Unit 4

Introduction to
Learning Objectives the Power
Distribution
After studying this unit, you should be able to: System

describe the important features of the power
distribution system;

outline the advantages of high voltage

distribution system (HVDS);

describe various components of the power

distribution system;

explain various activities involved in distribution

system planning;

discuss the operation and maintenance

principles and practices for the power
distribution system; and

explain the fundamental features of grid

management, load scheduling and load
balancing.
Operation and
Maintenance 4.1 INTRODUCTION

In Unit 1 of Block 1, you have been very briefly introduced to the power supply
system. You have also learnt in Unit 1 that the demand for electrical power in
India is enormous and growing steadily. Units 2 and 3 have provided you an
overview of the power sector with a special focus on the power distribution
sector, which is responsible for covering the last mile in reaching power to the
consumers.

In this Unit, we give a description of the power distribution system and its
components. We acquaint you with the concept of distribution system
planning, which forms the basis for the smooth operation of the power
distribution system. We also present the general principles and practices
underlying the operation and maintenance of the system. In the next Unit, we
deal specifically with the operation of substation equipment, distribution lines
and their maintenance requirements.

4.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE POWER DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEM

You are familiar with the power supply system. You know that electricity is
generated at 11 kV by electrical generators which utilise the energy from
thermal, hydro, nuclear, and renewable energy resources. To transmit
electricity over long distances, the supply voltage is stepped up to 132/220/
400/800 kV, as required. Electricity is carried through a transmission
network of high voltage lines. Usually, these lines run into hundreds of
kilometres and deliver the power into a common power pool called the grid.
The grid is connected to load centres (cities) through a sub-transmission
network of usually 33 kV (or sometimes 66 kV) lines. These lines terminate
into a 33 kV (or 66 kV) substation, where the voltage is stepped-down to 11 kV
for power distribution to load points through a distribution network of lines at
11 kV and lower.
The power network of concern to the end-user is the distribution network of
11 kV lines or feeders downstream of the 33 kV substations. Each 11 kV
feeder which emanates from the 33 kV substation branches further into
several subsidiary 11 kV feeders to carry power close to the load points
(localities, industrial areas, villages, etc.). At these load points, a transformer
further reduces the voltage from 11 kV to 415 V to provide the last-mile
connection through 415 V feeders (also called Low Tension (LT) feeders) to
individual customers, either at 240 V (as single-phase supply) or at 415 V (as
three-phase supply). The utility voltage of 415 V, 3-phase is used for running
the motors for industry and agricultural pump sets and 240 V, single phase is
used for lighting in houses, schools, hospitals and for running industries,
commercial establishments, etc.
A feeder could be either an overhead line or an underground cable. In urban
areas, owing to the density of customers, the length of an 11 kV feeder is
8 generally up to 3 km. On the other hand, in rural areas, the feeder length is
much larger (up to 20 km). A 415 V feeder should normally be restricted to Introduction to
the Power
about 0.5 −1.0 km. Unduly long feeders lead to low voltage at the consumer Distribution
end. The power supply system, including the distribution network, is depicted System
in Fig. 4.1.

Fig. 4.1: Typical Electric Power Supply System with Distribution Network

The main components of the power distribution system and their brief
descriptions are given in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Components of the Power Distribution System

Component Description

Grid Substation (GSS) Power from transmission network is delivered

to sub-transmission network after stepping
down the voltage to 66 kV or 33 kV through
220/132/66/33kV Grid substations.

Sub-transmission Network Power is carried at 66 or 33 kV by overhead

lines or underground cables.

Power Sub-Transmission Power is stepped down by 66-33/11 kV to 11 kV

(PSS) for distribution.

Primary Distribution Power is delivered from PSS through primary

Feeders feeders at 11 or 6.6 kV to various distribution
transformers.

Distribution Substation Power is further stepped down by 11/0.4 kV

(DSS) transformers to utilisation voltage of 415 V.

Secondary Distribution It carries power from DSS at 415 V (240 V

Network single phase) to various consumers through
service lines and cables.
9
Operation and 4.2.1 Voltage Levels
Maintenance
You have just learnt that the voltage range varies widely in various parts of the
power supply system. We give these voltages in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Voltages at Different Segments in the Power Distribution System

Power System Segment Voltages

Generation voltages 415 V, 6.6 kV, 10.5 kV, 11 kV 13.8 kV,

15.75 kV, 21 kV and 33 kV

Transmission voltages 33 kV, 66 kV, 132 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV

High voltage primary distribution or 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV, 11 kV, 22 kV, 33 kV,
sub-transmission 66 kV

Low voltage distribution phase 415 V (3 phase) and 240 V (1 phase)

Higher voltages are used for 3-phase, 3-wire supply to large consumers. Low
voltage distribution of generally 415 V, 3-phase 4-wire system and 240 V
single phase, two wire, phase to neutral system is used for small and medium
consumers. The size and, hence, voltage of supply to a consumer is decided
by the load of the consumer.

4.2.2 Conductors
The 11 kV feeders carry comparatively bulk power from secondary substation
(33/11 kV) to distribution substation transformers (DTRs). Distributors (or
secondary network) carry power from DTRs through service lines (or LT
feeders) which deliver power from the supplier’s nearest support to
consumer’s premises up to the energy meter, through a weather-proof
service wire.

All lines have inherent resistances, inductances and capacitances, resulting in

a voltage drop in the line. Thus, to minimise voltage drop in a line, the values
of these parameters should be carefully selected. For LT supply, the declared
voltages at the consumer premises are 415/240 V. All appliances and
motors give good performance for long duration if this voltage is
maintained.

The following factors should be considered for the proper selection of

conductor size:

• current carrying capacity; and

• tensile strength of the conductor.

The size of conductor for a distributor is determined in the following manner:

• The current that the distributor has to carry is calculated on the basis of
the load incident on the conductor (including anticipated load growth).

• The conductor size capable of carrying this current at the ambient

10 temperature of the area is selected from standard tables.
• The voltage drop is calculated taking products of loads and their Introduction to
the Power
distances. Distribution
System
The following types of conductors are available:

• All Aluminium (Standard) Conductor (AAC);

• Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR Conductors);

• All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC).

ACSR and AAAC conductors are used for secondary distribution systems.
ACSR conductors are preferred to AAC conductors for long spans owing to
their greater tensile strength. The current carrying capacity of ACSR
conductors is as follows:

Squirrel (7/2.11) 115 A

Weasel (7/2.59) 150 A

Rabbit (7/3.35) 208 A

The numbers in bracket indicate the number of strands/diameter in mm.

4.2.3 High Voltage Distribution System (HVDS)

You have learnt in Unit 1 that significantly high losses take place in the
secondary distribution system. This is due to higher current densities and
ease of pilferage at low voltages. One of the latest innovations in efforts to
reduce technical and commercial losses is the use of High Voltage
Distribution System (HVDS) or LT-less system.

Fig. 4.2: Typical High Voltage Distribution System

In this system, the secondary distribution system with long LT feeders running
up to consumer premises from the distribution substation is totally absent.
The primary distribution system at HT level (11 or 33 kV) is used to
reach the nearest point for a group of small number of consumers. The
consumers are then connected to the HT Distribution System at these
points through small pole mounted transformers used for supplying
power to them through LT service lines. 11
Operation and We now describe the advantages of HT distribution compared to conventional
Maintenance
LT distribution system.

v Low Losses and Improved Voltage Profile

The comparison of current, losses and voltage drop for the distribution of
the same power through HT and LT systems is presented in Table 4.3.
We have considered 100 as the base value for LT system. From the table,
you can see that for the distribution of the same power, technical losses
and voltage drop are much less in HT distribution system when compared
to LT distribution systems.
Table 4.3: Comparison of Current, Voltage Drop and Power Losses for Power
Distribution through HT and LT Distribution Systems

Single phase 3 phase 4 wire

6.35 kV 415 V
HT distribution LT Distribution
system system

Current (Amps) 11.0 100.0

Losses (kW) 8.5 100.0

Voltage drop 12.7 100.0

LT distribution systems are easily accessible and prone to pilferage and

the use of HVDS reduces the chances of theft of electricity to a very low
level. Now-a-days, utilities are installing meters at the HT transformer itself
to ascertain commercial losses on that particular transformer. In sum, the
HT distribution system has the following advantages:
• use of small size ACSR or aluminium alloy conductor or high
conductivity steel wire;
• better voltage profile;
• reduced line losses; and
• reduced commercial losses.

v Improved Reliability and Security of Supply

The use of HT distribution leads to improved reliability and security of

supply for the following reasons:
• The faults on HT lines are far less compared to those of LT lines.
• In order to avoid theft in LT lines from transformer to consumer
premises, usually Aerial Bunched Cables (AB Cables) are used to
supply power at LT to consumer from the distribution transformer.
12 With AB Cables, the faults on LT lines are eliminated. This, in turn,
 reduces the failure of distribution transformers and enhances reliability Introduction to
the Power
of supply. Distribution
System
• Since the number of small distribution transformers is high in HVDS,
the failure of one transformer does not affect supply to other
consumers connected to other transformers. In the event of failure of
distribution transformers, only a small number of consumers (2 to 3
power consumers or 10 to 15 domestic consumers) would be
affected. On the other hand, a large distribution transformer supplies
power through LV distribution lines to even remotely located
consumers in LVDS. Hence, the failure of an existing large size
distribution transformer would affect a group of 40 to 50 power
consumers and/or 100 to 200 domestic consumers.

You may like to consolidate these ideas before studying further.

SAQ 1: Power distribution system

a) Compare the distribution system of your utility with another utility in

respect of voltage levels and conductors used for each component of
the distribution system.

……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
b) What is HVDS? Outline its advantages over the LT system.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

4.3 COMPONENTS OF THE DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEM

In this section, we describe various components of the power distribution

system, viz. substations, transformers, feeders, lines and metering
arrangements.

4.3.1 Substation
A substation is the meeting point between the transmission grid and the
distribution feeder system. This is where a fundamental change takes place
within most T&D systems. The transmission and sub-transmission systems
above the substation level usually form a network (about which you will study
in the next section). But arranging a network configuration from the substation
to the customer would simply be prohibitively expensive. Hence, most
distribution systems are radial (also described in the next section), i.e., there
is only one path through the other levels of the system.

Typically, a substation consists of high and low voltage racks and buses for 13
Operation and power flow, circuit breakers at the transmission and distribution level,
Maintenance
metering equipment and the control house, where the relaying,
measurement and control equipment is located. But the most important
piece of equipment that gives the substation its capacity rating is the
substation transformer. It converts the incoming power from transmission
voltage levels to the lower primary voltage for distribution. Very often, a
substation has more than one transformer.

Fig. 4.3: Power Distribution Substations

Apart from the transformer, a substation has other equipment such as

lightning arrestors, isolators, etc. You will learn about the substation
equipment in detail in Unit 5 and the distribution transformers in Unit 6. Here
we give a brief introduction of the most critical component of a substation,
the transformer.

4.3.2 Transformer
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers power from one circuit to
another without change in frequency. The purpose of a transformer is to
convert one AC voltage to another AC voltage. A transformer comprises
two or more coupled conducting coils (windings), which are wound on
common laminated core of a magnetic material such as iron or iron-nickel
alloy (Fig. 4.4). These are called primary and secondary windings.

The alternating current in the primary winding creates an alternating magnetic

field in the core just as it would in an electromagnet. The secondary winding
is wrapped around the same core. The changing magnetic flux (magnetic
field per unit area per unit time) in the primary winding induces alternating
current of the same frequency in the secondary winding. The voltage in the
secondary winding is controlled by the ratio of the number of turns in the two
windings.

If the primary and secondary windings have the same number of turns, the
14 primary and secondary voltages will be the same. For step-down
transformers, the secondary winding has lesser number of turns than the Introduction to
the Power
primary. For example, to step-down voltages from 240 V at the mains to 6 V, Distribution
there needs to be 40 times more turns in the primary than in the secondary. In System
case of step-up transformers, the number of turns in the secondary winding
is more than those in the primary winding.

The transformer is one of the simplest of electrical devices, yet transformer NOTE
designs and materials continue to be improved every day.
The relation between
the voltages, currents
and number of turns in
the primary and
secondary coils is
given by
V2 I N
= 1 = 2
V1 I 2 N1

Here V1, I1 and N1

represent the
voltage, current and
the number of turns,
respectively, in the
primary coil and V2,
I2 and N2 represent
the voltage, current
and the number of
Fig. 4.4: Principle Underlying a Transformer turns, respectively,
in the secondary
For an ideal transformer, it is assumed that the entire magnetic flux linked with coil.
the primary winding is also linked to the secondary winding. However, in
practice it is impossible to realize this condition. While a large portion of the
flux called common or mutual magnetic flux links with both the coils, a small
portion called the leakage flux links only with the primary winding. This
leakage flux is responsible for the inductive reactance of a transformer.

Specifications of Transformer

A transformer should be provided with more than one primary winding or with
taps on the winding if it is to be used for several nominal voltages. The Rated
Power of the transformer is the sum of the VA (Volts x Amps) for all the
secondary windings. The important specifications for a transformer are:
primary frequency of incoming voltage (50 Hz), maximum primary
voltage rating, maximum secondary voltage rating, maximum secondary
current rating, maximum power rating, efficiency, voltage regulation and
output type (3 wire or 4 wire).

Transformers in a distribution system can be configured as either

single-phase primary configuration (with three single-phase transformers) or a
three-phase configuration (one three-phase transformer). Three-phase
transformers are connected in delta (∆) or wye (Y) configurations. While delta
configuration is used for three wire transmission and sub-transmission Fig. 4.5: 11 kV/415 V - 240V
system, wye (or star) configuration is suitable for 4 wire distribution systems. Pole Mounted
A wye-delta (Y - ∆) transformer has its primary winding connected in a wye Transformer
and its secondary winding connected in a delta. A delta-wye transformer has 15
Operation and its primary winding connected in delta and its secondary winding connected
Maintenance
in a wye.

Types of Transformer

Transformers can be categorised based on the type of core used, type of

cooling used, the method of mounting the transformer or the intended use for
which it is designed. We shall deal with the first three categories of
transformers in Unit 6. Here we give a brief introduction to the categorisation
of transformers on the basis of their use as power transformers and
Efficiency is the distribution transformers. Power substations use power transformers
ratio of output while the distribution substations employ distribution transformers. While the
power (kW or MW)
underlying principle of operation is the same for both the transformers, they
and input power
differ in their design since they are required to operate under different
(kW or MW),
whereas energy conditions at power and distribution substations. Table 4.4 gives a
efficiency is the comparison of these two types of transformers.
ratio of energy
Table 4.4: Comparison of Power Transformers and Distribution Transformers
delivered (kWh or
MWh) and energy
injected (kWh or Power Transformers Distribution Transformers
MWh) in a system
Convert power-level voltages from Step down the primary distribution
expressed in
one level to another in a Grid voltage of 11 kV or 22 kV to
percentage terms.
Substation (GSS) or Power secondary distribution of 400 V
Efficiency of Substation (PSS) with voltages between phases and 230 V between
transformer is above 33 kV. phase and neutral through delta-star
maximum at a winding.
loading (as a
fraction of full load Since it is fed through the grid Distribution transformers, being
current) when its network, a power transformer is connected to the consumers
iron losses equal usually not a critical component for through radial feeders, which have
ohmic or copper supply to consumers as alternative only one path, have to be
losses (due to paths for flow of power are continuously energised for
current flowing in available through the grid. maintaining uninterrupted supply to
the windings). The Accordingly, it is generally possible consumers.
voltage regulation to cut it out of circuit without
of transformer is affecting supply to consumers.
the ratio of voltage
drop in a Power transformers are most of Distribution transformers are most of
transformer from the time loaded to levels just the time lightly loaded and in order
no-load to full load below the rated power and, to have maximum all day efficiency,
and the no-load accordingly, they are designed to they are designed to work at low
voltage expressed operate at maximum possible flux flux levels with maximum efficiency
in percentage density level with maximum occurring at lower loading.
terms. efficiency at near full load.

4.3.3 Feeders
Feeders route the power from the substation throughout the service area.
They are typically either overhead distribution lines mounted on wooden
poles, or underground buried or ducted cable sets. Feeders operate at the
primary distribution voltage in primary distribution system and secondary
16 distribution voltage in the secondary distribution system.
 Introduction to
the Power
Distribution
System

Fig. 4.6: Distribution Feeders

Definition of a feeder
By definition, the feeder consists of all primary or secondary
voltage level segments of distribution lines between two
substations or between a substation and an open point (switch).

The most common primary distribution voltages in use are 11 kV, 22 kV and
33 kV. The main feeder, which consists of three phases, may branch into
several main routes.

Fig. 4.7: Typical layout of feeders in a primary distribution system (numbers

indicate transformer capacities)

The main branches end at open points where the feeder meets the ends of
other feeders – points at which a normally open switch serves as an
emergency tie between two feeders. 17
Operation and Feeders are connected in a configuration, which depends on the type of
Maintenance
network required in the distribution system. Three types of network are
normally available in the electrical distribution system:
• radial;
• loop; and
• cross-loop network.

Since the radial feeder emanates from one point and ends at the other in the
radial network, load transfer in the case of breakdown is not possible.
Although a radial feeder can be loaded to its maximum capacity, in the case of
breakdown, quite a large area may remain in dark until the fault is detected
and repaired.

In loop arrangement, two feeders are connected to each other so that in the
case of breakdown, the faulty section can be isolated and the rest of the
portion can be switched on. In this type of system, the feeder is normally
loaded to 70% of its capacity so that in the event of breakdown it can share
the load of other feeders also.

A cross-loop network provides multiple paths and the flexibility further

increases. In case of breakdown in any line, the faulty system can be isolated
and supply can be resumed very quickly. In this type of network, feeders
should normally be loaded to 70% of their current carrying capacity. This
system is highly reliable, but very expensive.

Fig. 4.8: Alternative Layouts for Primary and Secondary Network, 33 and 11 kV

In big cities, the concept of 33 kV ring main is very popular and two ring
mains are laid: one outer and one inner. The outer ring main is laid using the
panther conductor and the inner ring main is laid using the dog conductor.
The use of these two types of ring mains provides excellent flexibility to the
system and at the time of breakdown, supply can be immediately switched on
from another 132 kV substation. While making any distribution planning
18 (discussed in Sec. 4.4) for metros, the aspect of outer and inner 33 kV ring
mains is extremely essential and should be included for providing Introduction to
the Power
uninterrupted supply. Distribution
System
Table 4.5 gives a comparison of the three types of network configurations.

Table 4.5: Comparison of radial, loop and cross-loop network

Radial Distribution Loop Distribution Cross-loop Network

System System Distribution System

• Single path to each • Double path to each • Multiple paths to each

group of customers group of customers group of customers
• Lowest construction • Medium cost system • High cost system
cost system
• Moderately simple to • Complex to plan,
• Simple to plan, design plan, design and design and operate
and operate operate
• Highest reliability
• No reserve – loss of • Loss of feeder results
feeder implies loss of only in temporary loss • Used in large cities
supply of supply and for critical loads

USED IN RURAL AREAS USED IN URBAN AREAS USED IN URBAN AREAS

4.3.4 Meters for Measurement of Energy and Other Electrical

Quantities

Meters are required to be installed at various points of the Distribution System

including the substation equipment and the consumer end. They are required
for correct recording of electrical quantities for operational and safety
purposes as well as energy accounting. The meters installed at the interface
points of generation-transmission and transmission-distribution are called
interface meters. Meters installed at consumer premises by the utility are
called consumer meters.

The Central Electricity Authority regulations on Installation and Operation of

Meters provide for the type, standards, ownership, location, accuracy class,
installation, operation, testing and maintenance, access, sealing, safety,
meter reading and recording, meter failure or discrepancies, anti tampering
features, quality assurance, calibration and periodical testing of meters,
additional meters and adoption of new technologies in respect of the following
meters for correct accounting, billing and audit of electricity:

§ Interface meter,

§ Consumer meter, and

§ Energy accounting and audit meter.

It is important to note that these regulations make the use of static meters
mandatory for new consumers. 19
Operation and
Maintenance SAQ 2: Components of power distribution system

a) Make a list of the substation equipment.

……………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………….

b) What is a feeder? Compare the radial, loop and cross-loop network

configurations in an electrical distribution system.

………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………

4.4 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PLANNING

The need for electrical power is growing at a rapid pace on account of rapid
growth of population, industrialisation and urbanisation resulting in high load
density pockets with multi storied complexes. This is coupled with manifold
increase of deep tube wells on account of low ground water level and huge
number of electric pumps connected to the system during the agricultural
season in rural areas. In order to meet the future power needs of the nation,
it is essential to upgrade the existing distribution system and increase its
efficiency and at the same time reduce the technical losses. This requires
proper planning: Utilities have to plan much ahead to meet the present
as well as the projected future demand for quality power supply.

In the context of the current chronic power shortage, the shooting prices of
fuel and the need for conservation of available fossil fuel resources, you can
well understand the urgency of eliminating high losses in the transmission and
distribution system. The high percentage of losses in our country is a matter
of national concern. The main cause of these high losses is laying of
unplanned distribution system in the country. Proper distribution system
planning, financial support and implementation of the plans should be
able to bring down the losses and provide uninterrupted quality supply to the
consumers.

Distribution Planning requires an analysis of various factors such as load

growth, funds, ecological consideration, availability of land, etc. Distribution
planning in a utility involves

• ascertaining the time horizon for which it is envisaged,

• spelling out the specific activities required in the planning process, and

• implementation of plans.

20 We take up each of these in the following sections.

4.4.1 Planning Horizon Introduction to
the Power
Distribution
Distribution planning studies can be carried out in different manners, each System
with different objectives and requirements. Planning can be done for different
time horizons and accordingly it is called medium/long-term planning or
short-term planning.

v Medium/Long-term Planning

Medium/long-term planning is normally carried out as a part of a master

plan for the distribution system as a whole. It normally considers a 5 to 15
years time frame and is based on the state/national as well as local load
forecasts, industrialisation plan and agricultural load forecasts. The main
objectives of this type of plan are to:
• verify the present capacity of lines and substations;
• verify additional capacity and investments required to meet the load
growth for putting up new 33/11 kV substations, new 33 kV lines,
11 kV feeders, etc.;
• arrange tie-ups for additional power-purchase agreements;
• upgrade existing transmission capacity;
• upgrade existing networks;
• develop strategies for reduction of technical losses;
• estimate the funds required; and
• arrange tie-ups with the financial agencies for funds.

v Short-term Planning

For proper distribution planning, we first need to study the existing system,
ascertain loss level and decide on immediate action to be taken to meet
the requirement of consumers and provide them uninterrupted quality
power supply. In the present scenario, it has been found that 11 kV and
33 kV feeders are loaded more than 100% of their rated current carrying
capacity. This results in very high technical losses and needs to be
immediately relieved through short-term planning.

Thus, the objectives of short-term planning are to:

• develop specific case studies and projects in a systematic manner;
• adjust capacity of 33 kV,11 kV feeders, power transformers,
distribution transformers and LT lines;
• take immediate action to bifurcate heavily loaded 33 kV, 11 kV feeders;
• augment conductor with the properly sized conductors;
• reduce length of LT lines (maximum 0.5 km per transformer);
• implement projects for proper maintenance;
• calculate required investments; and
• arrange tie-ups with financial institutions for funds. 21
Operation and
Maintenance SAQ 3: Planning horizon

Identify the short-term, medium/long-term planning objectives for your

utility.

……………………………………………………………………………….......

……………………………………………………………………………….......

……………………………………………………………………………….......

……………………………………………………………………………….......

……………………………………………………………………………….......

4.4.2 Principal Areas of Activity

The principal areas of activities associated with distribution planning are as
follows:

• Existing Load Data Study: The study of the existing system forms a
critical input to distribution planning and includes activities such as
− updating all distribution system statistics;
− evaluating changes in technic and economic planning criteria; and
− evaluating and updating load forecasts, voltages and consumers
category-wise with a time horizon of 10 to 15 years.

• Future Load Growth Study: Load forecasts are extremely important in

Distribution Planning. These are mainly used for:
− power purchases;
− reinforcement of distribution system expansion planning;
− demand side management;
− tariff application; and
− monitoring of loss reduction programme.

The forecasts may be done on a short-term, medium-term or long-term

basis. These have to be carried out systematically and rigorously to be of
any help in distribution planning. Otherwise, they can lead to wrong
estimates and the planning can go awry.

The steps involved in the load forecasting process are:

− data collection;
− data validation;
− selection of methodologies;
− development of assumptions;
− development of energy and demand forecasts; and
22 − comparison with the historical load growth data.
 Introduction to
• Power Factor/Reactive Load Study: A study of loading pattern and the Power
voltage drops needs to be carried out to ascertain the reactive power Distribution
System
compensation, which is required to be provided at different points of the
distribution system so as to maintain voltages within specified limits. You
can study about power factor and reactive compensation in Appendix 1
given at the end of this unit.

• Study of Thermal Capability of Conductors (Capacity of Feeders/

Circuits): The thermal capacity of line circuit is dependent on the size of
the conductor and type of environmental factors, i.e., ambient
temperature, wind speed and solar radiation. A study of peak loadings for
the conductors needs to be carried out to figure out overloaded feeders
with the help of standard tables giving rated currents for each type of
conductor. Accordingly, a proper action plan for bifurcation or replacement
of feeder needs to be chalked out.

• Economic Impact Study: A study of the economic impact of the

implementation of the distribution system plan needs to be carried out.
Cost-benefit analysis needs to be done to ascertain whether the
investments in implementation of distribution plan lead to long term
savings and improvement in supply quality.

We now present a case study to illustrate how utilities can take advantage of
distribution planning.

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PLANNING: A CASE STUDY OF MP MADHYA

KSHETRA VIDYUT VITARAN COMPANY LIMITED

MP Madhya Kshetra Vidyut Vitaran Company Limited, Bhopal (the Central

Discom) is one of the leading utilities, to have established a Distribution
System Planning Cell. In the first phase, the Central Discom took up short
term system planning and established the equipment and network data base.
Field data such as the length of feeders, size of conductors, configuration of
poles, present loading, annual input and single line diagrams was collected for
all 33 kV and 11 kV feeders. Load forecasts were made for the next five years
on the basis of the historical load growth data. The following information was
also collected:

• details of existing capacitors installed at 33/11 kV substations; and

• details of existing 33/11 kV substations along with data on the capacity of

transformers, number of feeders, loading, etc.

The number of 33 kV rural feeders in the Discom is 282. These have been
strung with Racoon conductors having current carrying capacity of 200 A.
The Discom selected all the 33 kV feeders having loading more than150 A for
study and analysis.

As the National Tariff Policy has made it mandatory for power utilities to
segregate technical and commercial losses within one year, a detailed study 23
Operation and was conducted through CYMDIST software, which is a proven tool for finding
Maintenance
technical losses at each voltage level of the distribution system.

This software provides for two types of studies:

• voltage drop analysis; and
• short circuit analysis.
On the basis of the study and the data acquired, the DISCOM took measures
such as:
• capacitor placement;
• augmentation of the conductor of feeder; and
• bifurcation of the feeder.

These were followed by further systemic analysis. It was concluded that

losses could be reduced substantially by adopting all the three measures or
combinations of two or only one of these, depending upon loading conditions
and voltage regulation.

The study was initially conducted on 20 select feeders but later it was
extended to the heavily loaded 224 rural feeders. It was found that 49 feeders
had losses amounting to more than 10% and 52 feeders had losses between
5 -10%. An analysis of the data revealed that for some feeders, voltage
regulation could not be brought within permissible limits even after the
placement of Capacitor Bank, proposing a new 33 kV feeder and augmenting
the conductor size. Further studies were carried out and locations were
identified for putting up 132/33 kV substations. Through short term studies,
the Discom identified 5 such locations.

A similar study conducted for 11 kV feeders led to the following conclusions:

i) additional power transformer would need to be put up in the existing

substation;

ii) a new 33/11 kV substation would need to be constructed, thereby

reducing the length of 11 kV lines;

iii) the existing 11 kV feeders would need to be bifurcated; and

iv) the conductors of existing feeders would need to be augmented.

The details of planning activities undertaken by the Central Discom are

presented below.

• Existing Load Data Study: The number of 33 kV feeders in the Central

Discom is 347, of which 65 are urban feeders and 282 rural. The
CYMDIST software was used to study all the parameters of existing
feeders in urban areas. Various steps, such as augmentation of existing
Racoon conductor by Dog conductor, bifurcation of feeder and
installation of Capacitor Bank in 33/11 kV substations, were taken. After
the implementation of these measures, voltage regulation was found
to be within permissible limits. The loading of the 33 kV rural feeders is
24 given ahead.
 Table 4.6: Loading of 33 kV Rural Feeders Introduction to
the Power
Distribution
Load Number of 33 kV Feeders System

More than 300A 31

Between 250−
−300 A 25

Between 200−
−250 A 56

Between 150−
−200 A 28

Less than 150 A 142

The number of 11 kV feeders in the Central Discom is 1749, of which 358 are
urban feeders and 1391 rural. In the first phase, a study of all 11 kV urban
feeders was conducted through the CYMDIST software and action was taken
for bifurcation of feeders, augmentation of conductor capacity and putting up
new 33/11 kV substations. All 11 kV feeders of urban areas now have Racoon
conductor and the load of each feeder is within 100 A. The voltage regulations
are also within permissible limits.

In the second phase, a study of 11 KV rural feeders is being carried out. All the
existing feeders are laid on ACSR weasel conductor. The length of the feeders
ranges from 4 km − 100 km and voltage regulation varies from 3% to 24%.
The break-up of the rural feeders on the basis of load is given in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7: Break-up of the Rural Feeders

Load Number of 11 kV Feeders

More than 200A 180

Between 150−
−200 A 170

Between 100−
−150 A 790

Between 75−
−100 A 172

Less than 75 A 79

The number of 11 kV feeders having load more than 200 A is 180 and a study
is being conducted on them in the first phase through the CYMDIST software.

• Future Load Growth Study: Historical load growth data was the major
basis in anticipating the future load growth.

• Power Factor and Reactive Load Study: A thorough study was made on
the existing power factor and existing load on the system and as per the
data obtained from CYMDIST software study, necessary compensation
was provided by installation of 11 kV capacitor bank on 33/11 kV
substations. 25
Operation and • Thermal Capability of Conductor: Operating data was used to check
Maintenance
whether the conductors were being operated within thermal capability
limits.

• Economic Impact: On analysis of the data derived from the CYMDIST

study, it was concluded that the payback period is between 24 to 30
months. The results obtained from CYMDIST software have been used for
preparing the loss reduction model of the company.

You may like to review this information in your own context. Attempt the
following SAQ!

SAQ 4: Distribution planning

Suggest ways in which your utility can benefit from distribution system
planning.

………………………………………………………………………………......

………………………………………………………………………………......

4.5 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OBJECTIVES

AND ACTIVITIES

The distribution system constitutes the interface of a utility with consumers

who judge the performance of the utility by the performance of its distribution
system. Therefore, proper operation and maintenance of the power
distribution system is essential. Any failure on this account may deprive the
user of electric supply and lead to chaotic conditions. There are two types of
maintenance: Preventive Maintenance and Breakdown Maintenance.

• Preventive Maintenance is maintenance done prior to the onset of

Monsoon and after the end of Monsoon.

• Breakdown Maintenance is done on breakdown in the installation.

In this section, we discuss the general O&M objectives and activities for the
power distribution system.

4.5.1 Operation and Maintenance Objectives

You will agree that the prime goal of a power utility, like any other business, is
to achieve consumer satisfaction with optimum effort and costs while
maintaining reasonable profit levels. The operation and maintenance (O&M)
practices of a utility contribute significantly in attaining this goal. These
activities should help in improving the reliability and maintenance of plant and
equipment, maximising capacity utilisation, increasing operating efficiency,
26 and reducing operating and maintenance costs.
The objectives of O&M for distribution systems may thus be spelt out as Introduction to
the Power
follows. Distribution
System
OBJECTIVES OF OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

v Ensuring quality and reliability of supply to consumers.

v Reducing equipment operating and maintenance costs through

effective utilisation of capacity and resources.

v Increasing the availability and reliability of plant and equipment with NOTE
effective maintenance planning.
Source: Special report
v Improving spares planning and reducing spares inventories. on CEA website
“Guidelines for Project
v Standardising work procedures. Management and
Performance Evaluation
v Ensuring the safety of maintenance personnel.
of Sub-transmission and
v Providing a mechanism for making estimates and controlling Distribution Project”.
maintenance expenses.

v Generating MIS reports for better decision-making and control.

v Bringing down technical and commercial losses to an optimum

minimum level.

v Avoiding any bottleneck in capacity by matching expansion with the

growing demand.

The O&M strategy adopted by a utility can be evaluated in terms of certain

parameters, which are given below.

PARAMETERS FOR EVALUATION OF O&M STRATEGY

v Reduction in

− T&D losses,
− overloading of feeders and transformers,
− consumer interruption
− cost per consumer
− number of trippings due to overloading.
v Degree of improvement in voltage profile vis-à-vis voltage regulation.

v Increase in revenue.

v Enhancement of peak demand and energy supplied.

v Number of consumers supplied.

v Improvement in level of service and collections.

The specific functions of the O&M System are described in detail in

Appendix 2 to this unit. 27
Operation and 4.5.2 Activities Involved in Operation and Maintenance
Maintenance
The following activities are involved in the operation and maintenance of the
Distribution System:
• continuity of service;
• technical operation and maintenance;
• training and retaining of operational staff;
• renewal of maintenance contract;
• upkeep of spare parts inventory;
• record keeping of faults in the network/equipment problems, solutions,
modifications and enhancements;
• close monitoring of budgeted expenditure;
• preparation, continuous updating and proper maintenance of operational
and network data;
• record of protective and isolating devices installed and their relay settings;
• record of schedule of maintenance and preventive and routine
maintenance of network elements;
• development of spare parts;
• development of maintenance practices, tools and procedures for trouble
free operation; and

• record of transformer/switchgear oil testing and its parameters.

Utilities should have manuals for O&M to ensure efficient and trouble free
operation of the system/equipment. These manuals should contain the
following information:
• factory and site test certificates for each item of the system with reference
to relevant design calculation and quality assurance standards;
• maintenance instructions for all plants and other preventive and corrective
maintenance procedures;
• maintenance and inspection schedules for all items/equipment giving type
of works required on a weekly, monthly, annual basis; and
• proforma of the required maintenance record sheets for all the
component/equipment.

We now outline the modern approach to operation and maintenance of power

systems.

4.5.3 Renovation and Modernisation (R&M) and Life Extension

Schemes
Basically, the deterioration of electrical components in the distribution system
is related to electric, thermal, mechanical, chemical, environmental and
combined stresses. Hence, failure of equipment could be due to insulation
28 failure, thermal failure, mechanical failure or any combinations thereof.
The concept of simple replacement of power equipment in the system, Introduction to
the Power
considering it as weak or a potential source of trouble, is no longer Distribution
valid in the present scenario of financial constraints. System

Renovation, modernization and life extension of existing substations,

sub-transmission and distribution network and field equipment outside the
NOTE
substations is one of the cost effective options for maintaining continuity and
reliability of the power supply to the consumers. Renovation and There are no
modernisation (R&M) is primarily needed to arrest the poor performance of established guidelines
the substation equipment (mainly transformers and switchgears), which are for the time interval
during which R&M and
under severe stress due to poor grid conditions, poor and inadequate life extension studies
maintenance and polluting environment. must be carried out.
The R&M and life
In this changed paradigm, efforts today are being directed to explore new extension studies
approaches/techniques of monitoring, diagnosis, life assessment and must be done when
the performance of the
condition evaluation, and possibility of extending the life of existing equipment is noticed
assets, i.e., generator, circuit breaker, surge arrestor, oil filled equipment like as deteriorating but
transformers, load tap changer, etc., which constitute a significant portion of not later than two
years from the
assets for generation, transmission and distribution system.
previous such study.
Assessing the condition of the equipment is the key to improving
reliability. The knowledge of equipment condition helps to target the
maintenance efforts to reduce equipment failures. Reduction of failures of
equipment improves reliability and effectively extends the life of equipment.
Hence, utilities are continuously in search of ways and means other than
conventional methods/techniques to assess the condition of equipment in
service. Thus, remedial measures can be taken in advance to avoid
disastrous consequences thereby saving valuable resources.

For assessing normal operation, strategic planning and scheduling,

three major tasks need to be identified:

• incipient failure detection and prevention − supervisory function,

monitoring;

• identification of malfunction or fault state − offered by diagnostic

techniques; and

• planning for repair, replacement and upgrading − life assessment and

condition evaluation techniques.

Researchers and manufactures have come out with various condition

assessment, diagnostic monitoring, preventive maintenance, predictive
maintenance (PDM) techniques for the equipment to reduce the risk of
failure and extend their effective life and thereby help utilities overcome the
challenges they face. Various condition assessment tools are used to
establish the health of equipment using latest on line and off line diagnostic
testing techniques/technologies.

Predictive maintenance is gaining popularity as it helps eliminate

unscheduled downtime of expensive equipment and reduces the overall cost
of maintenance. This approach, sometimes called ‘condition-based 29
Operation and maintenance’, relies on planned inspections, testing, analysing and trending
Maintenance
of the relevant equipment parameters. In most cases, these parameters can
determine the equipment’s health and must be followed up by proactive
actions that change the way the equipment is operated to reach the goals set
out. In other words, the performance of the equipment is analysed to
determine its condition and predict when it will need attention.

The techniques so developed are grouped under Residual Life Assessment

(RLA) techniques. The potential of such techniques is tremendous and their
benefits are so many that utilities cannot ignore their importance in the
present scenario.

The main objective of RLA is to determine the condition of a set of

equipment (e.g., transformers) in order to identify the most vulnerable
component/equipment. Based on the evaluation, utilities can develop a
strategic replacement plan for a particular population of equipment. The aim
should be to maximize the availability and utilization by avoiding unexpected
failures and at the same time minimizing risk. Strategies for life assessment
are quite complex and involve many aspects (both user-oriented and
manufacturer-oriented). Their details are beyond the scope of this course.

In the next section, we introduce the concepts of grid management, load

scheduling and load balancing. However, you may first like to revise the ideas
presented in this section.

SAQ 5: O&M objectives and activities

Outline the O&M objectives of your distribution utility. What activities are
undertaken by it to fulfil these objectives?

………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………

4.6 GRID MANAGEMENT, LOAD SCHEDULING

AND LOAD BALANCING

In this section, we consider the aspects related to grid management, load

30 scheduling and load balancing in a power distribution system.
 Introduction to
4.6.1 Grid Management the Power
Distribution
Let us consider the following questions: System
q What is a grid?
q What is grid management?

q What does grid management involve?

GENERATION
q What is a grid? (POWER PLANTS)
You know that a power system has a generating unit to generate electrical
energy, which is consumed at the load. This energy cannot be stored and has
to be consumed at the same instant. But since the load is not concentrated at
one place and it is not possible to have a generator very close to the load
centre at all times, we go for transmission lines, which facilitate transmission
of power from generator to load. Thus all generation units and load centres are
connected and a grid is formed (Fig. 4.9).
TRANSMISSION
The grid is basically a connection of generating stations, substations NETWORKS (GRID)
and loads through transmission lines, at a voltage level above the
distribution voltage. The distribution voltage, however, is not strictly defined.
It is different for different areas. In some distribution systems, power is taken
from the grid at 33 kV, in some it is taken at 66 kV and in some, it may even be
taken at 220 kV. Therefore, the grid covers the above mentioned high voltage
system down to the level of connection point of the distribution system.

LOCAL
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Definition of a grid
Grid is defined in the Electricity Act, 2003, as : “the high voltage
backbone system of inter-connected transmission lines,
substations and generating plants.”
CUSTOMERS
There are many advantages of having a grid.

ADVANTAGES OF A GRID

v RELIABILITY: The system is more reliable since we can serve the

load in more than one ways. As a result, even if one generation
unit fails the rest can share its load. Fig 4.9: Grid as an
Intermediary
v STABILITY: The system becomes more stable as the chances of a Between
fault disturbing the whole system become less. Generation
and Load
v ECONOMY: In a grid, the cost required is lesser than a dedicated
system since lesser installed capacity is required as well as lesser
spinning reserve is involved.
31
Operation and Regional and State Grid in India
Maintenance
In the 1960s, India was demarcated into 5 electrical regions (NR, SR, ER,
WR, NER) for planning, development and operation of the power system with
regional self sufficiency. As on date, we have three synchronous power
systems: Northern, Central (WR-ER-NER) and Southern. Bulk power transfer
is possible among the regional grids through the inter-regional links. The
Northern and Southern Systems are connected to Central System through
separate HVDC links and, hence, each of the three systems can operate at
different frequencies. The State Grid of each State is connected to Regional
Grid for inter-State power exchanges.

q What is Grid Management?

Grid management, as the term implies, is managing the grid. This

consists of on-line real-time operation of the grid as well as off-line
operational planning.

The real time operation of the grid is looked after by the Load Dispatch
Centre, which is basically a round-the-clock control room manned by grid
operators or load dispatchers, who operate the grid by giving instructions to
the personnel of the concerned generators and substations.

Load Dispatching, as the name implies, involves dispatching of load

(or power) from the generator to the load. This is done through the
transmission system. Load Dispatch Centre constantly observes the grid
parameters and tries to ensure good grid operation.

Operational planning is the planning done in advance, in order to ensure that

♦ generation matches the load at all points of time;

♦ the voltage profile at all points of the grid remains within acceptable limits;

♦ none of the transmission lines or inter-connecting transformers get

over-loaded; and

♦ the grid operates in a stable manner, i.e., there are no power swings.

Operational Planning also involves coordination of protection of the grid so

that only the faulted element gets isolated and the remaining grid continues to
operate in a satisfactory manner.

The Grid Management in our country is done by the Regional Load Dispatch
Centre (RLDC) at the Regional Level and by the State Load Dispatch Centre
(SLDC) at the State Level. Each State, Central Generating Stations and
Independent Power Producers (IPPs) are treated as constituents of the
Region.

REGIONAL LOAD STATE LOAD

DISPATCH CENTRE DISPATCH CENTRE

32 Fig. 4.10: Two Key Players in Grid Management

 Introduction to
OBJECTIVES OF GRID MANAGEMENT the Power
Distribution
System
v Reliability,

v Grid security,

v Economy, and

v Quality in electric supply.

v RELIABILITY comes with integrated grid operation for smooth

evacuation of power from generating stations and its delivery at
the states’ periphery.

v SECURITY comes by maintaining the system parameters like

frequency, bus voltages, line loadings and transformer loadings
within permissible limits. It involves stable and smooth operation
of the grid, i.e. minimum interruptions of power, either through
tripping of single grid elements (like generator, transmission line,
interconnecting transformer, HVDC back-to-back pole) or grid
disturbances involving tripping of a large number of grid elements
simultaneously or even a total blackout.

v ECONOMY comes by merit order generation, optimization of hydro

resources, minimization of losses and judicious inter-regional
exchanges. It envisages getting the cheapest power to the
customers through minimization of transmission losses and
ensuring that the cheapest generation is used first, then the next
costly generation and so on.

v QUALITY in electric supply is now gaining importance. The

parameters of quality are frequency, voltage and harmonics.

Let us explain further the quality parameters of electric supply.

Frequency is a global phenomenon, i.e., it is the same at all points of a

grid which is operating in synchronous operation. Frequency is an
indication of the balance between generation and load in a grid. If the
generation exactly matches the load, the frequency would be the nominal
frequency, i.e., 50 Hz. If generation is more than the load in a grid as a whole,
the system frequency would be greater than 50 Hz. If generation is less than
the load, the system frequency would be less than 50 Hz.

Voltage is a local phenomenon, i.e., it can be different at different

points of the grid. Therefore, the grid operator has to ensure that the proper
voltage profile is maintained at all points of the grid. For ensuring proper
voltage profile, capacitors or reactors are installed at different points in the
grid. If it is observed that the voltage is low at a particular point in the grid,
then capacitors are installed at that point. Similarly, if voltage is observed to
be high, as per the studies, then reactors are installed at that point. The basic 33
Operation and purpose of these elements is to ensure that the reactive power requirement of
Maintenance
the load or transmission lines is met.

Besides this, there are also other voltage phenomena like unbalanced voltage
in the three phases, voltage dip, etc. Voltage unbalance in the grid could be
caused due to the tripping of one of the phases of a transmission line or due
to unbalanced load in the three phases emanating from the distribution
systems or bulk loads. Voltage dip, on the other hand, is a transient
phenomenon caused by a transient fault or tripping of an element at a remote
location of the grid. Stormy weather could also cause flashover between
arcing horns, resulting in voltage dip.

Harmonics is recently becoming an issue in the modern world, due to a

number of electronic devices connected in the grid as well as in the
distribution system, which converts AC to DC through rectifiers or which chop
an AC wave for voltage or current control. In the grid, harmonics are caused
by HVDC stations, which convert AC to DC and back from DC to AC.

In the distribution system, harmonics are caused by power supplies and

inverters through which power is supplied to computers and all household
appliances using digital technology, which have permeated our lives. For this,
standards have been laid down in the Regulations for Technical Standards for
Connectivity to the Grid. As per the provisions of these Standards, the limits
for individual and total harmonics distortion have been given.

q What Does Grid Management Involve?

Grid management involves

• forecasting (demand pattern);

• planning (outages, unit commitment, resource scheduling);

• coordination (between stakeholders);

• supervision (grid parameters);

• real time operation and control for optimal utilization of available resources
in the grid, which involves

− scheduling,

− monitoring, and

− restoration of grid;

• off-line operational planning involving grid security issues, restoration of

grid and commercial issues or billing.

We shall talk about these aspects in detail in the next section.

The load dispatch centre is primarily responsible for management of the grid.
Its various functions: ex-ante (a Latin term meaning before-hand), real-time
34 and post-facto (meaning after the fact) are given in Table 4.8.
 Table 4.8: Grid Management Functions Introduction to
the Power
Distribution
EX-ANTE REAL-TIME POST-FACTO System

• Forecasting demand • Resource • Reporting

for the forthcoming re-scheduling as and events occurring in
period when required a grid operation

• Scheduling of • Implementation of • Analyzing the

resources at proper contract of events that
disposal service as entitled occurred

• Planning the grid • Supervising and • Collecting the

element outages controlling grid energy meter data
like generator parameters
• Processing the
maintenance, etc.
• Ensuring real-time data collected
• Providing for open balancing of
• Energy accounting
access transmission resources
corridors. • Operating the pool
• Ensuring grid
account,
security and
unscheduled
reliability
interchange
• Coordinating the account and the
outages and load reactive energy
shedding account.

• Ensuring proper
power quality

• Minimizing losses
and optimizing
resource utilization

• Tackling
emergencies
effectively and
efficiently.

4.6.2 Load Scheduling and Dispatch

Load scheduling means fixing the schedules of generation of power for
generating stations and the schedules for drawal of power by the States taking
into account drawal schedules from shared power sector projects and
schedules of power purchased from buyers to sellers. Scheduling is done
for the day ahead by the Regional Load Dispatch Centre to ensure
balance between load and generation in the grid with the aim of achieving an
operating grid frequency of 50 Hz. Since power cannot be stored to a large
extent, power generated has to be used at that instant of time. Therefore, it
has to be ensured that the generation matches the load at each point of time.
Schedules are prepared on a 15 minute basis, to see to it that the average
generation of electrical energy over 15 minutes matches the load over those
15 minutes. Scheduling is done one day before for the day ahead, as per a
time schedule specified in the Indian Electricity Grid Code (named simply as 35
Operation and “Grid Code” as per the Electricity Act, 2003), so that the State Power Utilities
Maintenance
plan for load management for the next day.
For example, suppose a State finds that after taking into account its own
expected generation for the next day and the net drawal schedule for the next
day, it would fall short of meeting its anticipated requirement for the next day
by 200 MW during peak time. Then it would have to plan a load shedding of
200 MW during peak time. Schedules can also be changed on the same day
due to major load variations experienced by a State due to abnormal weather
conditions. For example, rains in summer could cause reduction of
agricultural load and AC load; heavy rains could cause disruptions in the
transmission system and hence loss of load. The rescheduling would be valid
after a time gap of about one and a half hours so as to enable implementation
of the new schedules. Rescheduling can also be done by the Regional Load
Dispatcher in cases of transmission bottleneck and grid disturbance.
Scheduling is important because it is meant to ensure the desired
operating frequency of the grid. There are financial penalties for violating
these schedules if these violations burden the grid and financial incentives
if the violations help the grid, through a component of the tariff, known as
unscheduled interchanges.
Monitoring the parameters of the grid is the prime real time function of
the Load Dispatch Centre. These parameters include operating frequency,
voltage levels at all points of the grid, status of line and transformer loading
throughout the grid, especially at crucial points. In order to help the grid
operator monitor these parameters over the large number of points in the grid,
the Load Dispatch Centre is equipped with SCADA (Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition) System. You will study about it in Block 3 of the course
BEE-002.
Based on the alarms generated by the SCADA System, action is taken by the
grid operator by giving instructions to all concerned. All instructions of the
grid operator have to be followed. All instructions are also recorded on a
sound recorder, to be replayed at the time of analysis of a grid incident or any
other contingency. The grid needs to be constantly monitored to observe
whether it is operating within its limit. This work is being done in the RLDCs
and SLDCs. The LDCs coordinate between the Central Generating Stations
and States (through SLDCs).
Restoration of grid involves restoring the grid after a grid disturbance.
Grid disturbance normally takes place in a matter of milliseconds and there is
no time for the grid operator to react. Therefore, the operational procedures
for restoration of a grid are planned well in advance and come under the
scope of off-line operational planning. The grid operator just has to follow
the procedure for restoring the grid.
We now describe the load scheduling process as it takes place.
The Load Scheduling Process
The process starts with the Central Generating Stations (CGS) in the region
declaring their expected output capability (in MW) for 96 slots of 15 minutes
36 duration during the next day to the Regional Load Dispatch Centre (RLDC).
 Introduction to
The RLDC breaks up and tabulates these output capability declarations as per the Power
the beneficiaries’ plant-wise shares and conveys their entitlements to State Distribution
System
Load Dispatch Centres (SLDCs). The latter then carry out an exercise to see
how best they can meet the load of their consumers over the day, from their
own generating stations, along with their entitlement in the Central stations.
They also take into account the irrigation release requirements, distribution
utilities’ load schedules for next day and load curtailment, etc. that they
propose in their respective areas.

The SLDCs then convey to the RLDC their schedule of power drawal from the
Central stations (limited to their entitlement for the day). The RLDC
aggregates these requisitions and determines the dispatch schedules for the
Central generating stations and the drawal schedules for the beneficiaries
(State as a whole) duly incorporating any bilateral agreements and adjusting
for transmission losses. These schedules are then issued by the RLDC to all
concerned and become the operational as well as commercial datum for
inter-State and CGS transactions.

However, in case of contingencies, Central stations can prospectively revise

the output capability declaration, beneficiaries can prospectively revise
requisitions, and the schedules are correspondingly revised by RLDC. It is for
the SLDCs to further break-up these State entitlements into Discom
entitlements and State Generation Schedules.

While the schedules so finalized become the operational datum, and the
regional constituents are expected to regulate their generation and consumer
load in a way that the actual generation and drawals generally follow these
schedules, deviations are allowed as long as they do not endanger the system
security.

Load Shedding

During the normal operation of a grid, it is possible that the load exceeds the
generation. If this happens the frequency of the system goes down. The
standard frequency is 50 Hz. But the frequency can go down to about 49.0 Hz.
After this value, it is not advisable to allow it to reduce it any further since it can
cause the system to lose synchronism and lead to ultimate collapse of the
system. As a result, we go for purposeful shedding of load, known as load
shedding. The load shedding is a process of reducing load on the grid so as
to save the grid as a whole.

Load shedding can be done in two ways:

1. Automatic: For this purpose automatic under-frequency relays are

installed. These relays carry out automatic shedding of load if the
frequency falls below a certain level.

2. Manual: Special guidelines have been provided by RLDCs/SLDCs for

the load shedding at different frequency levels. These guidelines
depend upon the grid parameters at the particular instance as well as 37
Operation and some fixed guidelines for frequency falling below a particular limit or
Maintenance
area-wise/consumer category-wise shedding.

Off-Line Operational Planning

You have studied in Sec. 4.6.1 that off-line operational planning involves

• grid security issues;

• restoration of grid; and

• commercial issues or billing.

We discuss these briefly.

Grid security issues involve

• load generation balance planning in respect of active power for the next
year, which is reviewed on a quarterly and then monthly basis, in order to
ensure that the frequency stays at the nominal level;

• installation of capacitors or reactors to obtain a proper voltage profile in

the grid;

• line and transformer loading;

• protection coordination;

• monitoring of the grid; and

• proper analysis of tripping of lines as well as of grid disturbance and taking

corrective measures thereof.

Under-frequency and rate-of-change of frequency relays are installed as

security measures to cut off load in case of gradual or sudden drop in
generation, respectively, to ensure nominal frequency in the grid. Islanding
schemes of important generators and loads are also planned as a last resort
to isolate or island them in case of a blackout so that the important power
stations and loads keep functional. Therefore, these islands are made in
such a way that the generation and load in these islands approximately
match.

Under operational planning, procedures are also formed for restoration of

grid in case of tripping of some or more elements of the grid or for total
blackout. This is done by the Regional Load Dispatch Centre responsible for
real time operation of the regional grids, in consultation with all the players
involved in grid operation. One of the points involved in grid restoration is the
“black start”, which means starting of a generating unit after a blackout.
Since hydro generators require the least power for starting, they are normally
started first or, in other words, used for black start.

Commercial billing by the various generators is done in accordance with the

Availability Based Tariff approved by the Central Electricity Regulatory
Commission. Under the Availability Based Tariff (ABT), the beneficiaries are
required to pay charges in three components, viz., annual fixed charges,
38 energy charges and Unsheduled interchanges (UI) charges.
Annual fixed charges are required to be paid by the beneficiaries irrespective Introduction to
the Power
of actual drawals or schedules. The implemented schedules, as described Distribution
earlier, are used for determination of the amounts payable as energy charges. System
Deviations from schedules are determined in 15-minute time blocks through
special metering, and these deviations are priced depending on frequency.
These deviations are called unscheduled interchanges (UI).

The pricing for UI is linked to system frequency such that the constituent
causing the grid frequency to improve/worsen in worst conditions gets
rewarded/penalised at higher price and vice versa. Further, the UI pool account
is zero sum account, i.e., the amounts received from constituents are
distributed amongst the other constituents. As long as the actual generation/
drawal is equal to the given schedule, UI is zero and the payment on account
of the third component of Availability Tariff is zero. In case of under-drawal, a
beneficiary is paid back to that extent according to the frequency dependent
rate specified for deviations from schedule.

4.6.3 Load Balancing

Load Balancing is the process of achieving and maintaining equal load on
each phase of a distribution transformer. The loadings on primary and
secondary side of a DTR are shown in Fig. 4.11.

Fig. 4.11: Balancing of Load in a DTR

If load on each phase of the distribution transformer is not equal, it is

called unbalanced loading of transformer. Practically speaking, balanced
load cannot be maintained on the transformer due to the inherently varying
nature of load. Each transformer supplies power to resistive loads (bulbs,
heaters, etc.) and inductive loads (motors, etc.). These loads can be either
single phase, distributed separately on the three phases, or three-phase in 39
Operation and nature. If the distribution transformer is supplying power to only three phase
Maintenance
loads, then achieving and maintaining balanced load on transformer could be
an easier task. But in practice, this happens very rarely, because each
installation possesses either three phase or single phase or both the loads,
which keep changing at different points of time.

Apart from natural unbalancing, unbalanced load may also result from load
shedding of one phase in each of the LT feeders emanating from a
distribution substation. Even though the system may have been balanced
initially, it is difficult to have similarly loaded outgoing feeders and achieve
equal load shedding in the three phases. In some cases, due to constraints on
availability of proper switching facility on each feeder, it is difficult to shed
equal load from each phase.

Thus, it is really a difficult task for a distribution utility to maintain balanced

load on the distribution transformer. However, it is important for many
reasons.

IMPORTANCE OF LOAD BALANCING

• Extended life of the transformer, which remains in service for longer

period of time.

• Improved quality of supply.

• Lesser maintenance cost on distribution/power transformer leading to

increase in Utility’s Operational Profit.

• Consumer Satisfaction.

Difficulties in Maintaining Balanced Load on a Transformer

NOTE
The distribution transformer supplies power to the domestic and/or
Diversity factor is commercial consumers. In practice, it is seen that all consumers will not
defined as the ratio of
the sum of the individual switch on their entire connected load at the same instant of time. The
maximum demands of switching of load will vary with time and also with the requirement of the
various parts of a power consumer. This is expressed in terms of the diversity factor. If it is equal to
distribution system to 1, it means that all the consumers are in need of their entire connected load at
the maximum demand
the same instant of time. In practice, the diversity factor ranges between 2
of the whole system. It
measures the and 3. If diversity factor is more, then there is a greater possibility that the load
staggering of different on each phase of the distribution transformer will vary and not be equal.
hours of the day and
indicates flatness of Now, consider an Electric Utility which is supplying power to small industrial
load curve. That is, it consumers. In this case, the transformer will be supplying to more three
denotes MVA vs hours
phase loads than single phase loads. So, the diversity factor for small
of the day curve.
industrial consumers will be less compared to the domestic/commercial
consumers. For large industrial consumers, the diversity factor will be even
less. But some degree of unbalanced loading will still remain on the
transformer. The task of distribution utility is to reduce this degree of
40 unbalanced loading.
We offer some tips in this regard. Introduction to
the Power
Distribution
Some Tips to Operate Transformers Near Balanced Loading System
• Connect single phase load on each phase of distribution transformer, so
that at the end, current in each phase of transformer will be almost equal. It
has been seen that, linemen or wiremen connect the single phase load to
the lower phase of a pole. It may be due to illiteracy and/or hesitation to
connect the single phase load on the top phase of pole. The distribution
utility must ensure supervision of the job at the time of connecting new
single phase load to avoid such practices.

• In some distribution utilities, transformers do not have current measuring

instruments and, hence, continuous surveillance cannot be done to check
whether distribution transformer is equally loaded (Balanced). In this case,
the current must be measured for all phases by using Clamp-on-Meters, at
least once during peak hours and a record should be kept. By analysing
the past trend, the average current can be calculated. But due
consideration must be given to changing weather conditions and/or extra
loads due to festivals, etc.

• Providing Solid Earthing to the neutral of transformer.

• Using proper size of Blow-out-Fuses.

On this note, we bring the discussion in this unit to an end. In this unit, you
have learnt about the Power Distribution System, and the general goals and
practices for its maintenance. We now summarise the contents of the unit.

4.7 SUMMARY

• The Distribution System contains:

− Sub-transmission system in voltage ranges from 33 kV to 220 kV.

The energy goes from power substations to distribution substations
through primary system and then from distribution substations to
secondary distribution system for local voltage distribution.

− Primary circuits of feeders, usually operating in the range of 11 kV to

33 kV, supply the load in well defined geographical areas.

− The distribution transformers, usually installed on poles or near the

consumer sites, transform the primary voltage to the secondary
voltage, which is usually 240/415 V.

− Secondary circuits at service voltage which carry energy from the

distribution transformers along the streets, etc.
• The components of Distribution System include substations,
transformers, feeders and metering system, etc.
• The O&M objectives and general practices for distribution system focus on
improving the reliability and maintenance of plant and equipment,
maximising capacity utilisation, increasing operating efficiency, and 41
Operation and reducing operating and maintenance costs.
Maintenance
• Grid management, load scheduling and load balancing are important
for the smooth functioning of the power distribution system.

4.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Which component of the distribution system can be a critical

bottleneck in supplying uninterrupted power to consumers and why?

2. What configurations of feeder networks can be used in a distribution

system? Discuss their suitability in different circumstances.

3. Compare the distribution system planning criteria used in your utility

with those given in the unit and describe them.

4. What do you understand by load scheduling and Unscheduled

Interchanges?

5. Does your utility have written O&M practices? If yes, study those and
suggest improvements in the same. If not, what practices are followed
in the field?

6. What is load balancing? How can it be achieved?

7. What is the significance of Grid Management? Who has the

responsibility of Grid Management in your State and your utility?

8. What are the activities involved in Distribution System Planning?

42
 Introduction to
the Power
APPENDIX 1: REACTIVE POWER CONTROL Distribution
System
IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Reactive power (kVAR) control represents an efficient method of reducing
the cost of utility operation. The savings brought about by kVAR/voltage
control are not confined to the monetary value of the energy saved; the
released system capacity can serve to delay a costly expansion and reduce
the ageing of components. kVAR control provides appropriate placement
of compensation devices to ensure a satisfactory voltage profile while
minimizing the power losses and the cost of compensation.

Other ancillary benefits gained by correcting the power factor are:

• lower energy losses,

• better voltage regulation, and

• released system capacity.

All electric equipment requires “vars”, a term used by electric power

engineers to describe the reactive or magnetizing power required by
the inductive characteristics of electrical equipment. These inductive
characteristics are more pronounced in motors and transformers, and
therefore, can be quite significant in industrial facilities.

The flow of vars, or reactive power, through a watt-hour meter will not affect
the meter reading, but the flow of vars through the power system will
result in energy losses on both the utility and the industrial facility.

Some utilities charge for these vars in the form of a penalty, or kVA demand
charge, to justify the cost for lost energy and the additional conductor and
transformer capacity required to carry the vars. In addition to energy losses,
var flow can also cause excessive voltage drop, which may have to be
corrected by either the application of shunt capacitors, or other more
expensive equipment, such as load-tap changing transformers,
synchronous motors, and synchronous condensers.

The power factor triangle shown in Fig. 1 is the simplest way to understand
the effects of reactive power. The longest leg of the triangle (on the upper or
lower triangle), labelled total power, represents the vector sum of the reactive
power and real power components. Mathematically,

TOTAL POWER = (REAL POWER)2 + (REACTIVE POWER)2

The angle Φ in the power triangle is called the power factor angle and is
mathematically equal to:

REAL POWER (kW)

cos Φ =
TOTAL POWER (kVA)

43
Operation and
Maintenance

Fig. 1: Power Factor Triangle

The ratio of the real power to the total power in the equation above (or the cos
of Φ) is called the power factor.

The advantages of PF improvement by capacitor addition are as follows:

a) Reactive component of the network and total current in the system

from the source end are reduced.

b) I2R power losses are reduced in the system because of reduction

in current.

c) Voltage level at the load end is increased.

d) kVA loading on the source generators as also on the transformers

and line up to the capacitors reduces giving relief. A high power
factor can help in utilizing the full capacity of your electrical
system.

Cost Benefits of PF Improvement

While cost of PF improvement is in terms of investment needs for capacitor

addition, the benefits to be quantified for feasibility analysis are:

a) Reduced kVA (maximum demand) charges in utility bill,

b) Reduced distribution losses (kWh) within the plant network,

c) Better voltage at motor terminals and improved performance of

motors.

A high power factor eliminates penalty charges imposed when operating with a
low power factor. Investment on system facilities such as transformers,
cables, switchgears, etc. for delivering load is reduced.

It is the power distribution engineer’s responsibility to manage the

operating system at an optimum power factor.
44
 Introduction to
the Power
APPENDIX 2: FUNCTIONS OF O&M Distribution
System
Material and Equipment Information
− Classification of maintenance material (class / sub-class).
− Material identification with a material code.
− Equipment identification and details.
− Updating equipment details.
− Maintaining commercial details.
− Maintaining equipment hierarchy for all equipment and assemblies.
− Maintenance planning and scheduling.
− Maintaining bills of material / sub-assembly / component.
Operational Location Information
− Identification of the operational location.
− Maintaining corresponding location of equipment.

− Maintaining details of locations.

Work Specification
− Standardising work specifications.
− Maintaining notes on work specifications.
Preventive Maintenance and Overhaul
− Generate preventive maintenance plans.
− Listing of locations, equipment and tasks to be included in the plan.
− Allocation of tasks to specific groups.
− Recording the material required.
− Generating work orders.
− Overhauling equipment as per requirement.
Breakdown Maintenance
− Noting the time of fault and the priority status.
− Processing the request.
− Enabling maintenance work.
Condition-based Maintenance
− Predicting potential machine failures.
− Recording data about malfunctioning equipment.
Signature Analysis
− Identifying parameters to be monitored for each class of equipment. 45
Operation and − Identifying test point for measuring the above.
Maintenance
− Entering a target or optimum value, and limits for the parameter.
− Determining the frequency of measurements to be made at each test
point.
− Generating schedules for taking readings.
− Capturing readings at each test point.
− Analysing readings and generating alarm / warning signals.
− Displaying message to generate work order if required.

Maintenance Requests
− Issuing maintenance requests.
− Closing maintenance requests.

Maintenance Work Orders

− Generating work orders.
− Informing the concerned departments.
− Assigning tasks to maintenance personnel or vendors.
− Issuing material for doing the same.
− Storing the details of material issued / purchased.
− Monitoring status of tasks.

Safety Procedures and Permit To Work

− Sending permit-to-work (PTW) requests to operations.
− Receiving the necessary permits from operations.

Spares Planning
− Identifying spares required for equipment.
− Viewing the updated stock positions.
− Generating lists of spares featuring quantity required and criticality.

Maintenance History
− Recording detailed maintenance history.
− Recording breakdown details / cause of failure / action taken /
downtime.
− Generating reports for equipment failures.

Document Management
− Maintaining document master.
− Generating document register.

Maintaining Contract Details.

46 Maintenance Personnel and Workgroup
 − Maintaining work group details. Introduction to
the Power
Distribution
− Viewing work schedules. System
Capturing Operations Data
− Maintaining operations logs.
− Maintaining generation and transmission schedules.
− Maintaining parameter values.
− Maintaining fuel details.
Estimates and Expenditure
− Generating estimates.
− Capturing estimates.
MIS Reports
− Generation reports.
− Plant-availability reports.
− Outage reports.
− Fuel reports.
− Generation schedules.
− Equipment registers.
− Equipment-performance reports.
− Equipment-history cards.
− Fault-analysis reports.
− Maintenance plans.
− Maintenance requests.
− Permit to work.
− Work-order permits.
− Condition-analysis reports.
− Expenditure reports.
− Maintenance schedule miss reports.
− Material-consumption reports.
− Document register.
− Accident reports.

47
Operation and
Maintenance

48