ASSIGNMENT: THERMODYNAMICS

APPLICATIONS OF THERMODYNAMICS

NAME: ASHIS GHOSH

ENROLLMENT NO. : 511018007 (Dx)

SEMESTER: 3

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION

One of the principal branches of physics and engineering is thermodynamics, which is the study and of
the thermal energy of systems. It is interesting that a subject that was initially developed due to a political
impetus in terms of pyrotechnics, with a destructive objective has now pervaded almost every facet of
modern life, so much so that we find its applications all around us. Examples of how thermodynamics
figures into everyday engineering and science are countless. Automobile engineers are concerned with the
heating of a car engine, such as during a F-1 race. Food engineers are concerned both with the proper
heating of food, such as tandoori being microwaved, and with the proper cooling of foods such as TV
dinners being quickly frozen at a processing plant. Geologists are concerned with the transfer of thermal
energy in an El Nino and in the gradual warming of ice expanses in the Arctic and Antarctic. Agricultural
engineers are concerned with the weather conditions and determine whether the agriculture of a country
thrives or vanishes. There are countless such instances where thermodynamics provides the basic purview
of the analysis and development of a concern.

Areas of application of thermodynamics:

Although the science of thermodynamics has its direct and indirect applications in a number of fields, we
roughly summarize them in the following list:

1. Classical Thermodynamics
2. Chemical Thermodynamics
3. Biological Thermodynamics
4. Atmospheric Thermodynamics
5. Industrial ecology(exergy)
6. Psychrometrics
7. Statistical Thermodynamics
8. Quantum Thermodynamics
 1.APPLICATIONS OF CLASSICAL THERMODYNAMICS:

Popular examples of use of classical thermodynamics are IN

a.) Heat Machines:

Heat pumps, refrigerators, and heat engines are heat machines. Their operation is based on
thermodynamic processes that are governed by the first and second laws of thermodynamics[1, 2].
Heat pumps and refrigerators operate in reversed cycles compared with heat engines. The processes
and energy flows are in the opposite direction to those in the power cycles of heat engines, as
presented schematically in

Figure. 1 Schematic representation of heat machines

A heat engine’s function is to generate work using a heat source. In a heat engine, the high-
temperature T2 heat source is used giving the heat input Q2 to get the energy output in the form of
work W. However, there is an amount of heat Q1 at lower temperature T1 that must be removed to
the heat sink to fulfill the first law of thermodynamics.

Unlike a heat engine, a heat pump’s function is to lift a certain quantity of heat Q1 from a heat source
at a lower temperature level T1 to a heat sink at higher temperature T2. However, to fulfill the first
law of thermodynamics, the upgrading of heat must be done by the work W that is supplied to the
machine. Following this and Figure 1, it can be seen that the amount of heat Q2 to the heat sink is the
sum of heat Q1 extracted from the heat source and the amount of work W required in the process,
and the first law of thermodynamics, is accomplished.

As it has been already mentioned, a heat pump is used to supply heat Q2 at high temperature T2.
Conversely, a refrigerator is used to extract heat Q1 at low temperature T1. It means that a
refrigerator’s function is to cool down a given heat source extracting a certain quantity of heat Q1
from this source (at lower temperature T1). In a refrigerator, as in a heat pump, to fulfill the first law
of thermodynamics, to extract the heat from the heat source the work W must be supplied to drive
the cycle and heat must be removed at a higher temperature. In practice, the functions of both heat
pump and refrigerator can be combined in one machine, when both heating and cooling are required
simultaneously. For example, such situations can be found at a sport center where some chillers are
used to cool an ice skating area and at the same time they also provide heat for hot water for
swimming pools, operating like a heat pump.

The efficiency of a heat engine, a refrigerator, and a heat pump is defined using the first law of
thermodynamics. In the case of a heat pump and refrigerator, efficiency is measured by the
coefficient of performance (COP), which is the ratio of the energy that is used for heating (at the heat
sink) or for cooling (at the heat source) to the work that has to be supplied to drive the cycle.
 Summarizing, a heat engine is a machine generating work from the heat that is provided to the
process and rejecting some amount of the heat at a lower temperature. Conversely, a heat pump is a
machine that lifts a certain quantity of heat from a lower temperature level to a higher temperature
level using the work provided to the machine. A refrigerator is a machine that extracts a certain
quantity of heat from a lower temperature level and transfers it to a higher temperature level also
using work provided to the machine.

b.) Gas Turbines:

Gas turbines are comprised of a compressor, combustor, and turbine. These components work
together to produce power or thrust, depending on the application. To begin the cycle, the
compressor rotates and draws in ambient air. As it is taken in by the compressor, the air is
pressurized, in some cases to 40 times atmospheric pressure. The pressurized air then moves into the
combustion chamber where a fuel mixture is ignited, heating the pressurized air and causing it to
expand into the turbine. As the heated air expands through the turbine it pushes against the turbine
blades which then rotate the turbine shaft. The rotational energy is used to spin a generator and create
electricity. Because they are attached to the same shaft, the rotation of the turbine also rotates the
compressor, keeping the system operating. Of the power generated by the turbine, 55%-65% is used
to drive the compressor and the remainder is used to drive a generator. This ratio of total turbine
power to the power that was used to operate the compressor is called the back work ratio.

Figure. 2 Pictorial representation of a gas turbine showing the direction of flow of air

c.) Internal Combustion Engines:

Internal combustion engines will continue to be the primary mode of power generation

for vehicles for decades to come. As discussed, internal combustion engines operate on
differing cycles depending on the application, technology, etc. Typical operating cycles
are two and four stroke, with different applications and advantages in processes,
including, for example, scavenging for charge-gas intake and exhaust (two-stroke)
and intake and exhaust strokes (four-stroke), along with compression and expansion
strokes.
 Figure. 3 Sectional view of a 4 stroke interna combustion engine

2.APPLICATIONS OF CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS:

Thermochemistry is the study of the heat released or absorbed as a result of chemical reactions. It is
a branch of thermodynamics and is utilized by a wide range of scientists and engineers. For
example, biochemists use thermochemistry to understand bioenergetics, whereas chemical
engineers apply thermochemistry to design manufacturing plants. Chemical reactions involve the
conversion of a set of substances collectively referred to as "reactants" to a set of substances
collectively referred to as "products."

Reactions in which a fuel combines with oxygen to produce water and carbon dioxide are called
combustion reactions. Because natural gas consists primarily of methane, it is expected that reaction
(1) will liberate heat. Reactions that liberate heat are termed exothermic reactions, and reactions that
absorb heat are termed endothermic reactions.

The heat associated with a chemical reaction depends on the pressure and temperature at which the
reaction is carried out. All thermochemical data presented here are for reactions carried out under
standard conditions, which are a temperature of 298 K (24.85°C) and an applied pressure of one
bar . The quantity of heat released in a reaction depends on the amount of material undergoing
reaction. The chemical formulas that appear in a reaction each represent 1 mole (see article on
"Mole Concept") of material; for example, the symbol CH4 stands for 1 mole of methane having a
mass of 16 grams (0.56 ounces), and the 2O 2 (g) tells us that 2 moles of oxygen are required.
Thermochemistry also depends on the physical state of the reactants and products. For example, the
heat liberated in equation (1) is 890 kilojoules (kJ); if, however, water in the gas phase is formed,
H2O(g), the heat released is only 802 kJ. Reversing a reaction like (l), which liberates heat, yields a
reaction wherein heat must be supplied for the reaction to occur. The following reaction absorbs 890
kJ.

CO2 (g) + 2H2O(l) → CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) (1)

Energy and Enthalpy

Thermochemical changes are often discussed in terms of the "system" and the "surroundings." The
system is regarded as the reaction products and reactants, whereas the surroundings consist of
everything else in the universe. A boundary separates the system from the surroundings. The first
law of thermodynamics relates the energy change belonging to a system to the amount of work and
heat crossing the boundary. A statement of the first law applied to chemical reactions in which only
heat and work cross the boundary is given by the expression:

Uproducts − Ureactants= Δ U = q + w (2)

Here Uproducts represents the energy of the products and Ureactants represents the energy of the reactants.
The heat associated with the reaction is given as q , and w represents work done during the
transformation of reactants to products. If the volume of the system changes during the reaction and
the applied pressure remains constant, the work carried out is termed pressure-volume work. For
example, reaction (1) converts one mole of gas and two moles of liquid to a total of three moles of
gas. The volume of the system increases during the reaction because, under standard conditions, a
mole of gas occupies more volume than a mole of liquid. The work of expanding a system against
atmospheric pressure is experienced when one inflates a balloon, and this work can be shown to be
equal to − P Δ V . Here P represents the atmospheric pressure and Δ V represents the change in
volume of the system.

The first law of thermodynamics also states that U is a state function. State functions are very
important in thermodynamics; they depend only on the present state of a system and not on its past
history. Neither q nor w are state functions. An understanding of the concept of state function is
furthered by considering the example of one's taking a trip from San Diego, California, to Denver,
Colorado. The change in altitude that one experiences during this trip does not depend on the route
taken and, thus, is similar to a state function. In comparison, the distance traveled between the two
cities does depend on the route one follows; similarly, q and w are path-dependent quantities.

If a process such as a chemical reaction is carried out at a constant pressure in a way that involves
only pressure-volume work, then − PΔV can be substituted for the work term in equation (3). Thus,
we have:

Δ U + P Δ V = qp (3)

The symbol q p represents the heat accompanying a chemical change carried out at constant
pressure; in our previous example this would be equivalent to our specifying the exact route of
travel between the two cities. The enthalpy of a system H is related to the energy of a system by the
expression:

H = U + PV (4)

For a process or reaction carried out at constant pressure:

Δ H = Δ U + P Δ V = qp (5)

Enthalpy, like energy, is a state function. Thus, equation (5) shows that, for a reaction carried out at
constant pressure, qp depends only on the reactants consumed and the products formed. The
enthalpy change associated with a reaction carried out under standard conditions is termed the heat
of reaction and is given the symbol Δ H 0 , with the superscript denoting standard conditions.
Endothermic reactions have a positive Δ H 0 whereas exothermic reactions have a negative Δ H 0 .
The change in enthalpy accompanying the conversion of reactants to products in a chemical reaction
determines the amount of heat liberated or absorbed by the reaction. For a reaction carried out at
constant pressure the enthalpy change depends only on the reactants and products.

Hess's Law

Because enthalpy is a state function, the heat associated with a reaction does not depend on whether
the reaction proceeds from reactants to products in a series of steps or in a single step. This is the
basis for Hess's law, which states that if two reactions are combined to yield a third reaction, the
sum of the Δ H0 s for the first two reactions is equal to the Δ H 0 for the third. For example, consider
the conversion of gaseous methane to liquid methanol:
CH4 (g) + 1/2 O2 (g) → CH3OH (l) (6)

and the subsequent combustion reaction:

CH3OH(l) + 3/2 O2 (g) → 2 H2 O(l) + CO2 (g) (7)

Combining reactions (6) and (7) by adding them together gives reaction .

CH 4 (g) + 2 O 2 (g) → CO 2 (g) + 2 H 2 O

Thus, the Δ H 0 for combined reactions (7) and (8) must equal −890kJ. If the Δ H 0 for reaction (7)
is known to be −681 kJ, then the Δ H 0 for reaction(6) can be calculated by Hess's law to equal
−209 kJ. Born-Haber cycles represent an application of Hess's law to reactions associated with the
formation of salts, such as potassium chloride. Born-Haber cycles can be used to determine the
enthalpy change accompanying the breakup of the potassium chloride lattice into isolated potassium
and chlorine ions.

3.APPLICATIONS OF BIOLOGICAL THERMODYNAMICS:

The laws of thermodynamics are important unifying principles of biology. These principles govern
the chemical processes (metabolism) in all biological organisms. The First Law of
Thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy, states that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed. It may change from one form to another, but the energy in a closed system
remains constant.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that when energy is transferred, there will be less
energy available at the end of the transfer process than at the beginning. Due to entropy, which is
the measure of disorder in a closed system, all of the available energy will not be useful to the
organism. Entropy increases as energy is transferred.

In addition to the laws of thermodynamics, the cell theory, gene theory, evolution, and homeostasis
form the basic principles that are the foundation for the study of life.

First Law of Thermodynamics in Biological Systems

All biological organisms require energy to survive. In a closed system, such as the universe, this
energy is not consumed but transformed from one form to another. Cells, for example, performa
number of important processes. These processes require energy. In photosynthesis, the energy is
supplied by the sun. Light energy is absorbed by cells in plant leaves and converted to chemical
energy. The chemical energy is stored in the form of glucose, which is used to form complex
carbohydrates necessary to build plant mass.

The energy stored in glucose can also be released through cellular respiration. This process
allows plant and animal organisms to access the energy stored in carbohydrates, lipids, and other
macromolecules through the production of ATP. This energy is needed to perform cell functions
such as DNA replication, mitosis, meiosis, cell movement, endocytosis, exocytosis, and
apoptosis.
Second Law of Thermodynamics in Biological Systems

As with other biological processes, the transfer of energy is not 100 percent efficient. In
photosynthesis, for example, not all of the light energy is absorbed by the plant. Some energy is
reflected and some is lost as heat. The loss of energy to the surrounding environment results in
an increase of disorder or entropy. Unlike plants and other photosynthetic organisms, animals
cannot generate energy directly from the sunlight. They must consume plants or other animal
organisms for energy.

The higher up an organism is on the food chain, the less available energy it receives from its
food sources. Much of this energy is lost during metabolic processes performed by the producers
and primary consumers that are eaten. Therefore, much less energy is available for organisms at
higher trophic levels. (Trophic levels are groups that help ecologists understand the specific role
of all living things in the ecosystem.) The lower the available energy, the less number of
organisms can be supported. This is why there are more producers than consumers in an
ecosystem.

Living systems require constant energy input to maintain their highly ordered state. Cells, for
example, are highly ordered and have low entropy. In the process of maintaining this order, some
energy is lost to the surroundings or transformed. So while cells are ordered, the processes
performed to maintain that order result in an increase in entropy in the cell's/organism's
surroundings. The transfer of energy causes entropy in the universe to increase.

4.APPLICATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC THERMODYNAMICS:

Thermodynamics plays an important role in our quantitative understanding of atmospheric

phenomena ranging from the smallest cloud microphysical processes to the general circulation of
the atmosphere. Atmospheric thermodynamics is the study of heat-to-work transformations that
take place in the earth’s atmosphere and manifest as weather or climate.In the early 19th century
thermodynamicists such as Sadi Carnot, Rudolf Clausius, and Émile Clapeyron developed
mathematical models on the dynamics of fluid bodies and vapors related to the combustion and
pressure cycles of atmospheric steam engines; one example is the Clausius–Clapeyron equation.
In 1873, thermodynamicist Willard Gibbs published “Graphical Methods in the
Thermodynamics of Fluids.”

Hadley Circulation

The Hadley Circulation can be considered as a heat engine. The Hadley circulation is identified
with rising of warm and moist air in the equatorial region with the descent of colder air in the
subtropics corresponding to a thermally driven direct circulation, with consequent net production
of kinetic energy. The thermodynamic efficiency of the Hadley system, considered as a heat
engine, has been relatively constant over the 1979~2010 period, averaging 2.6%. Over the same
interval, the power generated by the Hadley regime has risen at an average rate of about 0.54 TW
per yr; this reflects an increase in energy input to the system consistent with the observed trend
in the tropical sea surface temperatures
Tropical cyclone Carnot cycle

The thermodynamic behavior of a hurricane can be modelled as a heat engine that operates
between the heat reservoir of the sea at a temperature of about 300K (27 °C) and the heat sink of
the tropopause at a temperature of about 200K (−72 °C) and in the process converts heat energy
into mechanical energy of winds. Parcels of air traveling close to the sea surface take up heat and
water vapor, the warmed air rises and expands and cools as it does so causes condensation and
precipitation. The rising air, and condensation, produces circulatory winds that are propelled by
the Coriolis force, which whip up waves and increase the amount of warm moist air that powers
the cyclone.

5.INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY (EXERGY):

Exergy analysis is an approach used by engineers to address the aspects of energy use or energy
transformation that are governed by the second law of thermodynamics. While the first law of
thermodynamics implies that heat and work are both forms of energy transfer, the second law
implies that they are not equivalent. When heat transfer occurs, it is not just energy that is
transferred: another quantity, entropy, is also transferred. When an amount of energy is
transferred as heat, the corresponding amount of entropy transfer is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature at which the heat transfer occurs.

The implications of the second law of thermodynamics, some of which have been mentioned, are
wide-ranging. Exergy analysis is a practical approach to evaluating the merit of energy
conversion, or transmission or distribution processes and systems. Energy is conserved as a law
of nature and therefore, for a cycle or a steady process, the energy output equals the energy input.
Exergy (based on the Greek ‘ex ergon’, meaning ‘from work’) is the potential for doing shaft
work in the context of an encompassing equilibrium environment. It cannot be created, but can
be destroyed. For a cycle or steady process the exergy output will be less than or, at best, equal to
the exergy input. The localization in space and time of where exergy destruction occurs thus
localizes where the ‘potential for producing shaft work’ has been destroyed. Minimization of
exergy destruction results in thermodynamic improvement and can be used as the basis for
thermodynamic optimization in real situations where processes must occur at a finite rate or
cycles must be completed in finite time. This latter concept, is newer than the original concept of
exergy analysis and is commonly known as ‘finite time thermodynamics’.

6.PSYCHROMETRICS

Psychrometrics is the study of atmospheric air, which is a mixture of pure air and water vapor at
atmospheric pressure.4 The pure air portion of an air–water vapor mixture is commonly
called dry air; consequently, atmospheric air is said to consist of a mixture of dry air and water
vapor. Both the air and the water vapor in this mixture are treated as ideal gases (even though we
say water vapor and not water gas). This particular mixture of ideal gases is important because
of its meteorological and environmental comfort implications.

To begin this discussion, we define two new composition measures for the amount of water
vapor present in the mixture. Both measures are a type of humidity, as Is shown
 1.) The relative humidity ϕ is the ratio of the actual partial pressure of the water vapor
present in the mixture(pw) to the saturation pressure of the water vapor at the temperature
of the mixture(psat).

2.) The humidity ratio ω is the ratio of the mass of water vapor present in the mixture(m w)
divided by the mass of dry air present in the mixture(ma).

3.) A colorful term from the meteorological profession is the dew point temperature TDP,

which is the temperature at which liquid water (dew) condenses out of the atmosphere at
constant atmospheric pressure (and consequently at constant water vapor partial
pressure):

TDP=Tsat

If the partial pressure of the water vapor (pw) is known, then the dew point temperature. 

Figure. 4 Psychrometric Chart

7.APPLICATIONS OF STATISTIAL THERMODYNAMICS:

The primary goal of statistical thermodynamics (also known as equilibrium statistical mechanics)
is to derive the classical thermodynamics of materials in terms of the properties of their
constituent particles and the interactions between them. In other words, statistical
thermodynamics provides a connection between the macroscopic properties of materials
in thermodynamic equilibrium, and the microscopic behaviours and motions occurring inside the
material.
Whereas statistical mechanics proper involves dynamics, here the attention is focussed
on statistical equilibrium (steady state). Statistical equilibrium does not mean that the particles
have stopped moving (mechanical equilibrium), rather, only that the ensemble is not evolving.
Fundamental postulate
A sufficient (but not necessary) condition for statistical equilibrium with an isolated system is
that the probability distribution is a function only of conserved properties (total energy, total
particle numbers, etc.). There are many different equilibrium ensembles that can be considered,
and only some of them correspond to thermodynamics. [1] Additional postulates are necessary to
motivate why the ensemble for a given system should have one form or another.
A common approach found in many textbooks is to take the equal a priori probability postulate.
[2]
 This postulate states that
For an isolated system with an exactly known energy and exactly known composition, the
system can be found with equal probability in any microstate consistent with that
knowledge.
The equal a priori probability postulate therefore provides a motivation for the microcanonical
ensemble described below. There are various arguments in favour of the equal a priori
probability postulate:

 Ergodic hypothesis: An ergodic system is one that evolves over time to explore "all
accessible" states: all those with the same energy and composition. In an ergodic system,
the microcanonical ensemble is the only possible equilibrium ensemble with fixed
energy. This approach has limited applicability, since most systems are not ergodic.
 Principle of indifference: In the absence of any further information, we can only assign
equal probabilities to each compatible situation.
 Maximum information entropy: A more elaborate version of the principle of indifference
states that the correct ensemble is the ensemble that is compatible with the known
information and that has the largest Gibbs entropy (information entropy).[4]
Other fundamental postulates for statistical mechanics have also been proposed.
Three thermodynamic ensembles
There are three equilibrium ensembles with a simple form that can be defined for any isolated
system bounded inside a finite volume. These are the most often discussed ensembles in
statistical thermodynamics. In the macroscopic limit (defined below) they all correspond to
classical thermodynamics.
Microcanonical ensemble: Describes a system with a precisely given energy and fixed
composition (precise number of particles). The micro-canonical ensemble contains with equal
probability each possible state that is consistent with that energy and composition.
Canonical ensemble: Describes a system of fixed composition that is in thermal
equilibrium with a heat bath of a precise temperature. The canonical ensemble contains states of
varying energy but identical composition; the different states in the ensemble are accorded
different probabilities depending on their total energy.
Grand canonical ensemble: Describes a system with non-fixed composition (uncertain particle
numbers) that is in thermal and chemical equilibrium with a thermodynamic reservoir. The
reservoir has a precise temperature, and precise chemical potentials for various types of particle.
The grand canonical ensemble contains states of varying energy and varying numbers of
particles; the different states in the ensemble are accorded different probabilities depending on
their total energy and total particle numbers.
For systems containing many particles (the thermodynamic limit), all three of the ensembles
listed above tend to give identical behaviour. It is then simply a matter of mathematical
convenience which ensemble is used. The Gibbs theorem about equivalence of ensembles was
developed into the theory of concentration of measure phenomenon, which has applications in
many areas of science, from functional analysis to methods of artificial intelligence and big
data technology.
Important cases where the thermodynamic ensembles do not give identical results include:
1.) Microscopic systems.

2.) Large systems at a phase transition.

3.) Large systems with long-range interactions.

In these cases the correct thermodynamic ensemble must be chosen as there are observable
differences between these ensembles not just in the size of fluctuations, but also in average
quantities such as the distribution of particles. The correct ensemble is that which corresponds to
the way the system has been prepared and characterized—in other words, the ensemble that
reflects the knowledge about that system

8.APPLICATIONS OF QUANTUM THERMODYNAMICS:

Quantum mechanics was conceived from a consistency argument on the nature of thermal
emitted light. In 1900, Planck, as an act of despair, introduced a fix to the frequency distribution
law of black body radiation. In 1905 Einstein re-analysed the problem, based on consistency with
thermodynamics, he writes: In terms of heat theory monochromatic radiation of loW density
(within the realm of validity of Wien’s radiation formula) behaves as if it consisted of
independent energy quanta of the magnitude hν. Einstein’s conclusion is a quantised
electromagnetic field the dawn of quantum mechanics. From this point on, quantum mechanics
developed independently eventually setting its own set of assumptions. Currently, the
consistency argument is used in reverse, deriving the laws of thermodynamics from the
established quantum principles. This approach allows naturally the addition of dynamical out of
equilibrium considerations. In 1916 Einstein examined the relation between stimulated emission
and radiation absorption using thermodynamical equilibrium arguments. This paper addressing
the light matter interaction is the prerequisite for the theory of Lasers. Lasers represent a non
equilibrium phenomena where amplified light is generated from a non equilibrium distribution of
matter. In 1959, during the early development of solid state lasers, Scovil and Schulz-Dubios
realized the equivalence of a three-level maser with a Carnot heat engine. This is a seminal paper
in contemporary quantum thermodynamics. They identified the amplified light as work and the
kinetic process that establishes the population inversion as heat generated by a hot and cold bath
of different temperatures. The well known thermodynamic viewpoint that an engine can be
reversed to a heat pump led Geusic, Scovil and Schulz-Dubios to suggest Maser cooling and in
1967 Laser cooling in the summarizing paper quantum equivalence of Carnot cycle. These
studies preceded the work of Wineland and H¨ansch which reinvented laser cooling in 1975 [8,
9] which was not based on thermodynamic arguments. Thermodynamics is usually viewed as a
theory of large scale macroscopic processes. In view of the trend toward miniaturization, how far
down can thermodynamics be applicable? J von Neumann set the foundation for quantum theory
on a probabilistic footing relevant for a single particle. Thus quantum mechanics enables
thermodynamic ideas to be applicable on any scale.

Models of Quantum Engines and Refrigerators:

Since the pioneering work of Carnot, learning from example has been a major theme in
thermodynamical studies. This is also true in QT where the issues of heat and work obtain a
concrete meaning. In addition the tradeoff between efficiency and finite power can be explored.
The trend toward miniaturisation has led to the construction of quantum heat devices composed
from a microscopic working entity, for example a single ion in a Paul trap. This macroscopic
scale raises the question: What quantum effects to expect? Is there a role for coherence or
entanglement? Can we expect quantum supremacy? Models of heat engines and refrigerators can
lead to new insight in QT. They can be broadly classified as reciprocating and continuous.

Figure. 5  Imaginary device that violates Kelvin statement from a violation of Clausius Statement