showed that there
is a significant difference between the mean scores of male and female students
in ICT utilization for academic activities which indicate that male students use
ICT more than their female counter parts. Recommendation were made based
on the findings.

From the different studies reviewed above on the influence of gender on

academic achievement, the studies of Oludipe (2012), Igboegwu, Nwafor and
Okonkwo (2012) revealed that there is no significant difference between the
academic achievement of male and female students. On contrary basis Okoli,
Iwuozor and Obioma (2011); Ukozor (2011); and Nwosu (2011) maintained
that gender has significant difference in acadmic achievement in science.
 Considering the findings of different people above, it is clear that there is
not yet a consensus as to whether gender influences science achievement or not.
Some are of the opinion that males are superior to females, while others said is
females and some are even neutral.

Based on these controversies. This study will further investigate the

influence of gender on students’ academic performance in chemistry.

2.12 Summary of Literature Review

The literature review highlights the need to investigate the effect of

laboratory practical chemistry and alternative to practical on academic
performance in chemistry. In order to establish the effectiveness of chemistry
practical as a teaching and learning strategy in secondary school chemistry
practical are characteristics features of science teaching at all levels of
education (Adane & Adams, 2011). However, Abrahams and Millar (2008).
Reported that, questions have been raised by some science educators about the
effectiveness of chemistry laboratory practical as a teaching and learning
strategy. This brought out a need for a study to find out the effectiveness of
laboratory practical chemistry and to establish whether the use of practical
chemistry as a teaching-learning strategy had an effect on performance of
chemistry at secondary school level.

This chapter has included literature review on: conceptual frame and
related studies of nature of school laboratory practical chemistry nature of
alternative to practical chemistry, chemistry laboratory practical and
performance in school chemistry, secondary school chemistry instruction,
quality of school chemistry instruction, quality of school chemistry practical,
frequency of school chemistry practical, availability of facilities and equipment,
gender and academic performance in school chemistry.
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY