SOLUTIONS MANUAL

To accompany

TRANSPORT PHENOMENA IN

MATERIALS PROCESSING*

E.J. Poirier and D.R. Poirier

*D.R. Poirier and G.H. Geiger, Transport Phenomena in Materials Processing,

The Minerals, Metals, and Materials Society, Warrendale, Pennsylvania, 1994
Authors
EJ. Poirier
D.R. Poirier

ISBN 978-3-319-65129-3 ISBN 978-3-319-65130-9 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-65130-9

Chemistry and Materials Science: Professional

Copyright © 2016 by The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society

Published by Springer International Publishers, Switzerland, 2016
Reprint of the original edition published by The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, 1994,
978-0-470-92377-1

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way,
and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,
or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor
the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse II, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 CONTENTS

Chaptel' Page

1 .................................... 1
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
1.1 Compute the steady-state momentum flux (N mo2) in a lubricating oil, viscosity equal to
2 x 10.2 N s mo2 , that is contained between a stationary plate and one that is moving with a
velocity 'of 61.0 cm S·I. The distance between the plates is 2 mm. Next, show the direction
of the momentum flux and the shear stress with respect to the x-y axis system in the diagram
below.

F~
Stationary

MDmentum F/~)(=T~-1tT
F V

F - -2KID·3. NcSl:'lo()C,1'IJ1 liD.", ~-'''N $.'

7f - (11'" oS ~ fII'I'" ,,,,

The mDmentum fJu)( is fiDcunward) 9;ven by t;'~ itt/nilS si9 n ;

;,."m hi,,, mDm-e.nCum to I()w m~",t."tlJl1J·

The .shear st"rC5& is numerica.lly ef(Jal r:" the, ",~",~"t~d) flux J ,,,,t-
it i.s v/sua.lile J tiS I'rlra /Ie/ 'Co tAe. plrJt~s' s""ft/.~e5.

'1~ : -,.1 N $.'

1.2 Near the surface of a flat plate, water has a velocity profile given by
liz = 3y - y3
with Y in mm, liz in cm S·I, and 0 ~ Y ~ 1 mm. The density and the kinematic viscosity of
water are 1()3 kg m·3 and 7 x 10"1 m2 S·l, respectively.
a) What is the shear stress at XI on the plate?
b) What is the momentum flux at y = 0.8 mm and X = Xl in the y-direction?
c) Is there momentum flux in the x-direction aty = 0.8 mm and X = Xl in the x-direction?
If so, evaluate.
y

l . . . , ""'" ","""",, , , , . ,
1
 a.. '1 -• \v I
\ --
t:>
...
1)(
·7.z I
10m II I ()
S'
8 I
K,
nt
.. :.
7 J( If) - "'", S f'I? .~

~'A1X : -
dIIJic d1
'l -d;:;-) d'V'"l(.- 3 _ ~ JUrJ)" 2 eMS -' m~'

@ "":'0) J"'6 :. .; em , /()W/IfJ :.so .s-'

d"r) 5 mM em

, .,)1 ~
"'" - 7x ,,,-'4N;zSI -30 ~
'I I
- ... )( I 6 -"N ",
...
m S

CP "":. o.e mm. i!:L . r3 - 3(0'8)2.1J:!!l-I/D #1m :.

b.
() , d~ - [ ·M,.., am J.s 10,S 5'/

r~x
v
;' _ 7XID -¥ N s
m&
I.!£:..!..:. _
$
7.5' )( 10_' N m- ~
.

. ~ 1

f~ qx :. I~ k,J [(3)(".6)-(D.a)~
J em'" Cm....J
c. yes. !Y1()I)? rr4ns."
1tI ~Do'4
S II

: ,g,,5"'.5
.1 Ie,.. m_..'1.1' N $. : . 3.
a·$"!"x It) N
., _.a.
J{ /IJ
,1'(, m hi

1.3 In fluidized bed processes, operating temperatures can vary from process to process or
within the beds itself. Therefore, it is necessary to know how these temperature variations
affect the propenies, such as viscosity of the fluidizing gas in the reactor. Taking air as the
fluidizing gas, estimate its viscosity at 313 K and 1073 K when considered as a one
component gas with the parameters given in Table 1.1. Repeat the estimates. only now
consider the air to be 79% N2 , 21 % 02' Compare these results to the experimental values
of 0.019 cP and 0.0438 cP at 313 K and 1073 K, respectively.

)1.2-
Q,. rt.: ~. P7 X J0 -s (~T (P 0 i 5 e)
tj" :A..,\

Tallie I.' M:.a.Q1) ~:3.71J)~:78'b

He

2
 31~ Ks...: 3.~B) IO~3 i-{S':.13.it5

.fl ~ (~ I ! K): O. ~ 7~ ') Al'\ ( 10 i.3 k) : 0 .. 7q 'i h

lI,

'l(aI3K),~.~7~'O·S k~MV(lI3)]"):
O~," 7~
1.~O~/o-"IPo/se:o.olqoeP
( 3/1 ,,) ( I

COrllpaf"es v!ry well with expe ... imental vallAe.

~
'I t 10 1 K) , a" 1 ,(lO'S U~s.q)~( '073~)~, ~,30 )( ID~ Po
(3.'711 (0:1<4~'
IS e : O,o~30 c P
Compares \.Utll with experimenta.) value.

b.
~ Ittl){
~ ""~~Iir)(;~ a; c!. . . J
Xj ,i
LJSI
xq
[I;' ~)l~) J
-~
~~j 'ts>~ [I;'~]
1 e 1",2..
)( Ot. XN1 Mos. MN2. I ~"a. ~"'L ~ ID~ K&

o·~ \ D.'" 3~·o 0'18.01 a13. 'i b 7 .3. fJ~ S ,0'.7 71. 'I

T
TKa
£02.,
I e-
T I~1I ;I
kr,
..J'\..r'{Ol J"l..rt "1-
t'\ Ol. Yl.v.:t
s-e.
-,
Poi s e. Poi

313K I ~.q3 "j·as /.090 0.'15. •. (58)(/~-'" I.g/ax /0-'1

!
/073 K I ID.Dh IS". () 3 o.e~3716.?i35 I '1.'t'f'1X IO-ii "t'DqbX/~-"I
---".- - ~~

3
 'lNl,.w.:' X,'ll + X; rt1.
X, + )(7.. i,2. X. !2.I"" Xz.,

~r (rt, I~ f:1 "

~,,' (8)~ l ~'..
;;. \"
1-
] -
II + ~-tJ ~~~/I J

\Y.
~., '(k)vt [
1+ ~~ 1+~~:/ (;~) J
]
_Y;t [ ~a

Let l~O7.. and ~~N~

Typical ca.le~\ation at T:. 313~

f "I. • (SFa
I
[I ~&.oI3 ]-'il-
+
8';'O'~ I'" .a,() s e )( 10·...) 2..2 a, 013 'Iii
I. B 13)(
:1.
lO·'f (~
].(
: o.qqo

To; 313)() i,a:' o.qq,,) ~~,: I.ooa-

T:. f 0 '7 aK) ! IA "; I. 0.3 ~ ) !,,: 0."" S

rt (31!K):' (Q·if)(A,058x/4-'1) + (o.'1q)(/.8 13xlli") : /·8k6XJ()-"'P
MIX 0.';1 ... (o.7~)(.t:t'J') (0.'7't) +(o·,1JXr.oo->

: O,OI~ c:P- c.oO'lpa.,..~s I/e.,.y \Ue.1J w',th el(ptri~enta\ vallAe.

'111'11)(~I07.3k)':: o.;\I)(Lt,q~,x'o-'t) + (o"'l)(~.()q''''D-~) _ "I.:8x",·L/ p

(0 •• )) + (o.?q)( H)3:3 (O.iC!) + (o.~ 1)(o.Q6S) -

=o.ol.j;l9 c P- COMpares well UJith el(perimel'ltal valLie.

Notice that j I~ "::::' i a, "::: I. when th/s hOlds) then we can lAse a

Simple Ia.w 0; ",;)(tl.o(res.

~N\ IX -: x, rt, + 'xt rt.:t

4
 ~M'>t (313 k) ~ (().~I)(~,t5S XI()-~)'" (".79)( 1·813 x 10- 4 ): 1.8'xIP-"P~ O, CI 8'cp
~t.lJ)( ( I07.3K)::- (O.~I)( 'i. ~q7 XIO·I.J)t- (0.79)(1/.0 96 X/~- Y) ':. 'i.~'1xlt"'1 p:. o.o~~~ ,p

1.4 Consider that the binary gas A-B is such that at a given temperature 'T1A = 'T1s. Plot the
ratio of'T1".j'T1A versus Xs jf the ratio of the molecular weights of the two species, MI/Ms. is:
a) 100; b) 10; c) 1.

a· ~: : 100 ) XA:' I-Xs) YI",: 'Is

n u -
1,)( ..
xal(,( .L.
•
Xc r'1.e
'f SA .,. X's
\ 'TI

'XA + xa!As x~

_ (I-xe)
t1.ml~ _
__ + Xs
--:;'.:..10_1--_.,--

'1A (,-xe)+Xe qtA6 xe + (I-><e) ~6A

r;
PA6'(B)9~ rl ~ij [I+t~:) J
x::
I 1/11:<
Mil !
c + -;qs ~A8 ~BFI
-
I

r
j
1
1.1
.'.:1 ~
~6A:' (8/;'" \ + [1 t-~MAj~J
I
100 t).DboqS ~,oq4 8 i

Me
I MA Me 10 o.,Ho~O ~·I:,o~o
J
1 '·00000 J.()()OO I

Plets <>f ~':{Am) as a f~n't i on ~ Xa fo. ",u'{. n~~:)r . .t'.s.

T r.~5

k~c:'"

1000
. MA
C. -.. 1
M8-
O~8 1·0
o 0·,2 D,'i 0'0
Xe~

5
1.S A quick estimate of the viscosity of a binary gas A-B is
11M = x..tl1,t + Xsl1s'

What are the maximum errors in the viscosities estimated by the above equation when
compared to the results calculated for a), b) and c) in problem 1.4? Briefly discuss the
errors.

Usin~ 1}104U(; xA t\A -\" xe Y'\a in proble.m "'iJ

a.', when 1:!l.6..!.,oo) maximum e'rror of ~,,",IlC.: ~5 1;;)

Me ~

maximum -el"rot" <,t ,~MP( %)

b. tuhen 2.lJ.b..::/ o }
~'e . ": 10

c. Lvhe.n,M~ ~',..,o error-

Me

Tnes e ca I c.~ I at/'or') s show tha t the. taw o~ .."jJ(t~ res hold 5

excict Iy wh en M/i ':oMS I But E.vefl wh e r\ ~::. IOD J the ma)( i m t.I (r)

err-or i$ only .5 % <ind when MP,::Io 10) the. mdxirntJrn error is

folia
on 1'1 10 %, Not'-ce that b'l add.I"~ the 1,'9nter 'las (8) to th e
heavie" ,as (,q)) it t!na~1e$ the v,'seoslt'l very little., The
effect Or al~ i"~ the. hea.I/I'e.,... "as (Ii) to the /,''1 hte.r qas (a)
hDWE"!"") ~ha.rH,e$ the v{sGcsity l'I"Iore dY'ast,·ca.l/y~

6
1.6 At 920 K the viscosity of methane (CH4) is 2.6 x 10-5 N s m·l , and the viscosity of
nitrogen is 3.8 x 10-5 N s m·l • Plot the viscosity of methane-nitrogen mixtures versus mole
fraction methane at 920 K.

T= '1:;0 K ~ell't: :., x IQ-$ N S In-:z.

'1."'1: 9·a x If)-f N ..... m- :.

Let I":. CH Li ) ;': "';,

M~/oI"f~Jb.,)'i) M,.,~ ':.J8·oI3

~'J'(d}~ [ I I
<-
.
£B.o.] i t~·gXI.-.] t.~·.~ _-
'''.0'1
~... ~
I'"
]~la
~.bX/o
-5
38.012 - '.0"73

[1 . . ~a'OI3]-J1 [ b . 1~ [,,,.04 JV'f] :.o.S&f7 .t

! _I -1-
- (8)'7.. la.,)(
It..,:>'#
'T 8 )<lD- S
10- 5 .18.013

,c, (.1.'X/O·.5) (1-)(,)(3.B)( 10· S)

rt MI)( : () +
X,T(I-X.) 1·0'13 X, (o.eq'7)~ ( ,-X,
"1.1.',\)( )( lO-=S--\ 't.o
'X N .~ m·-t

().() 3.800 I,
,.,
3.5Q,5 •
0 •.;1
t 3·5
II)
a.Ii S,a7'1 ~

o.c,
o.a
~.'35

~.8'l a ) "bt /
ttM'" ~ X, tt I+ xa 'h.
'.0 "'DO
t(otlce hDW closely tAe.
a.! l
stmple. mixt ......e. ~""e
o 0.2.
I
a.Ii 0.' i I
o.S '.0
I

~ ....
apprO)(imates 'the 't'eSc.A/t.

7
1. 7 Estimate the viscosity of liquid beryllium at 1575 K. The following data are available:
atomic weight, 9.01 g mol·1; melting point, 1550 K; density at 293 K, 1850 kg m·3; crystal
structure, hcp; atomic radius, 0.114- nm. -

~ T"" :. (s:;o)(J!rS"o) :. BobO K

1-<6

T"~ ~~~~:. o·,QSI.f) +.,~s."e

From Fi,. I./() yt"{V")~:::3.b

V',*",: t"O.3X/~'3J (I.S5)(I.I~XIO'A" ' 0 . .5'11>

q·ol

'1*:. (o..5"'1'-l
3·b---:;.-
~_I~.OS
..

I/,
'1:: t~~ (fv'lRT) z.
$~ No

(MRT)'/z,=. q.O\'l\t me) \

a.31~L4
mol K
4
r\'S'7.5 l<.
'4
:.
Ya,
aLi3.S ( j'~ ) vYI "I
-I

T\':. Ilt.O S \3'13.5J 9

~ ~
Oil \ l_m....;o;....I_-
mol (O.II~XJ()·tIt)'"m1.. '.O~gx/O-l

J"l4.i/~ I k.:t ~~ I k'l Yz,m

"'~ 'I. k~ ,..,-'
::. 0.5301
m4 10 I j'l. 5 ' 1·4 S lC 10" 5-' (1'·8 < P)

8
1.8 Chromium melts at approximately 2148 K. Estimate its viscosity at 2273 K given the
following data: atomic weight, S2 g mol-l; density, 7100 kg mol; interatomic distance,
0.272 om.

~ T~ :. (s.;. 0) (J./ LJ 8): ,. It I, 'r&, x 10'4 K

K"e

r..r..- . «d "1 3
1•. I/t,"~)('IO
It : 0.'" 0 35 ) ~ ~ "i. q I
i

From Fi1. 'dO yt" {v.rt)J.";t. 3.'j

".' t"'7a" 10"]' (?,)(~.'~)(/o·e)' ~ O. ~'o~

V." ':._'- :.

If = 3·'" :. q. Sa
(O'bo~t

1(':. Y'l'f (MR\'t~

51. 1'10

]~ ~ -Y,.
(M.QT)Y.2:. ~ g.,3Pi" r ~: '7 3 K J : ~ q 1 (J~) '" 01
pl Yf'ol)l K

'1: q.3~ Iqq, jV:'~Yf, mo\

I r".{)~3~ I()~!
(0. ~ 1",)(, lo·q)'L Tn 1.

': c.:' 0'13 J '/1., '/z.

m z.
I 1 k ~ ~~
I () $'" ~ '/'2.
1\ kIi,IAJ rn
I J t'z. S
: ,.5' X 10. 3 k~ WI· I S·I (,.5{' c p)

9
 1.9 At 1273 K a melt of Cu-40% Zn has a viscosity of 5 cP and at 1223 K
this same alloy
bas a viscosity of 6 cPo Using this information, estimate the viscosity of
the alloy at 1373 K.

t .]
" : ,.q ex p R T
~&,.

.!h :
rho
ex pflill
R
(.2.T, _.L)]
TAo

Azt '- T. Tt. ..en, ~\

p. T,- T,. \ rt'l.)
~G-~ _ (1=13)(,..,,,,3) ~~:.Sft,'77k
-p;- - (1!I"1~ -/-(.itS ) S

'1.(1~75K):: 5 cP

rt ('3?3 k) , 5 exp [s~'n['3'7S -, ~ " '5"~. 3,&' c P

1.10 Many metal processing operations, such as steelmaking, employ a slag

as a means by
which impurities are removed from the processing operation. Thus, it becom
es necessary to
characterize certain propenies of the slag, such as viscosity. at temperatures it
will encounter
in the processing operation. Using Bills' method, estimate the viscosity of a
50 wt. % SiOz,
30 wt. % CaO, 20 wt. % AIZ0 3 slag· at 1773 K.

Conve.rtin~ to mDI tr"act iol"'l

Mole

Jo I'~ b lo. )<H"S l 0. 1.25"1

10
 Fi~. 1./5 AJvmina has a silica. e~L.l·lyalenc.e XQ,) wh~ch
depends 01') theAI.Oa!CaO Y"a..tio and on the total All"" GDnter)t,

XAIIIO J _ ()./~5 &j, ':. 0.34,7

Xc.a.o ~o.3'i;"S

First locate XAIz.~3 on the. vertical a~is (-o./~6» then

loca.te the ~orre5p"nd in~ C,UiVe. tit the ·Y"a.tio equa.l to 0.3''1-
The Sili ca. e'i>LAivalence is r~a.d f",ort) the bottom ax'" as X~:O.JSO.
XS~01. + x~ : o. 53i25 t o.15~.1 o. '8~

From Fi~.I.lb the silIca e~\.Aivd.lence. of c>,bf3~ is fOlJfld on the

bottDM axis and carr'led I.tpto 'the. interse.ction with tl-le

10000C (,1'73 k') ,'Sot hel"\"I"l.

The. co r re.spondi,,'1 Lc'i,oT'l. i.s l'"'ead from the vertical al(is,

LoS 10 t( ':. /:b) 1\:. 3'J,8 Poi~e

1.11 Assume that the viscosity of a glass varies with temperature according to Eq. (1.18),
At 1700 K it has a viscosity of 20 N s mol; at 1500 K it is 100 N s m·2. What is the viscosity
at 1450 K?

rLRT
'1 ~ A ex p ~G! ]'

.6&1: T,Ta. ..e"..frt,J-:. (110o){,Eoo) J.,n(JOO \:. ~.~5~XI0'4 K

R 1;- Tz. '\ 'ttl (11DO -IS()O) ~oo·J

'1 (,SOO K): 100 N 5 m- ol

'1(I'iS01~)::'IO() !><p G.05~X(O~[_I___I_ll

L I"/SO ISDO]J

't ( I Lj .5'0 K) '! J 00 ex p (0 ..., i ;. ) '! ! 6O. 5 N s rY) - '2..

11
1.12 When oxides such as MgO and CaO are ad<.!ed to molten silica, the activation energy
of viscosity is reduced from 135 kcallmol for pure Sial to approximately 39 kcallmol for
0.5 mole fraction of Sial' We can observe even more dramatic effects when oxides such as
Li20 and NalO are added to silica. For example, for 0.5 mol fraction Si02• the activation
energy is only 23 kcallmol. Explain with the aid of any appropriate sketches, why this
phenomenon occurs.

II") both cases o:s; =3:1 sO'He ori'linal S{()J. networK (s brOk'en

d01lJ1'I 1:0 Some exte.nt. Therefore. the an.sw(.1"" must be. cilAEa to

differenc.es betwee.n the f't"ee. icms i .c:.e.) Cci,,;t when CdO is added

(as in Fj~".,,,) and l',+ when L.iz.O ,'s adJed, Diva.lent Cci+~ ioYlS

c:lttrciC:t two vertic.es of ne;qhhori'r"l'l tetrahedt"a (see. Fi9·lde7). to

a loc.a.li:ed "'e~ion :ind tnus hinder motion of the. )a.t"~e sr'Jicate

.
I~ns. ~n "!:-he !l'ther hand) monO'v'alent Li t' IOflS
. of'lly associate with

~ne. \'~rt'e)( and do not hindet- rr1o'tion,

1.13 The glass transition temperature for the IO~[i-r~~r-r-~lI-r-,~r-.-~~----

soda-lime-silicate glass shown below is

10M
approximately 720 K. Test the applicability Anne~ling point
of Eq. (1.18). Does it apply? Explain why
lOll
or why not.
.. 10111
.~
8..
!- 10'
's
~
'MIrkin, {
ranp

Meltin, {
nn&e

l~'~--~~~--~~~--~~~--L-~~~
200 ~oo 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
T,"",perature.'C

t\ ~A e.xp r~nl
[R1J

12
 ~
P ::r .:s ::)
f- -C> (>
- .L
<:) <:> I- ('
w ~ ...::5
~ .r
-,...
..5
~ -h
0 " "
~ ~
n
,.. 00
- ~ ~ ;- 0
U>
o o 9.\ ~ -..:) .... -='-
o o (J) ~ ;:l €
I .::D
;:) ~~,
..... ... ..... -D
+
-> .S) (> ~ ~
.....
-l ..r: ...) U\ () ~ ~I~
-14'
~ Q +~
() ~
0 0 r- " c:::r
..-
:s "~
rt (to

-l ~ ~ ~ ~ CA
~ -i
-41- Vl ~ -C
....OX ')( ~
)( lI(
. • IU .,.
~
A ....C) ....
C) C> ~ ~
• C>.
... "..., ... ~•
-.:;, ~
x- •.c • ~ ~ ~
•
.c ~ :l'7
oJ 0

N- o"'")
~
---"":,\--,
"
~
0 0- "
-~- -.-
...... " '\.
Vol - ;::;:, ~I~
'" -
0 0
- 0 -
0
,.... -tG'> • of
~ N 0 I»
~-So .3
UI ~ ..,
~ 1U -J u.o - - ::3
"" ~
;::J
0 ~ . 0 .L

L -'= -l: 0"- -l

<.Ja
Ot
Q \"A G' U\ -0
() Q b\ 0 ()
[:"

t»
-.., ~
- -
~ ..t
--
:~ )(,
)c )(, x -.
...
-....
0 0 0
t> 0 ;x:
,
-.
-• • •
.c J:
- !
.£. .c. .c .........
I I
P, I.ineai plot ove.r t.he. entire. tempe.rature ral'l~e is 'nOt obt.a'lijed. HeVlce)

:~.(1.18) aFplies ~111'( to h'm\ted raT1qes; at bes't. i'he. 'ov-ea.I<5 'In the. C('(l"Ve

:ol""respond to str-uct:..\ra.\ c.haY\9e.~ 'I~ the ~Ia.ss,

1.14 Equation (1.30) differs in fonn from Eq. (1.18). Based on Eq. (1.30) and Table 1.6,
calculate the viscosity of 0.5 Al20)-0.5 Si02 (mol fraction) in the temperature range of 2100
to 2500 K. Plot your results as In 1] vs. T·!. Does Eq. (1.18) adequately represent your
results?

Ei' 1.:30 'l-:.AT exp 2$oaJ

9

:;; 't : I r; ..~ + It") i +' 0.., (,) S

FroYl'1 'Ti~:e. /." - F(>Y" mol ft'dCt i,,'I) 1;/1. 03 ~ :;.S)-In A ':, IB.51.t) B: JS. B~-

Inr'(~-18.S''ii"lYlT+
a. .58T 5 X JQ"i

;l.o

1·5

,.0
I" y(
0·5

-0.5 ...L_ _ _ _......I._ _ _ _---"L..-_ _ _---'

'1.0 ~."S '1.50 "'1 •.,5

.,.
-\ ) K- ' x 10 "f

Since.. a plot ~f In '1 "e ... s~s ...L is linear) the.Yl E'~.1.18 would
T
ade~l.4ateJy repl"tsent the 'f'~s~/ts.

14
1.15 Estimate the viscosities of LiCl and LiBr at 1000 K. Which is greater? Can you
explain your results on the basis of -ionic bonding?

It: AT ex p[T
[, 000 eJJ

Table ,.7
-In A e
I
I L.i CI 15·'11 ",.5'a.

L'18l'" 15'·1 Ii 3."5'

II" rt (Li Col):' -IS.ql r In (I'D');''''' 5a. ': -Jj,'f8

n. (:. i C\) -::::. 0.0" '3 Po j s e
In tl(:"j6r)~ -/S'.I'"I;- In(looo)tB .• 5': -'1.58

"l (l..i 5r) ~ 0.(,1/05 Poise

}l. (Li cJ) i s ~ rea tel'" t~an '1. (Lj sr), The ele c:ty-oneq at'i v it '( differenc e
between L.i and Col is sligntl'1 ~reater than that betweert Li and Sr".

l-leVlce)todtsplace tne anioY'lS re.lat'lve to the. ,atConS land vlee-vi!v-sa)

by shea't"in, re~u.ire.S a ~1'ea.ter 5tV"es's in Liel than in LiBr.

15
1.16 Estimate the percent change in viscosity of polymer melts on changing the shear strain
rate from 10-4 S·1 to 10.1 S·l,

As a.n :,xlitr.?le) :-:z:e:'t the poly rfjer to be p~iyst'Yrer'le. ~,;.:: ~i'les d.

tcrmin~ -:en1ferat.Lt:e 'If) the ran~e.·. T-!.ST~:'5"'OK>T""I'5T~ 'l:I.fSS~·

:. 'i8S"~T~!'~()I<.

Use N ':./000 dna 8:'/0000 for the. de~,...~es of pDlyme"'i~aCj"r..

Now U!e f~. (I'~!l-» with k (T) f rom Table I·S.

NoW ~I=e. £}(1.3'1)' The f()lIowin~ ccmpuTer pr"~ram :.."!fves the. pe.rcent
C.ha.fl'1 e il'l vl'~cosity fcr d(~f~r~n"C 5h~ar sta.ins for the. '('an~e.

of forrnit)~ tempe1"a.tLAres aYld. the two differen7: de~V"ees of

po 1'1' ~71 ~ r; i a t i 0 fl .

10 PR!NT' for Rselect frol 1000 to 10000'

20 PRINT' for T select frol 485 to 560 1 •
30 ·Prable. 1.16 set up for polY8tyreDe
(0 INPOT M: INPOT T 'R i8 degree of polYlerizatioD, T is telperatur r

50 LPRIMT ·*t*t*t**ttt*t*******t**tt** •• **t********** •• **t****************

60 LPRINT' Telperature i6';T;'X Degree of polYlerizatioD is·;1
70 LPRINT'
80 LPRINT" Rate, l/s Viscosity, B8/12 Percent chaDge"
90 LPRiNT' ~******** *'*.*t*t**.**•••• * ***t***t******'
100 &T : 2.7Et16/1·6 - 9.51 'Xl is kIT) in Table 1.8
110 HETAOO : 3.4*LOG(M)/2.303 t &1 'Eq (1.35)
120 NETAO: 10·MiTAOO 'viscosity at zero strain rate
13C 'constaDts for Eq (1.34)
140 AI: 6.12*10·(-2.645) : A2 : 2.85*10"(-3.645) : ALPHA: .35S
150 RATE: 10"(-4)
160 BATIO: 1 + Al*(RATEtNETAO)·ALPH! + A2t(RATE*NiTAOJ·(2*ALPHAJ '[q (1.3()
170 NETA: R£TAO'RA110 ',iscosity 3t T,strain rate
180 11 RATE) .00011 THEN 200
190 KETAl: AETA 'viscosity at 10"-4 strain rate
200 PCT: ( (NET! - NE1Al)/NEiAl )*100 'percent change iD viscoait1, COI-
pared to t~at at strain rate of 10·-(
210 It ~A7E ) .11 THEN 240
220 ~PF.IN! 051NG' 1."'#
,PCT
......... """ .• r·;RATE.HET!
220 RATE: 10-SATE : GOTO 160
240 END

16
4t t itt.i*****ti t .*"t*t**tt****iiitt*,*f*i* ••• ******** iif**if'.
Te~perlture is 455 ! Degree of polYlerization is 1000
la:e. l/s Vis:ositJ, Ms/82 Percent change
tHHUU i** •• ,t*t********. uunuuun
0.000 1 5.82E+J2 0.00
0.0010 5.8Si+02 0.61
0.0100 5.95£+02 2.29
0.1000 6.20£+02 S.tS
***tt**.*i********t****f*****t****f*********'*f**t**r*ft'*****
Telperature is 560 I Degree of polYlerizatioD is 1000
Rate, l/s Viscosity. R s/_2 Percen t change
nun,**, tt**t*f*f***ftt.*. ununun**
0.0001 3.61i+Ol 0,00
0.0010 3.68£+01 0.24
0.0100 3.70£+01 0.81
0.1000 3.75£tOI 2.16
Itt*tttt •• ttitlttt*tttt"llittttttt.ttltt*,t*tt**ltil*titttt'"
Temperature is 485 I Degree of polJlerization is 10000
Rate, l/s Viscosity, K s/12 Percent change
tuuuu tt**tttt.,*t ••• *t. uuununu
0.0001 1.60E+06 0.00
0.0010 1..88!:+ OS 17.58
0.0100 2.90[+06 81.11
0.1000 7.1SE+06 346.60
tttltltttl'!ltttlttttlt'lttt***'t*tt**ttlt'******'*ttl***t****_
TeDperature is 560 1 Degree of polYlerization is 10000
Rate, l/s Viscosity, Hs/a2 Percent change
u*uuu *_.***tt***.t***** uuuuunu
0.0001 9.49£+04 0.00
0.0010 9.96£+04 4. 91
0.0100 1.14E+05 19.79
0.1000 1. 63i+ 05 71.64

The percenta.qe chaF'lqe in viscoSity increa.ses w',th shear stain rate. and

decreases with it"\creasin~ tempera.ture but is 4r"<1I11a.t'lcally chanqed

b'1' th e de<aree of pol'(rt)eri catr 0 n.

17
1.17 Estimate the viscosity of poly(e-caprolactam) at 526 K (see Table 1.8). Compare its
viscosity to that of a branched form (octachain). On the basis of the structure of polymers,
explain the effect of branching· on the viscosity.

Table-I.S Po·ly(€-Ca.pr-c!actam)-LiYle.a y l< :-S.o} N:J'to

Poly (£-C.:ip,.ola c tam)- "c.ta.c.hai n K-; -8.?, N" 5:'-0

I~ ~o: 3.'i lo~(N)+k(T)

loq ~() tl(ne.a.r): SI'1I~9 3'10 -8 ~ 0,'071

rto (Ii YI ea. r ) '! 'i. 05 N $ ",,- 1.

l,,~ Y}o(Oc. tdcna i n) ~ 3.'i 1CJ9 SSo - 8.7 -.. 0·""

'10 Coeta.enain): LidS N "..,,-a.

E.ffe.~Z; c,; bra.nchrn~ \6 to i~~rea.6e tn~ viscDsity'

18
1.18 Refer to Example 1.6. Estimate the viscosities at the glass transition temperature (T,)
and 10K above T,. Comment on the sensitivity of the viscosity with temperature near the
glass tranSition temperature .

.lo~ "0 ~ 3.,,\ \o~ N +k(i)

t.\siYl1 the data of example \."

'11 >C.I01/D
l~~ Y\ : a·~ lo~ ('t~oe) + ""_1.. -q.SI

~ :.3'13 K
Ib
100 h.: 3.~ 100 ('}hoe) + ,J.''1)( '...0 - ".0'/ ~ 13.s~ T)O - q. 51 ~ 1'i.O~
'J \J 3"13

'l t'3'1 ~ K) ~ I ~-'-\

T~+loK~ 383K
~.1X'OI~
lo~ .," 3.L.f lo~ (, Doe) +' 383" -'1·5,:. IS.S'1 t 7r.Sc -9.5 t :. r:~.:E

'f\\~8~K) ': 10'"

V'·sc.osity cnanqes drastically near the. tro..nsition'te'(YI?era.t~re.

19
2.1 Refer to the results of Example 2.1. The viscosity of the glass is 1 N s m-2 , and the
viscosity of the metal is 3 x 10-3 N s m-2• The densities of the glass and the metal are
3.2 kg m·3 and 7.0 kg m-3, respectively. For t3 = TrIS and oJ = 1 nun and 02 = 2 nun,
calculate the maxijnum velocities and average velocities of the glass and the metal.

VCJ. :. 3: " : 0.31'5 m1.s·'; Vm:' ~.x~c) .. a :~. ,.8&)( I~"~ maS·'
c ':. (~.i-'7.t)(I~/lJ-1}(~.al C05(11:.) :. -11. '1'8 s·,
a 3)( )0''3 \8

Ca -
• (~X(O·9t (9.8)
I.,\!LJ., elL V, . .·.,\
(.1n (
COS 8] + -Jl·Lf"S a.XJO
)(. '3) ':. '.'131></1,' it ms· 1

C, -
a).
• [ {axUf-}- (IX/b·!)4 (, X Ib·!l.9.:A
.,•• S/'XIO·"j + O,'a/O
j 1'r
~ COS~si+(-II''i"g)(I)(IO-~):t. ... b~L.JXID·a.ms-1
.

tTl a.SS:Max.ye./
I 's at X=o: lJJ'• - yi\9(65's +C I "• ;tv, ." . "'"
v~·"'I-··v;.,XIO &.l • .a m 5·/
•
M,,'l. vgl.
',.
I" at x:
.\ •
\X/O t"I'). \J~ :. -
(IXlb· 1t(Q·8)
r"l'!".':II-::l\
(Jil.
C.rJ5 8} +~.o:"t XIO
,~

1-1 ':~. b~;')( !f),a m s·'

/lv~. v~l· v, <ttv. dx =-+f.l·'J~~· @ +<}x , C, - 5'2~' ~

.. ~ O~3XIO·A- (~.COI):I(!}.e) cosf.ru. :. 2 O~~ \TI S·'
• . (,)(0.3/;) l87 .

Met~I·. Max. vel. i~ at X:.lmm where the. qlass i~ a.t ie~ min. vel.

va : •. O~OlXIO·am 5·'

Min. Vel. ": 0 ~~ rSa r

Avo,Vel.
. -v.o:s-ca,
a'1 "~cix-5a.-S"$'L
-' ~
- I
)(29 CD5
b'Jm
a
-cA ><+c 3Idx
J
1

• c _ c,a(s,+s,) _ ~ COS£d[S: -s,;J

.! ;t '11m ~~-.sIJ

oa - (-"..g)(O.OOOl±O.QOI) _ ('l,S) Cos ti) Do.oo;!.)3- (0,"01)3,

:::/.9313xlb a (1.)(L1.'~8'XIO'~)L(O.OO")-(O'DOI~
:. ,.) St.3 ~ Iff- '(() 5. 1

20
 10 ·ProbleI2.1
20 PI: 3.141€ : G: 9.8 'S is gravitational acceleration
30
40 'Inpat properties Gfor glass Kfor letal
50 VISeG : 1: VISC! : .003: RHOG : 3.2: RHO! : 7 ',iscosities and densities
60 BiTA : PI!S ; DiLl: .001 ; DiL2 : .002 'fill thiclne&&ea
70 HiT!! : VISeft/RBOft : BiTAS : VISCG/RHOS 'kinelatic ,iscosities
80
90 'Evaluate CODstants
100 C2: (RHOG - RBOft)*DELl*GtCOS(BETA)/YISC!
110 C3: DEL2*DEL2 f StCOS(BETA)/(2*META!) + C2tDEL2
120 Cl: ( (D£L2"2 - DILl"2)!RE1A! t DiLl"2/Hi1AG ) * G*COS(BiTAI/2
t C2*(DiL2-DiLl)
150 '
1{6 'C~lculate ,elociti~a in the glass
150 VMAIG: Cl 'laI. velocity at I : 0
lBu iKiNG: Cl - e.viLl*DILl*COS (BETAI/12tNiTA G) 'lin. ,elocity at I : DiLl
170 VAVGG: Cl - G*DELltDELl*COS(BETA)!( 6tRE1AG ) 'av,. velocity
180 '
190 'Calculate velocities in the letal
200 VMAIM: - G*DELl*DILl*COS(BETAI/(2*NETAM) - C2*DELI t C3 'ial. nlocity
at I : DELI
210 VMISM: 0 'lin. velocity at I : Di~2
220 VAVGM: C3 - C2*(DKL 2tDKLlI/2
- (G*COS/.BiTA)/!S*NETUI )*IDiL2·3 - DUr3)/lDEL2 - DELI) 'a1(. vel.
230 .
24Q LPRIN1 'The la:i!UI. linilul. and 3ier3ge velocities in the glass are'
250 LPR!NT VMAI&;"a/s ";VMIHG;"./s ";iAVGG;".!s ' : LPRIM!
260 LP~l~! 'The laxiauJ. linilul, anc average velocities in the letal are"
no L;'~I!iT vHUMj't/. "iVMINMi".!. 'iH'tGM:",/s • : LPRINT
280 RNj

Th9 13!iIUI. lini!UI. and average velocities in the glass are

2.023513E-02 lis 2.022064E-02 I/S .0202303 lis
The taxi.uI. lini,uB, anj average velQcities in the leta1 are
2.022064E-O~ ,Is 0 a/s 1.187082£-02 l!e

21
2.2 A continuous sheet of metlll is cold-rolled by
passing vertically betwl!en rolls. Before entering the
rolls, the sheet passes through a tank of lubricating oil ~ -~~
equipped with a squeegee device that coats both sides
of the sheet uniformly as it exits. The amount of oil
that is carried through can be controlled by adjusting
the squeegee device. Prepare a control chart that can
be used to determine the thickness of oil (in mm) on Squeegee
the plate just before it enters the roll as a function of
the mass rate of oil (in .kg per hour). Values of
interest for the thickness of the oil fIlm range from
0-0.6 mm. Data: Oil density, 962 kg m-3 ; oil Rolls
viscosity. 4.1 x 10-3 N s m-2 ; width of sheet, 1.5 m;
velocity of sheet, 0.3 m S-l.

Va ~ v."., at )(:' e) 13: 0

I
In eta\ I oil {-'II rl\
Vol. +Iow r-atedtwo side5):~~iv.!w&
~
I
:. Q:'d.(~3~~+\l"M)W' £%.(;1..,5)

Mass flow - W:. ~Q x~

•
W.ill (q~il k~)il(q. Sm'J \ m2. \( 1 tJ 51.:\ c\ (.1)( o. 3m\r \' ~ yon)' q~.-. k~\ ~
-(5) m'i 5i'J\'i'\XIc)"lNs'J\~~Wl-)" \ 5')\ \ m,'J

w: •. ::,;. xlo"h~
5
$! + S.~5Sx/o~k 5
rt'l S yt\
1L-
:.'7,QI.3)(loJ
vnm
'n~,
S!+ !.\I'1XIO! kq
h~ mm
s

1000+ Mass flow rate per side

kq hr-.. I 1000

5'00

°0 0.\ 0.. 0.'3 0·... o.S 0·"

mm
22
2.3 A Newtonian liquid flows simultaneously through two parallel and vertical channels of
different geometries. Channel" A" is circular with a radius R, and liB" is a slit of thickness
26 and width W; 26 « W. Assume fully developed flow in both channels and derive an
equation which gives the ratio of the volume flow rate through A to that through B.

ChaY) n eI "A"

QA ~ ( p~ ~ p~ + ~ Cj) ~ ~~

Ch a Y'I () -e \ II 6'/

Qe -:. f.Po- PL 1- ~'l\ a w ~s

\ l ) 3 rt

• GA _ 3n- R"i _ 31iR~

.• Qe - ~ B)(~) V-/ a~ - I t. W $) 3

2.4 Develop expressions for the flow of a fluid between vertical parallel plates. The plates
are separated by a distance of 26. Consider fully developed flow and determine
a) the velocity distribution,
b) the volume flow rate.
Compare your expressions with Eqs. (2.20) and (2.23).

a.. £',. (~, _D) With Flow in the direction of fj'f'a Vity. I '1<:0
L >Y
VeI. D,srnbut,on
• " (~Pp-PI.){c:.'2._
~ v)( .:. ,t n + M,I...
. . :1.'\
., J '}
.........

.........
\
"\
........
b'~l (~.'(.5) with f/4>W in the direct/on of ~ravit'(.
"
Vol. Flew Rate~ G= a s3..,tt'
!l r\
( ~~ + -t--7
Pn-PL \

A comparison 'Illth E"1s, (01,_0) and la1.a3) shows the effec.t of ~ra\Jity

On the velocity dl~tri bu.t i 01" ar'ld the. Volume. flow rate.

23
2.S Repeat Problem 2.4 but now orient the plates at an angle (3 to the direction of gravity
and obtain expressions for
a) the velocity distribution,
b) the volume flow rate.
Compare your expressions with the results of Problem 2.4 and Eqs. (2.20) and (2.23).

h
I I
I

v., .1" t~'- '1") [\R + e~ cos.eJ

In thi" case the -+,oree due. to ~ra.v;t'( is not ~~ but ra.theV'"

(>~ cos,,· The term In the. brac.ket a~ it apPt6.Y's here. is more
qenera\ in the sense that the expressions in the brac\(.ets of
problert1 •. '1 are Spec.ia.\ cases· The term in the brac\o(e.ts ma,(,
also be viewed different\y. For example. the volume floW Y""te rna'\(
be W'ritteY)~

Q, ~ ,:,~,[(Po-Pc)+ ~9~

24
 The brackets caY) now be viewed as a "total 1'\'"es5ure drop " In

that the e~ h 1 'Itself) ca,V\ be v iewed a s a pr-es5t.('f'e) e.~.) th e pressure

in a fluid at a pO'lnt is ~i"en b~ the hei9ht of a fluid above.
t hat po i n t .

2.6 A liquid is flowing through a vertical tube 0.3 m long and 2.5 mm in l.D. The density
of the liquid is 1260 kg m·3 and the mass flow rate is 3.8 x 10.5 kg 5.1•
a) What is the viscosity in N s m- 2?
b) Check on the validity of your results.

AsslAme that

1 1.v .. I
,! "_ \......................,~ 13.8)(lbo6kl3lk~~
I S N1-
:. o.aq:as- 1'(5 m°;'

checK for laminarf/f1w·Re.-:.4fQ

) frDfl
:..:iLfw\-:.!i.J&.
lToytm rr'Ol'\.
Re:. l.I\a.eX/f1-5"k9\ I \ mz.\~sz. _ .1
17' 5 o.ooa6"mo.~q~5'NS ~rn -1of."3IXlb

Re <~/()() J f/''w is lami nar.

25
2.7 Water (viscosity 1003 N s m02) flows parallel to a flat horizontal surface. The velocity
profile at x = Xl is given by

Vz = 6 sin [ ;J y

with u" in m sol and y as distance from surface in mm.

a) Find the shear stress at the wall at Xl' Express results in N m02 •
b) Farther downstream, at X = X2. the velocity profile is given by

Vz = 4 sin [ ; 1y
Is the flow "fully developed"? Explain.
c) Is there a y-component to flow (Le., uy)? Explain with the aid of the continuity
equation.

Q. ~~l(L~~, :a1l'Cos(~y) tyX~-vt~

cVx
.1
g
y I
'(:o
_ alTm
- 6 mm
I \ IXIO
3
rnrl'J:: 3XI"'31t' 5-' "
rn ) Y)(
':. .5 \ 3
-/0 Hs3x'I> if
rI'J 1. 5
:.-3 frN m- a

b. U", : f(x) not fully developed.

c. ~ +.Ib!:i + ~ - 0; Ass I.( rn e ~ ~ con st. and. O,V,} :. 0

dX oY o!- - ",i:

~ -- ~
~X -
. d\)" ':. _(o)),c)
d'( > \oX c\Y'J v~:. -(~)
I
v + c1
d:X 1 1

There )5 a. '< C'omponent to ;olDW

26
2.8 For a polymeric melt that follows a power law for shear stress versus shear strain rate,
derive an-equation for the velocity profile and volume flow rate for flow between parallel
plates.

a. ttt·(:.r·\q) ?:y.(:.~Po~P")'( for f\ow be.tween parallel plates.

~
n

dvx
Powevo Ia.w ''(x =- rt 0LdY

ell. ~ t~:~·r Y*dy

J.
I'l t\+\
\.hc : _.!L.[ po-p,-l
'(\+ \ no l J"( rr
+ CI

Bout'lclar,,{ Condit'lon', at Y:oS, Vx=o

r
c,o..lL. p. - R]-li n"
n+ J Lflo L ] ~ l"I

lk :. ( n) [Po -1'..1-11 fa .!W- LW1

tn+T LYlo L 1 L - '{ J
v: AX : L!LJ Po-f'~~
\n+ VL '10 LJ S
1W-

~)(:. max _ ~)[Po -

~Y'I+I
PI- i; '~
~ " _
v~
v)(trlil( ~
,-(§)y rr J
[r
1'IaJI. [
max.. il'"
v)(
1"\..
Ylo L Y - - $¥ '( - Vx

~ Vxdp 1"\ v.trial( y -(a~5'W-) ma.x f '( ~"'+I]$

--vr
v. Os [
_ \ ,\ ",ax YI"IiX
b. v. ~ o~ v. - v. ~)

- rnIX(n+\ \
vx: Vx ~cini'I'}
J..
Q~~x (asw):.vx~(n+-I )\a$w).aL~_§p·-p·r
X~ n t ' \ ( l \ + t7t '10 L WS
.,:'
27
2.9 The power law polymer of Problem 2.8 has constants 110 = 1.2 X 104 N s m,2 and
n = 0.35. It is injected through a gate into a thin cavity, which has a thickness of 2 nun,
a width of 10 nun and a length of 20 nun. If the injection rate is constant at 200 IIUIt S,l,
estimate the time to fIll the cavity and the injection pressure at the gate.

.
CaVlt ( ~~
rn ) ( IX!o-:\) [ -:) - '1 3 ,.,
m3 s- I
1 Vol:.IIne.. ~ Glx/o tn ,;!XID m ::.L.iXIO m: Q':.~XIO-

_ '7 ..I
. 4)(10 m"" S
TIme tofil l the cavlt1 = \ -'7 i':. as
aXlo ""

Q 7..~ /-'2-)
\;. n t )Il[fot'Zo-Lp~lJ~\\/ ~ e.!l±.\
t n)
n

F. - R - ~ ey'l +\ I ~
r:I

• L."1"~
1
w_ nn .. ''I, l
o.'aS
~
-
Po-R ~ (iX!ll)fo/1+1~;_\_~~ (l.a><lo"\)(~XJO-~) _" 5 ~
" 1\0.35 /\0.01) (_!l)1.'70 _~.o~aXIO N m-
1)(10

Assume thd.t fi~1 atm :/.OII.(XII/,ym oa • Then P~:"O.356xloS"/IIm°:"

2.10 A wire is cooled after a heat treating operation by being pulled through the center of
an open-ended, oil-filled tube which is immersed in a tank. In a region in the tube where end
effects are negligible, obtain an expression for the velocity profile assuming steady state and
all physical properties constant.

Tube inner radius: R

Wire radius: KR
Wire velocity: U

Assume. constant propert/'es and fUll\{ developed f!ew.

i: COYI') pOfle}'lt Or rna mentum ~ f~. (F) in Table .(. a) ,,:. ~t + '1. 1 ~. Vlr~~')1 + ~ a
1

. -d-lr
~ ~o
d');!-\:o Po-:.Pi 0 horl=ot1~3.1
O'dr 0')

28
 d.!::..
\"'" ) v!-·- c, In r+
I , \

r~:.C'!
Cit"' -
I ) 0 V.. - C, c"
at r" R ; vt ':. C ':. t; I \ ~1 R + c;"') c~ =- - C I IVI R

Ii: r:.I<K') Vc:' U o:.c,()n1<R-InR} ':c.,\Y1'r<) CI':.~

.. V. oU~, K) Qr r - ir, ~ °L~K} In[ RJ

2.11 Starting with the x-component of the momentum equation (Eq. (2.52», develop the
x-component for the Navier-Stokes' equation (constant p and 7], (Eq. 2.63».

1.,t,!,(.i,5~) ~t tJu" ':: -(-h ~v"V~ +1Y ev,,\i,l( +t. eVi VI()

-(~x YICIC+-t (;"OC + ~i' ra~)-~~ +.e9x

;" E" pand t he. eon vect', \Ie. n'lO meYl tu m te . . m s!

ix(\' IJIC) VX : '< VI( S; +- 'VI( %x ~ VI(

~y( ~1JJ()'Jy -:. ~ v" ~~" ... vrtr fvx

v~ ;.. \};.4- ~ v.
Ler (e v,,) V.. :. ~ \),,, dde or

C.ombine. cil w',th I with ~:. COftost.

e~ .-~
dt -
[v) ~ -+\" x
d V'f +
d l'
""'----J~
::. 0 by
d\J~~
d Col'
+ vx (hI"
Jx
+ v'(.9J:a+ \)~ ~~-r.
,,,nt i n l.4 'tt '(
d,( d=
-
·.·.
fdVl( d \lxl
Fr-Dm £~. (~.s,») (~,5'q)/~.",) wit.h 'i'xx ~ - rt ~dX + dX J for £'1' (a,so)

29
 d ..", • _ n Jl~ YI..2.. \q\J.~\
d)( (.XI(· '\~-'~dX d)('"j

cl d1. IJ)C 0 (d V¥)

dY 1''()( :.-I\~ - t'\ dx tdY

I ~ \.1..)
d
~ -= r ax ':. - nd\J,r.L
~~ z. - r'\ dX \ ~ ~

J.
~x ~l( +
.L
c)y t yX i-
d
dt
1}1\J)( Iv". d1. yJ 6 [d
c:~~ ~ -Y("[JXl. +' d va. +~ -rt dXl}x
v)(-to
dV'f 0
0'( + 7'c
vJJ
"'---"'~
=0 by con'ti)'}:.Jity

• D dVx r d Vlc oVx ~ _ ~p Jl.~ dl.~l

,[~'C +\)~ 0)( + Vy ~'( +V. d!'-J -- ~~ i" Yl[dX~ i" d'\'l.. + d~J + Tl~)(
ra\)l\

2.12 Air at 289 K flows over a flat plate with a velocity of 9.75 m S-l. Assume laminar flow
and a) calculate the boundary-layer thickness 50 mm from the leading edge; b) calculate the
rate of growth of the boundary layer at that point; i.e., what is dolclx at that point?
Propenies of air at 289 K: density: 1.22 kg mol; viscosity: 1.78 x 10-5 N s m-2 •

v.
a. £1 (~./!)()) ~ ~ 5',()(~:);. ~ V=+-: I;?~;'<)o·
0
'! f.L.JS:r:'(/~-5 1712. 5 -r

&' -
_
S." l-/. "{ t-~
..~ I
x 1(;- m%.
I
0-0 ~vn
1GlJ. '1.5" S
yYj r _
- I. ~ , g X 10m':.
.3
,. S b S mm

I
b. *'T( ¥J xv,. -f{
~ 5'
't.
~I _ -
-5'
I.Lfo-'tXIO- ml.
5 ~.7 5''''
S
I/~
I _!.~
(D. 05')'" m". - I. h 8.< /.

~: : l.a'8)"O-~ at: x: So rnrn

30
2.13 A fluid flows upward through a vertical cylindrical annulus of length L. Assume that
the flow is fully developed. The inner radius of the annulus is #CR, and the outer radius is R.
a) Write the momentum equation in terms of velocity. b) Solve for the velocity profile.
c) Solve for the maximum velocity.
I-. r

'*
~ +at~
a..F~lly developed fIDW)V2- :.f(r)

Table ;.?> ~~. (F): 0::. - +t'\ ~ 3r{ r ~t)] + ~'3r) q.:<3
, L{ '(' dva) ~ L l j f _ o~, R
"cif"\ df" r'l \d! ~ ~
I
C..

b. r ~~' :.(j! - ~~) ~ tC ~ v~:. ~(l~ - ~'J) rt+ c, In yo + c~

l

e.c. at r~kR) V,. H) ~ r~R)Vl-~O

, C
10 I
:....L(Ji.e..._~~)
~f'I. \de
~\-K")R1.)
\0 K
C~':.- 'i1f\~
I r4E -~~\R~[I+{I-Kl) lnRl
~ \nKJ

Va :....Ltlf. -
'itt \d:
~ea\[~1._Rt.r,_
I)
In (~)lJ
L t\-K") \;;K]
mAx, .l v•
C. V~:. Va. whe~~~o

~:. 0
0'1"
':. (..ie.
dt
__ ~~\,!_
~:;.n.
~ -L (dP _ ~~\ (\-\'('1.) R1.
~f"n. \oi: J) In'r<

..!:-.r \ \ (1<1-1) R1.·)

.;Y"~ .\~ InK
)"~ ':. ~1
~

• lYIat (. li
., Va. :. \Ia. . whe~ r:.~) R
do \nK

31
2.14 In steelmaking, deoxidation of the melt is accomplished by the addition of aluminum,
which combines with the free oxygen to fonn alumina, AI20). It is then hoped that most of
these alumina particles will float up to the slag layer for easy removal from the process,
because their presence in steel can be detrimental to mechanical properties. Detennine the
size of the smallest alumina particles that will reach the slag layer from the bottom of the
steel two minutes after the steel is deoxidized. It may be assumed that the alumina particles
are spherical in nature. For the purpose of estimating the steel's viscosity use the data for
Fe-O.S wt pct C in Fig. 1.11. Data: Temperature of steel melt: 1873 K; Steel melt depth:
1.5 m; Density of steel: 7600 kg nr3; Density of alumina: 3320 kg mo3 •

~
Force ba.)ance'. Fs:.F,+rk

Fji1f"
11 4
3'rr R ~(I) '3 : 3' rr R \(fH +- b rr rt R Vt
3 J~ 0

~ rrR!e(~II\- ~t5l\:
., I)\ • I
bffytRVt

r-
i Y.
0 l"\ V1:~_~_
R-:. ~ ~ (~(S). ~(I))
I

V. :.
t
,.5"""
~ MIn.
I m\n. ':.I.~S
"0 S
X }o·;t.m S·' ) ~\S)-~<f) ':. 7"00-33;'0:. 4.80 I<t m- a

From Fr'q /.11 r.-::::b.lc.P:~.lxl;3Nsm-a.

1:.
V.o1.
~':. r~1
La
~.'" 16'01m !"5XI.-~m\S q,a 5'm1 't.; 80
$
Xlo
m' '1<9 m
I(g ~
q.""5'xI0- 5".,

R-:.q.o",/ox./C'·5'"., ~ qo.'"IoJ.Lrr'J

32
2.1S
a) Coqsider a very large flat plate bounding a liquid that extends to y = + co • Initially,
the liquid and the plate are at rest; then suddenly the plate is set into motion with
velocity Vo as shown in the figure below. Write (1) the peninent differential equation
in terms of velocity, for constant propenies, that applies from the instant the plate
moves, and (2) the appropriate boundary and initial conditions. The solution to these
equations will be discussed in Chapter 9.

y III. - 0

L~ x
Initially
wJ~_
Time I Whw);##~#//#/#,
Time 1

b) A liquid flows upward through a long venical conduit with a square cross section. With
the aid of a clearly labeled sketch, write (1) a peninent differential equation that
describes the flow for constant propenies, and (2) the appropriate boundary conditions.
Consider only that ponion of the conduit where flow is fully developed and be sure that
your sketch and equations correspond to one another.

Q. conservation of moment urn ~ Table ~ .• e1.D

f (\dt
JIJ)( + v QV1t
x d.x
T v QJ"" + v d\Ix) : -stf + I"l ( ~7.\Jx ;. t Yx +
'( ~1 a ~c dX'~ ~JCi. Ch,1 daZ.
+ fa i>Jx)
-.I)(

dill( •. 0 ) V·
1"X 0
'f. )
V· 0
! -
0·0
I OJ.IC - I
~\~~.
~ X .-
0 (/lJJ(.
J da.i -
0 )dP • 0
"li -

• E' dVl'! ':. Y\ d\..,)x 0'"

d V• :. V ~z.\JJ(
dt ch'~ ~t d,!&.

!nit\'a\ COrldition·. ~('(10):O

eOL)nc:\ ar'( Condit ion S: VX (O,t) -:.Vo

lIx (oD J t;) : 0

33
 0-
~ ....,
.........
-
m ...., C")
() ?.. 0
s; ,-.... ~
::5 0-10.- 0,14- .:r <*t:
0. .. ttl -0 rt <. (b
/II ~
~ '"
"1
I
f '" +
""f " <
-< '\) 0 f- \lJ -<
~ ... 1;) f"'-
C) pi n.. 0-10-
~ ~ 0
, I ~ xf-
0- X < ~
(1)
;::s I' +
r+ 0 io- e
~ 0
0 -(. -h
:3
en
-
~I~
.x'C..
,.111 <-
..0(
ti
i
~~ 3
()
~
0 + 8
eX III
+ 1 ~
x 0" L~ ~ fb
na -..
" '- :s
c.-., ~Io-,.
-<~
..
~
....-.. ,.. ... .....
0 Q,I~ s=
~ ~ (We
-=< ...- ,. ~~
~
3
It
. I' II

w
----
0
Q
0 I
-1
IU
.J:>. "- 0- -<
-- 0-111-
fIo/"'O ~
114
~ no'- ...
-<. ,......,. Cl-I~
""e,. +
~ J.>
)(
)( "'" ....--.. 11)
Cr) I' <.
'"'""'
........., .)< ,.. ~ ')(
~
" 0
O-)<t-
,.~ ..,.,
r <-
Cb
-l-= ."
0
0 1- t
Q;I~
< -.,-
-<~ @ G
,.."
+ ~ ~
Q,I~
M <. c:- c::.
,..
... Rt
'"" "
+
-------- c:
It! c:.
-"b IN
c...CI X
...."
- -<
'-""
""
2.16 Molten aluminum is degassed by gent~y bubbling a 75%N 2-25%CI 2 gas through the
melt. The gas passes through a graphite tube at a volumetric flow rate of 6.6 x 10-5 m3 S·I.
Calculate the pressure that should be maintained at the tube entrance if the pressure over the
bath is 1.014 x lOs N m-2 (1 attn). Data: Tube dimensions: L = 0.9 m; inside diameter
= 2 mm. Temperature of aluminum melt is 973 K; density of aluminum is 2500 kg m-3•

Q : [-Pe~ . 0 ~11f" R'i

L ,.. ''''IX ~ 8 ttMIX

Po -
- '
PL,. ,.. L [ 8rtct>_o
n- f< 't \ M I Jt J-;

PL.':.I,OII.p(Jc,sNm·~TP3L -:'1.OI'"\XJ05~+
m
;(SOCI<1
m
~'6'ml
S,.
Q, qm l"'S'4
kfri1
:t·;t30XIC 5 NIrl';I.

r,
lMI ~ •
•
X"'J. ~N~ +- XCII. '1Cll, ~ 0.'70
-
'1 "1 -to O. c:t 51(<:.1'2.,

Ci! T:'l'7~k
r
YlNl, -:. 3.7 tT x 10·' ... N oS m- ~ F i ~. 1.7

Fov'" Cil. - M-:.10,Q,) l}':~.;'I'1J L -:. 31".0) K8T(~?3K)-: ?!.(8) Sl't:I.Oc'i

Ka ~

'1<1 ~ 2.,," Xlo-s[bM I)(\73)J: 37.1 x II/P: 3.71 X li 5 N s m-'

1.. ('-II .11? (),o,,'t)
¥tlo,,,c -:. (O."i5)(~.'5X /0. 5 ) t(O.~5)('3.'71 x 10·.5): 3.'1"1 )((0' 5N 5 m-:'

cat ;'Q8K- PNz.:.I./e5k'S m_3~ eel,,':. ~,q5'6 k, m- 3

e M11I ':. (O''''5)(1''65)-r(o.~S)(~·q5''> -:: 1'0;.8 k~ m- a

at q73K - E>MIlI. ': 1."a8~~~)':.O'''1''1q k~ m- 3

Po: 1- __ '3S"X 105'!!..", I

+o.q mf B '3.'7'ix IO-~ N 5! ,."x(o-Gm~1 I !Jo.~~~ M-I q.e ml
m [1)" mal S,("C1~·~t'm~ll mO 5~
Po -:.I.d.~ I x lOS /'oJ m,a

35
2.17 Glass flows through a small orifice by gravity to fonn a fiber. The free-falling fiber
does not have a unifonn diameter; furthermore as it falls through the air it cools so that its
viscosity changes. a) Write the momentum equation for this situation. b) Write appropriate
boundary conditions.

Vs ~ 0 but because, the tiber diameter- is

chan~ in'!1 then both \J.,. a't'ld Va ex; st. Assume

st.ea.dy sta.te; but f'o'" is not, fully devel~ped..

The continfJ..ity ~~uaticn) witn ~':::'''Cl'ls·t.) is'.

\
_I L-(
rd\'", \1"
V) +~:.
oV~
V' 0
\

Q. Table ~.3 (wIth qJ :.~)

dVr -I" V J\la.) - _ 11. A. (r trr-) t ~t:r~)
(A) ~(vr'd.,.ecJ2- - \r"dr 6l:

(c) ~(Vr JVa.,.

c}r
v.dv~):_L.L..L(r Trc)\ + ~,ee)+f~
d~ \r d'r d2

r~6'. (A) dt1d (c) caYl be. Simplified fLtrther by rec.o~nia-;n~ term,
that can be i~nored· Stcirt with E'Z' (A) and \"'efer to lab)e ~.~.

we. expec.t j~1'" to be. sma.11 and certat'nl'{ v",«ve-

:. v,..1~r ~ 0 and +r(r r~r)~Q

(A) ~(\J~ ~~r) ~ - dd~t

Now proceed with E~. (d ~ -f :r (r C:ra»" !;!~
(C)~(Vl" ~~f+ V~~~l):._(~ j.,.(rtn))+E?'3

b. e. c. V.. (r, 0) ~ 0) "'i (r) 0) :. Ve (IJ ni f 0'/" m)) ! l" c (R) : 0., ~ ~r {o }'t) to) ~ ~ t ( 0) ~ ) ':. "

36
2.18 A liquid flows upward through a tube, overflows, and then
flows downward as a film on the outside.
a) Develop the pertinent momentum balance that applies to the
falling film, for steady-state laminar flow, neglecting end
effects.
b) Develop an expression for the velocity distribution.

I'R
aR

0... Tc~\e.. 2.."3> ) S ~. ~ L..II~ :l z ,::-9 j \ \JC S

d.. ( r-J-~r
Av-c \ - t?~ clv.
1
~r c\r 1"\
t,.;'''
-d., ptj r
~'1
+- (\
'('
6. o...t: '\:. 0... R j c\. V ~ =0
. '4 t\t'
(.,'= - P9 c.. R'l.
";..1
f). ,,~
~~
~[I-o..(. R1.]
2."1 rl.

Yt'. c.
-f ~ '(" 1 4- C, ).V'I r 4- c ...
41
(\ +-- r... RJ V.!L:'
...
0

C.2,':: - P.3«"l_c. / "R,

4""1 '
S D ~....c..t
V~= ~(r:l__ «.2.)+(I~~
4-,
c,(, -p.1..r t- ~) .,
v":.
~
p'3
41)
II (.::.

~'l.
-I) _2.0I.
,
4
I1 t
?-

37
3.1 Water at 300 K is flowing through a brass tube that is 30.0 m long and 13 mm in
diameter (inner). The water is moving through the tube at a rate of 3.2 x 10.3 m3 S·l. The
density of water is 1000 kg m·3 , and its viscosity is 8.55 ·X 10-4 N s m·2• Calculate the
pressure drop in Pa that accompanies this flow.

Re -:. Lj
~
!3.axlo· 3m31'~/.a::kil
S rn /-.3xID· li m
Ia.Sox/o·qm" :. a·",x
NS
lOS ,'. Tu r blA Jent

ror
C b rasS L
o·· 13 :/••" X/~~-" ~
Q.pOIC f rom F'I~ 3.;) f : a.oo"",

Fl'COM "~.(3.11) AP':1i.f~-:t~V\. yl'1·/XLcf' 3~ma III \)(/D~ ~A

AP:"/.S')(/ObPa

3.1 Evaluate the pres~re drop in a horizontal 30 m length of galvanized rectangular duct
(30.0 mm x 75.0 mm) for the following conditions:
a) An average air flow velocity of 0.46 m S·l at 300 K and atmospheric pressure.
b) An average air flow velocity of 4.6 m S·l at 300 K and atmospheric pressure. The
density and viscosity are 1.16 kg m·3 and 1.85 X 10.5 N s m·2•

De: 1!~~lZ{) ': '1~.B'mm : 'MI B' xlo·am

~. Re: Deyf :. ~,aglox/o-artllo.'ib'PI'·'''k~J .. _~ . . r~:' :'/,~3'}(J03

:.laminar flow-apply Fi" 3.3 ~ i'a : ~ ~/)''1 .'. <P':. O·iS

f:"~e ':,. (O.ctJ~,.a!~XID~) :'1.3~x'b-a

b eva. '! ~I ,.:~ax 'fal ,om

Po -PtL : a£Oe 1"'" mk:\\ 0._1I.amSi1.\ ~.aS'}( 10"m .~,.. 5'"-, r4
u. t!J

b. Re:'l.aa6X/b'!(6:t~}:I2.~'O :.Tcuocu.\ent flow-apply Fr~.~.a C)rE.~.(3.~O)

Yo ~-~ 3
f-:.o.O'7Q, Re~ II :'(O.O'7q/}(I.~?>"X!o) : 7.S-ox/o·

(} ,,- ~17'6"axlo-3\Soml'.rpk91~·"am;1
rf)-rL- I m~
~ ~ a.SS fa.
5 !"/.28l>x,,,o,,,,, 4

38
3.3 For flow in tubes (smooth wall) the friction factor is given by Eq. (3.20) for
2.1 x 1()3 < Re < lOS. What is the percent change in the pressure drop if the tube diameter
is doubled for the same volume flow rate, same fluid and the same tube length? Assume that
Eq. (3.20) for the friction factor applies .

• .!.
E'9' (3.~o) f~ 0.0'7'1' Re 't

(
E''l' 3.'7
)f ·,OrLlP -
---q'tl:' 0-.1.:
allv 1

Com pa. Y' e two pre S SlAre. drops '. AP, and APi.

'l\,2,. - 1. -;,
'lj Po _ ~ ~1. \ D'Z.) ~ f 'J'l. _ of. 0, v~
.0 P, - '-! 1. \'..b.) .!.. 0 v- 1- - +, D" V.l.
o. a.. '\ I

Foy o~ ':. aD, a.n".1 -V1.. o~'a. ~ VI

-
0, 2. - 5am! volume flow rate

~:...L aY'l4 !va).1. . /.'01 \11 .. I

D), A ,VI - \o~J -~

. .A.&.. \.fA~t1.
I, f a/
API'
• '\'n0-- n-
~ft,a.)I

or 4 fa . ~ (({to, \ II..t • 1. ( D. VI)~ _', (-, \.lctf )~ 01

.oP, - 3~ \Re.~] - ~~ '\ Oa Va. - ia \~J \ I.f ': a·'ll" XItt

Pet. Chantal :. API ~~ P~ ('00) ~ \1 - ~p;.) (IDO)

Pet. chan~e : cH,.~8 ,. decreast

39
3.4 Show that for flow through a slit with a spacing that is much less than the width,
Eq. (3.22) gives the friction factor for laminar flow.

FJ6W throu~ h a slit is apprexl mateJ as' f low between para lIe I
p:a.t'es. E~ua..ti·on (;.~~) appLies.

v:. sg2.(Po-pJ)
r'i. L
S . . semithic.KtJess

De :. ~~ ~ (Lf)~~,~ w) :. L1 <S (W>;'S)

. V ~ 0,-- (Fo-Pl.)
t. LfS'1L.

AlSO f~*(~! f Po- R. \

" /1',2. eii",i
\i1 I

C~m b (n e f: 2.4:1
DeVp
~ 2.4
Re.

3.5 Determine the size of the largest alumina particle in Problem 2.14 that would be
expected to obey Stokes' law, remembering that for spheres this law is valid for Re :$; 1.

Fs':.Fw+FK

1rrR!~Fe~ ~t1T'R3rAla'o~ ~+birrtRV~ flit

V'#: : 9 ~1.. S ( ~Fe - e'1I.t D,3)

Laminar to t\Lr-bu/ent tra.nsitron clt Re:' l

40
 R~ ~:O u,. fEe
rt
••• .2 R V6
~
~Ii!:. ~'lz, ~ trFe ...
~
fA1a O,,) ~ Fe :. I

a ~ ~I.-..,,-~;:;­
q
R ~ "'till ~
(ere'" RI ;a.D3) e ~Fe

eFt:' 71,00 k1 m"', fAlz03:' a~.:Io K~ m,,3) ~ ~e ('woo °c) .;. '."1 e l' = ,.,,/ )(/0 3 h'l m- 'S .. I

3
R =T
q
I( b."i" 10,,3\~~
) "J
m" 51. q.B rn
5~ m"\
(1~O" 33~O) KC3. /7~OO ki -
_'3 ..
"' a. eq I ... ,3 3
X 10m

({ :. , . ' I X 10" Gm ~ 0.0 iii, m rn

3.6 A falling-sphere viscometer was used to determine the viscosity of a slag intended for
the production of copper. The viscosity of the slag was determined to be 441.2 Poise, using
a steel ball as the falling sphere. Is this a valid viscosity? Why or why not? If not,
determine the real value of the viscosity and then calculate its kinematic viscosity. The
density of the slag may be taken as one-half that of the steel ball.
Data: Radius of steel ball, 88.7 mm; terminal velocity of steel ball, 1.52 m S·I.

Ft'( F~lS
f~: J:w - Fs

F~ :(ftR"l.)~k('S/4'3y2.t)f :t1T'R3~ (fSte~l- ~s)a~; IVt

e:t~~\::' ~ (>s,a.~ Fstcel

f--~~\R9 (clE>sla.~-~SIa.~) ~ ~ R~_

\ ~J v; PS\a.~ : Vf:.'l.
-:...a\o.06S'lm\c:t.8 m
3
I
S" ~.G~)~ m 4
sa. "
- \.0

f ':. \. 0 ) F,' ~. '!. 8 ~ e I) ': , 00

Reo :. D v~ ~ 51 ,~ :. 0 V t.
'1 s. 3.~
41
 ' -3 '1. _I
o.I'1'14m I~
I.S;''''' _ _ ';. a.1oXIO yn 5
lJ51a.~ '; l S i 100

.~
'1 _ I J 0
\) D
_ VS'AC, ,~t _ ~.'1)(IO
'2. :;
m 7·BfiO·( to k~ I k I I
Sla.~ - v SLa.~ 'Sl.a.~ - ~ - - 5 ---OJ ~I"T: 10,0 ~ rfl- s·

n~L.!~ ~ 10." N S m~a : 10" P. ,/-Ie. s~teJ y:\(os:~ \~ ;.... -:of'"f'"e(..t.

3.7 Two spheres of equal density and different diameters fall through a liquid with an
unknown density and an unknown viscosity. The diameter of the larger sphere is twice the
diameter of the smaller sphere.
a) With an appropriate force balance, derive an equation for the terminal velocity of either
sphere. Your equation should be valid for any Reynolds number.
b) Assume that l()l < ReD < 2 x lOS for both spheres and calculate the ratio 'of the
terminal velocity of the larger to that of the- smaller.
c) Assume that ReD < 1 for both spheres, and calculate the ratio of terminal velocities.

f Fs
a.. F",,:. F~ +- F~ !
f A ~ ":: f (11 R1.) (~ ~ v:)
~Lt
FK :
- 4
rs ':.""3 1YR'! t:J'\ ~
L{ ~o
Fw :r.~rrR \5 ~ F'N

111' R3 ~ ~ S : ~ 11 R3 e~ + f rt ~ % vt
Vt ~[s R (~5-~) ~1"i
La ~ f J
b. Fo~ these values of Re.) f::: o.1i3. (cDnstaYlt)
Let J.:{}:: Ia.~qer a.~d r~ srna..l/e~

Vt;a (R \1 i
V~r':.\R>/ : a· :. ,·';1 "i

42
c. Fort~'I!$e. values 09 Re.) stOk'€S' Jaw appl,·e.s.

f:fi..,£i!l -:. (.;ryt

Re OV1: '( R\J~ f

-I ~: -t ~ -~R.
+0\ ~~_ ~ [R2.J~ ~
I'
Q a. -- _J. "iI
Vea _ Ra, f,\';'_ A.a.R .. Vea. • Vu.
Vt. R• R. Vt.J • II Vtl [R,]

3.8 Bubbles that rise through liquids may be treated as rigid spheres provided they are small
enough. Assume that a spherical bubble of air has a diameter of 1 nun at the bottom of a
glass melt that is 1 m deep.
a) Calculate the pressure in the bubble as a function of the distance below the top surface
of the glass. Neglect added pressure within the bubble because of the surface tension.
b) Calculate the diameter of the bubble as a function of the distance below the top surface
of the glass.
c) Neglecting acceleration effects, calculate the velocity of the bubble as a function of
distance below the top surface of the glass. Data for melt: Temperature is 1700 K;
viscosity is 2.0 N s m-2; density is 3000 kg m-l • Assume that air behaves as an ideal gas
with a molecular weight of 28.8 kg kmol-l.

a. P:Pcitm+~~h where. h is the ciistance belDW the melt ..

b. V':. P(bott~m) V(bott om) '::. ~ -rr R'

P {bottom):. Pa,tm + ~~ h (bottoM): Putm or f~ $Inet. h: 'm

s
Vlbott.om) :.1- rr[R (bottomU ) R(bottom) 'I. 0.5)( ID-am

p:. Pc).:hn + ~ca h

o, ~ rt P.tm~~~)\i«b.t~ ....t~
[ Pat#! + ~~ h J
C.E'~.{~.I~I) y\':.d.R1.(PL-~)13 iof ~R\)t: ~\ .•
q". Y ,
V
t
:Ii

43
The fOllcwinq computer prot3rarn fives the anSwers to a., b and Co

veY"~u5 the depth of the "1-uid. The pro~ram also calculates the.
Reynolds numbers to a.SSure. the. "a..li~'lty of usrn~ E,!.(~"caJ).
10 'Problea 3.8
20 PO: 101330! : S : 9.801
30 T: 1700 : REiA : 2 : RBO : 3000
40 RBOT: .0005 : PI : 3,1416
50 PBOT: PO + BBO*G : VBOT : (4*PI/31*RBOT"3
60 •
10 'al P : PO + rho*g*h PO is 1 stand. ata. b is distance belol top of lelt
80 'bl Y: P(bottol)*Y(bottol)/P
90 'c) f : fIRe) Yt : (2/9)*R*R*g*rho/neta valid if Re<1
100 LPRINT
110 LPRINT "distance pressure bubble velocity Reynolds'
120 LPRINT • belol, II 1/12 dia, II .I/S nUlber"
130 FOR B: 0 TO 1.01 STEP .1
140 P : PO + RBO*G*B : Y: PBOT*VBOT/P
150 B : (3*V/(4*PI))"(1/3) : D : 2*B
160 V1 : (2/9)*R*B*StRHO/NETA . Be (: 1
170 BE : D*vr*RBO/HITA
180 LPRINT -USING' I... ••.•1.···· 11.'" ••.••• ••.• , •...
l000,P,D*1000,VT*1000,RE
• "jH i
190 NEXT H
200 END

distance pressure bubble velocity Reynolds

belol, II R/12 dia, II II/S nUlLber
0 1.013E+05 1. 089 0.969 1.582E-03
100 1.043£+05 1.078 0.950 1. ~37E-03
200 1.072E+05 1.068 0.933 1. 495E-03
300 1.1021+05 1. 059 0.916 1.4551-03
400 1.1311+05 1.050 0.900 l.U7E-03
500 1.160£+05 1.041 0.885 1.381i-03
600 1.190£+05 1.032 0.870 1.3471-03
700 1.219£+05 1.024 0.856 1. 3151-03
800 1.2491+05 1.015 0.843 1. 284&-03
900 1. 2781+05 1.008 0.830 1.2SU-03
1000 1.3081+05 LOOO 0.817 1.2261-03

44
3.9 A thermocouple tube lies in a melt that is flowing perpendicular to the axis of the tube.
Calculate the force per unit length of tube exerted by the flowing metal. Data: Velocity of
~ie melt is 3 m 5. 1; viscosity is 2 x 10.3 N s m·2; density of the melt is 8000 kg m·3; diameter
of thermocouple tube is 61 mm.

FI"; ~ t AK
Re : D'\r.-;) ~ _ (o.o~ 1)(3)(!?OCO) T

o rt - ~ )(10- 3 : '1. ~~ X 10 5 V ..

the.r-vno,""u pIe tL.\ be

From F"q.3.Q for" "nfiY'lite et'''''e.LAlar- C,(IiYHie.r f: o.~o

A":.Dl.:o.Ofc,IL WIth L'in 'm) Pt is m1.

K ': ~ <? V'; ~+18"OO ,;!I (3)~~~ ~ '!.b ~ lolojk~ y(I-' s-~

R - C'?,I 0.0'"
K -
1. Y'f)"'1 !"X10"l I
,\<:q N st:: bot?
m 5 1 / )(Cj m
tV

&..:
L
lo5 'r N m-' Where. L is in m.

3.10 A packed bed reduction-reactor, 15.0 m high and 6.0 m in diameter, is packed with
spherical metal oxide pellets (Dp = 3 mm). A reducing gas enters the top of the bed at
800 K and at a rate of 95 kg S·l and exits the reactor at the .same temperature. What should
the pressure at the top of the reactor be if the pressure at the bottom of the reactor is
maintained at 1.4 x 10' Pa. Data: Bed porosity, w is 0.40; viscosity of the reducing gas
at 800 K is 4.13 x lO's N s m'z~ density of the gas at atmospheric pressure and 800 K is
0.5 kg m· 3.

f ~ lJo..t; en" (3./.flf) I" d.;ff~~t.;er.\ f.c .. W\ ~

Po
- ~c1xpI:: k V0 I
+ K
l
f V"-
0
'X:O
~

:a..
,
I
Iso~~I-w)
IA \oIQ1"~ \'<-=
i):a.. wl
p
Vo ~
K - I·'e; ( ,- w)
~-
DP ioJl
-
45
?C~L
tp. .
 dP' dP
P -:. P + PS (L -'X
I )
) dx: Tx - P9
A~$o 5ubstitu.ta Vi =Vo Af (~~t.A.~t t'Ylo..t.$ t/cw r"elCre)
The"" •
i!' -: A..L
clx rp
~ i.l~ \).I "" ere (3" - I< \ '!:!. _ k .. I'd) 1.
I ) A \1\ ..
"De-rtSL~ vo.ri·e,:. VJi~ f"(e~~u('Q. ~~
p:..1: ,~"'e'('e M -::. ~o\e...c!J\o....r y"v\A.foS of tfte. '9a..$.
Mp-T -

~~,dM~T-p'
C\)t
+~
MP T
P
WI"+{ 'P-= Po (Itt ~-={) ~"'~( p~ PI.. ~t ")(,=-L ,) w~ ~c.t
~ {f3 (M RT)1.. .,.. ~ ?t.'2.
J:. 2.,9 L •
(3(MRT)l.. -I- ~ 'P02. M RT
f V40\vo..te p 0..<"C1.."'" ~ter 'S (o..-Il s.! '.I\I.. ;t.~J:
(150)(4.\~)lf()-5)(\-o.'fO)2.
I< -
'l
-..J an.)(/ o~
I - (O.003)"l.(O.4C»~ - •
k :? -- (t.15HI-.O.I./O)
= ;;. ,17·b 't x I o~
r-'

-r
(o.OO! ') ( o. ~·o
f> = -(~. 8 72,. 10 1(i'T" )( b" )
~(<fS)(4) .3fC'i5"}
5 ,4 b cr )< f 0 ("rr) ( " 10)
(4)} z=- rf. S' 1 3

t::. \.
- 7 v. J 0

1"-11\T '::. ~1.~3 ~ I o~ = ~. (1 ~17 x I 0~

j __ Q. B0 7

PI.. -= 1.1/-)(/0 5 'fa..

~el"l (-71/S1)(,.027 X /O S )1.!2. +(<f.fiC7)(I.'/",JOS) 'l-J =- (~)(9"807)(IS)
{
h (-7"..S7)(-:1.027'11./0S)· +- (9.8()7) Po~ ;.o2.7--/O~
Sot .... L fl:J f'" I-=:'.
~'; ~.B1S )(.{o'S" ~a..

46
3.11 In a packed bed reactor (diameter = 4.5 m and height = 18 m), metal oxide A forms
a central column within the reactor, having a diameter of 3.0 m, while pellets of metal oxide
B fill the annulus between metal oxide A and the wall of the reactor. The pressure at the top
of the bed is maintained at 6.9 x lQ4 Pa, while the pressure at the bottom is kept at
1.72 x lOS Pa. Calculate the fraction of reducing gas that passes through metal oxide A.
It may be assumed that the temperature and reducing gas density are uniform throughout the
reactor. Furthermore, turbulent flow conditions prevail.
Data for A: w = 0.40, Dp = 76 mm.
Data for B: w = 0.25, Dp = 19 mm.

A A ~ rr (I.~)'- ~ 7·0 _8 mz' ) ."8 ~ ir (II ast -;r(I·S)'I.:. 8. SS, m'l.

AP::
L
1.'15 ~v; (I.W)\
Op wa A
:. 1.'15 ~V:;I.W)
Dp W
Ia )~A ~ ee
Vc~~
A

~
GA (I-WA) •
01. I -
Q: (I-we) .
A~ f\.. 3
AA Df" b>1tt 8 1IP'8 Ws

(QA1.\ _ (\- W8){W.4)~ (OPA) (AA)l

\Qs'i) - ~I-WA) (wa)l (Dpa) (Aa)l.

74 ".o&t8 ~J.a
QA:: [(".15
Qs o.~o) l~
0.2513 (-w~ i.iSd ~~.,;!.o

QA :.3·,,40 Qa) GA+ Q&:.I:. ~·.";lO ~6+&8

~ 8 : O. ~ t t.) ~A: 0.1 e 'f

:. Q,,: '1S.~ I'f.

Gs :. ~I.'''.

47
3.12 Preliminary experimental studies have shown that the porosity in a newly developed
packed bed reactor is w < 0.6. The pellets have a diameter of 30.0 mm and the reducing
gas flows through the bed at a rate of 0.025 kg S·l. The reactor has 3.0 m x 3.0 m square
cross section and is 15 m in height. A constant pressure difference of 690 Pa is maintained
between the inlet and outlet nozzles, and it may be assumed that the temperature is uniform
throughout the reactor. You are required to evaluate the bed porosity. The properties of the
gas are '17 = 2.07 x 10·5 ·N s m·l and p = 1.2 kg m·l (average).

• •
Ree-::bRec:. PP~vQ : De vJ ) Sit'\c.~ ~Vo,':tL
rt (I • .,A)J '\ A l' ·w) A

Re - 2· oi "'1'·0' 5'!<~1 "'~'-.Jk 51 I _ 4. o~~

s• 5 1~.C'7)(IO-6N s 13rM~ ~ m ~\·w)· (\-w)

o<w<.o." -fot' w::.o)Re.Ei':.~·oa,,; for w:o.6) Rer~'o

Rec":.~
~
j D.~'71 ~·Re.e"·"1 :. Blawe-\(ocen,{ f1' "5 valid.

. w! ': Is,n J.. Va • Vb ~

For" Sphel"'ICalpal"'tlcles(l_w)"Z. D;AP )
".OP.5" k, I mH'
Sl'~k~,~mi
,.. .3
=~. 3 ';)XIO ms· I
~
~;.,:.~
(hl)3,
{ SN
,2,0'7)(10·
m1..
$1 Isml ;.315)(/0 .!I I"'l I \--m =
S (I.oaAma. ('QON
1 \,""HxIO·'"

w:: 0.05"1

3.13 Molten aluminum is passed through a horizontal filter bed of A120) spheres in order to
remove drossy oxides from the aluminum. The fllter bed comprises two different packings
arranged in series.

-ER- _I_ ~L.. L.,~

The fIrst packing encountered by the flow captures large drossy particles, and the second
packing captures the smaller drossy particles. Given LA = 0.7 L" "'A = W" D,.A = W,."
compute the ratio of the pressure drop through A to the pressure through B for a) very low
Reynolds numbers, and b) very high Reynolds numbers.
48
 ~p_ J5"nVQ(I-W)~
a.T- DpawB lVtr'( low Reynolds nt.Nnbe:"·$·

~PA _ ~a Io~De: )(' L.A \ ~ 1).7 : 0./75 Since D~-1 :ciDp'8 and LA :'0.71. 8
~ F's - le OP/A;..):iJ '"J
-:--1.
PP)8

b. ~p : '.7!fVfj1.{l-W» very hi9h Reynolcis numbers.

L Dp wi

A PA ':. ...!:A.
APe ...bL'
pel A. ( PP18
()p,II )( L8H~, ~.'1) • 0.35'0
LA

Dp11

3.14 Derive an equation for the pressure drop through an isothennal column of a porous
medium, that accompanies the flow of a compressible gas. Assume that the gas follows ideal
behavior.

,'?ewrite E'f. (5.1/,) in differential form ..

_ dP _ Li.~n,/,,5Ql(l-w)~ Q.a!«fV,1. So ('-W)
Y:(- W, w5
2. a
,r
.. e
c :a
I -
..,.~ tj So (t-w) ~nd C ': Q,.Q9i~' (,- w)
IJ\' Q.a -

.
Then·~' : C, Yo + C,a e YfJ"'; But v. -:.*: W- where w=tvla.$S flDW rate.
At steady state wjA ;s CDn5tant but () va.ries with the p.,.eSSL4 re

-*. *- t-+ Ca~(-#)ir =[c.:f .. Ca~*Jl~

Co

I~ PL
tfel'lee)- t'd P : I e,f- + CA ~ J ( dx
r
-
. ~l
~
L

The ideal 'jo.s law ~ives .. ~: ~+ where M is the rnolee&41ar wej~he.

frIt
dp ::
(PI.
pd P ~ it-J",
(P"l_ Po') t/t'T
*~\.
Po fo

SO P;-P: ~~t G,-*" H 0 l (

49
 we can IV'" ite. ~ 11a - Poa :; (pj, - Po)( P l' Po) :-~ A P P-' where -p:. 7" PI. 1" Po ) al/~. pre s~.

*
I ( )
L

( . \;.1
,'. A P : MTlI
RT_f,'
+- Cio \Xl j L

3.1S For unidirectional flow through a column of a porous medium, show that Eq. (3.61)
reduces to Eq. (3.31).

~ ~l~vX)dyJ(lJ.. (.J..\ ,VA.\) Vel d1V)C) 6VX ) JVl( ':. 0

de) ~x d"( '12: ~x\w'} II ~X4 d~l. d;t~

• (JJ ~ x- ~ ~ ~ - V; v( ~ 0

~ ~x - ~~ ~ j v",
v. ~ -~ ~ - e'lj wlnen is E'l: (3.31)

3.16 In a jalling head permeameter, the permeability is determined by measuring the

difference in height between two liquid columns. In the apparatus depicted below, H
decreases and h increases as liquid flows by gravity through the porous medium of length L,
Derive an equation that gives h as a function of time t, assuming that P is uniform and
constant.

,-- Liquid
l:
Cross-sectional areas of the larger and smaller

tl~;d I It
columns of liquid are A and a, respectively.

~ [~~ ('9 ~ ) ~)(:. ~

x: 0 IVl
I~
£t. (3, 3 I) l)lt:: - -

50 X,L
 dP _ ft - Po . PI.: f ~ h) Po: e~ H
dx - I )

dp _ ~'9 h - ~~ H :. fra (h- H)

dX - L L..

V)( 0:.-
fr~'3 (h-H) - (>~J -- - l'~L.()~ [ h - K-LJl
nCr-

Also A v,,: a. .db...

dt }
. I)
V)C -
• ~ dh
A dt

A dt nL J dt L
~sih...:_ J'~~ h - H - J ) dh ~ _ L E- ~-H-O
11 Cl L. L.. J

Also A(Ho-H)~a.(h-ho) where Ho>ho: initial \laiLles of HJh

~~ :- ~!ecrHo+*~-thoth-LJ :-;~t~tHD-L-tho+(I+~h]

~ et 1<, ': - HI'> -l - A ~

I ( ~h \ PA ~q
0) Y1 0. L.
(0...\ J'Ae'3
an d k a -= - I + 'AI ~ L.

~ • _ 1<, tK.h j t)',,-l(I-rl<'ah

dh • {de :. h : .~..JI<'+ (- k",'" '(~h~ e I<".t]
;.~
6

3.17 The rube bundle theory for penneability predicts

w3
P = K S; (1 - wi .
where K is a constant. Assuming that Eq. (3.55) applies, does the rube bundle theory
compare to the empirical result given by Eq. (3.59)?

J>:. __fJL3 ___ f.,Hider £~. (3.S6) we see that k~ LJ.;.('..Isually talt;en
K Sf) 2 (I-W)·

t() be this ya/ue) at" could be K:S:O) fer ~r3.ndlJlar ma.t.eris.16)·

Eg, (3.Sq): p:P a.nd DV5 /5 if) "J.(I?).

51
 Y ='1.6 )( I~- 1/ D- ".7$ '.8 since. G'q. (3,505) 9ives -j-) s~ "'hat
v.s w ) "
.)6:
LlVS ....

J>: '/.6 X/D- II (f)"'?SW"S

ObviDusly the two a.re nat the same) l,,~t I~t'$ c"mpare /n t'he
rar1~es 59~ Dys ~ 7lS..umj O'M~-~ W 'a.s, (st:t>l'es under £/_ 3,60)'
The fcl/cw/n.fJ. pr()qram calcu /ates the. d/m~nSicn/e$S

permeablllty -ps,l-r()r b"th eff.ltJ.t,·()ns. The 'fesults show tha.t

-:;,~ tW() e~uatlon5 de not favord.bly c~mpare. We s~e that -the

'tut:>e bundle theory predl'G"ts mlAeh h\~her perrY)ea.bilitie~ tha.n -the

empirica.l V'eslAlt ~iven by Er.(3.S'f).

10 Proble. 3.17
20 LPRIMT· D,s Dilealioaiesl Perleability·
30 LPRlIT· licroDs porosity tube bUDdle elpirical pOlders·
40 LPRl!T· ••••••• •••••••• .....•.a... a....a...........·
50 FOR DiS : 100 TO 700 STEP 100 'DiS ia licroDi
60 rOR W: .2 TO .S STIP .2
10 SOO : S/DiS 'SOO iD 1/licroDI
8a SO : 100000D! • SOO 'SO iD 1/1
90 Tube bUDdle tbeory
100 DIRO! : 4.2 • 50'2 • (1-1)'2 : PIR! : ,'3/DIJO!
110 DIIPIR!l : PIRI'S~ 2
120 Ilpirical for pOlders. Iq. (3.59)
130 PIRI: 4.61-11 • (6/S00)',13 • 1'6.8
140
150
DIIPIBI2 : PIRI*SO'2
LPBIIT OSlMG· II.
,W,DI!PIR!l,DIBPIB!2
'.11 ......... II ....... ·;DYS

160 RIIT M Dn DileDsionless Per.eabilitr

170 ~IIT D'S lie rona poros:t, tJbe bundle elpirical po.ders
180 ilD .. au .. ..uun J.......... ,.,•• a••• tt •••• ,.
:a~ 0.20 2.98£-03 8.431-05
:ca 0.40 4.23[-02 9.401-03
100 ~.50 3.21E-01 1.481-01
m 0.20 2.981-03 3.501-05
200 0.40 4.231-02 3.901-03
2aO o.SO 3.21i-01 6.141-02
300 0.20 2.98[-03 2.u91-05
300 0.40 4.231-02 2.33i-03
300 0.60 3.211-01 3.671-02
400 0.20 2.981-03 1.451-05
400 0.40 4.231-02 1.62i-03
400 0.60 3.211-01 2.55£-02
sao 0.20 2.981-03 1.091-05
5)0 0.40 4.23!-02 1.221-03
500 0.60 3.21!-01 1.921-02
600 0.20 2.981-03 8.671-06
6~~ 0.40 4.231-02 9.661-04
600 0.50 3.211-01 1.521-02
100 0.20 2.981-03 7.131-06
700 0.40 4.231-02 7.941-04
700 0.60 3.211-01 1.251-02
52
3.18 Consider Eqs. (3.62) and (3.63) and assume that the aspect ratio of the fibers is
sufficiently large that the fibers can be assumed to have infinite lengths.
a) Derive an equation for the relationship between So and a.
b) Does the equation for penneability given in Problem 3.17 predict the penneabilities for
flow through fibrous media?

_S",rface area. of fibers

a.. SD- VolUMe of fibers
e. _ ~n a, \.. :,..L
.:10 - 1"r Q.'" l ~

b. NDW we Com pare the tube bu.nd/e thefJry to E15. (3.'~) and (3.1>3) for

fibers. For convenience) we define a not1dimenSiona( permeabi lity

as +.. The tube bt4ndle theory (with

,
I(:'i.~')' 9ives
.-oS ~
.J o:'~
I W .
(I-w)i) o-a:a
b \.( t Sa - .....

. L. I {JJ~
.. a1. - (I~)("i.-) (1_W)il

E%.(~.".;)-F}ow pa.rape\ to fiber al(es·

L :. o.~ __ '1 ~_f(w~'"4

Q.1. (I.W) l~ j
r,~ + o...n~(t"'(\.IJ)-I~_)where Hw) {a(~"'\r
a't'\d o.al ~ tV ~ o.S'

E~, (3.,,3')- Flow perptnci'!c.u\ar to &iber a~cs.

L ~ .in
Q.1.
f, _'Vi Hw~J~ wh ere
ct(,-w) L
!:
J
f (cu):.[ ~) '/a
a<,;]

~~d o.a\~w~ 0·8

The fOI'~W\i"lto\ pro~ram calc.Lll.ates the nondimensional permeab,\itltS

~Dr the three conditionS·

53
 10 ·Proble. 3.1a, part (b)
20 PI: S.1416
30 LPBIRT" BOldi.ellloDal Per.eabilitiea •
40 LPRlBY· Porositr tabe baDdle parallel perpeDdicmlar·
50 LPRlBT' ••••••,' """"'" .,""'" "*ttl"****'·
60 fOR V: .25 TO .a STEP .05 'I il porosit,
70 'tube bUDdle theorJ
80 DIBPER! : ,oa I ( 16'4.2'(1-1)"2 ) 'DIIPII! is di.elsioDlels
per.eabilitr, defiled as per.eabilit, ti.es radius squared.
90 fV : 2'{1-1){PI : rv : SQR(fW) 'lV is the fUDctiol uIder iq. (3.62).
100 'Iq. (3.62), flo. parallel to fibers
110 TEP.!1 : .427/(1-1) : TER!2 : ( 1 - fI )·4
120 TiI!3 : 1 + .473 , ( t/ll - 1 )
130 DIBPIR!l : !IRl1 • TII12 , TIBB3
140 '!q. (3.63), flol perpeadicular to fibers
150 TIR!l : 2 , SQR(2) I ( 9 * (1-1) ) : TEB!2 : ( 1 - SQB(2)"1 )'2.5
160 Dl!PIR!2 : TIB!l , 111H2
110 LPRIBf USIBG "t." II .• '····, fl .• '···· ••.•••••
" "jW,Dl!PER!,DlIPERJ1,DI!PIR!2
180 HilT W
185 LPRIBT" ": LPBlBT" SCOpel: parallel .21<W<.S, perpeadicular .21<1<.8.·
190 UD

Mondi.eallonal Perleabrlities
Porosity tube bundle parallel perpeDdicalar
**HUU U*UUUU *i .. ,un uunnu.u
0.25 4.13&-04 6.291-03 3.29X-05
0.30 8.201-04 9.211-03 3.321-04
0.35 1.S1E-03 1.341-02 1.181-03
0.40 2.651-03 1.961-02 2.951-03
0.45 4.48E-03 2.86£-02 6.151-03
0.50 1.441-03 4.211-02 1.151-02
0.55 1.221-02 6.251-02 2.031-02
0.60 2.011-02 9.411-02 3.451-02
0.65 3.341-02 1.451-01 5.721-02
0.10 S.671-02 2.301-01 9.451-02
0.75 1.001-01 3.821-01 1.581-01
Scopes: parallel .21<1<.5, perpendicalar .21<W<.8.

The -hJ,(.' ~\lV\AI~ ~~t)r~ ,,~Ae..(e~+i~ ..\-e.s. ~e f~("W\Q..~i\;~

~ ?"'C' . . \\.\ f\b\o\l ~ ""r~O~~Mo.tel1. 'I., -Ie VtS'. It A6es
be'\t~("' ~ p~o('~~d.\c...J\~,," f'\ o'-U ,
54
3.19 In the production of titanium (Ti), rutile ore (Ti02) is fluidized with gaseous chlorine
and the following reaction occurs:
TiOl + 2C~ - TiC1 4(g) ... 02
The rate of this reaction is controlled by the removal of the oxygen by reaction with coke
particles in the reactor, according to
C + 02 - CO2
The rutile ore, prior to being placed in the reactor, was analyzed according to size. The
following ranges of particle diameters, Dp' were found:
180 S Dp < 250 #Lm 5%
150 S Dp < 180 #Lm 6.2 %
106 S Dp < 150 #Lm 77,4%
75 S Dp < 106 #Lm 11.4%
Using the above data, calculate the possible chlorine mass flow rates (at 1223 K) that are
needed to fluidize the ore in a reduction reactor that is 1.2 m in diameter and 10 m in height.
.oc:t>'
combIning regs. (3,0":) a.nd ('3·Sli) -,;-:
,
i
00
~
VVS 11= I D~

-'-
-D vS
~ 0.06-
a. J 5
+ o·~'~
II. 5"
+ o.'7~'t
/.2
1- ~
Cf O. s-
) Dvs ; 1~'.A.im : I.~"X II)-/lm

Ylcl.1(/~~ak): "I.'19XIf;5 Nsm -i,; PCI;,(la.1g'r<)-:O.77a. kS m-J)frutjJe~'1~50kem_3

M,'nimlAm fJu,'d(,ation; Wmf :'()."'I J DV$ ':./.a')(/~·l./m

't - (fR a) ~ , .'1

EZ' ( 3.'")
01 xJ() •
h OV5 ~Dp! e . [3) '~s· 3.J.f'1
0 ,.-

WI !.f.!.f't){Jo.s a.

(TJ
Rt\~ _3 I(y)(q.81)(O.'1?) 'f~"1q)
F j ~. '3. J3 ::; S X I () - . ~

ti (3., 5) wit h Vc': V"'f' Vrflf':

. •
(;'X/t/'!> r(i1)(9.8J)('f_l1q)('f''f'.xlo-5~j : g,Ot.x/bo!m s-'
t(3)(o.7?II)a

.,)II1f:.i)'l .~-/
NJass flOW rate M ~ (8 'O'XJ() 'I (().77_) = "'~'1XIO k'J 5

I'll ax i'm u m flow rat e;. ttl t ra,'nmtnt v~/()a tty ,-, based 0" sma.llest
I ~
pllrticles dnd w:./. (fRea)"" :*(,.'{,)~~.d8: F,',.3.13 ~iyes('}e)~O.18
v. : O.)B
•
-Lo)(o. SI~ : o.'1oom
1!1,1)(Cf.81)('f~'1'1)("I·'1'1)(I()·)
'7'7.Q) ;.
S-'

M:. (o.~qoJ (-H1 (1,;l(o.77~) :".~s3 k, s-'

Hence 0·00'7 <M< ".~53 k, s·' 55
3.20 A bed of particles of uniform size is fluidized such that the bed voidage is 0.6 when
the Reynolds number is 10. A second bed, similar to the fust, contains particles with a
diameter equal to one-half of the diameter of particles in the fIrst bed. Both beds operate
with the same superficial velocity. What is the bed voidage in the bed fl1led with the smaller
panicles?

Lar~e pdrtic.le -A> Small pa.rtic l es-6

s:'f'ON1 Fi~. 3.13 with Re:./o and w~,:q,

R
(t) :.
\ Ya
O'b l ./:. o.alb) f :1.i".3~

(, ,,-)YJ i - ~
\fJe :. L('4,,·30)(IO)11J : 110·7

f:. I.f Dp (~p - P9 ) ~

.3 ~~ Vo"&.

Dp~ :. d. Opa

fA:' K DpA ':. .:l K ops :::.-.~.

'i
~fJ.fe)
i/'!J
Re.~,=. 0'0 )(R~l:. 0.10 V. :. O.'7~
,.~) (o.~\?o

( _ a\Y! r il)~ 14./1

;."Re) : 1~.'1) rteRe. : .'/, :1~ •• 5

From Fj~. 3.13) w= ~.5''i

56
3.21 A fan delivers air to two fluidized beds, A and B. Bed A is operating at a minimum
volume (Le., at minimum fluidization) and bed B is fluidized to a volume equal to twice its
fixed bed volume.
a) Calculate the superficial velocity through bed A.
b) Calculate the superficial velocity through bed B.
c) Calculate M' across bed A.
d) For bed B, prove that w = 0.7 when it is fluidized to twice the fixed bed volume.
Bed A: Dp = 91.4 p.m (uniform); p (solid)"::: 4808 kg mol; A = 1.
Bed B: Dp = 61.0 p.m (uniform); p (solid) = 4006 kg m·3 ; A = 1;
w (fixed bed) = 0.4; w (fluidized) = 0.7.
Air: p = 1.28 kg m-3; 7J = 2.07 x lO-s N s m·2•

li~llll't~111
r

@) /
Fan

( ~)Y! _ ['3 n.f~ j_V3_ ., 1J~)(',O'7XIO-S);' l-v3

0.. fHe - DPLI1'3~~(E>P.Pf) -~/,"')(IO ULt)('l.al)(1..78)('18 0 'l)J ,"",o.a'1
Fr-om f','~. J.13 for- wao .... s then (~C1Y!-:::' o.oaa
. V. • "tT
E (~,s) a~) (I.oj ('l.il) (;'.0'1)(10· t) ('180'1)~~- a./ x/o·am 5·'
6" - Ym~ -
• (
~ 0.0 ~ (3)(,.~8)1. -

( ~)y! _"r(3)(a.o'TX/o-.5')~ l-~

b. fRe ~ "'·0,1( 10 1]1./)('t.81)(I.a8)boo5~ -=a,~'t

Fl"'om Fiq. '!.I'3 tor w: 0." then l~)'" ~ O.o,S

- ~I/~':. 5.Q -'(/o·am 5. 1
V,. ':. o.ob8 IJ'i)(q·SI)(iI.O'7~IO·5')(~oo5")
o [(;)(1.~6)4

c.8y referrh'lct to Fiq, !.,~> we ea.\Cula.te LlP as t""(.4~h we na.ve a fi)(ed

b-ed wieh tV:. w"'~ .
57
 R ':. P. Va Dp • (1,38)(<:>. O_~I)(q,."tx 10-") _ - ot
Appl'( !~. 3.'1-6 ec ~ 11~ (I-W) - (~H".o").xJO-S)(I-o,"IS) - 3.6" XIO

S"fnce Rec (-:z we 0 nl'( u s-e th e fIrst t.erm Of 1:7. $·116

5 8.( ~
r- /3 u , ) _ i:", t t . .4P - (1:f,~)(~.D7xIO· )(O'()~'I(') ().SS) -., ~ ~ 3
c;.q. I '""10 1,1"5 err". T- (0
-'/.l1xl()-
')~()~
0.'15
.""o~XIO Nm-

LlP: :,a.'duoll)(O.,J} :/.sC!:t/oYNm- a

d, let Up: Volvtrle Of the. part,'c,leS

'"'U1:. VoIIJr'Y1e of the tl1J1'd

1..rT ~ VD \ume tot.a \

~~~+~ -
'" • -v-~!""i • _ ['-w.,.,,~]
P -L wm~ iJ"f)mT
tr,
at' min'Jf'rlIH1'\ f'vld,eat,on: Wrni • VP+~,(1\~'

Th e '0 W ':. 'l.If ":. ---...:.'.,.----:----

(I-wmf)--U; +'"'1)'; ( \-W",t\{'1)l,M4-\ + I
'\ wmf ~!.".; ~ \ W",f -"v+ J

Also w':.
..YL
a"'LT,mt Wm~:' 1J£,mi se>that w~ '1J"fWm. ~ '"V£)"'T':, J6l.m.£
"VT) fW\" 8011f 11"I~ ~ aw

\ _ ___a~w=-__~
Substit\.ttin~ W:'(r-W""f)~+\ - (I-W~)+~w
\ w""i- aw

W(I-W m,.) to _w~ -~I.O:'o :, W(I-W"'i= -~)+ aw1.~o) -w( 1+u)mf)+~w1.: 0

,'.(..U:o or a&.IJ-(H·W~):O

W • ItW~_
.. .a - a - o'l
Ito.li ..
.

58
3.22 Metal pans are to be annealed at 800 I K in a bed of silica sand fluidized by products
of combustion of natural gas with 100% excess air. If the sand has a U.S. Standard screen
analysisof20% -30M+SOM, 30% -SOM+70M,40%-70M+l00M, and 10% -100M + 140M,
what superficial velocity of gas is required through the bed? (Hint: Think about at what void
volume you want to operate.) What is the minimum superficial velocity that you can operate
at?

Assume na.tural gas is CH'i~ CH"t t-~o_-'>CO~+ClH.O

6aS15~ I mol CHIoj - Products (ta~e air to be ().1CfN.-O.21 ,,~)

Co~ ":. I \'no I

i-l.,a 0 "& a.. )'no I

oa ":. ~ m 0 \ (l 0 t7 ~ exc e5S a..·f r)
N~ : 7.tJ·~ mol

FoV" mol frac.t.icns and properties (Appetldix. e)

S"pe!c!es Sub eCrl p1: X~ ~~~V'I'I.! nl.L Ns n'l.~

CO a 0·060 O·'~I 3.3'1 XID- 5"

14;.0 it C.lIoO o·a'1 "1 d.'lq X It>- s

~ 0.100 0.'181 "!.15X 10·5'

O~
~
...
f\{.. '1 00/000 o. '1 ~ I "3 •'"I'~ oX If)-

Vi5CO&it'( of ~a5e5 "

- ~ : t'lt.\I)( ~ ~ X;. \14 (Law of mixtures is a.de~lAate)
rtf {t o. 08)( 3,~'7) + (o,J(.)(a,1Q) +(0"')( ~.15) t-lo. ,,)( '3','1 q~ )( 10- ~;. 3. '17 x I f)- ~N s m-o/'
A
Den sity Of ~as -A SS1.u"e \dea.\ ~a.s .. Let VA : mola.r va Ivme of..i.
A m?l \ ~"\ ~C3. 1.1 A A A
VI':. O.H'\(~ I krno\ -(.10.5" rn krtlo\ ) Va :'_6"·,,9) "a-=,.,,·53) V~':t,4.SI
Mw ':. (o.oe)(Y'1)+ (o.,o)(IS)i-(o"')(sa) .... (o.")(aS) ~ ;S."5a. k~ kmo\-'
«8.3-'
Gl _ ~,
\~ - iX;."A _-lo.oS){".5,)t .J -.-. >- . 0 .• -
,
j I • .... , •

Oensity and pa'('tl'ele siies Df th.e silica sand (SiO~)

~p:' ~e'iO k~ m-! t Used a.nother source)

For siaes, v-eferto Appench'X' 0 (u.C$. Standat'd)

59
 t:. cP. : ,10 MiY'l'lmum Dpi Ma~imlAm Dp..\. Dpt 1 ifl.

~O 0·011'7 in. o.o~o~ in 0·011 'is'

30 0.00S3 0.0111 0.0100

Iofo '.ooSq t).oo 83 ~.oo'7l

10 0·00,", I 0.005'1 '.0050

Apply r,S. (~.53) and (3.0"1)

5 -:.,-'-;. C14i -:,-l.ro.a,o + o.~o + o.L.to 0.10 1 "
+ o.OOSoJ
V\I ~p ..\.~I 15 pi ~p LO.OI'1'i!) 0.0100 0.00" ':.~ (\I'1.S) 'In:'

, ' ..._"'--'"1
I 1 111 I m.· !of
1000 mm • cl·'~ X 10· m

-'13
",Y! ,,-_' _ • J •• , _, •. ( I:. 5'.1/

.~ [( Lf)('l.g ,)( S.", '1)( I oS)(a S ~o)f ~ .Q

Vmf:.yo':.(a,_x,o)L (3) (o,'ia1);' J:L;.a..X 10- r'Y'ls·'
3.23 Pellets of polyethylene are to be fluidized in a column 1 meter in diameter and
10 meters high with air at 300 K. A hot steel pipe is lowered into the fluidized bed to bring
it into contact with the pellets, which melt onto its surface to form a protective anticorrosion
coating. Calculate the total flow of air required, if the pellets are 5 nun in diameter and the
desired void fraction of the bed is 0.7. The density of the polyethylene is 920 kg m·l .
At ~oo k') ('f.: "/{I)/ k~ m- S;; nf :. ;·8"110)( ID-S' N s m-&1-

~ \( -~
\ (' ~ lis. -;;.,
I er(f I. .,-!I"3 5)ii.
.~ (3"I.o'l(,xll'- ,
!>

Eg. ( '3 -'/'I (1" Re..) - PPLY~ ~f (~p -Pf)j . Sx Ie L(~)(Ct. 8/)(1." 1)(q/9 : 17;.

:=rl'rYlFioL ."313 "'.lith ( f/(eJ.)Y'"':/'1J. a.nd w:,o.'1) ~~

t... ~8

-~ ~
fj~{fe-Pfl:: 8: 8r.('1)(fj·~I)(~1q)1.
V.
c L 3 ff': J . \1 ':
I 0 L (3)( /. I' I)~ J-,-bb n~ I S
-I

t:'l :. d 4 :.
~ Yo··
16 G n:\ 'r (t) '2.
S If rn -- -: I ~ 0"1fT: 3 5.
..J •
1

60
3.24 During the compaction of metal
powders into sheet material (powder rolling), ++t
as shown in the figure below, the entrapped
air is expelled from the loose powder. This
expulsion occurs at the line AB. Below AB,
the powder is coherent, that is, the particles
are locked together, but above AB, the
powder is loose, i.e., a normal packed bed.
If the velocity of expulsion exceeds the
minimum fluidization velocity, the powder
does not feed properly into the roll gap and
the sheet product is not satisfactory. This, in
fact, limits the production rate of the process.
The following equation gives the
superficial velocity Vo (cm S·l) of gas
expulsion from the coherent zone:
V. _ 2rR2n (Q - sin Q cos Q)
o - Q[2R(1 - cos Q) + hI] ,

where R = roll radius, cm, n = rolling speed, rev S·l, Q = roll-coherent powder contact
angle, rad, and hI = roll gap, cm. For copper powder, Q has been found to be 6° (0.1047
radians).
a) Calculate the rolling speed at which copper powder, with properties given below, will
just begin to be fluidized at the plane AB, for strip thickness 0.5 mm and roll diameter
200 mm.
b) Calculate the corresponding speed of the emerging coherent strip.
c) Discuss the effect that order-of-magnitude changes in particle size and roll radius would
have on production rates. Data are given as follows: ." = 1.8 x 1(t6 N s m·2, Pair =
1.30 kg m·l , Dpeo = 40 ~, Pcu = 6700 kg °m·l •

a. Ass ~ me. W rnf : D.'" 5"

'-\ ~ De - ra I
f'~,(s.,,)- (f ie; ':.
'to)( If) .11 -
3h't ~Va - r-S(I.exni,)a ,,, - •
['1~ I'f( f,- ff) J L (U)(I.3)('100~
( RPo , }§
fro", F(~, 3. , a@ U) ~ (J.ys) \f7 ~ 0·/ • r-'
• ---:V.SII./oIAt).m~f_ _
(0 0 )~ ~
~9 r}£ _V-\f __

. of f';

~
VOJ trI~ : 0./ [ (Ai)(q.8)(I'B)("r'X'760~
.3(1.5)i J:. 6.6'fS rn s-' : ..,.5 em S·'
0

61
 h ~ (J·()5 em) R ~ 10·0 em - Assume "'0 Slip
n:. \1, oc CdR (1.::~~±.hJ : (Lf.!)( 0·/0 'i'7) [<;)(10)( 1- Ct1$ a. 10'17) + o,ori
&rr R'" (0< - SVncc ~ 0( ) (10) l. (6./0 It 1 - 5,'" 001""17 Cos 001 0 ~ '1)
.; ".

n~ /),/57 s·, ~ 9,,,,/ rpm

b. velocity af strip.; 17' 0 n ~('T'I')(1to)(q·~); 590 crt) m',n-' : cr.S~ em.s-'
c. If Dp : 183..u.m then (1!)Y': J anJ Vo)mf would increase to o.l..J!" ms:'

Th/s wtJLJlrJ Jnc'r-ease the rollinS speed to 911· rpm.

Vel. rJf the $tr/p :; V,o<[QR(I-CDsoc)rhd
coso<)
R(<<-SInO(
If rDlld,amete .... LVas increasefil to 'foomm) R:-(J~m)then
vel. f)f strip ~ 8,a~ em s·/ or ci s//9n"f.. decrease in the

production rate,

62
4.1 The reciprocal of (3, as defmed in Eq. (4.4) is called the kinetic energy correction factor.
Derive the kinetic energy correction factors for the following flows:
a) fully developed, laminar flow between infInite parallel plates;
b) Hagen-Poiseuille flow in a circular tube;
c) turbulent flow, in a tube of radius R, described by

v = [']"
VIIIIZ
AI. JL. (r<-r)n
R. ~f\f' -'" VmAX ': \7<
where n = 117.

~, -A;{ A~~l3
A.. _, : I
V, idA,
I

-I

Fully developed .pow between parallel plates.

V 1: _ , (~t_ y4) (po- pJ

~r,. l

V:: £ (Po - p..)

3t1 I..

_ 3
V, - ~(~ _'(2.)
~ l-

A, ~ ~ S W) w ~ lUi d th ~f pa.f'al/e I plate 5

A:. a'<w, dA:. ~wdy; when A,=c,Y:'Oj when A,=A,) y:S

:. L' [
~.: ~§W ~ i"'Y"~ D \
~a
.Vld" '- -; "
.r .
{(S~'I'\i.!'< : ~l
5,:. 0.0'" 8
b. Hatlen-Poi.seuil\e f'ow in a.. tirc.ular tube.

v~: [Pol!'L + \'~ ~[I- (f)~]: £'1' em)

v: [P0l.p. H~ :~ '. eI' (~.33.l

63
 .--
:av ; Jr-(f11
L .J
I '('''\

" A:lIR7.
~R I/ ,
(

_\ -
~
I
R -
-~J.(31<l ~-\~~r)21J"1l"r d r ~ ~R'). (l-)- (~~Jrdr
R
r
3 \\
~ dA :~Jrrd'r

_ Ib Rl
- ~ B ~ ~ :. ~:.t

C. At '(':o»).)~ VMax.j r:R) v:.o; r~+) V:.(~tVMa.X.

~ ~ 0 t4-!"
dA' V....."
A R i
V: ~1 vdA' -:,;W#O! ~rdY" V
C) ~

:: do. ~~~: ~) d yo 1 R{ R;"v- \'f'\

:.
(\..1.-)
a. VmAx \Yi+\' -n +_ o
r:o
I
R

-
'N it h n: -7' ) \~ ':. O. S 17

1
vMAX.

( ~'(l
The ~ .::L:. V"Ia.x. R~ 7 ~ l&:.rS·\
V ~"rna~'{---1-
n.,.'
_...1-)
n+_
~(_I ___
I

n+
'_~
n+ aJ
I
\R)

I _
13 - 11 RA [
I I
ca...l.- _
n+'
,
n+~
1(~
3 R

0
R-r
3n
a.1l'Y'dr

R
T'
31l
With n'*) ~, (1083')1 (BRr) r-dr ,~ ().S3~) Ra[3~+1 - 3~~J

I
~:. ().)(/.83,)(O.dS8):./.()58

~':.o.q'75

64
4.2 A fan is used to draw exhaust gases from a large hood. For highly turbulent flow, write
an equation for the system which gives -M*p as a function of volume flow rate, Q. Neglect
potential energy changes because a gas is being exhausted. For friction include only the
contraction (e, = 0.4), the expansion (e, = 1.0) and the elbow (LlD t = 20./ = 0.(01). Note
that -M*p has units of pressure and represents the "total pressure" against which the fan must
operate.
fan

Exit
-+
1 atm

----.. 4f-- Area, A

Hood p. 1 atm

(t\
i dP' +
,...._.. -'l.]
'J., _ ~ ~ ~ D. t + M~ + f~ : 0
~I ~ ~.~1. ~~,

V.:.\J a ~ P,':.PI..) ~=:o) :. M'*:-~f

Ef ~ e',oow+ ContY'aeti,,~ + expansion

E+(~'bo\IJ) :.atif'YOl.: ~(OIOOI)(~O)V·:, ().O"iy;'

£f(~ontract'IDYl) :,-l-V2tO.~): ().~\jz.

ff(eXpd.VlSion} ":7y:l(I):' o·S'V:l

l:f :. (O'''L1+0._+0.5')V~ :. 0.'1'1 'J'l.: ().'l"f- ~:

-Mtf~: o.1~ ~ ,..,2..

A'1 loX

65
4.3 Cooling water is provided to the mold used in the electroslag remelting process depicted
below. For flow through the mold,
E'! -- KV2
where V is the average velocity of the water in the lines at the entrance and exit of the mold
and K is a turbulent flow constant for the mold. When the pressure gauges read PA, :::; 2.76
x lOS N m·l and PB = 2.07 x 10' N m·2 , the volume flow rate is 2.83 x 10') m3 S·l.
Calculate -M* (in N m kg· l ) for the pump when the volume flow rate is 5.66 x 10.3 m3 S·l.
Assume that friction losses through the straight lengths of pipes can be ignored. Data:
D (pipes) = 15.4 mm; f = 0.001; L,ID = 26 (elbows); ef (entrance) = 0.8; ef (exit) = 1.
Electrode

Til
9.14m

Pump

105m

1 Sump
I
Case ,. Set ween ~ and f6 is considered t" be the mt>ld·

,Ps - fA r 9 (~8 - 'lilt) + E; : " ; E; : P1- ~ - ~ (i 8 - &.4)

E. • ~.7'XI()G·~.()7XIP6
{- IX/()3 -t.S/(9. J'I- S .()5'); E,!1-S
AI so E,:. kY"j k:..!L.. £'f (11'd Z) 1. (f.~)( ",1.)( (J.CISI{ ")
Va - 1J'&~ • ('11)(".'3><1"-')" : o.()'103

caseti· Plane.2-entra.ntf! fr()m $Ump;Pldl')f!;' -ex/t tD s~mf"

~ : P, ) V.l: V" i.l: i , J -M tf : Ff

66
 -M~ -l..(
r
_I I
eFJJ +Tf(iJ+r'!f)~ -t-~ v
I!.. I
1 - a

V : (~. ~, XI () - 3)( 't J

(rr) (D. 0 Ill"") ': 30.'1 m s~'

-,'\1)--:' [+(D'S) 1-t(".OOI)(~') r t(I)+-O.O'1()~ 30.'t~: 881 m'2. $-2-

-Mif-:.SBI NmkC4-'
"

4.4 A blower draws air from a melting area and directs the air to a "bag house" where
particulates are filtered before the air is discharged to the environment. The melting area and
the environment are at ambient temperature and pressure (289 K and 1.0133 x 10' N m·2,
respectively). When the pressure drop across the bag house (AI' in the diagram) is
5.07 x 1()3 N m'l, the volume flow rate is 0.944 m3 S·l. Calculate the work done by the
blower in N m per kg of air delivered by the blower. Conduit In/onnation: length before
elbow, 61 m; length after elbow, 61 m; diameter, 305 mm; L,ID = 25 (elbows);/ = 0.0043;
el (contraction) = 0.4; el (expansion) = 0.8.

Bag hous.!

~6P--f

t Blower

(,) - + - - - - Melting uea - - - - -

POI-iP, + ~ 6 -: + M· + \i~ ~O) si rice V,' ~ V; ':0

67
 F,j1. - p\ -: 5 07 X. J0 3N ",. a.
I

I
. 3
'-I. (',N 5'ID ... til 03 ... - .......
''''~ '"
j'a
QI '
cDndUl't) .JL. Y !o.Q 4 'i m
- A - 11'" S-I: -,"'~'"
(O,)OS)l1ma.- IN\
Ill ...... ' ..
5- 1

~ Ci ~ ;. (q. 80'1 m s")! ttl m) : 5"16 m~ s-·

e/+, I"
{I atm.) a8et K) ':.\.aa I":~ m·'·
) \'...,a ta.'1 A~'I-
Q \ _ /.()3Si> 5YIJ S"
l'OI330X/~$
(I.~_) ': J.ao~ m- 3
E~ : =~ (Con t V"ac. t ilJ") + c~ (t 1bow) + S~ (e)(pa.1"I s·j 0'(\) + E'f (Ccmciu it.)

E", : ~ (j.~) \J 1 + 01 (0,00 Ii !) (;. 5') Va +-1- (0, S) V~ + ,,( 0·00 Ii '3) ( ~ to~) V1 :. Ii· .. 5 ~. V~
f; :'("'.;'S'S')(I.a,Q-1)" "",a 5-- ':. 710 mel .5'~

P_- PI - lj,o''7l< 103 hi I. mSIIl:~ n"'I :. .,OSe mc1. s-~

E" ,.,.,- i I. ~ £5 'f< ~ ,NS' a

-M~ :. (-;d5" +,5"qS+-'1ro) rna 5. 1 :. S3b~ m 1 S·a. ~ 59(,"1 IV m h,·J

4.5 Water is pumped from a storage tank to a mold designed to produce nonferrous ingots
by the "direct-chill" process. The water supply is at ambient pressure (1.0133 x lOS N m- 2),
and the water leaving the mold impinges upon the surface of the ingot which is also at
ambient pressure. A pressure gauge mounted in the manifold portion of the mold (pressure
gauge P in the diagram) indicates an absolute pressure of 1.22 x lOS N m'2, when the volume
flow rate is 3,93 X 10,3 m3 S·I. The water level in the tank is 3 m, and the vertical length
of the pipe is 3 m. Calculate the theoretical power of the pump. Assume that the tank for
the water supply has a very large diameter, and that the kinetic energy of the water within
the manifold portion of the mold is negligible. Piping Information: total length of straight
pipe, 9.14 m; diameter, 30.5 mm; LelD = 25 (elbows); f = 0.004; ef (contraction) = 0.4;
ef (expansion) = 0.8. i - _ - PI aV'l e (I)

Wattr
supply

--- Water 'cooled

mold
 Po r- •- ~
cl.. +!-",l - 2.J + q (Cil.-~J + M"+ Ii,,: 0) VI ~Vl ":.0
f Lci~2. as,

p;. - PI
e -
~ (1.~~)(IO~-I.OI~3)(I05)N
m1.
I ",,1\ K'\ fI'I :.
I X·IO' K, N s:a
~o.~, r1I1S·~

g{!,.- c 1): 9, a.,7 ~tl-+ m -:"'5'8. SLf m~ s·a

- • ..12... 3.93XIc"3m'!'1
V • A • S 1t
I(0A'30S)1ml.
: 5.38 ms"

=+ :£f (Pip~) ~ _£f(elboUJs)+t:f(contractio~)+E'f(expa.nslorV

;r(~)(Olao'{) (!;lD5) + ('f)(o.(J!J'I)(;'o) +(-~)(().'1) ~(~)(o.gJ S. 38:A: 98.;'i

I.,.

-"'1* :a()"7-S'8,8"f+98.31f :'~ . .a /II Ink,'"

4.6 Water, maintained at a constant level, is supplied to a long line from a filter tank filled
with sand. There are two vertical branches attached to the main line as shown in the
accompanying figure; these branches and the tank are open to ambient pressure (Le.,
1.0133 x lOS N m·2). At the end of the line there is a frictionless valve.
a) When the valve is closed, what are the heights hi and ~ in the vertical branches?
b) When the valve is open. what is the mass flow rate?
c) When the valve is open, what is the difference in height between hi and ~?
Data: p = 1.000 kg m·3; 11 = 1 X 10.3 N s m·2; aID (relative roughness) = 0.01;
w (sand) = 0.40; Dp (sand) = 152 "m.

hi h2

t
9.14m
--.11.- 9.14 m --.11.- 9.14 m --.1
t
. - 9.14 m

+ :e<:x
L 3.05 mm diameter

a. h,":.h~:.q,/"'m

b.
~
4n-
~
I +ff.
-" - ~
Va i"~ca~-a,) +E"f:O j ~ -P, :0) f3-.:. fa) V~:. V) V,;O

';~-~,':.-Lo (Lb is length of filter bed)

f; : e; (bed) + E.;. (e nt. r.) t c; (P/" e)

69
 1:-; (b ed):. .a FO(Q,J) :. C, LX. + C~ L v.: J. whe re. c, -:. I S'a n(, .. w»)t C _ 1.7~('·w)
'" .0 110 f>!)1(J)5
p
.:I.- aw
'P
3

Er ~ \(~~ C'.LpJ&':; -:f.- ef + ~f LOb) y z, Al.so Yo : AL-A V -: Rv .) p~ p,'pe

r iJ;' \jJ... ) b

W her e
.
R': are a .,. at i () ( ~',Pi i b¢b~

£f {c. ~1I8 +- c. Lo R ~ .,. t- e• .,. ~f ~.J ii'"

Su b st/tu t i nq i fJ t() mechiln i Cd J ener<j y et" a.t icn .

-~Lb+G~ +-CI~b8 +C;.L.Ra+ttf+"f ~~v";:o

Solve. f or V: Vl~ ~ + ~liQ B, + C,a. Lb Rl.+- t ef r;,f ~~:: ~ Lo

The f()/Jowi(l~ fr~ra.m calculates the mass flow rate.

to ·Proble. 4.6 - aolves for velocity in the pipe; 51 unita throughout

20 VISe: .001 : DEJ5 : 1000: M: .4: DP : .000152: RATIO: .001: G: 9.807
30 LB: 9.140001 : LP : 3t9.140001 : D: .00305 'lengths of bed and pipe, and
dialeter of pipe.
40 'Assule lalinar flol because the pipe dialeter is so siall and the filter bed
3dds a lot of resistance to flol.
50 EF: 1.1 : BKTA :.5 ·'rict. loss fact. of entrance and beta.lalinar flol.
60 el: ( lSJ-VISC1 (1-W)"2 III OiHS*OP'Z*W"3 )
70 C2: ( l.7S-(l-ii) J/( DPlwo3 )
80 FOR V: .01 TO 1 STEP .001
90 Bg : O*V*OKHS/VI5C : r : 16/il 'lalinar flol in pipe
100 DKKO! : 1/12*SETA) + Cl*~S'BATrO/V + C2*LStRATIO"2 + K1/2 + 2t!tL?/D
110 NUBER : GtLB
120 SIDK : i*i*DEKOM
130 11 SIDE ) HUKER THEI 150
140 HUT V
150 LP3IBT" The velocity in the pipe is";V;"./s."
160 LPRIHT" The Reynolds BO. in the pipe is";RE;"."
170 IF RE ) 50uOO! THEH 210
180 L?RiNT" Reynolds DO. is 0.1 .• so a~suled friction factor is valid."
190 MASS3Aii : (3.1416*D*D/41*VtOiBS
200 LPRl~T" The laS8 flol rate is";!!SS?ATE;"tg/s."
210 END

The velocity in the pipe is .2100003 also

The Rernolds no. in the pipe iE 640.50u7 .
Reynolds DO. i! 0.1 .• so assuled friction factor is valid.
The aass flol rate is .0015343 ig/s.
70
:. Mec.h an ica.1 enery e~ua.t ion betw~en the two vert leal /e9s.
P,-P,
f
+[,r :0'
T)
£, ~o1f..!::...v~_(6JfI')(..b...)Vl
D---,r; .. /3a.
f)
\(9 1S; \(0 ~/()~):b /'orrr'l.s-t
1

-l,'I~.s) !~S'X/~·3J' •

fl.-!', :(/)Clo3){,.,~) : ','XI"'", m· 2j Also ~ -If : f' (h,-h a )

R·vn~" _.t :0.'73 m

4.7 Liquid aluminum contains a small fraction of Al20 3 inclusions which are removed by
filtering through a bed of ceramic spheres. The refined aluminum (Le., filtered aluminum)
is pumped to a holding vessel from which liquid metal is drawn to cast ingots. For the
equipment arrangement shown below, calculate the theoretical power of the pump to process
2.52 kg s·'. The important friction losses are in the filter bed, the transfer line which
contains two 90° elbows (medium radius), and the entrance and exit.
Data: Aluminum: Ceramic spheres: Transfer line:
p = 2644 kg m· 3 w = 0.4 L (straight ponions) = 1.83 m
TJ = 1.28 x 1a3 N s m·2 Dp = 0.61 nun D = 9.1 nun
Area (bed) = 0.292 m2 e (rougtmess) = 9.1 x lO4 nun

T
i Ij1
r.
.
n
~,
I I ~ I /c
.~ _
t .I""'" I'"
II , I I
l.22m

~ ~I
I 0.6' m II

1
~~ ._

Melting Filter Transfer Holding

Vessel Line and Vessel
Pump

P" - P, + ~ ' "1j

~a6.a .S,
-2. __
v, + '3 tl e t' M~+ E' ~ : 0
e
For the ent i r~ system '0 V, -=. Va: 0 I P,: P;Z) :~: e, . Jut,..•
. , - , .... ,
I'"
l:~

~f ': E.f(f·ilter-) + E~ (tranSfe)" "r1e)

E't(fllte.t-h¥: 150rty'l.(\-w)a + \I.,S-~V:l (I-W)

~ C p' LU ~ e Dp w3

Vo-:.~.5B Kq~1
.\ ~"'i ~ ~~I-o-.-_q-a--m'&. :. S, ~t.)(/O" 'm s·t
71
• If i1t ..~), 1Ml 1.1 tI wJ", S.:'" 10" ami 0.41 mj mil (,- 0.1i) 1.1 ~~ m
; -- 1 m~ 5 ~""'''f tf~ l~'/)(/o·'t)ama. lo.ti) 1 N 5l

2, ttran5fe r) : ~ ff. (e 10" w) + ff (COI"\ tract ,'on) -I- Ef ( ex pa. n$ 'IOr1)

Re.':. OV~
n !. JL(I.iW
\1\ ~O1. n.
).f.. :.I4W
1l'11 D
:.:LI2"s~J<'~
1)-
m1..!
----s] ,.a.Sx/o·'Ns O.CoqH"n
__ ;',75")(/o~

£...:, q.llC/o·Lfmrn:. \ X 10·'-1 ') :. f ;.0.00'"

C q,IY7'l~

'7 __ k ~.!~ l<~~ rno 1

11-1 s:~;,~:.t ~~; (O."oCl:,'m1. -: lIi·oS m S·I
r- \"
~ Eh I
(e Ibow) : ~Jaf
_
(l5 j V~I ':. 'i (".oo~) (a o)(I"1.bS~"&.m1. ~:':I.-- 6q.~ \"1'11. s-~
~

-.~ "Z.ef =1-1 (1"'·45) ~~I~:'1.1.q m1. s-lI.

"t..
E;(';ontract'ion)

whe.re. ef : o'li 15.frt?f'I') Fi'J'''t.'i folC Re.: eo) A:../A, ':00

E'~ (eJCpan&i oV\) ~ 1. V2.ef : 11 (1'1.,,5)1.. ~ :I..l:..a.. :. 107. 0 m ~S·a.

w'he.Y't.'E.f: \'0 is p·o,., FI~,"'.3 for' I<e: oD) A,!r:..1. . . . o

E' t :(~.~ + ~,..?J +- '1 a.q ... 10'1."3) m"s'" :. .:2'1~ m 1.5·~

-M~ ': ~..,~ m\'~·~

72
4.8 Hot-rolled steel sheet is quenched by passing under two water sprays as depicted below.
Each spray requires 9.46 x 10-4 m3 S·1 of water at 294 K, and the pressure drop across each
nozzle at this flow rate is 1.72 x 105. Calculate the theoretical power required by the pump.
t - - 0 914m _ _
SUndam
~(j,U'
A
L..I.
3 ~"'-
H
____ Lon. sweep

PI an e (,v 'T
I 25 mm 1.0 PIPing
1.32 m ., D- 0.0004

.1
COMe~on (Tee)
to 75mm Un.

lUmp
.-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Globc oaJ ..
G.1e vam____-..

;:U\d
open

=~
fJaYle (,) - - -

L,- L1 - L) -L. -1.12m

Most Of the fricti~n ;'S tor floW through the n02i/es) So we. can asslAme

that tile flow rdtes tnrou~n the nOe~/e a.re eft.(al.

~
~
+d ~,. v: _ 'i,1.(3, ~
+ a (r -1.) + M If + £,r : 0
"J Z. I .,

Pl.: P, T.4 P ~ pz • P,: AP(n02e/e); V, ~oJ V,: V(;J.~mm pipe) ~4 ':.1) c.z.-cJ ::'Ae

+(tt.J
£; -:. £f (?Smm) +-;. J:-f (:'S'm,.,,)

ff (7,mrfl) =[ t E'." Hf( ~)./~'" t .. [.If (~).a.IYJ + f t~f(t-~'f~ ii'~

where ,,*: c1Vera~e velocIty in 7S mrn pipe.

V""!. ~:. (lJ) ('t,"fI~ )(lO·~):. 0.1./.28 m 5·') Re~:. ~ ':. (0. 07 5)(P'~~8) ':. 3. '3'1 x 10'"1
A t-frj(o.O'75'~) V q,,,X 1()

ef)/ : «(~.4) ~ 0.8 (FI~S. "f.'f and Lf.~») f: a.()ot. (Fi~. '3 •.a), (~)elb"W ': ~I (iab/e '1'~)

73
( ~)valve. ~ 7 (Table 'f.~» (b.J
D -: ,,5
D}ete .
(ra b/e 't.;) (oL \ -: . L.., +L~;.L 3;' L'1 :3'1)(1.:.:;.): 65
\ Ipipe 0 0.0'75'

E.f t'o mm) : [t lo. a) -Kel}(~.aoo )(3/) +('1)(0.00,,)(7) t('7){O.DlJ4,)(' 5)+ (.1)(0. oo,X 'S~(O.~"?8')

,.. .... '

!:.;i':':J mrr'l .- tJ'oOJ 1..1
m s
L

, ((l\
J.rf(~err:ln):. ~ t~f fl('l..\ l ~
O)tee +-fL: :t5Iel b6wl +\O)elbol4J~';';l,TI"(L\
IL\
oJp'/ pe)

y= ~~ ~.'1'XIO-"I _ ;. (O.OAo)(t.~~'?)
A (~)(o.oa54) ·J·9~7 1')') s"; Re:. DVV
-
9.,IX/ O- 7 '- :'5,tJJ x/CJ '1

r: o. O() S!;'" (F,'~. 3.;1),) (t )tfe :90 (i4bJe ,.,.~)) (-57elbow ,': 20 (Table "I,~);
ft
\"D ')' elb~w.1 ':. 31 (Table "1.:2'\' (~). -:. /,5i."'t !.'t1't ':. 0.756
'I) I.J. PIpe. - _ .. - 7 •

E{ f
(~Smm) : ~ {~)(O'O()5S)~O +~o + 3/1-97. ~ j :.s.~'1 m2.s·~

Ef :0.60 / +5'.t2'1 :.5.8' 7 ",2 S .. Z

~
-M :: E;. +'1L:J~ +-f + T:'
-1. A..e
5".8'1+9.81 (1.5/,1, f-1.~2)+ !..:1fl
_
3.
+
5
1.7~XI():. dCJ7
J)(/Ol
m1. s ·z.

-M*": . ;;07 /'II m k,·'

74
4.9 A fan draws air at rest and sends it through a straight duct 152 m long. The diam. of
the duct is 0.61 m and a Pitot-static tube is installed with its impact opening along the center
line. The air enters at 300 K and 1 atm and discharges at 1.2 atm. Calculate the theoretical
work (in N m kg· l ) of the fan if the Pitot-static tube measures a pressure difference of
25.4 mm of water.

"---: ~ TPilot.IIIlic lube : : : : : : : - /

1.0 .. Fin
JIm ~!_
~ 76.2m _ _.......
_ .. 1.2
_ ~ aim
\
152.4m --"\"

Vff'3.;s.= Cp(~ AP)-l :. Cp(~~h~II~O)Vi\

~Alr "}

a.sSu.me Cp-:'!·OJ h-:.-tS·~'mm~ao) '·aat:m-:'I'~''')(/05Nm·;'

PA
\ Ir -
- I~mo\ \,~IIo)('O-s Nm- 2.
_
o.oaa"lma!loOI;'!l('OSt-I M- a
I ~'13)o(
300K 11~W'lD' 11"OO~
~8,8~ \I'<'Ci u . . uk-
:'1'1'-',
~m
1

V
Max r
-:".or~\9,e0'1m5 O.o:a5"\Y'I\ IXI0 3lfQ
rna '·liO
m31~~\8.scms-1
K'~J

R
eM~1(
• DV"'1l(e~ o.t.lm I\S.8.~ \,."to~
• V\, 5
K9 \
m3
)7)1.
1. 85"x/r N S
IN.."
l(;jS2.
:. g.13xIC'fj

Y- : o.,,_+o.o'i \O,,(RtM~X) c o·o.a+o.o~ \.0, 8.73~'os: 0·858

VMax.

V:. 0.858 I,PUU

~
.. M
:. I~.~ 'm S
.1

rP,.~ + [-v~~ _ '_lJ

!J... + ~.b!~Mw+ E~:.o
Jp' ~ d~a t1~1

75
t'la'()e (1)- ~U5C before the inlet j PIa.Yle(A)-j".fst af:er the outlet,

:. V'I..":. \/,:(» Ae=-O since hOl"'1 eontal) ~p -:. o,~ atm ': ~,o~,(' XI()~ '" m·«

DP ~,oJ'b)(la'iw
T'!. m'
I
/."{Oli
m!
kif
I_~' m ':. j.'-I't-x/fJ"i·m"l. 5·2.
N,Sz'

E~ ~ £',+f,.\+£!

EI: E'~ (stra.i~ ht) ':. ~t ~ v2. ) He ~ ReMU. : 8.73 x I()~ f ~ 0,003 Prom F "<3, 3·a

F ': (a)(O,OD3)f. IS _."'Irfl)('8.8+7)'&.. =5'.3~ m7. s·.t

I \ o. " m

~a ~ _r\entranee) ~-t. ;/e. : ~ ~)\ .9.8"~ )~(")( 0••1)' I~a m~ 5-'

..
E3 ~ E'f(exit):.1 v~e+ ~(t)\ 18.8~ ~; (100) -= J79 m~ s·2.

E'f :. 5" 3 3 -+ I Y ca .,. 11 g ':: S 5' 3 WI.1 S • 2

-M* ~ ~.; +-1- -:. ao3+'''f~o() '! 1.6'2S~XJo'" m:lS-a.:.I.S~5'3Xlo"lNm ~-I

76
4.10 Compressed air at 6.9 x 105 N m- 2 and 310 K flows through an orifice plate meter
installed in a 75 mm I.D. pipe. The orifice has a 25 mm hole and the downstream pressure
tap location is 38 mm from the plate. When the manometer reading is 358 mm Hg.
a) What is the flow rate of air?
b) What is the permanent pressure drop?

P. Pol
I I
I

Ai r;
'~'t)( 10 5 N .,_1
31o K

ct· Flow 'ra.te of a.t,," (~~ s·,)

Dc-:'d.S'tt'lm) D,~'1S'mm) t:.~::=;- (idea,\ ,as), B:. ~~ :.-i 1 el.':.~

.L
W:. ~ Y A 0 (- eA p) ~
LlP -:.l3 5 S l'YItrI H~){ 13. set,.) :. "'.8'10 X 10 3 Iq m-a\9.801 to se.2\1::I..£" ':. 'i.17'x,O"'N rn· a
1('1 ",
P,:, ,.cr)(JOE'H .,,_01.) PJ. ':. •. "t~-'1 )( ID 5 N ",-A

A pp \ '1' £1- ('1.33)

'r:..&. _ '.~~2"1 J( I()~r
PJ • , . 9,,)( I D 5 ':. 0. 'I S () 8

)-r _ (I-O.ct,OS)
'I' - (t) : 0.061;"

FI"'Otr'l F". ~.I') '(~o.q8

Oo~nstrea.M pre.sSILre ta.p tCJeatiDn 'S as mm

F1ct. "I"~ ~i'les ~: o.,a
Ao ~ Co:) (_~5'm(!!)\.':. Li~o.ct m",~

77
 fai r' (,. q l( U/N Yf\~ and 3)0 K)

~:.1~rtlOI
o.o~_&.fm3
I ,. lo5 N
1.,(,))13XIO N",-
,.,,·a. ;Z'73W.I.i.U.i./if<~ :
3to)(" \~mo\I't)oo~
7.73K
~
",_5

IK~ m~~ .\
1

W: (~." .I1)(O·QS)(Y'lO." mm1.)[~ I1~.73

m:&
1j.7 'H, XID "I N
m2. N.s
V'tl1.,
(\xlo'!,%.ml71l.
': t).d, S 6 K~ l'
,

W :.a.~56k, S-I :. 9~ B k~ h

b. tlp\OSS :(I-e~)(PI-P~ ':(I-t)('-I·,)7~xlo~Nm-2.) :'~.~"I!'xlo~Nm·7..

~p :.y.~~5")(ID"4N m".1

4.11 A venturi meter is installed in an air duct of circular cross-section 0.46 m in diameter
which carries up to a maximum of 1.18 m3 S·l of air at 300 K and 1.1 x 10-5 N m- 2 . The
throat diameter is 230 Mm.
a) Determine the maximum pressure drop that a manometer must be able to handle, i.e.,
what range of pressure drops will be encountered? Express the results in mm of water.
b) Instead of the venturi meter, an orifice meter is proposed and the maximum pressure
drop to be measured is SO mm of water. Calculate what diameter of sharp-edged orifice
should be installed in order to obtain the full scale reading at maximum flow.
c) Estimate the permanent pressure drop for the devices in parts a) and b).
d), If the air is supplied by a blower operating at 50% efficiency, what is the power
consumption associated with each installation?

o...Do:'·Somm

Vo!. 1.18 105 3 1 ~nll \0<.1 -:1r~(r-t>.-a""'!'3)""l-t'r\-t

f7ii1K Lf
-:. 3 I
I • h'\ S - I

ASStArne. '(=1; tllis will be chee\fed lat!\",.

W:L K V (a~( PI-fa.) 1+0 a.nd w to ' 70 Ao ~

. -Yo: kY V.A(
II . ~ P. - R.) ) u." mm
S-:. calt> "",m: 0.5 I Co: 0.'18
78
 k:. Co - o.ctS
G- B~ 1- [, - 0.51 ~ ':. '.0 let

_ I mol "1-'" 1.17 3 1( I~~~" I ~7k

~f+.'lr" O.O.1~"Im?l
1.1 X IO"N
l,oI33xI05"NWI-' .360~ I "'0'1 \OOD~ -' C3
moO!

o_? .. 1.~1 t<"~ (!\,=t I)"m2.l, i I! N S1 :.. ,.O'1XloAN WI-" ~". bmm 'rl~O
f, '1" « Y1\ s' I.Ola ill K~ m

Ll P ! 'I. 0 mm H.20

eh ~c K an val tAt "f '(

; -2-
r_~_!,O<f'1XIO Nm -.0.'\'\5'"
.. ~ .. ,.\ X lOS' N n'l-a

3
\. '(". 0,005:.
-'(> • 3x 10" ) :. '( ~I

b, Assume '(:/ a.,d try Do ~ 0.300 rn) PI - Pl, ':. So mm Df· ~o ": I.j.'lo l( l()l.N m'~

.J.

A. ~ ~'f [H tP,-?)f
11 I~
w: q f ': 1,Ie ~ ,',2'7 ~i ':. "00 k~ 5·'

[ .. \' (P,- ?l]i ~~l"" ';,;.I"·~D 'lOa. ~4~~ ;~l . 15.! k, m-As·,
r.:z _ 0.3"0 -0
IJ" 0.'1'6"
L
'1)"'-
r.,
~:O.b8 from F\~ . ..,.)~ a.t Vt'fla. contraeta.

A .. \."S'ok~LL
().. Slo.IoBI'II 35.!maSk., :. ".QSX/O·
~
m1.

Do :. ('1
\ fT
AO)1. ~ o. ~ 8_ rtI) e~':. (c.lCam\l.
0."''' 'ff't") .... O.sa ) ""1..· ('''XIDS_Y''h'lo~
, r
0. • • -
..
.. O·G\'H,

79
 I
V)
E
'2:
q--
\.c)
/'
,.
----I~ <J)

,
en
E
,.g '2
p'
.:. ....
\()
~E~
o
Q e-
ff
_ (11
.....
...
~
0)-
f ---
",'"
... £
o 0- o
co
C- 0 () '.()
-.."
..Q "-. =::../
, J(
x
I'
,I
l.I a to It
>- •• "
. ..
~
~'
--
!.. oJ
): ~
:s
.., '"
0.:- .f..t
«.h
• ....
T
" ';i' C
Qj ()
~
~f;
to ~
~
1~
---.,. c
~ ~
-
l(
I' II) 0
r I
()
q \'0 f't) ~I
4- ~ +->
If
1- Q..
t'
~ (L
£ 01> OJ
E E
I~
0
..9 0... :? ';)
\I)
~
\I)
c:r <J s:. ~
('(
I ~f, ....()) '-'
0
- ~~
0
t --
" "'IJ ~
Ol
s.-
ell
l' J ..... 1-
Q) 3 ~
3 ~ ~
~I~ >- .t ~
J- o <::) ~
t- < ,
LI -d
4.12 Liquid flows through a long straight tube and then through a Venturi meter. Pressure
gauges A and B measure the pressure drop for a tube length L, and Pl and P2 are the
pressures for the manometer used with the Venturi. Derive an equation for the ratio of the
twO pressure drops, (Po· PJI (P l • P2) in terms off, K, D, and Do where f is friction factor
for the tube, K is the flow coefficient of the Venturi, D is the diameter of the tube, and Do
is the throat diameter,

~A
.. L
rtfB
...
~
• I~ ...
Pi Pz

Stf"ai~~t tube',

Pa- PI +rV z.4 _ Vli'{+ ~4c +M-t 1: 1 : 0

~ l~$~·~

V,':V~) ~i!:O) MIt:O) Let P~:Pa.J p,:'Po

E"t:.:It (~1V a.

(Po-R): J€,f(i) Q;t

\1 e n t ur j : - 1:-,. '1. 31

JYi Vo ~ v~~J\ (p'-P,) : ~ v~

V.'\( ~(P'-P.~ j

evl((),~
(P,· P,) :. Ii WI. \"0;)

(po-A.) • ~f {-11 V 2- :. "'t K3.f L Oo~

(P. .P 1) : ~(O)~ D'
~t< -0;

81
4.13 Lacking the funds to purchase a head meter, Mr. Make-do installed a 50 mm dia. tube
in a 100 mm dia. line in order to measure flow rate. Pressure taps PI and PI are connected
to a manometer.
P.
11 ~ P,
~~_)I
---.:::e;
/
-______
---
~l
=----
~I ______

\_o.6m_1
a) For flow which is highly turbulent (Re ... co), derive an equation which gives mass flow
rate through the line in terms of the pressure difference PI - Pl'
b) Develop an equation which could be used to calculate the pennanent pressure drop (i.e.,
PI - P3)'

a:. Plane ,-at P" Pla.ne..iI-at Pit.

p P • .1._1.
=...:..-.t -+- \I ~ -
a ,. ~-f
a 1. :. 0 S i " ee /j 1. :. 0 ) M Jf: 0 ) ~:., bee a.u ~ e t I.l "" b LA len t

\~,
V't/ :. ~ ~ ~ -V, -- tn-D.")"
AI'0 ~ V, ~ \ ~ -v, [1l"tf (0·\)40
1" ~ ~. 5 ,I( 10_a Tt -VI (J,

•
. V -_w~_-:---:::-
•, ~. 5' )( 10 • 3 11" f
I -

_ (DIOJ\2:_VI \50
Va :.
'- )2. _ .,
VI :. 'i v,
'!
100

0/-1-1.)
( P,-& ) '&"]: \V; -V, +t>~: a ."'-1.) (.)
el\ Iii. ,/, -V, +,tf":. 7·5fv-'I...... fct

bA ':. I v,
0,1.:.
~1.
0.5" ':. o,~5';, F~om Fio.
~
&1."1- ef ~ o.a&

t. I - 1
'"'f :. -;r Va ef ~
I,
1" - ~)(
\ ,it VI o·~S
)

(Pi-PI): 1.5' .-1.

\ 'V, D-a.
t A'''~ ,VI : Q.1"1 f -1.
VI

82
 • 1.
- 1. .,...-...:w.:..-~~_
VI :. (~.S)(' 10.3 )'1)0
7. fl.

~,-r,)~ q.7~~ fJ~'5~1O'.)rr-~r

':v:. (-,~, X
l..!..
:o·~) rr ~", (?,- Pa ) iZ. ~ -,Sd.)(
.J.
IO.~ ~ 1/; (PI _ P1.).t
( q.1 '1) 1.

b. ~-P, +j]; -V11..J+ ~ Ai- + 1'11* + E~ ':.0

~ L.:l8s .8,

(PI-Pa)-:. ~Et Since V,: V,!> Lll:O) Mtt&o

Et ': Ef (contrac.tion)+E"f(C6N ouit) + ~f (e.xpa.nSion)

- a. - Fro,.., P&Y'"t ~.
£,f (cont. ) ":. ~,a"i VI

~f(condU'lt) ': ~f~~)\jl. . a~~~.:5)V::' ~i'(I.)(I"\JI-'):' 3B~f '1,2.

\ -':l \ ( -~){ ,) ""6-1.. AI

f~(e)!.pa.n')':_".1ef':~ lit", o...... V, jFi~.~.!ef:'Ot6since l\a: O.a5

p'-p~ ':. ~(;l,aa;v,l.+aQ~f\i,1.+Lf.aij,~); ~V,a.(7.0~T38'if)

- i1.
. '"
_w!.!...._~-=---::--=
From paY"t. Q.. - V. :. (a.5xlo.~).0"2.~z.

P,· PI -:. V"")( IO~) T

• .t
(7.0I.f + 38 't t)

83
4.14 In order to slush cast seamless stainless-steel pipe, a pressure pouring teclutique is
utilized. as depicted below.
AtmospherIc pressure

t
'-r ~
0
::i

Insu
supp .~ L.
lena
p~
L,
\tV
The mold must be filled rapidly up to level Lz so that no solidification takes place until the
entire mold is fllied. Determine an expression that we can use to give the time it takes to fill
the mold only. Consider the mold to be between Ll and Lz and open to atmospheric pressure
at the top. Neglect the change of metal height ~ in the ladle; you may also neglect the
friction loss associated .with the supply tube and mold tube walls, but the entrance loss may
not be neglected.

Prane..A - metal height j~ the la.dle.

Pla.ne 8 - metal heiC!hr 'Ih the meld.

[~+
P
fA
a
't ~13e
-I]
~l8. _:!.A +~(l8-aA) + M" .... ~t: 0
.p~

E+ :1- e~ Vaa -e.nt,.."V\t..t. J Pe - PA ~ Pa,tm" P ':. -(p- P..ern ) N\iI:O) VA ~ 0

!s - !,q':.n
C --1. [f:pattl'l
:. Va ~ ..il!.+e~J ~~~~
.1.
1
l Let CD{t... er
va' ~\ CD~- ; .... - ~hr

84
 dh -
Tt :. Ve or ih: ~1 C E-'f~1.t m -~'nJ~
dt 0
J
JL,-l3[?-~at'" -'1-1
t l~-Ll

(dt:. " dh
~ d ia Co

t- ~ y~ {1~-p4~rn
- CD ~ L~
- ~ (L,-L~'J:-lp-p",,,,
~
-'$ ~l'_l.~:l:}
"J

4.15 Calculate the time to fill the mold, as depicted below, with molten metal if the tpetal
level at plane A is maintained constant and the time to fill the runner system (entering piping)
is ignored. Data (all may be taken as constant): ." = 1.65 X to-3 N 5 mol; p = 6410 kg m- 3;
f = 0.0025 (runner); e,(contraction) = 0.1; et<enlargement for liquid levels below B) = 0;
e/(enlargement for liquid levels above B) = 1.0; LlD(90° tum) = 25; {3 = 1.0.
D'~I","I 11'1 mm

L ' .. . • .. 1-"-.4

_---~:Ir ,. ___-.,
200
ISO

Plane'

XX>

~~.Il (di.".1\eI1
-'
-1

This system is nOfl-in'teracti\le until the hei3ht of t.ne. f/ui~ In the

fI'I,td 1s ~ 300 mm·

I
(
I p..-df+-
~
~ ~ ~ +qAl+E'~+W
::!.i._v,
ci ,,. ;.13,
l. ",
:.0
P,

PI ': Pl.)
-
V,:'0l S"!.\.o) W
1f
~o; NDN-iYlte,rdc.t·.ve case-
85
 -"t

"
, Y.1
;J.,
t ~ ~ ~ + E. ~. 0 ) ~l ': - goo m rrI

Cf : 6'f,lco,,'tl"a.c.ti~n "'Er~qOo~lbow ... tf~lrlA"'l'Iel"'+Ii.f~1 el'llar~e,....eYlC

~ --Lo v- l • L(~)Vl .. 0 OS V~
~;.' - ,( ..~ 13 - .. 8 -. 8

c:"" f ~ : d. f (L
C07e\ -Ve~ : ~ (0. 00 ~ S) (~ S) -V 1
6 -:. 0, l;l S- -Ve2-

WV8J.~ ~(O.oo~5"
E'f3: ' ~f\O) )(a
30oo)-'"-Va
« \Ie': 0,05

=;'1 ~ 0 - p,..oblem Statt!m~"'t·

1:",. ~ ~,;:~5 V;
-l •
'(6
COl
+- a,~~S' Ve: - ~ (tli)

o· '7 ~ 5" \j: ":. -(Cf, &0'1) (• O. ~) ;. ~. q "I J VS 10 ~," I m s -,

Q,: \)s A : a ,Q I "21 ~ Ico. 0 3)%. m2. ': I,,,,, x 10· 3 (flo! s·' ) Vo .. btlow 6:. iT c1.L: 'fr(~3~(O' a)

Vol. ~ a.I.Jf lfJ• 2.m 9 ) T,'me "t" f ill btlow 0.

Q:'
Y.2l:..
Q : 15 S

86
 PI an e. Ji
DIITInIIlOI" In mm.
-Alw.'ll.E.

-Plr A
1~lm
I

c;; ; ; :;,<;i;/IIJ
h Ialm

..--+--, " '! I~

I- )()() .. I
(diJmclcrl

-1 -1.
Va. -.Y.J... t C3 (e~ -l,) + £; : 0 ) V.2.. -= 0 ) Z1 - eI : - h) (j,;. ~/
~ ~'I.. 0l~1

Of 't~ ene T T e.,e + a{ (~j}/ i where Q, vel •• ity in q ate.

cont rac~ \ex pa.n s io0elbow t' rlAn (Ie. r
- '2..
V -1
;..a -'3h+oC Y:.O where 0( ~ T1 e f)c + T I L. ) ~ V
ef~e + ~f ( D A.;t) Vi).
- : (A. -

s
:. ~ -9h +'" (A) \/,
-'l..
Ao1 • - ~
'0 :
- r
V.' J+o<.(f)l.~Y.2" ... ,-
~ I
t
0< :1:-(0.,)+ +(I)t_(O.oO:ls>Pt:: +;1.s):a.?'1; (~1.'j':.(3~:t·,()O
f_t+o«t)%~ Ya Gq.e
9 - I
-O,St(o,rl~)('()()}
~Y.a- 0
- •
36

h"
f dt ':. - O,13'[,~~ ) h'~
t
dt ~- o.~~ hila. ~ 30 o rnm; h"-:'I!o mm
() ~

t :O:3b~ n'/i. 'o~, GDt'-I5'O~' a.~

hi
5

To t a I tim e :. J!) -1' • 8. a & Li 3 . .1 S

87
~ . 16In plarming continuous casting. we use fluid
flow analysis . Consider the illustrated configuration
of the equipment. which includes in-line vacuum f;
degassing. f
a) Detennine the tundish and de gasser nozzle Tundish
sizes which are necessary to operate the system
at a rate of 6.3 kg S·1 per strand. Suppose that
for operational reasons it is desirable to
maintain mndish and degasser bath depths of Vacuum
0.76 and 1. 83 m, respectively. desasscr
b) If only 13 mm diameter degasser nozzles are
available, how would their use affect the
casting operation?
Inside dimensions: mndish. 2.4 m x 2.4 m x Four strands being cast
1.2 m; degasser. 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 2.4 m.
Liquid-steel density = 7530 kg m·l .
Discharge coefficients for mndish and vacuum degasser nozzles: CD = 0.8.
Vacuum pressure = 10-3 atm (101 N m·2).

0.. TLI() dis h calctA I at iDn

'1.
A.. ~1T...2J.) ...d.Yi.-: ~,'V2.A.,
.. Lt dt. ..
[ 9F:.
t...--..

--
.,~

I.
. ~
D,. - rr
'i
I~I'IIv.a.1 dW'~
dtJ ) For Ii stra:nd5 .:S'.;2 k~ 5·' H PI.
-
P1 - PI +
~ 3 ~2.
v: + Q (Z - r ).,.
" t I
v.,.«~
.. € 'I. 0

-1.r :
~A ~z +e:;:: P,~P~ + ~ (!,-lJ) (-t,.te,):: CD

~ (i,'Z,) , (q. 81m s·')(D." m) : 7. 'I' '"'T ~

Yl
ij.: { t [ f\~ P. t '3 (.it, ,".~j j

1'" p. • £"PI' 3>I lOf'ti ","

-r- - -I til ". m~
7530
'I
m k~ '" ~, 3. '1'1 ,.,'5"
hs N s1.

:. V. , {tJ,3.'1H ?'1~J\ 7.#3 m s"

. Ya
;. rrl? S.30 k~ 1'7..7 3 ml
D ':.[ I:t mJ s as·fIo k
s~ ~ (J. a ~ m =- '1. 3 m m
0 't

88
VaCuum de9dsse'(' calc.L(lation',

For- 1 Ylol;le 3
J.

D\ ~ ~I~I ~,It~r ~~. ~ ,.3k~ I 5"

If
,P'1- Pa;. V'14 +~(!~_~~) t-~ef ':.0
~ .~~ ~

Vlj2.
T
~ ~ J_ P,-R; a(:z '7\,(,
~~ + f - --e t- ~oJ ~! -
\"._
r7. + e~/' \.oD - 0·8

v.+ [(~-P')+, (.l-Z'~r

l;. ,1;.,) ) i

~(e3-i!'t):.(~.80't ms-a)(r.IUm):. 17,'15 m2. s·'

PL..&. ':.
~
r 101-I.Ol3!2( lp5) N m·~ I 15'30
rtl!lkt,.,
Wi 1 N 51.
~ -1'3.'1'1 mZ~ •.il

:. V,= far r\~" ~ + \,.'\ ~ }.L'\ 3.3' m s-'

i
.,n. :.1;/
l'rr f1S'30
m'/_, S\ .·3 k<al
k' ~ SJ
:0.0 ISm':, 'Ismm

:, use a. _'1. S mm t &4nd i.!h r10aalt anJf"f.ff'" IS FM'\ 'Ia.c.""'"" deqa sst.\"" n,llle s.

, a.
b. If D'1: I! mrtl J V't: (~~~ 3,~~ : ',"1'1 m s'"

2'3 - i!~ ~[o., V; - PI yP~ :. ;.801 [<•. '1)("")'- (- ".,~~ =S.&4 m

0 j i! ~ 0 0

:':3 :: ;.001'1'1 I Va.(.l.\~m de,\as5er would have, to b, a. '~t ta."~r,

89
4.17 Liquid metal flows into a permanent mold through a vertical gating-system. If the mold
has a uniform area (Am) and the metal flows through gates of equal areas (Ag) , derive an
equation which gives time to fill the mold. Assumptions: (i) no friction, but flow is
turbulent; (ii) hi is constant; (iii) no flow through the upper gate until h equals hz•

-,
I A

h",
hi

- ,
, : '~'/",/C/~
. .J

Ag

Plane (I) -Top o·f the vert,cal qate; Plane (.;2)- metal hei~ht in the mold.

~:h.- - ~f3,l.J
d ~il
2. -

~
-t ~ Ar : 0) V,·: 0) ~J.-:'I) ~,,-21 ':. h-h,:: -(h,~hh ~ ~ l.b.
dt

d r
d~ :.\!~(hl-h1 :,
J~
when the It'Jtl ~I.se$. above the second. qate) the
mechanical ener"9Y ;5 the Sc:ime· ihe.refol'"e, inte~rotioY"l

can be carried owe in one step·

t lhmdh
[
cIt:--L-
(a~) ~ II (h.-n )Yl
I

I
t '(ijiV' - a (h, -h) [ .' (~ ~h,-h) ~h.. "" (~ ~\'I, - (h, - h",)
,Jhm
:I'&. 72
I.
'I"
1:11 0 v~I..c.a.
j

90
4.18 If the pipes in Fig. 4.15 are of lengths Ll = 10 m, L,. = 5 m, and L) = 1 m and the
nozzles are fan type with a 0.187 inch orifice, and Dl is 3 cm, determine the diameter of
pipes 2 and 3 needed to produce a flow of 3.70 gallons of water per minute through each
nozzle. What pressure Po needs to be provided? What happens to the flow pattern if a small
panicle in the water clogs nozzle I?

(bPI
I
--Po....-+-"P'I\~ ?p,
jp, : ~ 1't :. A1'3 ': Po - Pa. -l!.P"
P"r line ", AsstAmtnl3 ~A! '::0) B~Po + Ef:O ~ ff:' P~-P,
El': OIt ~ ~7.
TID, I)
, ~f.h.
I 0,
\j"Z.. ,PO-PI'
, - " )
V,20 ... (!cll)
~
~
L, ~
\
V'! ( Y.l( D')~(Po_P')V.a
, \"if,J
I \
~ -r
Q: V 1!Et\ ( I )~.a('17'\ 0;'5' (P9~P. )'1
I I 'i ?III t, \ '"11 1. I v,\
! r ~
We. want Q, ~ Gt.:.Q! '. J:f f:.f
I I
:.f,,) then ~ La',..!2..
l, :.J2.a Loa
J:.ls :. OL.ol5:'.!:.1., > L, :. 10 t'Y'I) L~ :. S"m, L~:. 1m) 0 ,: 3 c:.vn
01 _ D3~

0-;:. ~~ D,5"~(j)(35)C"'5' ,', D.z. ~.a,', em

D3! -• J:1 D5'
L.., I
-
-
("!"')(3
10
S)C"'o :, 11'2.:'
."
1,8'1 em

Pre S5lAre P, '. Use. Ii ne 1 ftJr" ca/culatiDfl,

Q: ',7D~al, min" :r.(3.70X,·3D'tx//J-Sm 3 s·') ::-a.33xIO,'1 m 3s ,1
-,.:fA.. (Li)(.1.33xl()''*)_
V-ftD"Z.- (rr)(c.033.) -O'330ms"
...Q.tl •- (0.03)(0. HO){ltIO' ) -.. ~ DO x J..,3. f. - 8
01> '
1'..' ....
'\
~
IXIO-"
7. 7 ,u· I - tJ
•0 0

fj :: ~f, ~ y"l: (~«(J,ooS) o~g~ (o,a30)1.: o. S81 m1.s ,.,.

Also p.~Po tEf ::0; Pb - P, :. E>£f :. (,x/0 3) (0, 58 I) -: 581 N 1'11':1

PI: Patin t A PYlonl!. j 6PNCI :: ;. 5' psi'&. J. '7.3 X/(J r N m-Z.

Po: 5'al+(I·aI33-r1.7~3)(/()r:.'7'J)(It>5'Nm·l:J,71 at",

IF I?oiile .1 bec()m~S c./o1gea; then the {'ow rate thrtJUSn ~ and 3 will "na~dse.
91
5.1 Refer to Example 3.5 for the
system characteristics and the 40
desired operating point for flow
through a sinter bed. The bed has
a cross-sectional area of 0.189 m2, 30
and Vo is a superficial velocity .
You can select either fan A or .;
j
fan B to blow the air. Their .5 20
respective characteristic curves are :.,..
<I
given to the right.
a) If you select fan At what 10
volume flow rate will be
delivered through the sinter
bed? Repeat for fan B. You o
may assume that the pressure o so 100 ISO 200
drop through the sinter bed is Volume flow me (289 K), cfm
proponional to the square of
volume flow rate; i.e.,
M' = kQ2.
b) What fan, A or B, is better suited for the bed of ore and coal which is discussed?
Explain why.
c) What adaptation, if any, must be made to use the fan you have selected?

~"!v.on-
A. Q.;'frol0.)sq!o~h{) sl
_ 'I~
31 4 S0S 3 ft!
~ --/~O f~3
~
m/n-'

~:. 10{) ~fm

a
llP: 7 .• S)(/6.i~11 '4.0ISXIO· ;1'1 H"O~1.:.~Cf.1 in Mao

4P ~. .5
To ~et the Syst~m clA't"ve, ~: ~&.:. (Iool\ ': ".qlx II)

To pl~! the systeM curve~

LJp <.it SOGfm ': w(80)1.: 16.", in. \-1.10

.ap at I~O cfm ': K(lao)~ : 'i1.~O 'In HiO

<l.. Fa.n A ) ~: 105' Co f t1l

Fa.n 6) G: 8S 'fm

These are the intersectiol1S of the. system curve with the

characterist,'c curves,
92
b. Fa~ A is bette.r SLl.ited bec.ause. it is Slj~htly eve"'·Y-d.ted. If e r5
selected) it.s speed l!l/olAld nave to be. ·' n,rea.sed wh,d1 wDuld re~L.Uy-e

a ne W moT.o ... ·

C. The s,(stem curve. Cdn be Shifted by iNse.rtlrlq a dampe.r in the.

system 1;~ bri f)~ A PS'I'St.e.m :: 3a in. H.aC c1t 100 C of rt\.

5.2 Refer to Problem 4.4. Suppose the

10ri~~'-~--~-r~~~~--~~
characteristic curve of the fan is as shown to
the right.
a) Assume that M' = kQl for the entire 8
system and determine the operating
point.

-
':'
b) As particulates are collected, the S2
If
6
pressure drop across the bag house ":'e
increases. When the pressure drop z
a:: 4
increases by twenty percent, what will <J
be the volume flow rate?
2

O~i__ ~~ __ ~~ __ ~~~~ __~~~

0.0 0.4 0.8 \,2 \.6 2.0

Volume flow rate. ml s'\
Bag house

(.;) I-- ---l

c.P

-
t Blower

- - +- (I)
Mdung arl!a

93
0-) Fro,,", ~e. ~o\"~~ to f'1"'b\~~ \I. '*' .) I.U~ ~4. ... Q
Pz.-PI : 5.01 )4/01 ~ "",,-l. ~ 0.: o.q~y 'N\:'s-.'

H~c.~ k":. 4..P.,.-:. S.6Q )(/O~ (,$ r UI1I'-cs)

.J Q4
Tho: -; \.",t.~ r ~~~ tt...c. ~ wt""t., 6It- Q ... I. 07 W'\ \ ~ -I 41.1"\(1 toP =-
~oo N ~.2 ,
b') :I:"" e.H~ct. ~\s \~ 0- l\e.v...\ ~ste.", beca..us· ~
c.", ... t~ 't..~lSt-\ C. ~
d ~ ~ ~"=' ,,",0 loiS eo \.-.(1\'(.. C \-...Wj~
No~ A:P~ 7.slJ~IO~ N 1-0\-2.. -;:J.A. ~ GrU(I,)c,.. ~;I!QS
uS Q::. a.~8 "I\"\~S-'. T\I\e flo-.J hQ.S d-ec.re.u~J.
b'1 ~b % •

5.3 Two identical pumps are used to pump water from one reservoir to another whose level
is 6.1 m higher than the fll'st. When both pumps are operating the flow rate is 0.04 m3 5. 1•
What is the flow rate when only one pump operates? Assume highly turbulent flow. The
characteristic head curve for the pump is given by the following table.

300~1-------------------------------.

Flow rate, Head,

m3 sol Nm kgol
0 208 aoo
0.0057 211
0.0113
0.0170
212
211 -I

0.0227 203 ~
0.0340 178 E. 100
0.0453 141 ~
0.0566 99
0.0680 39
-0
tTl
'"'
QI
0.0736 15 "l:
ol ,\-J 0.08
Flow rate, m3 s-/
Of
.(~
(I) I
".1 m
-L

'3(~z.-l,)+E"f :-M""

94
 80th pumps operdtin'3
Ql.(b6th pumps) :0.0'1 m 3 s· ' so that ~a.:h pump IS ol'erat;n"j wl'tll a
.:hs:ha.rge of 0·0d. (113 5 .'. 'tt//th &, (each pump) ':.c>·o~ m's-~ h :~o'7 Nrn k q·,'
~ l O p } - -M if _" (;Z • iZ
&:;f {"n . . pum - I -:: ... 1. -,
) ": ''''~A
i IY'I' -a-J (:z'Z _'2) - rea? N
., - L
1'" ~.rLa
k~ N S'
9·61 '" I'.,~
(PLJmp~) s~-J

:/77m 1 s· 1

r; (one pump): 177 N m k'3·') 'sf) that b"f (bt,th pu.mps) :. 3!J-If;lm k~-I
SitJce Ef :kG2.) then k :..l§!12
C),f)"!

()"e pump opera.tin~

h: rMp :. ~(rl-1,) +E'F "9(2%.-2.,) of- kr/' ~ 60 Nm kt:j't !~X. Ql.

~. :I
h:d,()1-R.«/~5x/~ &l

..Q.. .At lL
0 0 60
0.0 I I X 10·"1 e.
0.0 a Lfx/o· 1I IY6
o.o~ q)(I()'" aSS
A plot of h versus ~ qives a.n inter~ectit>1? w;th the c.hardcter/'St/c.
head curve. for the pump at &=o.()_~ m 3 s·,

5.4 Derive an equation for the conductance of a long straight rube. Assume viscous flow
prevails and that the viscosity is given by Eq. (1.13).
a) Write the conductance in tenns of visco$ity.
b) Show that
mV
-
fJ = 37r116{f d 2

where V is the Maxwellian speed of the molecules.

c) Write the conductance in tenns of V.

a. . Q ':. C ( PI - p~ ) E"1. t 5", l.4 ~)

Vl'SCOUS f10\!V 1'1 a. \0,,",'3 tube E''!. t~·3Li) Q:. \Pl-f~)t~~~

, c-- ltlt
8Ln.
95
 E~f (I.I~) V ::.[n-YflJ
~

Of ..aATl a .) ~ 1<8 1)1/, :. (.ITem {- V

II Y ~3
=~.~ ('0I~) h.. ':. ~
5"''V1
m a (l<'eT) " • (v T)I/1. • .A.!t-. '1d'Z.
~
Ja. I\ "6 -" .. - mila

~ ~ (.1I.!!l.~~- mV
n. : 3frY!I dIt. 8"' V: ":'s!.:.n:.JL1'T-'1"-d-"

C. C:. !fa TT "/, glal.

e \..vY' V

5.5 Compare the conductance for viscous flow in a long straight tube (from Problem 5.4c)
to the conductance for molecular flow.
a) How does each vary with V?
b) How does each vary with temperature?
c) For nitrogen at 300 K, what is the mean free path (see Eq. (1.5» at normal atmospheric
pressure (760 torr).

.
VI~CO\AS '.l.r:::' 'Y"R\Ja-
flow'. c':.-ge-1T \..~ \I

Mo\ec.~\a.r flow'. E,o.(S'.50)

6
c:.~v
101 L.

0.. They ea.e.h 'JA.'f'1 \\ne&.r\,{ wit'n "

b. \t" E~,%-q~'

The,\, ea.ch vary 'With TVa

c, E~. (1.5') A:(~1(1l d;.n) ') ASSume ideal qas

PV •• N kT j n: .1:L P _
V ":'"'i<"T.
,.b\X1bS' Nt 1.3S x, o·.a;rK\ 500 K
Y'W"I a.
-~ u .s.
• ·'17 X10 rnDleeu Ie s m- 3

J , I
i't':.ra1T(SS
a • ox fI-,0')1."",\,,\
0 m .
~
)(,/0
01 1
as' TTlD/'
~-em
=.61"Qxlo

where d -
_..
c- .. 3.798,A•(Ta.ble
.
/.,)
.
J
0\
_ g, ?9
d -,O'D).
eA
-3.8ox/c
"'.. _If)
m

96
5.6 For nitrogen at 300 K, what is the minimum diameter of a long tube for viscous
conduction at a) standard aunospheric pressure (760 torr). Repeat for b) 100 torr, c) 10 torr,
d) 1 torr and e) 10'1 torr. [The criterion is (}JD) ~ 10 where A is the mean free path (see
Eq. (1.5».]

Q. Fr-om Prob. S,S'I:, .A = 6.39 x/o· 8 m

Criterion (~/D)~)O", /'Ainimul't1 D::6.SQX/O·'7m
b. ";'6~ torr. =1'/)/!aXloS'N~·l; 100 torr. :./. 333Xlo"'lNm-1.
n: 1.'33'3x/~" -:.3.';J.)(lo~'Im{)lecuJes m- l
(1.88 )(lo·cs)(30")

Ii '! ~
« 1T( 3.ex/o-ID).(3.~~)(IO~¥)
I
-,. 8 "IXllJ.'7m
- u

min i m tJ m D:: '1.8 "t XI/) - 6 m

C. 10 tDrr. ::: /.333 x/f)_3 N meA

J
n =3.a a x ItJ
~3
molecules rn-
A :. 'I. 81j)( /()., m

m ,.n J. mum D : ". 6 'I x I () -5'm

d. min/mum D :.'1.8"1 )(/~-"""
.'
e.mlnlmumD:.'J. 8 . 3m
'1XII>

97
5.7 Consult Table 5.2 and obtain the conductance for two chambers connected by a tube with
a diameter 250 mm and a length of 7S0 mm. Compare your result to the approximation
given by Eq. (5.52). Assume that the gas is air at 298 K. with a molecular weight of
28.8 kg kInol'l.

,~pply £1· (s.S',.) +'!. ~, + ~A + dB Let C, and Cl, be. the c~ndlAc.tdnces
0; the o,P~njr.gs tfJ the chambers and C3 the c~nJu,t<ince of
t,h ~ :ube.
c! :,/~f V) E:.
3
($oS'a) ~ C, ~ C.z ":.TA) E1. (5".'18)
-

..!... :. ...a.. +
C \J A
! ~ L.
17' D3 \j - 1r
_ .1....(.1L
D 2.
or I a. 1.. \ ...L _....L (11. + ldo L '( rr rtL ) Yz.
0 5) V . . fr Dl or; 8 11'". T

t
_':. m \ Vl 3.;1 + ~
C8rtKei) ( D)1j1· I • m:.
km,,' '.o_~)(loa.m()/~(!lAleS
8. /(. ,kl'1lo)

'Iz.
(8 #\(8 T)~~- (8 IT)(
_ :lS, e
',0 GlGl X' '0 16 )( /, 3 8' ex/ () ·2, \ , .. '" . . . , ~ ':. 6. 8o;z. X 10-'I

C:.('·A:f?QXlb a>(
16
,
~+~
)0£
"1D

Sl.lbst/t:LJt"n~ L,-o.7$Om; D=o .• S'om,> C :.,.36- m'i s·'

Ta b Ie $', « 0: 3 S em I L ~ 75" em

C':. 9.11./ I
'1
+ DJ..!:.. :. ,.7' X I() 3 L s-'
&,;0

C :. /.7, X IDB L I/()()() emal' m!

S I L 1(J~lc",S

~ ':/.76 m's-' The results clifFer by dppr()x. ';'. %

98
S.S Consider the use of the two-stage pump of Fig. S.18 that is connected to a chamber of
1 m3 volume through a duct with an infinitely high conductance. Calculate the time to
pumpdown to a) 10-2 torr and b) 1(J4 torr.

The pump speed varieS \Alith pressure and the throu~},put is

a Vl>lum e swept out at a. 'i lven pre SSl.Jre. A nuf11e.rj (a I schem e
rs set up to Salve the pr()hlem for- pressure versus rime·
The duct: ha5 a. t.'ondu. ctance of 00. With c::~) £/. (~.S"s) reduces
Ca S: Sf" But S'I' ': 11if )which i5 the. VIJ/ume Swept cuT:) based
on the ideal qas I&w; per £Anit t/me .. TI"s is appraximateJ as'

llt:.RT ~;n where P j'$ the ave\"'a~e pressure and Sp ;s the

p Sp

avera q e sI' e e d dlA r in g 0 (J et t'm est. e p . ('a leu )d t /0 n s are done in

tim e stt! ps u S "t?~ the fa/law"n~ compute t' code.

10 'Problem 5.8 This does the numerical integration to account for the
12 'variation of pump speed with pressure for the two-stage pump in Fig. 5.18.
20 R - 8.315 : T - 298 : VOL - 1 'R in J/(mol K), T in K, VOL in mAl
30 READ P,SP 'start at 760 torr (1 atm); P in torrs, SP in L/s
40 POLO - P*101325f/760: SPOLO - SP/1000 :TIME - 0 'P in Pa, SP in mA3/s
50 NO - POLO*VOL/( R*T } : NOLO - NO 'initial moles of gas in the chamber
60 LPRINT" Time, s P, torr
70 LPRINT· ******* **************.
80 FOR I - 1 TO 8
90 READ P,SP 'P in torrs, SP in L/s
100 PNEW - P*10l325f/760 SPNEW - SP/1000 'P in Pa, SP in m'3/s
110 PAVG - (POLO + PNEW)/2 'average pressure during time step
120 SPAVG - (SPOLD + SPNEW)/2 'average speed during time step
130 NNEW - PNEW*VOL/( R*T ) 'mole. gas at end of time step
140 DELN - NOLO - NNEW 'moles gas removed during time step
150 DELTIKE - R*T*DELN/(PAVG*SPAVG) 'time step to remove DELN moles gas
160 TIKE - TIKE + DELTIKE
170 POLO - PNEW : SPOLO - SPNEW PTORR - POLO*760/1013251
180 LPRINT USING" ......... A ...... AA •• ";TIME,PTORR
190 NEXT I
200 END
210 'data input as coordinates from Fig. 5.18
220 DATA 760, 6.5
230 DATA 100, 6.2
240 DATA 10, 5.8
250 DATA 1, 5.5
260 DATA .1, 4.5
270 DATA .01, 4
280 DATA .001. 3.2
290 DATA .0005, 3
300 DATA .0001, 1.8

99
 ?i!!e. ~ F. tor!'
tHUII UHUUjutu
The results indlc(J.te that to ac.hle ve J()·1.Cdrr }
2.4:?E~J: 1.a~Jz,.02
2.514grti~ 1.~OOit01
2.E~4!t04 1.0001+00 almost Ic()()h wotJld be re'1uired. tJhvi()usly the
3.033EtQ5 1. 0001-01
3.555£+06 1. 0001-02 1:h rcughput &'f the pump i5 s/~n/ f iClin't /y
4.1941+07 1.000E-03
3.6881t08 5.0001-04 uncle""/feJ. It WDU/J be prac:tl"ca.JJy
1.4241+09 1.000i-04
Lin r~ a list ic t(J e;, peer the pump to ~et the.

chamber t" IIJ-'1t "rr The. pump has tao small"l thr"lJ'ahput .
4
.
1

5.9 A heat of steel (5 x 10" kg) is to be vacuum degassed from 5 ppm H! to 1 ppm H! and
from 100 ppm N! [0 75 ppm N~ in 15 min. The steel is at 1873 K. and the chamber has 9 mJ
of space occupied by air after the top is closed with the ladle inside. At what pressure would
you recommend operating the system? Calculate the throughputs of air. hydrogen and
nitrogen that must be removed from the chamber. Consult Fig. 5.22 and specify a steam
ejector to do th~ob.

H~ remov Ii 1- (~xl()l4k~)( S'l'pm -I ?pm) : ~.c? k, (H.%) :. I&'0 mol H.,.

Na, f'e me va I - (5)( If)'" k~)( I(J~ ffm - 75"ppm) -:. /.,( £ k~ (,va) : ~ 'f. b m4/ N1.
. . . I)' f!.JL- (l.oI3,25"X/6")(q,. ~H L
RT -
" •
Air ('nltld ,,.,:. Cg.3IS") (300) ·..]"S·~ m~ air

ToTa.l am"L./nt ai '3as to be evacuated: n:. 365.0 + "I~.~ +1"0 ~ 5'10. a !/'leI
we mus: 5ele~t d pressure thdt is /aw encnJ(3h t.t> ac.hiev~ the s'tated

~o a/S far dis5~/ved H2 a.hd N1..) ac(()rdin'1 to thermodynam"c s of these

1asses dlssolving in st.eel. Let's use cenf/~urdt/()n AB-x-a-X-c in
F,·~. S'.~4) wh/ch has the ~reate.st thr()ughput up t" S' (Drrs. 1.et's
.
~perate at ().", torr.
Then Q: 'V 'Will' 1\':1 , ." ~,. " ... ..,. ,.vv . . "''?

we cal") calc~late an approximate t.·",e as

SOIl>· _ mel .s
t: 0.0"137 m(J1 :/,"'X/(J'# S =3.a.Lj h ThiS is tot> lont:} for

rna.j,.,tainl·n~ molten steel·

100
 J.et's ~jJer4te a.t'l terr. Then ~: "10 Ibm h·' =/)./75' m()1 S·I and

t:. 5"';:-
0·/
-:.a.9/~xI03s: o.Blh Th"s is still-r-athe.r a J()nra
t/m~) So we. would prob a. bly 'i() to 110 Cor,.) and Switch tit>

ca(lf"~urat"()n A-x-B-x-C·
Then ~: 75" Ibm ;(': o. 3J8 mol 5·' dnd t:. ~(~,i ':/'5'55 XlIl.s :. 0. 'I3J n
Th/s is ahotJt til e best we can do) ()th~r wi se If the opergti f) ~ prf5sure

~et5 too high we will n()t erfectively ref"ne the steel.

5.10 An ultrahigh vacuum chamber (300 liters) is equipped with two pumping modes. one
[0 achieve 1O~ torr and a titanium sublimation pump (Fig. 5,23) to achieve pressures below
lO-~ torr, Assuming that nitrogen must be removed from the chamber, which pump(s) of
Fig, 5,23 can be used .if 10 minutes is an acceptable pumpdown time to go from 10-4 [Orr to
lO-/I torr?

~S5:.J/f!f.. that the chamb~r is a short cylJnd~r w/th Ile/~"t (H) e~I.Ja.1 .

:0 d,.amete r
,
:0). Then the. volume (v) /s V: '7
11.J2!. H:. 1LD!
l.f and

D:. ~ ~y
i :. \~('1){3()':r)(IOoo)cm3 :. 7_.5'6 em:. ~8.6 In.

,Ea5~j at? "tillS d/ameter) ietls restrict o",rsel,,'es r" the ma.ximum

pump did",~ter of ,. /nelles- TfJ/~ I'r"hlem is 5/",ilar '!~ 5'.B) $'; we

use ~h e sam = frctj ram and tdke data a.s 3. s:: of ('()ord /na. te s
Yn -::i:e ..;,un;e far the, Jb ,'f)en :iJ3.me:er pump :.,.10 ~ ;'-1 sub}/m.

'ra~e) in P,':JI, ';'/~ 5) .5t.:lY'tif7~ 8.C 10·" -CoY-T'".

101
 ~o ?robleI5.10 This does the ~ulerical intecration to account for tbe
variation of PUlP speed lith pressure for the tlo-stace PUlP in fie. 5.23.
20 R: 3.315 : T : 298 : VOL:.3 'R in J/(Iol I), T in I, VOL in .'3
30 READ P,SP 'start at .0001 torr; P in torrs, SP in LI
40 POLD: pt10132S!j760: SPOtD : SP/I000 :TI~I : 0 'P in Pa, SP in 1'3/s
:0 NO: POLD.YOL/I R*T ) : MOLD: 10 'initial loles of las in the chalber
60 LPRIRT' Tile, s p, torr
10 LPRIHT' ••••••• 1•••••••••••*.·
30 FOR 1 : 1 TO 8
90 ~IAD P.Sf 'P in torrs, Sf in L/s
100 PMEW : Ptl01325!/760 : SPIIW : SP/IOOO 'P in Pa, SP in 1'3/s
110 PAVG : (POLD + PIIN)/2 'a,erace pressure durin, tile step
120 SPA'G: (SPOtD + SPIIV)/2 'a,era,e speed durinl tile step
130 MMEN : PREW*.OL/I RtT ) ·.oles lal at end of tile step
140 )iLI : MOLD - RIIV 'Ioles cas relo,ed durin, tile step
150 DELTI!I : itT*DILI/(PAYS'SPAYG) 'tile step to relo'e DILl loles gas
160 !I~I : TI!I + DILT1!1
170 POLD : PIIW : SPOtD : SPIll: PTORR : POLD*7SD/I0132S!
180 LPRIRT USIRG' ., .•• ,.... ••.• , ••... ';T1!I,PTORR
190 MEXT i
200 ERD
210 'data input as coordinates frol fi,. 5,23 \\....:s ~ r~" \("'~s
\' v .....
220 DATA le-0.,60
230 DATA 5e-OS,lOO ~3 Lt ~,) o...~ iJ"""'L .... .> .(-L~
Tile.S P. torr
240 nATA le-G5,530 **HiU nuuuuuu (~IJt.+~V\<' Q. i \1\ ~.
250 DATA 5e-06.1000 2.5001+00 5.000£-05 .s~~t~V'" ~ ~I\f\'t\lt'!..,
260 DATA le-06,3200 5.357£+00 :.000£-05
270 DATA 5e-Ol.4000 I t 5 'n()v\~ be... $L; +4.l\~
1.J32EtOl 5.000£'06
zeo DATA le-07,4900
290 DATA 5e-08,4900
1. ~OBtOl 1·~0£-06 ~ ... P\",\,"·fAcl..l..\V\ t;f
U09l-01 5.000&-u7 I 0 .,..,., f\ ~ r~ s .
JOO DATA le-08,4900 U5U+~1 !.0CO£-01
I

UOii+f!2 5.0001-08
3,34ZKd2 1.000£-08

5.11 Supersonic nozzles are arranged circumferentially around a central orifice through
which liquid metal is fed. The argon gas jets are focused on a point below the exit of the
orifice. where they impinge on the metal stream to break it into fine droplets that solidify to
microstructures of panicular interest. It has been found that nozzle exit velocities on the
order of Mach 3 are desirable, For a Mach 3 nozzle calculate the reservoir pressure Po
needed. if the deSIred exit pressure is 1.0 attn and the flow rate of argon is 0.1 kg 5. 1• What
should the throat diameter. exit diameter and length of diverging section be? Assume
"Y Ar = 1.67.
Uquid Argon
Argon Metal Gu
Gas \ \ I

~\Itljl
,,~ li~
,~!~
()\.
~ I, (00 ,.
..i'.1, o~o"i
,v. f 1'\

,:; IJ 4

~'~~\.I.lnl
;JOllOD~',D

102
 [fo.1
,-
I ·..
,r-IJit.
. IVI . , .

' . Po. 2./ f- \)

r . ,I. '
'/"./
Yj4-J
-
Eg. (S'.33):M~ : ('I-I
"l. .;(
l,Qej -IJ' Pe -;..,Me \~ +IJ
6
1.').. 4)i IoN rn ~

: 52. 't k, m - 3

~ (I.+,);ft.')J~ I. 6" 3.9Bs")~

=AtLfoPcl'(M :
JI
f:~. {S·'t):W~ 0.1 : At ((.S2:9)(:3.Z7)1/0 )(1.'7)(.~'7) 5

At ~ 10. "I' )( /,() .. to h12.. d..t

r~-(~:)(r'·')1
( -;:. 3. G, S n, IN! )
r 04 (t-+'vtr'·') 3/f
Eg·(s:3');l~]=CU(t~\1, (~:)
(At)\ (L ~~.67\1 ....,/c.f/"( J "v,:'7[1 _ L ,)0.'71,.,,] . ~t).l -col.
\ Ae 0·' 7 a1 1 \'32..3 j \3"2:3' ) - ';: 1. f9 )../0 e
Ae:: 39. ~l ~ I (j - b ~).. (de:: 7. oS lo¥\"", )

\..~..9~ Fr-o~ ~roo...t to e,)(it (bG-.s~ (J"f\ 7°) :.13·8 I'r)rVI.

-1.
E1> • 4. II .) 'K ~ t: I -~ I/o :./ ) 9 111 ' "
Jd
S.12 Derive Eq. (.5. ,q) , w"

-
V 'l
-:.-2. Po P
t -.
rt f
Ac4,' .J.....~.c. I (Co .. ..,...,; b1c,.. c.,.......PY'~£.1I·"'" !If I (( ... ~ I
~~~ ~i"oe.~
'(
P (~) ': A'r ~ (,lI"".~tG.-.1:
So ~...:t
..L.. A
p - p"'"
~fMp
rOil ~
~ p A
(..L)
(-I
[«(.'Y,.
P t Po
~-IY"J
t
::. p. 1/,
(.1)2- [ (
p/1'-1 VY'_p,Y_1 ) /1
o f. 1-1 t:. 0 .

F= ':""CI,.\I}

\' {¥((~I)[ 1- !tfJl ·

1-. 'J

103
6.1 In the same system described in Problem 1.2, the temperature profile at x = Xl is given
by

T - To = 6 sin [-¥ j. o :s y :s 0.1 m t

where T is temperature (K) in the water, To is temperature at y = 0, and y is distance from

the flat plate in m. Find the heat flux to the wall at x = Xl' (The thermal conductivity of
water is 0.62 W mol K-l, and the heat capacity is 4.19 x 1()3 J kg· l K-l.)

T'!. To + b sin (fI". '( ... I

~~ ~ b (.lJ) CDS~)

at
• 1..... !'l'
I
~=O:~'!.T':. 3ftK'm
_I
Q'. __
~I'(-O -
I )( ':. X,
~
0·"m w
K I 3 rrmk' . . - tJ-. 8~ W m- A

6.2 Determine the thermal conductivity of a test panel 150 mm x 150 mm and 12 mm thick,
if during a two-hour period 8.4 x 104 J are conducted through the panel when the two faces
are at 290 K and 300 K.

~:.Q:-k ~T
A 4X

\c;- Q
- AI ~I -
-
i.Lf)(IO"'~ -
I
1(0 . ISO ",) ~
~.o,~mj '
!(3 c, - " q 0 ) k'
h
do 'fl\3 i..:>o S -
- o·,r
01
:r5-~-';'
I .c)( I

k: O''''l~ W m-' K-'

104
6.3 At steady state, the temperature proflle in a laminated system appears thus:

T, Material I Material II
530K " ............
............
................
"
. . . ,~ JT!
lill' ------_ 310K

,.. o.Sm ...1• O.3m .-1

X':..h
x
Determine the thermal conductivity of n if the steady-state heat flux is 12.6 X 103 W mo2 and
the conductivity of I is S2 W mol K-l.

Mat e ria I I: ~",: -kI.lI

dx
:. - kr TjL L,'
- T,

I-T
':,
~ - (J
(; J(
-4- - _ !2,~/(lOa:\1
t<, ~ m o.sml 5ma Kw -
--
/"11'"
~ · (10
K

T~ :. -/J /.;. +- 53() : ,-/,,8·8 k

M a:: e r', a I rr : - kt T 1..,r. :. - k!L

1. - T, - T;
L.

k - k [-rA-T.J.J:..A._~{'10g.8-530)1<1 D.3m ':. 38.3wm-'k-'

11 - lLT~-T.. 1.., - MK j(310.0-"#D8.8)1( 0.5'(1)

105
6.4 Show that Fourier's law can be written (for constant pCp) as
d
q, = -a fly (PCpT)

for one-dimensional heat flow. In addition, show that Newton's law, for constant p, is
d
, 1''/1 = -v dY (pu,r).
Discuss the analogies between the fluxes, constants. and gradients as they appear in these
equations.

Fourier>.s Law: ~'( :.-kj~, ;cx~~~therma.) G'ffLlsivitYj :.K~t:Xecp:,

~y -: - oc. ~ cp 11; FDY- CI1n S t a."t pCp j ~y: - 0( d.( ~CpT)

New t on ' 5 Law t7f V,'scosjty~ 1:'YX -:. -'t~~Jf j }):.~':.m~~e1ltLtm diffl4s,'vitv
.•. 11.: V D....,
\, c,'{x: _I
V'
J D
~
..dJl~
dY •• ~ ...'1"
. !:'(),.,....loan s t 'go"'" D...,.,"Y)( -· - v d (f. \..Sc)
r)
'J

80th fllAxes 'rep'resent the flow Of a. 'luanity/(drea x time).

In b"th cases the fluxes dr-e pro."crti.anaJ tD the ~r3.d;ents.
- ' d «(>CpT)
I"or erler«3Y) tne '3rad'ent IS dY •
~ L ~.J' t' d(~~)
,or m()met'ltum) t'le ~"a.alen IS dY

Fina.lly) the proporti"na.lit'( coY/stanT: in ea.ch is a. diffusivity.

0<:: e.,er~y d{ffusivity; m~.s·'

V: morner,.c.um diffus/'vit~ m:l s-'

Of ccurse) the mere t:()mmon nd.mes .are'.

ot :. t J, er mal d,' f f t.I S i .., it."

V: k/n ematlCo vic(Jsit y

106
6.S The thennal conductivity of helium at 400 K is 0.176 W m· l K-I. Knowing only this
datum. estimate the thennal conductivity of helium at 800 K. Compare your estimate to the
value obtained from Fig. 6.2. What do you conclude about the equation that you used for
your estimate?

"1- (,,,&) k. 7 rLIl"i

, 'Ke T
III
J1
I
J. -
. k" .. (1!.\1I. . k '!. o.lf7leWI{sco\<): =OI~'i9 Wm-I\c'~estima.tea)
" 1<;" -\T.I ) a m )< (!.fOO\() ~

From Fi~. &a.~ k(BooK): 0.303 W m- I \(-1

Ccmc 1u5;Ot'l ~ The t'nerma,1 CcndLA.ct;vit'( o-f He il'lCf'eases yYlore stronq/y

\Mit~ te~pe .... a.ture than ina'lcated by S<t. (,.10).

6.6 Repeat Problem 6.5 but use the following equation to estimate the thennal conductivity
of helium at 800 K:
15R
k = 4M ."

where R is the gas constant, M is the molecular weight, and ." is the viscosity.

U5 i n~ vi 5cositie5 dlrectl'f frown Fi9' 1·7

rt1.: ~(eDoK): O.()385 ,p
'1, : rt l '100 t<) 'l O./J~5fJ C. P

k.. ~(oo\'1")(~.~~~~)-: 0.:1'11 w m-1K-·

C~()C.llAsion; Therrna.1 cDndlActiv';t'( of helit4M increases MDre Strongly

with tempera.turQ than ,'ndica.te<1 by the C3ive~ e~L.(att()n.

107
6.7 Calculate the thennal conductivity of carbon dioxide at 800 K and compare your result
to that given in Fig. 6.2. The heat capacity orco2 at 800 K is 1.17 kJ kg· l K- ' .

1:\,(4.11) b'l[cp+"';'5'R]

M :. "i I.f ·bl m;, )~ ':. B.3 t "t ~ '1 m:. 'I( ) From Fier. ,., ~co..(SOt>K) "f. 3,5x/o -S'N S·'m·1.

k ':. 'i. q~ X 10· 2. r s· I rrl-'k·' ~ 12'1

..,....,,,X 10 .1- W m- l \(

FY'om FI'~. ,.~ k... 0" (!look) ':. 5.tJXIO·1.. W m·'K

The re ~~ \ ts froM E'" •. 11 CDmpa.re ve-r'1 we tJ W Jth the a~t ua\

"alue from FI~. ,.~ at 800 K ..

6.8 a) Calculate the thennal conductivity of a gas containing 40 mol % He. 40 mol % H~. and
20 mol % N~ at 1400 K.
b) Assume that the concentration of He is constant but that the concentrations of H~ and N:
vary as much as ±5 mol % in a process. What is the variation in the thennal conductivity
of the gas?

E ~. (b.l;t) k,,.,'x---....;;;..;....:
. . . _~ X", k" M ~
~ ~M" Ji
.c.

FiCf .•,8. a.t l"tooKj kH~: a.S'IS') i<H::.: O,~b5') kHz.:' ~.(J7S3 ""m-'I(-I

108
10 pr-oblem 6.8
20 KHE =
.515 : KH2 =
.565' : KN2 = .0753 . thermal conductivities
3() MHE =
4.003 : MH2 2.016 = MN2 28.014 =
. molecular weights
40 . Eq. (6.1'2) is applie:·d
50 CHE : KHE*MHEA(1/3) : CH2 = KH2*MH2 A (1/3) CN2 = KN2*MN2 A (1/3)
60 AHE = MHE~(1/3) : AH2 = MH2A(1/3) : AN2 = MN2A(1/3)
70 LFFHNT " Select thermal c:ondLlctivities for X(He) = 0.4 " : LPRINT
80 LF'fUNT " Therm. Cond."
90 LF'F:INT " X (He) X (H2) X (N2) WI (m ~O"
100 FOR XH2 =
.35 TO .451 STEP .05
l'1 i) FOR XN2 =
.15. TO .25 STEP .05
120 XHE =
1 - XH2 - XN2
130 NUMER =
XHE*CHE + XN2*CN2 + XH2*CH2
140 DENOM =
XHE*AHE + XN2*AN2 +'XH2*AH2
150 KMIX =
NUMER/DENOM
160 LF'RINT USING #.## It #.## #.## #.~*## ";XHE,XH2,
XN2,KMIX
170 NEXT XN2
1.80 LPPINT ....
190 ~"EXT XH2
2C)() cNO

Select thermal conductivities for X(He) = 0.4

Therm. Condo
X Oil?) X(H2) X(N2) W/(m K)
0.50 O. :::;:5 0.15 0.410
0.45 ().35 0.20 0.376
0.40 ().35 0.25 0.345

0.45 o. i~O 0.15 0.411 I.- .": 0 311.,.0,03/1 '~I -I K- 1

0.40 0.40 0.20 0.377 V;tI'IIIC' .. o.03 a yv h"I
().35 0.4·(> ().25 f.).345

1)-. 'to 0.4·5 0.15 o. L'J.11

(;. :::~3 0 .. 45 0.20 0.377
(). ~)() 0.45 ~
~.~~
~~
0.346

6.9 Refer to Fig. 6.3 and explain the variation of the thermal conductivity of MgO with
temperature.

Conductivity de.creases with increasin~ temperatu're tor T<'I~""'l<

because the mea.nftee path for phor'lcns decrease" Wlt~ ·1"c.reash1~

tempera.ture.. At the. hf~he\" temper-atu.res) T>J3c6'r<} the. conductivity

increases bf.cauee. both elec:troni, a.nd photonlc Contr-ibutions

bec.ame, fmportat'lt. At lower te.mpera:tures, these contributions .a:re
hot I mpcy-tant: .
109
6.10 Refer to Fig. 6.5 and comment on the effect of impurity scattering of phonons in
dielectric solid solutions. Assume that the inverse mean free path for different scattering
processes are additive, so that
III
-APb = -At +-
Ai'
where A, is the thermal mean free path and Ai is the impurity mean free path.

FI'~. ~,S" Shows that the the.rma.l condLAc,t I\lft y 0'; th e sol id- soluti on

i~ ) e ss tha.n that 0, th e pu\'"e. dl·e. \ee.tri Co Com pou "dS And as

Shown by £~. ,.1"1 the thermal conduct"ivity decreaSe5with
temperat~re.

If.' - \ + \
~h-Te Ai

At decV"eases as T jr')erease 6·
A... dec.r-ea.se as the "mpuritt'es incre.a.Se.

,'. " Ph W i I \ dec. rea 5 e a b the t err'l pi!\" a.t u r e a.n d t'n e 'j I't'1 pur', t " e sin ~ rea se.

6.11 Electrical resistivities of Ti-Al alloys at 800 K are given in the table below. Aluminum
is an "a-stabilizer."

Resistivity
At. pet. AI J'ohm em
o 112
3 140
6 165
11 190
33 210

Estimate the thermal conductivity for each alloy at 800 K.

Apply tnt. Smith-Palmer E:.J.(b.,q) k'=ALO"e T + B

where A:: O·Q9?j £3: ~·7 W m· ' k-'j L:. /)'.'7S' xlo- 8 W ahm t<-l.
Far the first case) y>=IIB.X/tJ- 8 ohm m
11': Q.9971~,'t5'XI()-8WObml m leOQK+.-.1wm-'l<-J~ao.1 Wm-l}(.. t
K- /liZ xltJ-8 ahf()
110
 s,iYIJ"/ar cal c.uJat"~ns faY" the ather cases dre si~en in the followinq

table.

At. ~.AI k, w m- ' K-'

o Sa"
3 ".?
"
II
35
1~.5
I S.D
J,.tI

6.12 The electrical conductivity of molten Pb-Sn alloys at 673 K is

(J = (100 - 48X)-1
where a is in ",ohm't cm,t and X is the atom fraction of Sn. Estimate the thermal
conductivities of 9OPb-lOSn, SOPb-SOSn and lOPb-90Sn alloys (compositions in mol pet).

u~e E~. (6./8) L ~ *t+ = iJ..'I trx /0- Sw onm 1(-1; aSSume kef ~ k
k ~ ere (b73)(~.'1Jx/o-')::, /.,,,'1)( J()-IJ-()J where ~:~

Mpb =/8~. '17; Msn ':./18.6'1

90 Pb -/(j Sn ) X= 0'/
:r'
C"" :'[100 -('18)(O.JD~ ":.1·0 ~())( ,c-,z.,1,4 ohm-'cm-' :. I.OSO X IC' ohm-' rn- '

k: (1.'''I9XJC-$')(/.()SOX/()'):'/'l.5 W m-/J<-'"

~-o Pb - 5'0 Sn J )( : 0.5'

tr :/.!a.x/c·aA,()hm-1cm- I :';'3;')(II)'onm-'m-'

k -:~/:8 W m-' k-'

10Pp -qo S"I x=o.q
()-': I.,?' ~/I:J-a Aoh m· , em _I::. /.7, XI() -, ()hm· ' m-'
K: ~q.() W m-' to(.'

111
6.13 Use the Maxwell-Eucken equation and predict the thermal conductivity of a two-phase
solid (A plus B) as a function of composition (wt.pct.). A and B are insoluble in each other,
and the following data apply: kA = 13 W m· l K·l; kB = 7 W m· l KI, PA = 4 x 1()3 kg m·l;
PB = 3 x 1()l kg m·3 ,

- KShA to a. - a. Yo ( 1- 1<./kAl
- ke/kA 1'a.~Vel\-k./\<~)

_(4) +a - aVA< \-(~h

- (4) +- -. + Va \ \ - ~ p

wt.'oB
V - -ro-
8 - '+Jt·"26+ (IDo-wt,1oS
:. 33Wt'~98 .
Wt,ro S",l.i(/co-wi.r.a)
~~ ~A
10 'Problel 6.1~ Calculates the theria I cODductility of tlO phaae lilture.
20 'assule tbat tbe coatiDUOU. pbase i. Ato 50S Baad Bfor ,reater tbaa 50SB.
30 LPRIIT· It pet J '01 frac B k(lll), N/(I I)
40 LPRIIT· •••••••• •••••••••• ••••••••••••••••
SOla: 13 : IB : 7 'tberlal cODducti,ities ia N/( I I )
60 Dllsa: 4000 : DIISB : 3000 'deasitle. ia kl/I'3
70 .
80 lCOIT: 1& : IDIS : IB '& is set .1 the eoatiDOI. phale It pct B yol frac B i(lix), M/(I I}
90 DCOIT: DIISA : DDIS : DIISB 'A ia let a. the coatiDGOa pbase uuuu nUtHU. .. .. HUUU***-
100 FOR CB : 0 TO 50 STlP 5 'CB i. It. pct. B o 0,0000 13.00
110 VOLA: (100 - CB}/DIISA ',olule of ! 5 0.0656 12.54
120 VOLB : CB/DIISB : 'OLTOT : lOLA + 'OLB ',olule of BaDd total ,olule 10 0.1290 12.11
130 FRaCB : lOLB/lOLTOT ',olute fractioD of B 15 0.1905 11. 69
140 FRaCD : FlaCB 'keepia, 1 tbe coatiDuou. pbase 20 0.2500 11.30
150 IATIO : IDI5/lCOIT : IUlII : IATIO + 2 -2"IACD'( l-IATI0 ) 25 0.3077 10.93
160 DIIO! : RATIO + 2 + 'IACDt( l-IATIO I 30 0,3636 10.58
170 I!Il : lCOIT'( IUlII/DIIOI) . 35 0.4179 10.25
180 LPRIIT 0511G· II.. , .• , •• .,, .• , .; CB,'iACB,IBIl (0 0.4706 9.93
190 MilT CB 45 0.5217 9.62
200 . 50 0.5714 9.33
210 LPRIIT • . s.itcb cOltiDuou. phale frol 1 to BO slitch cODtinaoul pha
220 ICOIT : IB : IDIS : II 'B i, let al tbe cODtiDOUI phale SO 0.5714 9.21
230 DCOIT : DIISB : BDIS : DIISI 'B I, let as the cODtiDUO. pbase 55 0.6197 8.94
240 rOR CB : 50 TO 100 5TIP 5 'CB il It. pct. B 60 0.6667 8.68
250 VOLA: (100 - eB)/DEISI ',olule of A 65 0.7123 8.43
260 VOLB : CB/DIIS) : lOLTOT : VOLA + lOLB ',olule of BaDd total ,olule 10 0.7568 8.20
270 FRAtB : 'OLBIlOLTOT ',olale fractioD of B 75 0.8000 7.98
280 FRaCD : 1 - FRaCB 'keepiD' Bthe cODtiDuoul pbale 80 0.8421 7.76
290 RATIO: IDIS/ICOIT : MOBIR : RATIO t 2 -2*'RACD*( I-RaTIO I 85 0.8831 7.S6
300 DEMO! : RATIO t 2 + FRACDt( I-RATIO) 90 0.9231 7.37
310 t!11 : ICOMT'! aUBII/DIMOB ) 95 0.9620 7.18
32J LPRIMT USING· •••. •.•••• •••.••• ; CB,'RACB,I!II 100 1. 0000 7.00
30 MKIT CB
40 ~MD
112
6.14 A flat heater is sandwiched between two solids of equal areas (0.1 mZ) with different
thennal conductivities and thicknesses. The heater operates at a unifonn temperature and
provides a constant power of 290 W. The external surface temperature of each solid is
300 K, and there is perfect thermal contact at each internal interface.
a) Calculate the heat flux through each solid.
b) What is the operating temperature of the heater?

Thennal Conductivity, Thickness,

Solid Wm·IK·' mm
A 3S 60
B 9 30

A ~I B
CA. Q(heate ...) : QA + Qe

or; T3
Q:. A k':A T~-T,
1_
-+ A.)o< ..... TrT3
I ) bl.\t T1 -il ~T1.-j:3 :t:JT
A 300'< ,300K

I
I
!.c::1
I

• I!I::.
. , '..1(
(KA
LA
-+ 1ll.) A AT
\.&

.-J!8 36
QA, LA
~ - ~ +.!!8. - 35 +.l..
_ "0
:. O·'.()
LA L.a 00 '30

:. ~A ':.(().,,())(~qo) ': IQI.S W '> ~& :(D.3&fo)Y~D) : '1'.5 W

I)' ~..G.a:. l'f/,5 W : ltliSW PI,a.. 0 :.~:. tlg.s-w:. QS5Wm-a.

6~ A 0.' yW'lz, ) 06 A 0.1 rn 2.

b. ~Ii :. k'A T~ -7,

T - 'T" -:.i!...!:.d
- II KA
:. .I ell &' W 1von
rn"
K
3 5 Vol
1O.ObO m :. ~. 'a K :. T:r :. '30'3.3 K

ab viou S' 'f) we. Co 1.& Id Y"I..\W''I this hea.ter with more ~we 1"'.
113
7.1 For laminar flow. calculate the results given in Table 7.1 for Nu,. for slug flow
(liz = uniform) and uniform heat flux in a circular tube.

N"~OO:K)
_he? r,ve NU-o" 8.00'; L._~iA",-:::::­
fI-:T~-Tm

Slue: +10'# and I.4Yllform ~D

~ L ~J dT), k..L t.Tg -IJ
r ar \ yo dr
I
~l ) h: - R d (~) \T~ -Trni' 'f':. R
l/2 :. () cp
r jr .~,.
v~(n-)l rdr :f~p <l{ ~~T) j Lft ~~fc;;
f) 0

va Ill) r-l. h
~ 0 = T: Of! r ~ r
J4\so at r: R) T: TR

V; IN) £;d r : ~:T', ~. (tI) (B; r') •'" (T/l-TJ

0<

'*-

:, remp ,"'at"'~ d i ,t ,..', but i o~ : TR- T ,~ (flY-B(R'- r'l

T~ -Tm:' arT' kR Va (TR-T) ror
.n-f Vt rdr

rR'
~

TR-T rn '(~)(f;;ft)(;.)J.~ R~r -r~)d~ : f.' {R~r' - ~l~t, t "(~'):

Where cw:(~)(ft)(~)

TR-i
T~. Tm :. -
(B"-r~) ( (r)2.)
R'" :.;' 1- R

~ (TR-i \
TR·Tm"J _ u t-I
- -'1\ ~-"f
d(i-) r-:.R r:.R

h~ t 'i ~ ~ :. NU.o:' ~ D : 8

114
7.2 A liquid film at To flows down a vertical wall at a higher temperature TJ • Consider heat
transfer from the wall to the liquid for such contact times that the liquid temperature changes
appreciably only in the immediate vicinity of the wall.
a) Show that the energy equation can be written (state assumptions):
aT a1T
pCpu, az = k ayl'

b) The energ¥ equation contains Uz• What wouid you use for 1)1.1
c) Write appropriate boundary conditions.

~~ Ll~IlJ
. p"C-_ _ •• To

-:2
".

~::
::
~

~:-..-
6 '" f ilm !hlckness

! , , ' 1' :">-. I To

a. use E~. (A) 'In "Table 7·S". AS5l).m~ ste.ady stAte and tlAlly de'Jtloped flew:

~I -:.0, ~:'Ol ~: :. ',)~ ':. Vy: ~ ':.fJ'l :0; n·e~l~ct \I',scous dissipat :or,.

oi; ~ k dl--r
:. (>cp va.dI- oy2.

b. E~.(~'[d) for flAlly developed flow applies with cos'J3':\.

Ush'\~ appropr~_d.te ~han~e of Y'lotat',cn to CO'f"respo'f)o to the
eo flo r (1\'1.1
coord'n'\ate system) £~, (2./;) ~Ives V, ': ~n. L'- a) J

c, 8o(.mda r y Condi Cion 5 - For tent peratu re ~ T(~o) :10) T(0, z) :Ts; T(eS', r): Tc)

11S
 y-L t T t t t t r
7.3 A gap of thickness L exists between two
parallel plates of porous solids. Fluid is forced to
flow through the bottom plate, across the gap, and y-O t t t T t ! t
then through the upper plate. Assume that the
fluid flows with a constant velocity V in Jaminar flow with straight streamlines across the gap.
The system is at steady state with the upper and lower plates at TL and To, respectively.
a) Write an appropriate energy equation and boundary conditions for the fluid in the gap.
b) Solve for the temperature in the gap. c) Derive an equation for the heat flux across the
gap.

0.. ~~ V l!.~o
c)'1'1.- 0( oY

at' )':0) T:.To 'J yo;. l ) T=TL

c. d{6Jy) .. v a'~
-- - ex
O~y

/ .... r \
~~ ~ C exp ~~ Yj

T -:. C ex P t~
I '() + c.;.
AfF\'i ~.~. :~ -:. c.,tc.;I. ~ C;. =-10 - C,

~:. ~ c. e.x;:>(~ L)'" c.,.::. C ex? \..~ L) - ,,+-To 1

J
[TI. - To
Lexpl~ ~ :C,
r}l.- 1
To
Col ~ To - [e~ \"'~ L) - IJ
p

". -\:. c, Iv ) -CltTo

-:'X?\C:<'(

J ..
- 1
_ ,.
Iv _: . [ • exp GfY)-1
T-To -" exP\",.y)
• e)(p (¥-L)-I
'-.
~ L V
gy-=-C,I'I; c:<exp
('::L)
oc
I I V _. k (T.. -To)
Y '~yy:o :'-C1Kc;:<-- t!..'(p(~L)-1
Y..
oc.

116
7.4 A liquid of constant density and viscosity flows
upward in the annulus (R1 :S r :S R,J between two
very long and concentric cylinders. Assume that both
the flow and the temperature are fully developed.
..
The inner cylinder is electrically heated and supplies
a constant and uniform flux, qr, to the liquid. The f
outer cylinder is maintained at a constant temperature,

1
To·
a) Solve for Vz•
b) Write the energy equation and state your Fluid enters
f r
assumptions . at To
c) Write appropriate boundary conditions.

a.. Fr~~ Problem «0/3

I .
l).-z ' : . -
(d-dP - Ci\ ~j\ r ~ + '-\
,. \
\'\ r t C"-
- I-frt C I

e.c.. at r~ R; ) Va.: 0 ~ '(':.J1'~»))~: 0

C - ~ (~F _ ~s\CR;-R~l
'-'1rt\dc ) \n(~)
R", ;

," - ' (dP ~,,)[;l.

.... --Ljrtd=- j
(R;.a.·R1l.)
"1+ \nl.&,\ \nRI
J
\ ~1.!

Va :.-1 (. d~ _ ~q)[r; _R~ + (R,2.· R:) )n (R,Y

YY1,dz: In(~J rr~
'T ,.::. '2.;
b. A5=umpri0/1$ ~ C" :Cp;O't ~Oj u,..:. Ve ':.0)" ~:.o )..IT. . :'0> ne~lect
o ~e ~~ ..
vis(o(')s dissipation.

:.E~.S-Table 7.5 \.J: dT

de
-:.0<.-' l. lr.IT\
r dl \ d r)

c. 6oundar'f COl'lditions for Vi' "-re in par! Ct·

J:~r tempera.ture :

at r:: R, ) 'i : ttl o...t l.::: 0.) T::. 10

'f:.R-.)T~To
117
7.S Air at 0.3 m S·l and 365 K flows parallel to a flat plate at 310 K. a) Calculate the
distance from the leading edge to where the momentum boundary layer thickness is 6 nun.
b) At the same distance from the leading edge, what is the thermal boundary layer thickness?
c) Up to the same distance from the leading edge, how much heat is transferred to the plate
(one side) in 600 s, if the plate is 100 mm wide?

a.. Yo() !o.am s·'j T.o ': 36S" K"j it: &/01<
£valtAate tr,e properties at th~ aV'rage temp. (called the fnl11 temp.)
Tf :. t (T..0 +To) : 33 e I<
Appe.ndix B ~ivesthc prcperties) V(338 1<.") :J<i.89 Xlo-'m'l.tj-I

EQ.(~.ICI)..st.:.
(" .,..'A
J'V • X:.
~1.-. ,
VtIO_= O·t;)of&.
l !
m21i O,3rT1\' I c::
I.. -Do~a.m
6 X Vv~xlv' 5"l.V I S ~5' Iq.8q;X/~-"- .

X -:. /). (;~;. m: d. ~ mTil

~
~ • ~
I

b. E} (7,.(qJ-f-:. o.Q7: Pr ; P,(:3Sf\,;\ :~,7C/j iT :'(O.OCb) ( O.q7S)(~.7al)- v

Zj :. (). 0 0 6 S' 8 n1 :. {,.• -55 mI'Y1

c.3lo/S o.! ( .3 ). R n )( V.o (0.0';';')(0.3)
C.NCA L : 0.,/;'1 Pr ReI. La':. aa..XiC m) el.. :"e x ~V- :. 19.eQXlt- it

= as/.s
. 0.3'i5 ".S'
NUl. =(a. "''f)(a.7or) (:':/.6) :/~,71

NUl. ':. RL ) k(:S81<') :;9.;txlo· 3Wm- I k"-'

.
NlAL. k
'rt" _- -~:::
~

(10.7 1)( :4 cLl)(.lO- ) tl Z .... W _l. -I

-::. ,,.. 4- ~ k
L (6.02'2..)
Q. ::.h.A (T~-To) ':.(1412'2.)(O.I)(O.Oll.)(3~S"-~IO)"1.72'v1
~ ~oo s ) QAt :(141'2..)('00)-:" 1032 J

118
7.6 Consider natural convection between parallel vertical
plates maintained at Tl and To, respectively. Assume that
the plates are very long and the convection is fully

"1 I TO
developed. For constant properties: a) Write the energy 2L
equation and boundary conditions for temperature. I :;;ID~
b) Write the momentum equation with the Boussinesq T ;~Ii
Yl: .x
~(?t~r:
approximation and boundary conditions for velocity.
.

a.. T :T(x) because the pio.tes a.re very lon~­

tt. ;.~ T.
r:Y'l~r~'( e~lLatior') clX~:.O

. ,To
a,c. T:TI at){ :.-L) T: Teo at x:.L Ld.L~
b, l.J'f ': V'1' (x) ~ ~o becd.u~e flow is fl..dly developed.
0- - d..E. t- r. &;V'( + ~ c.
• d Y " X" ~~'f
Mom en t t1t'M e-,.
,,(.4t
t:I. dP -
0'( -
D
-"\m '1 a.nd 9y~-'i whev-e em is the. der1sity ~tthe meat')

t-emperat'l,.trt TyY\'

:.-~~+ ~~'(:. ~m q -~~ ':. ~(~"'- ~) W' 1'\ .• i •• 10

sa':-t\t=~) So that - ~~ 1" t'~'( ~~ ~~(T-irn)

+ '3 e~ (T- Tm) or 0: vdd "1 + 1:3 Ja (T- Tm)

'I. 7.
C ';. Y1,~ I,.)~ MorneV'l'tlAvn Ei·
QX~ x

e. c. v.,. :. 0 at x: 0 j V'( ':. 0 . at x ~ '-

119
7.7 The surface temperature of a vertical plate is maintained at 390 K. At 0.24
m from the
bottom of the plate, calculate the heat tranSfer coefficient to: a) air at 290
K; b) helium at
290K.

a. fva.l uate the. prop ertie s at Tf =t {3qO+~qo) :3"10 \<.

Pr-(o'iOKJ:. 6.7GO ) k(3'iO l<) ':..IIq.a't/o·3\fJm·'~-1

Gl"'x -- C3~(To
V 1.-T.,o»(a.) V'/3Y
\
OK) ':.J,O. JOX1 0-'m'Z .s·'

~ ":. -..)...d.e.1 :. ..L~I

\" dT p V oT P :. -T' (tor id e al ~a.s)

~(3LfOK) :. .,7,.'1111 XIl;,-'5 t<-1

"-
\,] t"')(
_ q.. 607 m \ a.q" I XID-~I (3~c-.q oli<
- St. K I
I('.. ~)' 'I m 5' '- q.
(~O.IOX 10'")''' m'i
e.q "I.'

Gr)C rr- : b.q I X 10"

E'~ .. (7.'i'i) {JIJ1i Pr ~

1-
I
N 4)( : 0'(1/712 • q.8bqXIl>'1r(O.~7;)(O.')~~ -:..35.'7
\ Y 1 (O.SI.I+Pr).lq - Ii (O.ib I +0. '700) '\

nx :. 35.1 ~ : 35.1 (PQ.3 XI~-3) :. "I.~5 W m';' K-' (A',Y")

(Ol;~ .

b. p,,(3L fOK)' : 0.,,78 , V(!'for<) ':.153 x/o·'m'1 s·') K(3Lf01<):U~.x/o-3wm

-'K·'
Gr
I(
"!. ('1.80'1)( ~.q 'i I XU)! )( 3'o-~q 0) (0. a~f)3:.
(153x IO")i' .
'I ?oIJ X 10'

• I

ll.703XIO,)i:j (o'o7 ,,)(o" ?Sfi :. I~.'T&.

t\ltA x ~\ 'i (0.8" +0."78) ..

(\ b~x I(i!) .. -,
hx ':. (\~.'1~) (a.a") ~ 8.'00 Wm-!< t hO-le»h(a\r))
120
7.8 Liquid metal flows through a channel with a rectangular cross-section. Two walls are
perfectly insulated and two are at a constant temperature of Tw' The metal has temperature
To as it enters the channel, and Tw > To. Assume steady state, fully developed flow and no
solidification.

Enters Tw

-
at To ~ Tw
t.:.. % .-._--------.-._. Tw C5JL 2~% ~
W7T~f((CA~//. ~-
1..-2a-1
a) Write the energy equation in terms of temperature for constant thermal properties.
b) Write the boundary conditions.

Ct. Vy~\J)C':o} vi":.f(x,Y) T=.f(X)Yl=~'

,
;:Q.lA)-f.D!"f;.-ne~lect viCous djs~',pat"oy"); Cf'~c...,·

~C.F(\\J;~:r)-:'r<rtI
0= (0)1,2. ~ eli
dY2.
+~'t.,.1
~ej
or Vall.:o<.f".,..
d~ I}x1. +ti + q"l.Tl
~'{~ dcj

b. eOU-f1da.'r,( COY'\oiticns

T ( X l Yl 6) :. TD

T(x,Y).o),,:T'oy
..1- '
'; , (1., Ylr):O ¢: tr.s:.tla~ed surface
oX \ '

T (-ct,: y) :.) :. Tw

j~~1\)-b;~)":.O ¢ rns~"ated SLl.r~ac:e

T()(,~b)=):.Tw

~T (,x)y,oO) ~ 0
di
121
1.9 Consider the creeping flow of a fluid about a rigid sphere as illustrated by Fig. 2.9. The
sphere is maintained at To and the fluid approaches from below with a temperature T» and
velocity V». a) Write the energy equation which applies to the fluid in the vicinity of the
sphere. Assume steady-state conditions. b) Write appropriate boundary conditions for
pan a). c) What other equations or results would you use in order to solve the system
described by parts a) and b)?

a.. T:.{(r)e)

sta.rt with £:' (c) in Ta.ble 70S'

I ~ I? 0 rev i! Co I.( 5 dis.s i p a. t ian) Cp : ell J 11f ~ 0

~ Cp( Vr N- . . ~ ff): k[;. tr (r'1f) ... r' ~,ne ~5 (s;n 8~)J

b. For th € r d! rect '(on "

At r:R, T:Tc ~
,
r:.oc,T:T
J oe

roY" the e dr'rection'.

OT . 'dT ,
At 8:'0) cie ':0 (sYl'llmetl'"Y) j 8:.11) oe :0 (5'071metrYI

c, The eYler~y e2uatr'CYi conta'\Yis Vr and VB) So these VJo("(ld na.ve

to be known. or the momentum e.gl..(atian WCll.,dd have to be
Salved.

7.10 A very long fiber of glass (radius = R) is extracted

from a hole in the bottom of a crucible. It is extracted Molten
with a constant velocity V into a gas at T",,; assume slug gI.a.ss
flow. at To
a) For uniform properties write the energy equation for
temperature in the fiber. Do not ignore conduction in
the direction of flow.
b) Write boundary conditions. [Hint: At r = R, the
flux to the surface must equal the flux to the
surrounding gas "via h. "] v

122
 a" Vi .::.V, Cv ':Cp) Ur :'U8 -:.o} ~'l.ll.~O

"* i+ff)+ flJ

E'~. (8) Table 7,~

~Cp(v*)
b, For the; r direction:
Ili ",.
fl 1-
0 Jor- 0 .fZ - - ..b...
Ql- o·) i '.")~'("- ~\
'T-1:t:JtOl\

At r: c) T: To; f:...c J T :. ToO 0 '(" ~~ :. 0

7.11 Starting with Eq. (7.44), derive Eq. (7.45) and define the dimensionless numbers in
Eq. (7.45).

~ ~
o. b 7 10 Pr 2.
l ~ t C -- (o.e~I+P'(')~ - [G- r .""
)then El (7,'71<1) is NU~-:.(-irJ C

I I

-:.kr9~(i6-TIOC)X~~C :kf~@(ro-iQO)J-qx-t.c.
I l
•• fJ)( X [ '"tV" 1 [ ..,v~
l
For the avera~e h) we ne-ed h-:+[hxdx
:<:0

L
t_
"iV'"
l. 1..

h~~ 9@(To-T~)j'1c.l)(-~dx:k 9~(To-/co)j"'L\{..:i.C.\

x:o
L I.fV
.J..

\0')

hl _ YC \-q #3 (T~·T..o) L~ -tt

1<-3 _ 'iVi J
III III
NU I.. hl.f

s;;~,
.,. L !> ( 7.'-15) LiNIJ I- 0. 1101 Pr
- -:---~~-
-
-l
~GrYI1 (D.8~1 rP-r)-G
123
7.12
a) Determine an expression that gives the heat flow Q (W) through a solid spherical shell
with inside and outside radii of " and 'I' respectively.
b) Examine the results regarding what happens as the shell thickness becomes larger
compared with the inside radius.

't. T-:.f(r) VT'-:.ve':.\.J~:o

c'l' (c) - p. ~"til.

Lfri. dT) -0
dr\. dl" -

at r~ R, ) T:T,
\"':.R,,)T:.T.1

rot ~T : C
d r- J

T:. - ~ + c"

T\ '!.
r, c~ ') T ~ :. - ~~
_..h-;- 1.
~.a.

· c _T,-T-.. C.a, :. T, -+-~1', \ T:. - ~r ;- T, + ~,,~

•• '--I.. ..J...
Ra,- 1<,

~ ':.-'K dT ')
or Q ':, 1..\ rr yo 2.0u :. 'i rr r~C\<...n:)
~ dr

.2I. :. C, • ...L tTl - T~)

0'" 'r~ - '('1. I I
R,-R~

Q ':,. '1 rr\«Ta-T,)

...l. .L
t\~ - R,

b. L,'m Q _ '·rrr'KtTr ;;) ~-,,\iT~R,tT.'2-1',)

f< ~C:¢ - _.1.
~ R,
124
7.13 A sphere of radius R is in a motionless fluid (no forced or natural convection). The
surface temperature of the sphere is maintained at Tit and the bulk fluid temperature is T
0/1'

a) Develop an expression for the temperaNre in the fluid surrounding the sphere.
b) Detennine the Nusselt number for this situation. Such a value would be the limiting value
for the actual system with convection as the forces causing convection become very small.

0.. T:.f(r) 1Jl" ':. 1)" :. Vcp ': 0

E'~. (c) - p..:l'to:l

L(r~m -:0
dr dr]

..JI
d '(" ..5.!..
- \,,1). T:. - .f!..
r ... C"

at r: R) T:. TR
l'" :. 00) T: 100

.'. C;. ': .,.cQ aVId C1 :. - R(i~ - T f>O)

T-TC!? • I<
i~-l'cO - r

k dT \ I... '" L I \
b. h-:.~..t....8.':. -~""l ':. t\~\Tft-T~}
(iR-Too) R {TR-T~) R2.tl~-'T4IC)

L o..~ or Nu 0
\< --0
n':lf":. -M ...
- k ~t'\

125
 7.14 For the system in Fig. 2.1 develop an expression for the temperature distribution in the
falling f11m. Assume fully developed flow, constant properties. and fully developed
temperature proflle. The free liquid surface is maintained at T = To and the solid surface at
T = ~. where To and T, are constants. a) Ignore viscous heating effects. b) Include viscous
heating effects.
Answer b)

T-To x {
T, - To = l 1
3
+ 4' Br 1 -
[ [X]3]}
l '

7J~ B'
where Br = k(T, _ To)' rinkman number .

Q,. .aT:. O 1) -0
~t »)( - , V ·0
"( - >·0 C - ) U'
ll.-o o'i - O ) ':"-0
':t:-

:. E'~.A) Tab:e '7·5 reouc.ee to') \<. Jz,'T

dx2. : 0

. T- To _ x
So tha.t a. Ilne.ar tempeT"at~n~ pT"ofile. eXJs't5: T T -c;::-
~- 0 c'

b. I'YlC!tJde. V\'SC.OU5 effect5) ci ':t6

\< cll.~ + Y( (dVa-\~: 0
OX'" dx )

Fr~m ~ha::,.;. ~ f 1S'. (~.15) .:ina (~"'i)

V•• 3 Iii [\ - mJ Wh er e V.' e9s"",'c'5 Il

\
ov.: _-3V!' - x. ~)4
~Va :. VI!. x"~
q -1.
eX· S2. ) Jx S"i

-2. '2. 14 -l,

L L!. n..
j"

1\ ,,)( 2.
+ h q v!- X -:. o·
• ~~.., ) 1X1-' Ax'L -- 0 w h e Y'e A --
() T J.. 'l v
~ ~ Lf

A Y
T-:. - ia x + C1x t-e"
126
 at X:o) T:To

c2 : To
a't. x: S) T: TS
·If )A.3
C, :y \T~- T" + la '

T-T. : - ~ x"+ \T,-T.) ~ +1- £\:. i1 ~~~ -({)J + tTs -T.)1-

T-To _ 'I v~ n~"\ [(~)~(X~ f~\
TS-To - \a\< S'I{ii-io) \-\;IJ\1")+\;)

}-T. : IX\Ji+.!\\r~-',,~11 where. p,.,..!l~i ,

Ta-TCI \i} L ~ L IT1JJ k 'f>-1o

7.15 Consider heat conduction through a plane wall of thickness !:,.x, and Tl and Tl are the
surface temperatures. Derive the steady-state heat flux in terms of Tl , Tl and ax if the
thermal conductivity varies according to
k = ko(l + aT)
where leo and a are constants.

Siead'( stat e d (t<

oX \
di) .
ci'< -0

- k.d.I..:
d~
~ ) Ct> n sta n t

- £ f '&Tl

I
\< dT ":.
X'1.

)(',
dx -:. ~ [ cix
'X I
;(1.

- l (ko.,..koa.r)dT:.
-ri.
~()(1.-X/): t.t!x
r,

- rT"ko dT - 17ik6. 0. T dr : ~ ~ ~ ~ :- ~~ [( T~- 1;) + %(T: - T,~~

~ T,
127
7.16 A liquid at a temperature To continuously
enters the bottom of a small tank, overflows into .
a tube, and then flows downward as a f11m on the I
inside. At some position down the tube (z = 0)
when the flow is fully developed, the pipe heats
:\
I
I

r=f ~,rl
the fluid with a uniform flux q/C. The heat loss
from the liquid's surface is· sufficiently small so
that it may be neglected,
a) For steady-state laminar flow with constant
~
.............................

I
f
: .
.
~.
z ~

i
properties, develop by shell balance or show
by reducing an equation in Table 7,S the
pertinent differential energy equation that
I Heater

applies to the falling film. fl~: t'

b) Write the boundary conditions for the heat I
flow.
c) What other information must complement
parts a) and b) in order to solve the energy
equations?

a... v.,.: \.19 : 0 i ~ : 0 St eady state.; ~~ ': 0

E'1'(S)- P''''1a -V1e~·\ec.t v',cous cl.i5Si?at',on ') ~p:C~

~CpVi 1-
0,':1, ':.
r:I-
rL' or
K:-:k4- (.,..~
r~ +T~
d'l"
d"1""] ;
oi- Oo
~r'
1"'"
"
.»~
.\:-
so
0:
'."IE. C3..Y1
';:T
iC)'r1ore.2....:.".
~=- ..

• 'J .ll - c< I dT \1G.&.

.. e d= - [r d r \ '(' c:l '(' ~

'0. eCLAnd3.ry :or:aitioY\S~

-~..
a." ::: 0 ) T :. T0) "" <...
CI.. K r ...<. 0'"
~T ~
at r:.r< > ~r: K ):: ~o

at 'r ::. a. f< ) dJr ':. C ) ~ I> 0

c. To ~ohe. this pl"oclem 3..1'1 ~xpre55ion for 'J! \')1l.(s! be oht a'lV1ed to

SuDs'!.itlAte into t~e e'f'leroy

c e-?uat',on,
.. Thus we would have e~ sol"e.
an ap~"-c>p"'ia.te \'CC(lse.Y" . . atlcn of rYlOr'Y'entLl"''' €luatioll. \JIJe co(..(;d

VISe the rest{/: for Ii fallin~ film dcwn t,.,! ins-ide af a. c'(Undric.a./

wa.ll· 128
8.1 Hot gases flow inside an insulated horizontal tube with
dimensions shown to the right. Determine the heat transfer
coefficients for both the inside and outside surfaces. The gas
at 1370 K flows with an average velocity of 4 m S·L. The
environment surrQunding the tube is air at 300 K. and the
outside surface temperatur~ is 330 K. The gas is ideal so
that (3 =
liT. and at these high temperatures." for the gas
does not change appreciably with temperature. Dara/or gas
inside rube:

T. K P. kg m· l .". kg 5. 1 m· 1 k. Wm·IK I C,. J kg" K· I

1370 0.30 4.1 x 10" 0,086 1.0 x 10'

Inside heat tra:nsfet c()efr/C'ient-hi

. -" - Dye _ o.?oml"/·omlo.30k~1 m s : 8.78 x 11./'
U.se ~~.s.il. J1em - n.m - 51 m3 ~.IXJD-Sk~
•, • !Is ~). "" "I
N u,." .tfefl') fr-m ~
Ln..r:n\ ' 0.1"":::: \
: O. OOLt '. ~)

p • (n,Cp\. Y'/XIO·S"k911-O){I03J'!. IffI!<\W5 ::o.J.j77

rm-\k)- mS k~k o.a86W J

NU m :o.ool./l?emfr
v! ( ~:)IH"i '! (o,oo'7)(8.7B)(/~ 3,)(O·Lf7'7 '-9)(J) :';'7.'1

h·:; NUm km - (ii7.J.f)({).o~<o): 7.85 W ",....;. ~-I

./ D - (0.30) ,., "

Out side heat tTa,()sfer .. ~~. ~.Ff/£i.~t!~ -~

a ; 3 ) [rr D\3 /n c.f>~. (~)
.
Use FI~.S.8-GrI..Pr:; v::r (To-T..o
0. _!
IT7\ \<;> 1-'-T.f:{330+~OO)
1 .'
-3.11xIO
.3_ J
K

C'p(S15)-:'/O'i7 jk~_' lei) k~il' ('3ISf<) :o.o~q"f W yn_1 Ie'

S' 3 -5" I
nAIr (315 k) : ~., X /0· IV S m-~ ~Ajr (OIS k') -:./. 0'-11 k~ m- J )): 2. O~ x Ie N s m k~-
" p _ 9.81 m!s.l?x/C-;j kg:' 1(330,-300)4 (l!O:.60\3m3 1,;.IX/6-5"NS
'Jf I. r - 54 K (~.6~tXIO-5)~N1S1. m 21 ::l ~T m3-
;rr m'l< I\'.I_S N st ':.1.'i5Xla~
k~ I( io.o~ql.j \t.J1 J k~ m

JO~/o(Grl.Pd-:q·/6: From F/,.8.8) JO~,oNUL :./.87; NUL :7'-1

h :. NUl. k~ :. 7l:.JI~i O,Qdq'1

o 0 rr
iT I m K
wi 0.'0 m
'!~.31 W m- 4l l<-'

129
S.2 Molten aluminum is preheated while being transferred from a melting furnace to a
casting tundish by pumping through a heated tube, 50 mm in diameter, at a flow rate of
1.3 kg S·l. The tube wall is kept at a constant temperature at 1030 K. a) Calculate the heat
transfer coefficient between the tube wall and the aluminum. b) Using this value of the heat
transfer coefficient, how long would the tube have to be to heat the aluminum from 950 K
to 1025 K? Datajor aluminum: k = 86 W- mol K'!; p = 2560 kg mol; Cp = 1050 J kg-I K-';
" = 1.2 X 10-3 kg 5-1 m-l.-
0 VI -.!:ii:I.
a.. From E'xam. e.1 we can apply~ Re': o\in ~ -- rt(~} - 17yt D
Re-
- tr
Li!I,Sk9!
S ,. ~
S'vn
X J0 - 3
I
k9 ! ". 0 c 'fI')
--d..7'X/()~

Pr -- L - .!l.£.e.
0( K -
-
• /0,;5 x lb·! ko \10 stll m K W S -
5 m k~ k reb W :r . o. C 1'77
I
r 1 0 .'1en r
'71
E" ~ , ( e.'7) - N u1 : b' 7 to. 0 0 ¥ I L ( :2 . 70 X 101./ ) ( ~. 0 , "
-
e x pL(l-n 8)( o· 0 I ~ '7~ : 7, ~ a

NU~ -:: D·? e.

Correc.-: faY" NUT w', tr. Fi~. 8."1 ! ~ :, NL(r :- 5.9;.
.)

h':.6·.9~ls...':. $.~~18bM
o mK o.o-m
" :./.O;S xID "lWm-1.\<-1

Aii..·- wep
b. \ nATo
h
hl'Tl'p.) were. IIT·-
oU I.-temp. , erenc. e at e'><ltj
d'ff . 4 1O-:.Temp.

dif ference at efltranc ~] 1../ 0 :: Len~th and diametef' of tube}

'VI : Mass of low rate
l:. WCp t ~Trl - B~31lo5"~
1Th D rt AT!. - 1'T 5 I k~ I<
'!l 1.()a)(,/o"'~lo.oS"'m
S I
m"l< I. (JO~O-~G"a) I< •
lIn (,o30-lo~5;k -~,Sbrn

t1dded not.e -Th,'s $olL-'tion ;~nores COt}dCActiofi in t'n~ direction af

flow. At st(fficiently 'ni~h flow rates (hi~h Re)'nolds number) this
condu,t i cn may be ne~ Iected . Tn e stude nT. 1s i nv; ted to ascerta.i t1
whether" COr'louc.tion is important in this case.

130
8.3 A sheet of glass (1 m length) is cooled from an initial temperature of 1250 K by blowing
air at 300 K parallel to the surface of the glass. The free stream velocity of the air is
30 m S·l. Calculate [he initial heat transfer coefficient and when the glass has cooled to
~OO K.

Glass cit I~~O J(

4 : t ('-lSo +30C):' 775 k

Thermal propertles Of aJr at 77!" k: V -:.8(J,Q8)( It)-' m ~ s-' j Pr : ().706 j

k :5',~BXI()-a W m- ' lei
~ (1)(30) so
Re L:: )J :. 80,~ g X 10-" -:. 3,7'1 X 10

Ac.co-rdin9 tD Fj~, 8,7) this is Jdmind.r flow SI) we resart tD E'~. (7,;.7).
0.3'i3 oS ( )().!IIIJ(~ S)D.!"
NUL: 0."'1 P.,. /?el.. :0,'641 o,7~' ",·?'ixID :.36tJ

h -: +N~ .. -:.( 5".C~)(ID-!~(3e6'; ': ~o.a W yr.-ZoiC'

elass~~

1: ';
i'
-* (Lioo +3"0): ~~-o I<
'" ""-

TheY'mal p)~Cfert/es at 350 k: l):;../.J!iXIO·'fYj7. s·'; fr:~·i,9Bj

fr:. 3a.o)(/o-:'w m- ' k-'

c _ (I) (~;)) _ ~ 6
l1eL. - ;'},ISXIO-t. - /.'1:1.X/O

l1"ord:n~ tc Pt''!. S.7; thl~ Is turbulent {low $C loAJe lAse £g.e./7·

Nux ~ Q·o;'h Re:J·ePr-'~ - ~f'ter we pur ~N a. NLh ba.sis;
I
Nl.{~:o.a3~S
Rel.0.8!13 .,
Pr ':.o,oS .. 5\/,'I,;. ..v•./l>
b)O.8(
0.1>98
)Y3..,
=. . . ·I.!CX)fj a
h:. (30X?-3 )(~.'tOXIO!): 7~.a W m-1.k''''
(ThiS calculation l1e~}ects shortd/stances fr"mthe Jeadln~ edge
where there co~Jd be laminar f/~w)'

131
8.4 A long cylindrical bar of steel (30 nun diameter) is heated in a tempering furnace to
810 K. It is then cooled in a cross-stream of moving air at 300 K with a free stream velocity
of 30 m 5. 1• Calculate the heat transfer coefficient that applies when the bar begins to cool.

Tf '; (81" +300) =. 5 $ 5" k

.(
P.,.operties ofdir cit 5SSI<: 11: '-I'."II..JXlo·lJmzs-'; p.,. =(J'68S";
k : 'tL.J. /I )( 1()_3 W m-' k'-'
o _ 0 V.o _ (o."3)(~) ~ I OU.XIO'i
"et - Vt .. 'I'.
'1'1 X 10·. • 7 f
~se Fg. (8,9). Nt,/f Pr-o,3: ().~' Rtf o.'Oj NU;. :~.~b Ref 0·'0 Pr 0·3
NUf ':.(o.:JI»(/.9'1XIO'f)o"()(~.68S")~·3:: 86·7

h:NU{k:.
o B&.7\"'61t1JIwl
yn K o.~3m
~/~7WY'fl_2K

8.S Refer to Example 8.1, in which a tube with a uniform surface temperature was
considered. Now consider flow through a tube which is electrically heated so that the heat
flux along the length of the tube is uniform. The fluid has a mixed mean temperature of To
as it enters the heated length of the tube. Assume constant and uniform thermal propenies
and steady state. a) For a small length of tube, .<ix, write an energy balance on the fluid (see
Example 8.1). b) Take the limit as .<1x .... O. c) Integrate part b) and obtain an equation
which gives the mixed mean temperature of the fluid as it leaves the heated section of the
tube.

, I
1\
~.
W~II I
I
•
w: K~ s·,
I J
X .
h~)(

WCpTrtt+ ~w fr o~x ': wCpTml x+ liX w''nere ~w -: uniform flux a.t w~ll'

b. lim Tml)(+Ax-=Im1. .. no~w

t:.x~O Ax - WCf

clTr'I'l .. rr D9.w
dx • \N Cp

(;. f Tl"II~T"'.
dT m :. n: DCp~
\j..J
w
lX~L
dx
~o
11. :: To + iT Octw l
VJcp
Tm-:.To
132
8.6 A rapidly solidified ribbon is
annealed by continuously passing it gas out, I I ps in.
throu2h a tube with countercurrent hot
gas. ,zhich flows at 30 m S·l and 730 K.
7~ IC ~
-.........:.. .. -.-
L,?30 K

i:
Estimate the heat transfer coefficient,
and calculate the temperature of the
ribbon .leaving the tube.· Dara and
thermal propenies: Ribbon thickness,
=~ I. 1m .\
boD

1 rrun; ribbon width. 150 mm; ribbon

velocity. 0.17 m 5. 1•

P. kg m· l Cpt J kg.1 K·I k. W m· 1 K"I

Gas 0.64 2000 0.04
Ribbon 6400 SOO 30

v_ ~V;(~as)+V; (ribbon~:. 50 rOd'l: 3001'1 m s-' -= 30 ms· 1

Assu.me Pr:O.7; Pr~~-:'~ teF:. ~ce

n. ':. Js.fr -:. a. 0 "i W! ,. 'I I k~ K
Cp mK i I .

() ':. LV"",P:. (l)(eo)(O.,,"I)~ (.3?Xlte

"el. Yl. ,."1 X 1~-5'
£'nerqy bala.nce 0'1"\ 1("\ 'obo1\ : 1'-
Vy. ... I S
hWAX(T~a.s-"LrVrWf fC.pT\x:.'\lr WS~CFTI~"'AX I
"
I
XtA)(
J.
\\ m 4X ~o .~~ ':. - '\f,.~CP i (T-Tcaas)

i TL
dT
To T- r,a5
-:._ h
L
(dx'lnTI.-i',aS __ "'L
Vr ~ cp 6 11-':.0) To -T~u - "\fro ~Cpa

TI.-T _ exp( h).. \

To - T~ a~ - \- v;. ~ Cp i )

The fDllowin~ computer pr~ram ~ol,,!S the. prople.m.

133
 iO 'Poirier and Geiger - Proble. B.b Sl units
20 L ~ 1 : W= .IS : THICK = .001 : VR = .17 'length, width, thickness and
velocity of the ribbon
30 TO = 300 : TSAS = 730 : V= 30.17 'te,perature of ribbon at entrance,
te~oerature of the gas, and relative velocity
40 'Collect properties for gas
50 PR = .7 : VlSC : .000014 : DENS: .64 : COND = .04 : CP : 2000
60 'Collect procerties for ribbon
70 DENSR: b400 : CONDR ; 30 : CPR : 500
80 '
90 TOTAREA: 0 : DELI = .01 'TOTAREA and DELI are used to integrate h.
100 FOR I = DEll TO 1 STEP DEll
110 REI: laV'DENS/VISe 'local Reynolds nUlber
120 IF REX ) SOOOOO! THEN ISO
130 NUl = .332 $ PRAI.343) • SDRIREl) 'local Nusselt no. for la.inar floN
140 GOTO 160
150 NUL = .029~ t QE~.9 t P~AtlLll 'Iotil Musselt no. for turbulent floN
IbO HX : NUX.eONO/I 'local heat transfer coefficient
170 SUBAREA = HltDEll : TOTAREA = TOT AREA + SUBAREA 'setuD lor ayer~oing h
180 NEXT I
190 HAVS = T01AREA/l 'average heat transfer coefficient
200 LPRINT' The avg. heat transfer coefficient is'jHAVGj"W/I,Z K)'
210 A= HAVStl/( YR'DENSR'CPRtTHICK )
220 RATIO: EIP(-A) : Tl : (TO - TGASl'nATIO + TGAS
230 lFRIHT' The te~oe~aturr of thf ribbcn as it leaves is'jTlj"K'
240 END

The avg. he3t transfer :oeificirnt is 74.44023 W/I~2 K)

The te.cerature of t",e ribbon as it leaves is 354.9923 K

Helium in
8.7 In order to reduce the amount of
dissolved hydrogen, dry helium is )1_ Lance,
3mmLD.
bubbled through molten copper. In ~ ~
order to prevent clogging of the
~ o
i
-1
o
submerged end of the lance, the helium
must enter the melt at a temperature
Copper
melt ~ II
o
o
o
a
o
greater than the freezing point of at 1370 K o
o
copper (1356 K). What is the o
00
maximum mass flow rate of helium ~
which can be employed if the supply
of helium is at 300 K?
Avera~e tempera.tl.lre Of He ':0 /35"7.,+ 3ao : S.g.S k:
The fcJl()win~ pro'jrg,Yn ca./c,ufatest:he maximum flew rate af He,

134
 :~ Pv::ier ano Geise: - Proble! 8.7 51 uDits
20 'Collect properties for beliul
30 PR: .654 : 1ISC : 3.591I-05: DENS: .0608 : COND : .285 : CP : 5193
40 L: 1 : D: .003 : PI : 3.1416 'lance dilensions
50 TK!LT: 1310 : 1M : 1356 'Ielt T and freezing point
60 DELTO: 1370 . 300 'delta T at the entrance of the lance
7D DELTL: 1370 . 1356 'desired delta T at the exit of the lance
80 ,OR I : 1 TO 100
90 W: 1t.000001 'uss flol rate
100 Hi : 4*Wi( Pl*D*VISC.) 'Rernolds nUBber
110 Y: ,074/SQRfRE) 'approxilatioD of CUffe for LID: 333
and laliDar flol in Fig. 8.2
120 NO : Y'P.K'PR·(1/3) •Kusse It no.
130 B: KU-CORD/D 'heat transfer coefficient
140 LEFT: - HtLtpr*Di(WlCP)
150 DELTT : DELTO,EIP{LEf1) 'delta Tat exit for this flol rate
160 1L : TH£LT - DiLTT 'r of He at exit
170 IF TL { l1ft + 2 )1SEH 190
180 MEXT I
190 LPRIRT • The lass flol rate is";M;"kg/s, aDd the gas leafing is at·iTLj·l.·
200 ERD

The 18SS flol rate is .000012 kg/s, aDd the gas leafing is at 1351.958 t.

8.8 Calculate the initial rate of losing energy (VI) of an aluminum plate (1.2 m x 1.2 m
x 10 mm) and heated uilifonnly to 370 K when it is a) cooled in a horizontal position by a
stream of air at 290 K with a velocity of 2 m 5.1; b) suspended vertically in stagnant air at
the same temperature.

Q. TrY! -:. (T'3 -Tf) ;. (3'70+~~qO)K : 350K

Thermal propertle~ of a"r at 330K

k -:~,q'iXIO·a Wrn- \K-:,

' Y1,-;I.'lbX'O
- ~ NS m-
01
') P-:./.II
k · '3 C •
tjm ) p-
~.I .1
\O;'iJl\~ K

K'e -:.LV"~ 1.a.mlaY1\II·\\\<~1 SW'\'1.IN s1.-:.\,'3"XI0 5

L. 'f\ S m'S \.c:tb)( 10- 5 N )c:q m

p ~n.c? _1'~b)(,~5NS 10'3"1.1'1 ml< \k9m\WS ':.0,690

r - \< - yY) '1. k ca K I a. q \1 xIO·.a vi N S 1. j

o.!IoH
o. ~ "'i ?r
1
E' ~. (7. ~ '7 ) N ~ L ~ ~ ~ Re::
D, 3 ': (0." f L1)( o. "q 0) ( J. 5 ~ J< lOS ) 4 ~ ~ I b

'n -:. t--Iuk:. ~16\~.~"iXIO-~W '!5.~Swm-il)(.t

L l.a'"'l m'r<

Q: ~ A ': h A ~ T -:. ~-~ ~ ~ \ {\. ii)"m "" ( 3'1 0 -~ q 0 h( -:. 6" 0 W per SID e. ; 111 b W {ot.a..\
135
b. Grl. ~ t! ~~ ~ ~ (Te-T~) (yt2.y') f.i: ~ : . ;30'1< :. ;.0'3 )( IO·3k"""'

Gr\.. ~ >1.d.)\'Y'l3 m"l

lL'l"X IO~5)· 1\\ "L.61.

N~ ~ ~
K"lm1 . ..- I' 3"1
""XIO ,0.) r
..,.'f'\..
f'
r.,.: (
1.3:X.~le'o )( O'b'lO )
J

IO:;,o(C;r-I..Prl :.'l.Q6 -:::;. \O'l,ot-lU:. ~~.15 u: . ~·e.e) N\AI..':.1111

h. _ N:..I1e k _ \y I \a.Gt~x'I)-OI. \/'oJ - wm· · wo • 1

- L - \.~ m Y'Y' 'I<
':2 LJL
- OJ.-,~ j'\

G'nA AT' 1~f:I(I'·)'\"'''I(~?O-~9D)l( ,3'1'1 Wfer side ; Q~798\41 +ciAl

8.9 Oil flows in a long horizontal SO mm 1. D. copper tube at an average

velocity of 3 m S-1.
If the oil has a bulk temperature of 370 K and the air surrounding the
tube is at 290 K,
calculate a) the "liquid-side" heat transfer coefficient; b) the "vapor-side"
heat transfer
coefficient; c) the temperature of the copper tube; d) the rate of heat transfer
to the air.
Data/or oil:

T p C, '1' 1OZ JI" 10' k'lOl cd 07 P'lO)

(K) (kg m") (kJ kg" K") (N s mol) (m1 So,) (W mol Kol) (m2 sol) Pr (1(.1)
290 890.0 1.868 99.9 1120 145 0.872 12900 0070
300 884.1 1.909 48.6 550 145 0.859 6400 0.70
320 871.8 1.993 14.1 161 143 0.823 1965 0.70
340 859.9 2.076 5.31 61.7 139 0.779 793 0.70
360 847.8 2.161 2.52 29.7 138 0.753 395 0.70
370 841.8 2.206 1.86 22.0 137 0.738 300 0.70

Sjnc.e. the prcpe rties ~f b6th the oj I and air d~pend O~

teY'lpera.ture)
'lie. muS"t estin ;ate the temperattJre. of the CLI. On tile inside heat
trans fer is by .p>rced convec.t/'on of a. Jiguio) whe.rea.~ en the. ot..ltside
ther-e is natural convect.ion D'( a. ~as~ Henc.e) h (fnside»>h(outsiJe)
So we ca.n expe ct most of the tempera.t~t"e drop to be between the
Ct.4 t~be dna the air. To sta.r t the c&.lc.t.I/atton) Jet's a.SSu
me
TCt.( ~ TOI/"' 3?~ /('.

136
Q.. PrDpert,. e.5 of ()(f at' 970 k: V =~d..o X 1(/" It mz' 5-' ) Pr ~ 300; tt -:./.84 X/D-i.. N s m-l.;
k: 137X I()-o 'II m-'l<'"

"em': DVrt\V -• (0·4{0 )(3) ~

o B" t:>., LI I r:-.
_a.()Xlo.fI-~ lAC "Pl'yfl~'o.o.
'-1 (..!l.1!!)c./ "i L!11!l.\
NUI11 : ().(U)'" / ((ern Prm r't 0 ~ \no~)::'1
Nt.fm:' (D.oOI.f)(bS~o)(300 I/!)(/) : 18~
h :.180. K :(1S~) {J37x lp·3£ ': "I~q W m-~ }(-,
'"0 «().~So)
b. For the air side) th-e ~i1mtemf'et"a.ttJre. for prop e.rty ~val~dtl'a
n;S:
if :1-('7D+~qO): 330 k'
l'ropert,.es of a.ir at 33() J(: v: ,q.oS XIO- 6 yn" s-'; ~:. 3~O::' 3,030XI()~!k-'j
'Pr : c!'.7a.2j k·::.;''i.CXI()-3W~'-' t(-'

we also need char dcte r/str c leYlqth.

Ii s Sum e t h j c k n e S $ :; f t!.l b j f) ~ "s .: m m ; t h~ ., ut s id e d,. a met er ; s
'.JJ a.11

0.0 S ~ m, L ~ ..rr:.c.. -:. (rr){ o.~ss.): :), () e so,." .

;l. ~
Gr - 'J @(Ts-7~) L3,; (9.8a,.,)(ios()XI,,-3)(37/)-d.'1()(a.~ee();) = 'I 6
/.. . V z. (1'1. oS x I()-It;:/ ' '7. ,,>< I~
Or!. Pr : 3.13 X /0 6 From Fj'q. 8. 8 ~ /091() NUl. ~ I. ~S ; NUL: n.t)
h :. /7.0.k ... -: (17.1)(~'I'Q X/O· 3) : '1,6'1 W m·~ k- '
L (a.o8 80)
c. leti and () be .subs cript fat" inside and Duts idecf thetu be)re spect iv-el y.
ho ~ 1"\ ( Tt
fI vo
-T") -: L • 17' D
Cl.I 10 ~
I (Tl-7L- )...,..
4
:. bQ
ho £>0 +"'"1." D..4
D" To t DJ, T..;

g, 9. a k
nA, '" U • let.(

-= ('I•• I.J) (0. (JSo)(:.qo) + ('199)(a.IJS"o)(3'lo) ':.

(1(.,'1)( D.tJ5d) 1- (,1&1'1) (v,I)4"D)

The inlt/ al 8.ssu mftio Y' that Tcu"= J7<J/ '( is Vlill'd) So rhat th~
estilf'lat~s of the h~a.t tran sfer ct:Je ff/cie llts a.re very f~d.
d. ~: ho Ao {Ts -~); j: Je"f th of tuee
~ : ('f.'l.f ) (if) (b.Ctl-62.)(~'lO .... ;l'lc) -: 0.'11"1 W 5-' rn-'

l37
8.10 Replace the oil with sodium and repeat Problem 8.S. Compare or contrast the results
of the two problems.

Assume the (()"er temperature is 3'7~ k. The heat tra.nsfer

c~eff"cient in the j'1"id Na, is very hi~hJ So we rleed n"r estimate
it in ~rde.r to calculate the rd te Df heat IDss, The Sd/UCIOYJS to
part s bl c) and d are the sa.me a so ~iven for fr~b/em 8.9..

8.11 A heat treating furnace is 6 m long. 3 m wide and 6 JJi high. If a check with
thennocouples indicates that the average wall temperature is 340 K and the top is 365 K.
calculate the. heat loss from the furnace in W. A quick estimate can be made by using the
simplified equations given in Problem 8.14.

Top - L :.+: \~~'Z.qm

L.,3AT : (1}5 rn 3 (3";-'aoo))(: &5 m3 K ASSlAme
100 ':. 3001<
h~I.5'-'('-S)V3 :,." WM- l tC'
• bm
QTOP: hA(T-T-o) ~({,.1I){18)(~~-S-300) ~'7./:xliw
5 i 0 e s - L.3.A T ":. " '( 5"'10 - 300) ~ 8',,, Y X I D '!
am
h-:'I.'i5(~O)V' : Li.q"Wm-;K'·1

GSid~ii -:.. (~.q~){J8+le+Sld3~){5~o-30o)

GSide;: al.Lf~x:r}W
Qrora..\ : QTop+Gsldes ~ ;.e.b)(If)~ ,rJ (Q6~~:O~ ~o)

138
8.12 In flow past a flat plate, a laminar boundary layer exists over the forward portion
between 0 and Lz" and the turbulent boundary layer exists beyond Lz,. With this model, the
average h over a plate of length L (with L > Lz,) can be determined as indicated

h = L
1 [LZ,
J hZ(Iam)dx + JL hZ(DUb)dx
1 • (I)
o L"

Take ae".· = 3.2 X 10' and show that

hL
T = 0.037 Pr1l3 (ReO.• - 15 500).
[Hint: L,,JL = Re,,/ReL .]
fv_~;(-~
E"~. (7.~S)- hi(lam) -: O,33~ \< Pr o.31i3 ,¥r;

tv-}'/a.1
,he '(Irst \Y'lte'1,-a\ becQmes~
Lt'"
.. ' ' ' Y:~
II ~ o· 3 3a k ?y- o.~'"i! 0 X f2dx: O. "" '"i "k Py-
o,,;Ioj~'"
\ V{j l tr) (;.)
j;;~.
t:" ( ,.,
0.1$ -
) h)( l\loI r 'rl) -- o.~ q ~ k Re)l,o. S Pt' Va x -I
r) x ·0·.
k Pr '.Ill.. ("\~
:.c.oactb
11·
The. sec.cJ'\d tntec:Jra\ becomeS'.
IJ. =. o,e~q" K p\,,"Y3~ • j
LY....)O sr L.
x .D.adx ~ O.()3'1o k Pr~(V-t·8 (LI:',s_Lt.:. 8)
Ltr

f vv;. )0, SC
~ 0·03'10 kPr V3~ C- ( ~I")0, S]
L

- .1.
(~)

Comb'lne E'~~. (I), (.)) (~) and approx. PI'" o·l~'a -: fr ~

NlA :. h L
!.
..L.(
1< =- Pr.3 O'O'=~ Re 'tl'" + 0.05'10 Re'
0
\"
8[ ~ ~o.ar1
I-..hi!:
L -
\ '..!::.lr:. - Ret!"
• \.. - Rial.

\1
NUL -:.
F ~(
r
r<!)
o.O.3'1Lf\tL.
0.9 R o.ij +o·o~1i Rt trc.slJ
- et l"

R~~r :. ~.~)( 105

NlA .. :' Pr
l' rLO.o~'l ReI..c>.& +O.bbLf(S.:lXIO ! )~:.-0.03'1t~·~Xlo)
S' O'!1
-
r 8 5' 'I r Sl
NUI.'!.C.o~1 Pr"!LRe~ + 6.~\~ t~·a.XIO ) ~-t'3.~X}O~)o. J
I

Nu~ -:. (),o~'1 Pr'/l~e:·e_15 5'O~

139
8.13 A steel plate. 2.5 m by 2.5 m by 2.5 mID, is removed from an oven at 430 K and hung
hOrizontally in a laboratory at 295 K. a) Calculate the initial heat loss (W) from the steel.
b) Repeat if the plate is hunS venically.
Q.. Hori:ontal posit'Ion ~f:op and 'cottom s~l"'faces)

Tf :; t t"\30~.q5) K ': :;~~ \<

:o.q S ll\~
~ 5
PrDperties of .,
a.,r\~,a'l< ~ \~
) 0
m 3 S Q.,..,~"=;l.1b)(IO .3 'r< -I ) t'lf':.a.l~xlo
2..
NS m"2.5
0

\<~ : 3.1 l( lb' 2W mol \(-' i Pr:' o. r.q b

G - l' ef ~ ~f (To-T~) • (a.5)i(",~e')(Cf.aO'l)1~·7")( 1p-3}('130-';Q.s) "

rl.- ttl - (~,'3XIO-5)~
: ).:l3XI0

A5:t.lrYle eg' (s.d.5') apph'es .for the top Surface and c~, (g,GIi) for the bottom.

Toe-Nul.': c.\a;(G-"'I.·f'y.)'1:: O.I'"l~I.~3~IO")<O.b%~Y3="S

hT:.blS k\..£ :. (=,S)S!oI)()O-:) ': 7.bb Wrn-al<-'
C'o': I

aQttom-NUL~ o·~'7'(G-"I':P,,).q ~O._1~I.a'3Xlo'I){O •.s,cul~~':. \"ib

he ~ (I'H,){3.\ X IQ-~) -:.1.8 I W Y'tI- 1 '1<-'

;..~

Q':. (h'T'+ hs)A (io-Too) : (/.H+ \. S ,) (a.sr('fSo- aqs) : ?~q>'lo\"

b. Vertical po~iticn - C? (6,~o)
Cl 0/5
NUl. :: o.oa-yo G..... p,..~~- 1{5"
(l+O.'iq'"\ f''t''
B.Ia)-
~ 'Vi -- ~]- ~/$
=O.O~'iIo(I.a3XIO") (6,{'Q") l!)l,+(o.~ct'1){O'bq{,} 3 :'"1'1'7

h ~ (:tQ1)(3.1X/P'-) ~ '='db W m-:1 \<_1 peY' side.

a.5

G: ({,., 10 + (,01 ,,) (ciI.S)a. ("IS 0 -c1ct 5): 10·'-10 X103W

140
8.14 Repeat Problem 8.13 using one of the following simplified equations, which apply
reasonably well to air, CO, N2, and 0 1 in the range 31()"1090 K. Land D are in m, t:..T in
K. and h in W mo2 K- t • L = AlP with A = surface area and P = perimeter of the surface.
Vertical plates of length L:
h = 1.42 (t:..TIL)'I4, 5 x 10-6 < L3!J.T < 50
h = 1.45 (t:..n l13 , 50 < L3t:..T < 5 x 1Q4.
Horizontal pipes of diameter D:
h = 1.22 (t:..TID)"4, 5 x 10-6 < DJt:..T < 50
h = 1.24 (t:..n ,l13 50 < DJt:..T < 5 x lQ4.
Horizontal plate, '" hot surface up or cold surface down:
h = 1.32 (t:..TIL)1I4, 5 x 10-5 < L3t:..T < 0.30
h = 1.52 (t:..n 113 , 0.30 < L3t:..T < 470.
Horizontal plate, '" hot surface down or cold surface up:
h = 0.59 (t:..TIL)lI4, 0.005 < L3t:..T < 470.
Are the reSUlts for the heat transfer coetticients within 20 pet of the results using the more
complete correlations (as in Problem 8. 13)?

L~ A"T:. ('a..S)3 ma (~30-'-"I5) K' ':"Il<IO~ m! k

I

A.. hT :'1.5~(I1~O-d.95)"J':. 7·80 W m-,-\<-I (Top)

ne:o,S-qr o(~~O-~q",;"
;.5"'" 1.l.-':.).boWm- ot \(-
"\ \
(ec>'tto-m)

Q : ('n r +hs) A (io-TQO) :: (7.80 + l·ltO) (~. o)~ (,,\30 - ~ ot 5) ': 7·Qa x 103 W

ihis 'Is only 0.'15 % less than t'ne. soh.\.tion to Prob.e.l"5

'Yes,the res.u\ts are. Within ;to'. of the resl.tlts ~f Pr~b·8.13.

b. h :'\.'15' (Li'50-~q5')t ~ "1·Lt~ W m-,,\<-I

Q':.(1."i"t+1."I'i)(~.5')-('i30-~q5) ~ ,;..6~tXI63W
T"h,5 is ';0.,'10 qrtate~ tnanthe solution to ?reb. 8.13.

No)'t"he results are. not within ao'. of the results of Frob.S.IS., bt.\t
proba.bly c/cse eYlOIJ9n for makin~ rou~h estimates in ma.ny

CirclAmstanees.

141
8.lS Two fluids are separated by a solid with a thickness of 10 mm and a thermal
conductivity of 22 W m· 1 K· I • For each of the following scenarios, estimate the heat transfer
coefficient on each side of the solid and the surface temperatures of the solid.

Free stream Free stream

Fluid velocity. m S·I temperature, K

a) A air 15.2 300 Fluid A Fluid B

l ~ l
Bair 0 650

b) A air 0 300
B sodium 0 650

c) A air 15.2 300 Impermeable to matter 3nd 3

B sodium 0 650 perfect heat insulator

d) A sodium 15.2 365

B sodium 0 650

Propert,·e.= 0; b~:h air and Sodil,.fm-de",e",d on tempef'ature) .s~thjs is

. ' I

a dtffic!.(lt prcbJem to solye exa.ctly. The s"lt'dJtse1f) has a. lew thern~a.1

I~~S/S::dnce. So f¢r parts c:t)- c) -:ha t involve. air as cit least on~ of
the fluid.c ) we can d SSum e tnat the temperatt.1 re is u'()iform in
the solid. W,·tit the aid ~i :ne fo/lawln'j c:)mpf.A~er todes; the f):Jxes

or, bath sides C3.rt be de:erl7'lin~d a.s a. funttfDn c:f the temperature

of thf solid· When the fluxes are e~ud/) the temperd.tt..fre of the

soli'd /s de term in ed.

rn part (3)) however) the heJ.:- tl"al1Sfer c"efficien'ts on both

Side.: of t~e Solid are Ve.l~'( hj~h. Thl.As~ ",Ie. can Ci.$SLtme t.hat the.

SlAr;ace temperatlAres are ~~:.Aal

., t() the temp~'iatures Df the
s~d/um •
~--Te
At steady state) We c:.an S;'O\1,J that

Ts' - i~ -:.. \r~ -7A)fi.. + .lL

L~~' 'n a£
1-,1-_ 1

hA7A
,i
t I
TA It-i ~
We malfe use ef this ~f(Ja.t/()" fer parts a.)-d).
142
10 'Problel 8.15&
%0 L = 1 : G = 9.801 'leDgtb of solid aDd grafitational acceleration
30 TIl" = 6~0 'natural confection aide
40 Y= 15.% : TIll: 300 'forced confection aide
50 bPilRT· Solid ------f b DI 1 5-------- -C i , , I CliM T So·
° Solid ------, LUll 5-------- -C 0 If' I C I £ • T S-
60 bPRIBT· Telp. Forced aide Matural aide 'orced aide Matural aide· Telp. forced side Hahnl aide forced side Matural aide
70 bPSINT· I 1/1'% N/I"Z N/(I'2 I) 1/(1'2 I)" I 11/1"2 11/.'2 11/(1"2 I) NJ(I"2 I)
80 LPBlKT· nnn n****n***· uutumn untu***, uunHUU' uun Utuuuu *uunt.... nunutu uu******u
90 fOR TS : 330 TO 340 STIP.~ 'TS ia telperature of the solid. 330.0 1. 44£t03 1. 69Et03 4.811tOI 5.291tOO
100 'forced confection aide 330.5 1.411+03 1.691+03 4.81ltOI 5.291+00
'fill telp. for efaluating properties 331.0 1.491+03 1.681+03 4.811+01 5.281~00
110 Tf = .5*( TS ~ TIM' )
'retriefeB properties of air 331.5 1.51Et03 1. 681t03 4.81EfOI ~.28itOO
120 T = Tf : GOSUB 340
'Iernolds no. 332.0 1.541+03 1. 68Et03 4.801tOI ~.271+00
130 II = L*Y/IETA
140 I' II ( 500000! TBiB 170 332.5 1.561+03 1. 671t03 4.801+01 5.261+00
150 10 = .0341*11' .8*PI·0/3) ·Iq. (8.m put OD Ifg. basis for L 333.0 1. 58it03 1.671~03 4.801+01 5.261+00
333.5 1.611~03 1.661+03 4.801~01 5.251+00
160 GOTO 180
170 I' : .664*PI·.343*SQI(RI) ·Iq. (7.27) 334.0 1.631+03 1. 661t03 4.791+01 5.251tOO
180 I : 10ti/L '8 ia 1/(1% I} for forced CODf. Bide 334.5 1.651t03 1.651t03 4.191tOl 5.241tOO -+--
190 DILT : lIS{TS - TII'l : fLUI : BtDILT 'flul OD forced CODf. aide 3n.O 1,681+03 1.651t03 4.191+01 5.231+00
200 'Iatural cOllfectioa aide 335.5 1.18lt03 1. 641t 13 4.191+01 5.231tOO
210 Tl' : .5*1 1S t TIl" ) 'fill telp. OD natural cODfectioD aide 336.0 1. 121+03 1.&41+03 4.781~01 5.22ItO~
220 DILT : 615(TS - TIl") 'delta 1 OD Datural CODfection Bide 336.5 1. Uit03 1.641*03 4.781tOl 5.221tOO
230 T : T" : GOSUB 340 'retriefes propertieB 337.0 1.17lt03 1.63lt03 -C.l8i+Ol 5.21itOO
240 GI : GtBITAt(DILT1*L'3/IiTl'2 : 11 : CltPR 'Grashof aDd laJleigb 331.5 1.191t03 1.631t03 4.181+01 5.201+00
250 If 11 < 11+09 TBIB 280 338.0 1.811+03 1. 621t03 4.18ltOl 5.201+00
260 10 : .0246*GI·(2/5)*pa·(7/15)*(1~.494*PR·(2/31)·(-2/~) 'Iu turbul. 338.5 1.841+03 1.621+03 4.171+01 5.19ltOO
270 GO'O 290 339.0 1.861+03 1.611+03 4.17ltOl 5. 191tOO
280 10 : .56*(11)"(1/4) ·tusselt DO. for laljnar flow 339.5 1. 881t03 1.611*03 4.71ltOl 5.181+00
290 81 : 10*I/L 'B la W/(12 I) for Datural COBf, side 340.0 1.'11+03 1.60lt03 4.111tU 5. 18ltOO
300 '1011 : BltDELT 'flul 08 aatural CODf. Bide
310 LPRIIT 0511&· •••.• ••••••••• ••••••••• ••••••••• • ••• hili: 'tl.<t W ~~1 K-' ; h ::: 52.'f. W WI-'l.. k-'
& -I
.·····;T&,'LUI.'LOll,B.BB
320 JIlt TS 1: ' - T I - (4S0 - 300
ll2. +:l 2= +
~ ". - lN1.Q)(O.o/O) (5.2'f)(O.010)
,1'J
330 liD
340 'SOBIOOT111 for therlOphrBieal propertieB of air. 300 ( I < 700 I.
3~0 IITA: -6.40972 ~ .0499851*T t 8.071431-05tT*1 I~- T~ ~ 0.15 k
360 1111 : IITA/IOOOOee! 'kinelatie ,iscositJ \ I

370 I : -.35143 f .098811tT - 3.35711-05*T*T Ha~c\\1 o..V\1 J; Ff~te(\(~ b("t\JJ~E'V\ \e,<LY\(\ T~

380 I : 1/1000! 'therial cODducti,itJ
390 Pi: .8069 - 4.64111-04*1 ~ 4.357141£-01'1*T 'PraDdtl DO.
400 BITI : liT
410 RITOBI
10 'rrobleJ a.iSb
20 L: 1 : G: 9,f07 'leDgth of solid aDd gravitatioDal acceleration
30 LPRIH1' Solid ----, LUI i 5---- --c 0 I , I CI I BT5--'
40 LFRINT' Yelp. Air side 8a side Air aide Sa side"
50 LPRINT' I W/D'2 W/I'2 M/(1'2 1) M/(1'2 I)"
EO LPRIHT' t*tttt *t,*ttt* .t......* titttt.t* tt*tt***.·
70 TIfiF: 650 'sodiul convection aide
80 TI~FF: 300 'air convection side
SO FOR is : 648 10 650 STiP.l 'TS is telperature of the solid.
100 'air convection Bide
11 0 TfF : .5*( T5 +'TUn ) •fill telp, OD air side
120 DILT : ABS(T5 - TIX") 'delta 1 OD air side
130 1 : Tn : GOSOS 350 'retrieves properties
140 SR : G*BiT!t(DiLT)*L'3/HETA'2 : RA : GR*PR 'GraBbof aDd RaJleigh
150 IF RA ( 11+09 THEM 180
160 MU : .0246*GR·(2/5)'PB·(7/15)*(1+.494*PR·(2/3))·(-2/5) 'Iu turbul.
170 GOTO 190
180 10 : .56*(RA)·(1/4) 'Susselt DO. for laDinar flow
190 DB : 80*I/L ·S in W/112 I) for air side
200 FLUXI : BHtDELT 'flal Oil air side
210 'sodiul convection side
220 T' : .S*( 1S + fIM' ) 'fill telp. 0& sodiul side
230 DiLT : ABS(TS - TIM') 'delta T on sodiuJ side
2~O T :!i : GOSDB 430 'r~trieves prop~rties
250 GR : G*BETA*tCEL1)*L'3/NE1A'2 : RA : GR*FR 'Graabof and Rarleigh
260 IF R! ( lii09 iHEN 290
270 NU : ,0246*GR·(2/5)*FR·{7/15l*(lt.494*PR·[2/3))"[-2/5) 'Hu tarbul.
280 GOTO 300
290 NU : .56*(RA)"(1/4) 'Susselt no. for lalillar flol
300 B: MO*l/L 'R ill N/{12 I) OD sodial side
310 'LUI: B'DELT 'flul OD sodiul side
320 LPRINT OSIRG • ",,, ••. 1.···· I•.• '···· ••. 1.···· ••.••....
'";TS,FLOXX,FLUI,BB,B
330 BIIT TS
340 END
350 'SOBROUTINE for therlophrsical properties of air, .300 ( T ( 700 I.
360 BE1!: -6.40972 + .0499857*1 + 8.071431-05*T*T
370 RITA: RITA/IOOOOOO! 'kinelatic viscositr
380 I: -,35143 + .098871*1 - 3.35711-05*T*1
390 I: I/I000! ·therial conductivity
400 PB: .8069 - 4.64711-04*1 + 4.3571411-07*1'T 'Praedti no,
410 BIT!: l/T
420 RITUHI
430 'SOBROOTIRI for therlophJsical properties of Bodiul, 366 ( 1 ( 977. 1ateD
fro I Incropera aid DeWitt. p. 124.
440 BETA : 119,10~5 - 42.108963.*1' .25 + 3.794418*1',5
450 BIn : METAt.OOOOOOl 'Ullelltic viscosity
460 I : 109.2 - .0701041*1 + 1.990521-05*1'2 'therla} conductivitJ
470 PH : .165032 - ,0580746*1'.25 + 5.22601!-03*1·.5 'Praedtl no,
480 BET! : 7.21E-08*1 t .0082406
(90 HKTOn

144
 Solid ----, L 0 1 £ S---- --C 0 I FIe 1 I • T S--
Telp. Air side h side Air aide II aide
I W/I'2 W/I"2 W/(1'2 II N/(I"% II
unn nun*, nun... 'f.*.,*** .*****'**
648.0 1.971+03 1. 04£+04 ~.65i+OO 5.19£+03
648.1 1.971+03 9.731+03 5.651+00 5.121+03
648.2 1.971+03 9.091+03 ~.65i+00 5.051+03
SU .3 1.971+03 8.461+03 5.651+00 4.981+03
648.4 1:971+03 1.851-+03 5.651+00 4. 901+03
648.5 1.971+03 1.24£+03 ~.651+00 4,831+03
648.6 1.971+03 6.641+03 5.651+00 4.141+03
648.7 1.971+03 6.051+03 5.651+00 4.66!+03
048.8 1. 971+03 5.481+03 5.651+00 4.561+03
648.9 1.971+03 4.911+03 5.651+00 4, 471t03
649.0 1.971+03 4.361+03 5.651+00 4. 361+03
649.1 1. 971t03 3.821+03 5.651+00 4.251+03
649.2 1. 911+03 3.301+03 5.651+00 4.121+03
649.3 1.971t03 2.791+03 5.651tOO 3.991+03
649.4 1.971t03 2. 301+03 5.651+00 3.841+03
649.5 1.971+03 1. 841+03 5.651+00 3.671+03.04
649 .6 1. 981t03 1.391t03 5.651tOO 3.471+03
649.7 1. 981+03 9. TOEt02 5.651+00 3.23!+03
649.8 1. 981t03 5.851+02 5.651+00 2. 921+03
649.9 1.981t03 2.47lt02 5.65£+00 2. 45i+03
650.0 1.98!t03 3.17£-01 5.651tOO 6.48B+02

hA ':S',ItJS' W m·l~.I) hIS '! 3.I>7XIt/W m'J.K-'

~
-I
[ ~~ a;. ..
Te - TA - ('5~ -300) o·q~ K
I , ...
(S,''')(a.()/o) r (,,7C)(o.olo) +1 -

Aqain hardly dny difference bet\Veen the SLArfd.ce tempet'atures-.

I ,
Te :' &. 5'0 K ) TA : t."i't #(

145
10 'Preble. e.1Se
20 L = 1 : 6 = 9.e07 'length of solid and gravitational accelrratien
30 TINFF = 650 'natural convection side, sodiu.
40 V= 15.2 : TINF = 300 'forced convection side, air
50 LPRINT' Solid -----F LUI E S··--- -C 0 E FIe lEN T 5-"
60 LPRINT' Telp. Air side Ha side Air side Ha side'
70 LPRINT' K W/. A 2 W/I~2 W/II~2 K) W/f. 2 KI'
A

80 LPRINT' .".t ••••••••• ••••••••• •••••••••••••••••••• '

90 FOR T5 .. 648 TO bSO STEP.l 'T5 is telperature of the solid.
100 'forced convection side, air
110 TF = .5'1 TS + TINF ) 'fill teap. for evaluating properties
120 T .. TF : SOSUB 340 'retrieves properties of air
130 RE .. laV/NETA 'Reynolds no.
140 IF RE < 500000! THEN 170
150 NU ... 0347tRE A.e'PRA(1/3) 'Eq. IB.17) put on avg. basis for l
160 SOTO IBO
170 NU" .664tPRA.3431SQR(RE) 'Eq. (7.271
1BO H.. NU'K/l 'H in W/I.2 K) for forced cenv. side
190 DElT .. ABS(TS - TINF) : FLUX = HtOElT 'flux on forced cony. side
200 'natural convection side, sodiu.
210 TFF ... 5'1 TS + TINFF ) 'fill telp. on natural convection side
220 DElT = ABSITS - TINFF) 'delta T on natural convection side
230 T .. TFF : S05UB 420 'retrieves properties
240 SR = S'BETA'IDELT)'l A3/NETA~2 : RA .. SR.PR 'Srashof and Rayleigh
250 IF RA ( lE+09 iHEN 280
260 NU = .0246'6~AI2/51'PRAI7/1S1'Il+.494'PRA(2/3))~I-2/5) 'Nu turbul.
270 SOTO 290
280 NU ... 56'IRA)AII/4) 'Musselt no. tor lalinar floM
290 HH = NU.K/l 'H in W/I.2 K) for natural cony. side
300 FlUXl : HH'DElT 'flux on natural conv. side
310 lPRINT USINS' .1 •• ' I'.I'AA~A I'.'IAAAA II."AAA~ ".'IAAA~
AO j T5,FLUX,FLUXl,H,HH

320 NEXT T5
330 END
340 'SUBROUTINE for therlophysical properties of air, 300 ( T ( 700 K.
350 HETA .. -6.40972 + .04998571T + 8.07143E~05'T'T
360 HETA = NETA/IOOOOOO! 'kine.atic viscosity
370 K= -.35143 + .099971*T - 3.3571E-05IT'T
380 K= K/I000! 'ther.al cenducti~ity
390 PR : .8069 - ~.6471E-04'T + 4.357141E-07'T,T 'Prandtl no.
400 BETA = lIT
410 RETURN
420 'SUBROUTINE for therlophysicai properties 01 sodium, 366 < T ( 977. Taken
fro. Incropera and DeWitt, p. A24.
430 META" 119.1055 - 42.10B96'TA.25 + 3.794418'TA.5
440 NETA : META * .0000001 'kineMatic viscosity
450 K= 109.2 - .0701041.T + 1.99052E-05IT A2 'therlal conductivity
460 PR: .165032 - .05B0746'TA.25 + 5.22601E-03ITA.5 'Prandtl no.
470 BETA = 7.21£-OaIT- + .0002406
480 RETURN

146
 Solid -----F lUI E S----- -C 0 E F I C lEN T S-
Teap. Air sid!! IIi sid!! Air sld, Na sid!!
K 11/1"2 11/1"2 11/(1"2 K) 11/(."2 K)
um tun .... .ta •••• aa •••••••••••• t •••••••
648.0 5.1B£+03 1. 04E+04 1. 49£ +01 5.19Et03
648.1 5.16£·03 9.73£t03 1.49£ +01 5.12E+03
048.2 5.18£ +03 9.09£+03 1.49E+Ol 5.05£+03
648.3 5.18E+03 8.46£+03 1.49£~01 4.98£+03
048.4 5.19£+03 7.85£+03 1.49£+01 4.90£+03
048.5 5.19£+03 7.24£+03 1. 49£ +01 4.83£+03
648.6 5.19£+03 6.64£+03 1.49£+01 4.74E+03
648.7 5.19E+03 6.05£+03 1.49£+01 4.66E+03
648.8 5.19E+03 5.48E+03 1. 49E+Ol 4.56£+03~
648.9 5.19E+03 4.91E+03 1.49E+Ol 4.47E+03
649.0 5.19E+03 4.36E+03 1.49£+01 4.36Et03
6H.l 5.20E+03 3.82£+03 1.49£+01 4.25£+03
649.2 5.20E+03 3.30£+03 1.49E+Ol 4.12E+03
649.3 5.20E+03 2.79£+03 1.49E+Ol 3.99E+03
649.4 5.20£+03 2.30E+03 1. 49£ +01 3.84£+03
649.5 5.20E+03 1.84E +03 1.49£+01 3.67£+03
649.6 5.20E+03 1.39£+03 1.49£+01 3.47£+03
649.7 5.20£+03 9.70E+02 1.49£+01 3.23Et03
649.8 5.21£+03 5.85£+02 1.49£+01 2.92£+03
649.9 5.21E+03 2.47£t02 1.49£+01 2.45£t03
650.0 5.21£+03 3.17£-01 1.49£+01 6.48E+02

hA ':/'1.<; wm2.I<-'; hs ': '1.~'XID!W m°Z,}(-1

I
Ta-TA
I
: (tSC--SDO)
L «~ ~~ J:~.3!fJ<
(rY.'f)(D.oro) + ('1S/C;((),OIO) +1
_I

The dfffe.reV1ce is st; 1/ $mall but noticeable beca.use the tilr /~ subjett
tD forced c~nvecti()'t?

Ts I ': " 50 It( '; ; ~ ":!, '17. 8 I(

147
 110 'Problea 9.15d
20 l:: 1 : 6 :: 9.807 'length of solid ind qriviti tioni. i[celerition
30 lINFF:: 650 'niturd convection side
40 Y:: 15.2 : TlHf = 365 'forced convection side
50 lPRINI · Solid ------F lUX E S------ ---c 0 E f 1 C I E H T 5-- 0
60 lPRINT ° Teap. Forced side Mitural side Forced side NaturalAside" SDlid ------f lUI E 5------ ---c 0 E F J C lEN T S--
70 lPRINT" K WJa~2 N/a A2 N/(.A2 K) N/la 2 KI" side Nitural side
leap. forced Forced side Natural side
80 lPRIMT ° N/a A 2 N/a A2 N/le A 2 K)
"'1' ,.......... .•••••••••••• ••••••••••, •••••••••••. K N/(IAI K)
90 FOR T5 :: 448 TO 452 STEP .2 'TS is teaperature of the solid. ..... .•........• ,.......... . ........... ...,....,.
.
100 'forced convection side 448,0 3.42£+06 3.58£+06 4.12E+04 1.77£+04
110 TF :: .5f( IS + TlNF ) 'ma teap. for eViluating properties 449.2 3.43£+06 3.58E+06 4.J2E+04 1.77E+04
120 T :: TF : GOSUI 330 'retriev es properties of sodiua 448.4 3.44E+06 3.57£+06 4.12£+04 1.77£+04
130 RE :: ltV/META 'R,ynold s no. 448.6 3.45£+06 3.57E+06 4.11£+04 1.17E+04
140 'The following equition is valid for liainar flow but used for all 448.8 3.45£+06 3.56E+06 4.12£+04 1.77E+04
Re beCiuse one for turbulen t flow could not be found. 449.0 3.46E+06 3.56£+06 4.12£+04 1.77E+04
150 TERfti = 1.12B'SO R(REtPR ) : TERft2 = « tt.9.SDR IPRI ) 449.2 3.47£+06 3.55£+06 4.12E+04 1.77E+04
NU :: TERftl/1ERft2 ·Eq. 17.30) iveraged for length l 3.48£+06 3.55£+06 1.71£+04
160 449.4 4.11£t04
110 H:: IU'K/l 'H in V/(a2 I) for forced conv. side 449.6 3.49£+06 3.54£+06 4.12£t04 1.71£t04
180 DElT :: ABSeTS - TINfl : FLUX:: H.DElT 'flux on forced cony. side 3. 49E+06 3. 54E+06 1.71£+0'
'49.8 4.12£.04
190 'natural convection side, sodiua 450.0 3.50£+06 3.53£+06 4.12£+04 1.77E+04
200 TfF :: .5'( TS + TllfF ) 'fiJa teap. on natural convection side 450.2 3.51E+06 3.53£+06 4.12£+04 1.77E+04
..... 210 DElT :: ABS(TS - TIHfF) 'delta T on nalural convection side 450.4 3.52E+06 3.52E+06 4. 12t+04 1.71£+04
.p. 'retrieves properties
0) 220 T :: Tff : 60SUB 330 450.6 3.53£+06 3.51E+06 '.12[+04 1.77£+04
230 SR = S'SETAIIDEll)'lA3'HETA A 2 : RA :: SR.PR 'Srashof ind Rayleigh 450.8 3.53E+06 3.52£+06 4.12£+04 1.76£+04
240 If RA < 1£+09 IHEM 270 451.0 3.54E+06 3.51£+06 '.12£+04 1. 76E+04
250 NU :: .0246ISRA(2/S)'PR A(7/151'(1+.494'PR AI2IJ))AI-2/S) 'Nu turbo1. 451.2 3.55£+06 3.51E+06 4.12E+04 1.76£+04
260 6010 280 451.4 3.56£+06 3.50E+06 4.12E+04 1.76Et04
270 NU = .56IRAA (1/4, 'Musselt no. for laainar floM 451.6 3.57£+06 3.50£+06 4.12Et04 1.76E+04
280 HH :: NU.K/l 'H in V/ta2 KI for natural CDRY. side 451.8 3.57£+06 3.49£+06 '.12£+04 1,76£+04
290 flUXI = »HtDElT 'flux on natural conv. side
USING ° ",., II.IIAAA A I'.I,AAAA II.IIAAAA II.IA~~A
lOO lPRJNT
,AAAAojTS,FlUI,flU1X,H,HH Both hA and he a.re Cfu it.e h i']A .
310 NEil 15
370 END Hence 1i9' ~7A : 365"] (
Taken
330 'SUBROUTINE for thereophysicaJ properties of sodiua, 366 < T < 977.
froa Incropera and DeWitt, p. A24.
A ~' ~T.e -:'J:,Sok
340 META = 119.10SS - 42.1089b'l A .25 + 3.l94418'l .5
350 META: META t .0000001 'kineaatic viscDsity
360 K:: 109.2 - .010I041 .T + 1.99052E-05tT A2 'theraa} (onductiYity
.165032 - .058074 6'lA.25 + 5.22601 E-OJ'l A.5 'Prandtl nD.
370 PH =
3BO BETA = 7.21£-08'T + .0002406
390 RETURN
8.16 A wire with a diameter of 0.03 nun and 0.3 m in length is heated by an electrical
current and placed in helium at 280 K. a) If the surface temperature of the wire is 600 K,
calculate the electric power. b) Calculate the electric power, for the same wire temperature,
if there is a cross flow of helium with a free stream velocity of 20 m S·l.
E'~. (B,.:l~) ~{O' '0 t (Gtp Pr)"" l) ~
eL App Iy Nu
P r,0.387\(O.SS'l)o/."T;~7
of-
PI"

Gr 0 -- 9.e(15-T..o)D~
V :1.
•
• Tf : T
, ( ..J\
b0 (> +~ BVJ :. IoJ '"10k

Prope'rtie! of He at loJ"Iok: f3 :.t2.~'7Xlo·ak_/j 1) =~35')(I(f'm2.s-'j rr -=O.IJ7:lj

k :J.oox/o-3w m-I 1(_1'

Gr :. (q.eo7)(-.ri7XI¢-3)(~oO-~80)(3XIO-$)~3.'18X/o-'·G-r p :';.3~x/O-h
D (C1.35"XIO-,)a ) C r

0·387 {~.g"l XIO .e)Vo Ol :.

N Uo -
_{
O,"D 1- [, + l?5"~~ ~ ~.1647
(J·b 7 f1. 7 J
o. 'Ie., NU. - ¥
• _ h

'.1: (O''iO~)
.
~ (?oOO 2<'Q
_3) ~ ~707 W m-l. 1<-1
,3 X IO-.f"
Q (pawer) -: h (fTOL)(T $ - T.o) : (;.7~'!)(rr)( Sx/c·.!')(O. a){ 600 -;80) -:: ;("1. S" IN

b. Rp :: 00 :. (5:<10. 5 )(;0) :. ~.~-5'-

-f V,f « '3 >' x I () - I> ;)

Apply E'~. (e.s)· NUt Prf-o:a :. 0.35"1" S6 Re:·Sa.

, r:l.r'
NUf : La';;I~
'rl\("J,,-t:".30'S.)~(
tlOJWJ) (1(.,;", ~ O·67C<.
().3)_",/"
- " .~

h. -- 0
c}.",.
., (:;OO)(I()_a) - ,.. ,. : -,
3xlo-S' -S.'1C1.x/f) VII m- l<

Q:: (5.10/'; X/D!") ~1J.5' ': '1.'10 )(I()3 W

~707

With forced cor'IVe.c.tion, ~"'/te ci hit of power can be pa.ssed throu~r,

tne. wire, It is possible) however, that the t.empera.ture a.t 'the cen"Ce'f"
of the w,'re co~I,d be m~c.h ~reater than at "the surfic~. If th~
tempera.t ure d/fference In t.he wi re is <Jreat e"ou~h) then there

catJld be meltln9' Hence) we sh~lJ/d ConSider C'~nducti"n heat tran;f~r

within the wire·

149
8.17 A copper mold is used to make a
casting of a nickel-base alloy. During
lOOOK_
most of the solidification period. the i,
temperature profile in the copper is, linear.
with the surface on the casting side
maintained constant at 1000 K. The other Camng Water, 40°C
side of the mold contactS the water at
40°C (313 K). What is the surface
temperature on the water side of the mold? Mold
\" T.;t
I-IOmm-1

Se.e. ~e o..bove .p,.'~v('e. ~

teY't\ft.\"a:.~~e ~~~c..\<l..tlJr<a.
F~u\e.... i. \1. ~ ~d -+Q !..Si.iV""4.~~ '!{.~ h ~o..t. +r~fe r
c.oef fe,
~ 1:.. ~ ~ Vla..t e..(" ~I ~ca..
I
T,. 1< .
0
A.s..su'r"\e. ~ ;le)O C -:. "f7~

h~ 1.8 'X/04- vJ "",_2. \<_1

~_I K-'
k 'Cu.) 73" /<):: ';,,=8 VJ

~t ~'kJ.~ 5'kt:.~) ~ ('I - T~) ~ h (T~ -T,)

T{= \.-. Tl '''''.It. r, _ (2. 8 ~ I (.) +)( '3 1~ ') -+ (~) 100 0
h+ k - 2.~)(.ro4 +-lJb S )
~ (O~I
I
T.z.:' 5&:'8 k
s ~6o."d ~ h~ \'" c:I,.".t; &-.'\
I
T2. ': ,~ 0 0 K j h -=:: ~.( ,./ 0
~
y.J "'" - ... K- \
k (C .... )'fSO K):' 3~O W ~'I 1<-1
T \ _ t~, ""o1)()\~) + (3100 \I~O()
:4 - Q,QI:. <\30 K
ij..I>' ,o~ ",,{oHIO)
\ 0.0'
. ~·t
T L\ll"q L'
I 1i!'!""\1~: ll. ": ctso I<j h.:::::-
I
:S.~)(IO
~ ",
\1\1 I''00I- <-I
l. \

~(Ct....Jqi5k):. 358 Wh-\-'k-\

-, \ _ ('l ..l'll,U)3){31'l) -+- ()S"oa) /000
l. • 0. I ':, q 42 K
3,3 r( IO"!J + (~)
0.01
I
,A 1'\ s~e.( : T2.:: CJ'fo K
150
8.18 Glass plate can be made stronger by inducing compressive residual surface stresses.
This is done by a process called thermal tempering. The glass is heated to a temperarure
between the softening point ( -750 K) and the glass transition temperarure ( - 600 K). It is
then cooled to room temperarure in a stream of air, or in some cases immersed in an oil bath.
Compare the heat transfer coefficients, as the glass cools from 700 K to 300 K, in air
(V.. = 30 m S·l) and in "fast" oil.

20 ',:Ur coolin!;", I.lse resl.llt!l of Pr::lblem 8.,12; oil. :.ule Fig. 8.13
3() !='OR I = 1 TO :s 'set u~ prcpel"t1:15 of air and hCoil>
40 RE.~O TF<I) , DENSCII, VISCCI), CONr·(!), PReIi, HOtLCI)
~I) N::::XT I
6~ :!t-1F" 3!)0 : L .. :;: : VINF ... 30 I J • 0
70 LPRINT" Temp. Temp. l'\(air) !-I(oit)"
80 L?RINT" plate, K fll.lid. K Re(Ai,~) \111m2 K W/m2 K"
90 FOR TO • 300 TO 700 STEP 100 'TO • temp. of glass
100 J = J + 1 : HOIL • HDILeJ)
110 TF ... (TO + T I N F l / 2 f i l m temp.
1:0 GOSUB ::0 '~roperties of air at TF
130 RE .. L*VINFl!-OENS/VISC : IF F:E ..... B < 1:S:00 THE:-.I 170
140 NU • .037 * PR"'(1/31 ... ( RE·~.a - 1:S=00 )
1:S0 IF NU < 0 THEN 180
1·00 H • NU*COND/L : GDTO 190
liO PRINT RE; "les5 than tr'ansition"
180 PRINT "something ~j... onc;"
190 l.PRINT USING It it It. tilt. Itlt................. ltitlt.1t *1t .. lto";TO,T]
NF,RE,H,HOIL
:00 NEXT TO
:10 END
::0 'SUBROUTINE - Interpolates properties of Air
2!-? IF TF > TF(2) THEN 2~O
240 FRAC (TF - TF(1) )/( TF(2) - TF(ll )
250 DENS" ( OENS(2) - OENS(l) )*FRAC + DENS(l)
260 VISC" ( VISC(2) - VISCell )*FF:AC + VISC(1)
:70 CONO" ( CONO e21 - COND (I) I *FF.AC + CONO (1 I
280 PR .. ( PR(21 - PRll) ).FRAC + PR(l) I Goro 460
:90 IF TF '> TF(:;) THEN 350
300 FRAC" ( T= - TF(2) lIe TF(3) - TF(~) )
310 DENS = OENS(3) - DENS(2) )*FR~C + DENS(2)
3:0 VISC = VISC(:;) - VIsce:) I*FRAC + VISC(2)
330 CONO = COND(1) - COND(2) )*FRAC +. COND(:)
340 PR .. ( PR(3) - PR(:) I*FRAC + PR(2) I GOTO 400
3~0 Ii- TF } TF(4) THEN 410
360 FRAC .. ( TF - TF(31 I/( TF(4) - TF(3) )
370 DENS = ( OENS(4) - DENS(3) )*FRAC + OENS(3)
380 VIse .. ( VISC(4) - VISC(3) )*FRAC + VISC(3)
390 CONO • ( CONO(4) - COND(3) )*FRAC + COND(3)
400 PR .. ( PR(4) - PRe::";) )*FRAC + F·R(::";) : GOTO 460
410 FRAC .. ( TF - TF(41 I/( TF(5) - TF(4) )
420 OENS .. ( OENS<5l - DENS(4) )*FRAC + DENS(4)
430 VISC .. C VISC(S) - VISC(4) )*FRAC + VISC(4)
440 COND .. ( COND (S) - CONO (4) ) *FRAC + COND H)
4S0 PR = C PRCS) - PR(4) )*FRAC + PR(4) : GOTO 460
460 RETURN
470
4BO OATA 300, 1 • 161 4 , 1.8408-5, 2.6JtI-2, .707, as
4~0 DATA 400, .8711, 2.3018-5, 3.::8.-2. .6~0, 2:7
SOO DATA SOO, .0964, 2.701.-5, 4.07e-~, .6B4, :8"
510 DATA 600, .se04. 3.0SBe-S, 4.~9.-2, .68:5, S68
520 OATA 700, ol\~7S, 3. 388e-5, S.Z4e-2, .b9S, 539"

Temp. Temp. h(air) h (oil )

plate, K fll.lid. K Re(air) W/m2 K W/m2 K
100 300 3. 77E+06 72.0 8S
400 300 2. 94E+Oo 06.3 2~7

!'.iOO 300 2. 27E+06 S8.S 284

600 300 1. 88E+06 54.3 S6S
700 300 1. :S:SE+06 49.3 5394

151
8.19 Polymeric fibers are formed by heating the polymer to its viscous liquid state and then
pumping it through small, round orifices. From each orifice, a single fiber is formed which
solidifies almost immediately upon passing into air. Compare the heat transfer coefficients
that can be obtained by forming the fibers (0.1 mm diameter) in air and in helium. The
fibers are formed at SO m 5"1.

AsslAme c!38.S tempera.ture :. '30CI\"

PI" 0 PEo r tie S 0 f 9a. sse SI

A.r-r:116/'fk~ m"l; V:'IS.6ttx/~,,6m3.s"'J k'~a'.3xl4)·:Swrn·'~c'> Pr =(;.7C?
Hf. ... f= 0." ~ 5' k~ m"'!; V: I~~' 'i)( IC" 'm1.s"'j k :./5;'x /C,,3y.J m-' k'''' j p.,. ': c.,so
The r€/ati ve. m4t/on eetween ehe ft'bers tina the Sasses is para.llel 'to
the fl'b"trsl axes. Take L 'Col m Q.(• .c/·ber.
i

'T'L 0 ( - ' ).. (I)(SC) .. 3 I'/:" 6

,,,en "e a.lr - I5'.E'1xla"~" , .. X/()

/(e.(h'e): 1J)~~ : '1.C'IXIO C

la~."IXI(rD

For flow pa.ra.llel tc our Sl./r~fa.ce we have 'no e1CJat(an) but; th e

efCA at/on for flaw para./lel t4 flat SLI rface.s s(,(9~e st thac:
Nu ~cReo.Sf+Y3 vihere c;s a consta.nt. ~I.sed on th;~ we ca.r!

ctJmpare C()cl/llfJ in 4/r to cool/nl! in hel/um.

ser I.4P ratio (I * airj a.'¢.He)
!i.!:!..A :. (8 e;.) D. S (~) ~ : na. k I :. (.ll!..)()' &I Pr;.) 'Is
NIAI Rt, pr, h, \<, V_ \~

. y;
ha .('K1.\(VI~C>'8(p'f'J:.\) 3 _ ('5;;X/C"~V/;.8'XI()·'
h, -,k, J Vz I ~, - .I:.3XI()·!Jt/~~'LfXI()"

This re!""lt is somewnat slJt"f'r/sine: beca.«se Ife /5 $4met./mes

sele::ted as a ~as with '\~d'cO()lrn~ power".1his sele.;t/cn"5 u.sually
based Dft/y tJn It $ therm.1 ~()ndfJc. t/v/ty; however) and does net
appear t() be Just/fi-ed in this casE'. ~n Iltp~ /I?crf'sse ,." h would
prcbab/y n~t Just.ify its use.
152
S.20 A steel rod (25 mm diameter and 0.6 m length) is heated venicaUy in a large bath of
molten salt at 920 K. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient when the bar is at 640 K.
Datajor molten salt: k = 86 W m· 1 K· I ; Cp = 870 J kg· 1 K· I ; (J = 3200 kg m,3; (3 = 2 X
10'5 K'I; 11(920 K) = 1.03 x 10.3 N s m·l ; 11(780 K) = 1.24 x 10.3 N s m'l; 11(640 K) =
1.65 x 10.3 N 5 m'l.

Grl.':.
3 a. . \
LPI ~f(1p-'T..o).9 :.
'1-(2xIO-$)('~O-6tlo)I'1.RI)
(0.,,) (32~a)
'l- (1·11/-)( I 0 -3) ')..
G-r", ~ 79· 0'<.)( I () q V.se. 1{:. /'2.."" J(J o·J. .s,;" c e T: 7'80 I< ,
\ J '?..l 1,~~)1.)O- ~
IIJ":. ...;..tL... -: - 3.~'1X./o-7 1'w\1.. ,s-I
(oJ 3.2.00 -

~-.~': ~4 -:'1.tJ~Cf7lIb-~M'l._1
pC, (3lGO)('l?7o) s
?.,.. . . :).il ~JO-' _ I -l,.
j. O)Cf )I.. JO-S- - .l.~)tIO
10, (5r-1,. pr).':. lo!}
10 I~
(~," )c/o') '= t;.Or)

;:;-,'~ 'i,i ,,'v't..l

I 1"~,.tJtA.. ... ~ I. 8B ~ N .... 1. ': 7S.Q

h-::. Nu.. ... .!i.-:: 7~.'t(:7')-:.

L 0."
/,01).../0'1 IN M-
4 k'-1

( At: tlA.o. 11 y ~ to- et;/J.I"W' ett'" of ~Q !ft" ,'oS -1-.0 .s ~cJ I

+0 mett ~ t.,.i#-~; ~ ~t.t for- K-.
.u Me foot 1\ fit t-
o., r'2.S"'~. J..Ie.""'''J ,'f ~;~ w ... t. 00N\ o.c~1 ~I'~""'O'"
'MeN\. .-,,«. wO\lI~ be. o-J",·,j.I +c Stele. fNrt.t-J,,.,. t"er-
er~~ to. w ,'.,..,.. I"I'~~ t IVVIP("~ J.,-tfl.'.st'V~ c:t,t"r e.1 A. .,.,'~ 'S _ )

153
 8.21 Consider a vertical surface (l.S m) at 600 K that loses heat by natural convection to
nitrogen at 300 K.. Using the simplified equations given in Problem 8.14, calculate and plot
the heat transfer coefficient as the surface temperature decreases from 600 K to 300 K.

1 ,_ ( . / . )11''1
- r.:o
:-rof" rro'::, e.I'i n ~ 1,Li2., .AT/l. J ,!,XIt/ ~< LS.llT<:c

n ~ ,,:;:- (4'T) '/.."

,

J
50<1.!~T<5'XIO~

The fol)owin~ Compu.tet pro~'("arr. C'a.fl be use.d,

10 'Problem 8.21 S.!. units

20 TINF 300 : L =
1.5 =
~~
~ ...I L!='R!NT II Temp. ,K h, ~J/m2 K "
:::~) FOR 70 =
300 TO 600 STEP 50
32 DELT TO - TINF =
40 PARAM = L~3 * DELT
50 IF PARAM > 50 THEN 70
60 H =
1.4:* (DELT/L)A(1/4) GOTe 82
70 H = !.45* DELTA(1/3)
82 LF'F:!NT USING" #:lU~. ~H~ .. :IH~ "; TO, H
1'.:),.,
. \,,' ;'·.!EXT TO
:,00 STor~'

10
.... "',....0 •• 1<
I ~ .. I H , t'l, l'!/m2 K
:7~)(; ':).00
:::~.:f) 5.3'c
~~.()f) 6. T.3 ~
;~'5C; 7" 7(:'
5~)~) S.4G
53 ') 9.13
6(,(> 9.71

-
~

c
~

'",
t "
~
-s:" '2.

o
;;00 400 SOD ~oo

S\,)~r .... (.:e T~HP~(t.ATvC\.e.l K

154
8.22 We can maximize the heat transfer coefficient in a fluidized bed by selecting the
optimum superficial velocity. Start with Eq. (8.28), neglect the term for radiation, and
assume that the thermophysical properties are constant. With these assumptions, the
correlation is of the form:
Nu = Nu (Re,w)
Re and w are interrelated, so Nu can be optimized with respect to Re. Carry out the
optimization with
w··7 Ax = 18 Re + 2.70 Re1.687.

(This equation is from C. Y. Wen and Y. H. Yu, Fluid Particle Technology, Chem. Eng.
Prog. Symposium Series, No. 62, AIChE, New York, 1966.)

The results Show that Nli dnd h decrea.se continually as Re. and Vo
increase. Hence) the maximum heat transfer cIJefficfent is

()bta/ned by 0ferat"n~ the bed ~s closely~.s possible to Ynir,imlAT?7

fluidilation.

to 'Problel 8.22 iesult abOiD lith calculatioD asinl the data in Xx. 8.6.
20 G: 9.80;
30 15: 300 : DP : .001 : CP : 830 : DKRSP : 3900 'properties of particles
40 tIM': 100 : Di~SG : .696 : CG : 1030 : !G : .0401 :
HiTA : .000027 : PH : HiT!/DERSG 'properties of the gae
50 'derived quantities and properties
60 AR: GJDp·3*DlRSG*( DiHSP - DiBSG )/8KTA'2 ·&rcbi.edes no., Eq. (8.29)
70 DXMRATIO: (DKHSP/DEHSG)' .14 : CRATIO : (CP/CG)' .24
80 AA: .85tAB' .1*DEMEATI0*CRATIO 'lat coefficient in Eq. (8.28)
90 LPRIHT' VO, I/S Void frac, Be Ru h, W/(1'2 1) .
100 LPRINT' *.t.t.t t****.**** **.-***.t tittttitt **tit*ttt**t'
110 'nol we calculate Ma aDd b as a function of v~
120 fOR 10: .5 TO 20 SiEP .S 'YO is superficial velocity
130 BE : DPt VO*DiRSG/NiTA 'RE is Reynolds DO.
140 BB : .046*RitPR '2nd coefficient in iq. iB.28)
150 M: ( (18*R& t 2.7*RX·t.687 lIAR )·(1/4.7) 'W ia yoid fracto
155 IF W): 1 THEN 200
160 NU : AA t ll-W)'(2i3) + ( BB*(1-Nl'(2/3l liN
170
180
a : NU-KG/DP
LPRiN! USIXG'
O,W,RE,NO,H
I.,.. 1.1" ••.•••..• #1 .•• ··•· 1•.•• ·····;1
190 Nili VO
200 END

155
YD. !/s Void frac. He KII b. M/(I"2 I)
*tt.ttt ~ •• *ltttl* '.ltt_tt* ****t**** ***~.**.t***
0.5 0.383 1.291+01 5.56E+OO 2.2S!+02
!.O 0.416 2.58£+01 5.02£+00 2.041+02
1.5 0.538 3.87itOl 4. 621+00 1.881+02
2.0 0.586 5.16£+01 4. 28£+00 1.741+02
2.5 0.631 6.441tOl 3.911+00 1.621+02
3.0 0.669 7.731+01 3.691+00 1.501+02
3.5 0.704 9.021+01 3.431+00 1.401+02
4.0 0.735 1.031+02 3.191+00 1.301+02
4.5 0.764 1.161t02 2.951+00 1.201t02
5.0 0.791 1.291+02 2.721+00 1.111+02
5.5 0.816 1.421+02 2.501+00 1. 021+02
6.0 0.840 1.551+02 2.271+00 9.261+01
6.S 0.863 1.681+02 Z. 051+00 8.358t01
7.0 0.885 1.801+02 1. 831+00 7.441+01
7.5 0.906 1.931+02 1. 60ltOO 8.521+01
8.0 0.925 2.061+02 1.371+00 5.571+01
8.5 0.945 2.191t02 1.121+00 t571+01
9.0 0.963 2.321t02 8.561-01 3.481+01
9.5 0.981 2.451+02 S'slI-OI 2.2Ut01
10.0 0.998 2.581+02 1.151-01 4.671tOO

156
8.23 Bars (50 mm diameter) of steel, on cooling beds, cool from a rolling temperature
(1150 K) to a shearing temperature (650 K) in a horizontal position with all surfaces exposed
to ambient air. The air temperature can vary from 250 K to 310 K. Calculate the convective

{ }
heat transfer coefficients that apply to the two extremes of ambient conditions.
;.
y~
£~.(8.~;t) NOD ~ 0.60 + O,38'1(6-.-p 1'r)
-. -[I + ~J!q1~~]fa'l
C.a~e.\-S'teel at \loOI<)A',r-at .Sol(

Case. a. - St.ee I at: , 1S'OK) Air at 310 K

case 3 - st.eel a1: "So K) Air at .;50 K

Cdse '"1- steel at '00 k') A; r dt 310 ~

Goro =0' EIo':{ (T.--r..l~ ; Ms."'~ ',deal ,as ~f ,t; Tf' ~(T.+"')
ProperTi e.? 11:f.-..di~

Cas e. I IIr:. 700 ~ Case ~~~: '730 \'1\ case :? )Tf : '1 So l<. case Ij IIf ~~ eOl<
a a _I
'.3'70 )(10- 3 1(-1 Ol.-1~x 10-" I< -, d.,OS)(IO-~
f" ,. '1~'lX!O- k'

~ 0. "'IC\'"!S kQ m- ~ 0.,18,\ 0.1838 0.'1'! 1'5

"
~50.IXIt/7 ~"~.I){ 1()_7
n• '339. Bx iO- ~ N 5 m-" 3'fB.\X/O·"

5~,. ~ ;( 10 -~ ~,.. .. rv , .. _3 3", '!;I x 10· ?J

K S~.'1 x I(i' W m'! 1<_1 ;JII.\tI,\lvI

P.,. O. ~'l5 o·"q q f).,a 7 o."ss

)<ec;ylTs:

G-r D !.'"iO I )( 10~ ~.'71 )(/CJ5" :11,'1"" x10 tI I'~be x/o#:,

NUn Q.'1Y7 Q,J5' e.SLir; 9.01'1

'h -:. Nuo \<~ :. Nt..Ip,«~

. 0 0,05

h ) W m-; \( I , o. aI ~. 8'1 '.5Cf ',31

157
9.1 A furnace wall is constructed of 7 in. of fll'e brick (k = 0.00 Btu h-I frl OF-I), 4 in. of
= =
red brick (k 0.40), 1 in. of glass-wool insulation (k 0.04), and i in. steel plate (k 26) =
on the outside. The heat transfer coefficients on the inside and outside surfaces are 9 and
3 Btu h- l frl °F- t , respectively. The gas temperature inside the furnace is 2SOO°F, and the
outside air temperature is 90°F.
a) Calculate the heat-transfer rate through the wall (Btu h- l frZ).
b) Determine the temperatures at all interfaces.

TaO I -Teoa
0... ~ ':. I ll-+o b!t. + bJ .. ~;. -K
'riA. + 1<, \<"t k s " ~
9() Fire

't
_ :J.50() -

- ~ ~ (J~)&i1 +(1r)W ~}+f~X/~m+w

&rIel<
Red I ;J> l
6r,~,< ''''S~\8:t\On
: 5;6 etv. n -'ft- A

b. ~ ~ h..: (;00).4 -7j)) 55'" q (~Sf)() -73)

T~ ~;I.'" ~8 of

~ ~ ~! (~-TIt) j Sf" : (~1) (~'13 8 -1'1)

3 ,~

cTL.j ~ 18<19°F

s,·",;)a.r/y) T~: I"IS'('F} ~~~6q.'1·F)~: _.9,~~F

9.2 Consider the flow of heat through a spherical shell. For steady-state conditions, the
= =
inside surface (r Rl ) is at temperature Tit and the outside surface (r RJ is at T1 •
a) Write the liertinent differential energy equation that applies.
b) Write the boundary conditions and develop an expression for the temperature distribution
in the shell.
c) Develop an expression for the heat flow (Q, W) through the shell.
d) Determine the thermal resistance of the spherical shell.

Cl. +~t,. \v-~ ~~) ~ 0 ) ~ (r~*) : 0

158
b 8ol.lndary ConditjoV's·. at r~R, )T:T,

at r~R_)T~T.l.

)-.tdT
d'r'
:.c. J 1IT~~i
<it' rl
:.T:-~+C.
'r'''

T,::-*,-t-e.",., ,I,C A ::T,+ 7{.):. T~T, i-C,(t.- ~)

T.,.:.T\ -foe, (f<;.-:'\ .. :. c =(Ta-T,){R,Ra '\

\ , ~ J) I "R •. ~)
:. ;:.T, + (T~ -TtY~. Rt \(.1 - 1..\
'\ !l - R. ) \ Ri r')

l-
C.~)'" ~ -r'\dY' -
IT _ L' ( )f~ \
Jl\y:1. T,-T a \Ra- R1 l

Q 0 A~. ~ 'ifrl"{ I<t. (T, -T~) rl;~J~ Y'T\' I< (T, -T')~.~t)
d. CompaY't to O.hm f 6 JAW

Ri ':. ( R, - Rot) I
\ R'~l ~

9.3 In order to reduce the heat loss through a large furnace wall, the decision has been made
to add external insulation, Calculate the thickness of insulation required to reduce the heat
loss by 7S %. Before the change is made, no outer steel shell is used.

Data: Refractory brick and wall brick:

Inside k = 0,87 W m· 1 K· t ,
Fumacc Imulatioo Insulation: k = 0.090 W m'l K"I,
Steel: k = 43 W m'l K'I.
h = SS W m· 1 K· I (inside furnace).
h = 11 W m'l K· 1 (outside furnace).

Rebctory
l'tWall Out«
Brick, Brick, Steel SheD.
250mm SOmm 25mm

L.et TAo : inside f~""nd.ce temp. ) To : outSide ft.lrna,e tern p.

~ h 0 tA!' add ed f n s?d. at /an: ~ I :. ._T.;..::(J~)- - - -

(,...:.:\?-'
-'+_'+l:.i+..L
'11;. \<, K,. 1'10

159
where 'r1..;. and ho: inside and outside 'VJeat trar.sfer- coer) resp.

L., and La:' refraC'tory dnd wall thic}(f)eS5, resp.

k, aYld k~ :. 't"efY'ac.u>r''1' a.nd wall t hermsl cond,) resp .

.~ h - I J ~.Ins\..!. \ a tIon!
·.'l l TL... -To)
WI'- .:l.;pe "'.:I. ~ I L, \ 1.. L.!
1\,~ ~I-+-~a -+- h'o+l(+ks

'Hilere Land t..s : u'\su\at ion and stee\ sheet thickne 55) resp·

k 3.Vl4 KS ': insulation and Ste~\ thermal cond.) re.sp.

10 r~duce 'neat loss Py 7S'O

I 1.., L~
~I -l-i _ ( ~ + ~IT~ +~/+\"~"'+ ks :. R\ +R
I \ I,L ..b.i)
~ ... - (' + '1:. + ~~ + .L) R,
1i,4 k, 1<i ;'0

,', f(:. aR,') RI :.-'-+ C> •.75 + "·05 + -' :'0 '"IS"! Yfll. KW· '
55 0.&1 c.61 I I · '

R~ ~ +~ : (3)(0. Yo'l) m'l< W·' j l' ~ 3)(0, Y5Y) - (O~r~ d.OqO L=- O./2.c \'Y\

9,4 The wall of a blast furnace is water-cooled. Given the inside- and outside-surface
temperatures (2400°F and 180°F), what is the heat transfer coefficient for the water? The
water, itself, is at 80°F. Assume steady-state conditions.
Steel .... :...........
. . . : : ~-:.:- .. >.-: .-:-:
Refractory
(k • 0.5 Btu h-I ft-I OF-I)

24000 P

..
F\ux throL.t~'n steel a.nd refr4.ctory::. Flux to wa.ter

T....: - TQ ~ h tTo - T.)

~k1R~(~)S
h':. T~-To. ' - (~"fQO-18o) ........;1___
To-T~ ~~\~ +(tt.- \\So-eO) [(~.~ i

160
9.S Consider steady-state heat conduction through a cylindrical wall. The fluid on the inside
is at 590 K with a heat transfer coefficient of 23 W mol K"I. The temperature on the outside
surface of the wall is known and maintained at 420 K. The heat flow rate through the
cylindrical wall is 200 W per 1 m length of the cylinder. If the wall has a thermal
conductivity of 0.17 W mol Ko l, what are the inside and outside radii of the cylindrical wall?
The ratio of the outside radius to inside radius is 2.
use f1 (9·/8) wlt:h ;'4 ~OOJ 7;, ~r­

i.l - "1T (7;.,: - T.a)

\ ' ' ' L + ...L\ n .!l
"-.i. 1", k r, TJ.:: Sqo K "

_, _ "rrh.4 (T~-T:J.) _ .h.i..\n( ....a.~

r I -...Q.. 'K \r':]
L.
L-"a~'"Iao\(
_,r, ~ .~la~wl(5~O-~~.)KI
rtI"'i< ;oow
Hwl
m2.
ml!:\,oi
0·11
l!! _
K W

, _I
: ~.qObX 10 m

:. \'",: S.~I.p(lo·"m ') r1..,:".seXlo·a. rn

9.6 Small droplets of a molten glass maintain their amorphicity if they cool at a rate of at
least 10 K sol, measured at 1070 Ko For a spherical droplet with 0.1 mm. diameter. what is
the required heat tranSfer coefficient to achieve the minimum cooling rate? The quench
environment is maintained at 293 K. Data for the glass: p = 3000 kg mol;
Cp = 840 J kgol K"l; k = 17 W mol Kol.

ASSI,AI'Y'H! NE!wton',d.n Coolinq

A (T-Tt ) i!)
=1.("'~O) h-:. - vRCp \/ - 0
dt ~-l;'"

h:- 1~'O-~V'Ji\ 3000~q\9~or\-IO!\ I ___ " .. \\J'~s :.C>.S'IoW m-2.k'·'

b

Ch ec K 6 {ot No.

S. -:..h.B...-:.
I~ k
".S"fOW!'X/o·"'m\
YTI~ K ~
m'r<
I \.-, W
-:. 1.5'lx/O·"

ei~« 0.\ Sc that Newton'la.n cDolfnC3 app"oe'S and h is '1alid'

161
 9.7 A small sphere (diameter = 0.30 mm), initially at 1365 K. drops through a gas layer
of 150 mm with an average velocity of 3 m 5. 1 and then through a liquid layer of 30 mm with
an average velocity of 3 mm 5,1. Dala for the sphere: p = 2560 kg m·l ; Cp =
840 J kg,l K,I; k = 0.86 W m,l K,I. Heal transfer coefficients: h (gas) = 40 W m,l K"I;
h (liquid) = 280 W m,l K".
a) What is the temperature of the droplet just before it impacts the liquid?
b) What is the temperature of the droplet when it reaches the bottom of the liquid layer?

l.e.t tl) ta ~time in the ,as) "'1uidi hl)'n" :.nca.t t,.a.nf-ec- (oef· 'In ~as) li~.
Q../1ppl,( Newton',an CODlin~

!:Q.(Gt,al) T-Tf :expLhIAt,)) A,!~:, 0 ~~xlo'-4m-1

6 Tl-TT '\ f(C'p" V 0 O.3X'lo-3

t J :.
~'I.5"m1 am:
S 0.0.5"5

Ass I..( me Tf :: 300K

( ('10)(.1)<10"4)(0.05»)
To:. (/3'5-300) exp - (a5",o)(8~o) +300

To: 1'3,",5 to(

b. t~:. ~~:'r;~3 ': 10 S; Assume. 1f:. Boo t< J T..c::. 1'3'1~1<

L (~80)(~X'lb 1.1)(1.,) j
T-= (J3'iS-3~o)e)(P\ (1.5"0)(8"'10) +3"0
T:30() K
c.heel< B....:R. B.J.~: h~R ":. (-80)(~,:5'XI,,·a":O.OL/~ <: 0./

Newton; a n CO()/ in, ;S VA lid.

162
9.8 A thin wire is exuuded at a fixed velocity
through dies, and the wire temperature at the die

IJ
is a fixed value To. The wire then passes through
the air for a long distance before it is rolled onto v. . oX -!Xl
large spools. It is desired to investigate the
relationship between wire velocity and the
distance from the extrUSion nozzle for specific []xoo ~
values of To. .
a) Derive the differential equation for detenni1Ung wire temperature as a function of
distance from the nozzle. [Hint: Since temperature gradients across the wire are
certainly negligible, a slice between.t and.t + ~.t may be chosen that includes the wire
surface. The heat balance then includes heat lost to the surroundings at T•. J
b) State boundary conditions and solve for the temperature in the extended wire.

Q.. E(lt~~'( balance. 01' \en~th .,)(',

Rate 'fef)er~'( 'r~ ;VA~Cpil ... -kAt:L v-.

X
I ,
X~~X

Rat e of e"er~'i a",t'; VA~ cpTlx+6)(' - kA ~~L+-AX + 'n f~)(. (T-ioo)

C-:..VAe c ,TI.lC'HX-r\X) - kA (~II(;-A)t ~Ix\ + n P(T- T.b)

LIm
tl)l.~O P 6X \.ox ')
.fl'_Y'dT_nP (T-T-o)-:O
dx1. Ql. dx kA

b. e,c, ~ T(o) ~ To ) T(oO):.T..o

T" rn!.l<e tne 4"ffet"ent\a,.\ E,. nomocaen eo 1.& $ ) \t't 9:. T-TCII6. The.n)

~ _"V' ~ _
dX'1. at. ~
b.\
\(n
&:. 0",) 8. C,', 9(0) :. To - T.. 0;. 90 > e (00) :. 0
Yo
V hi 2. j)!,. "V (yl ~
hi\A
:.8:.c,exptr, ~)"'Cae~p(.r;t X) whert Y"1':.~+\Cf;t1.+'I<.~Jlra:''li(- ~1.'t\\A}

r.>o and r,<o for finitt.'n, .·.e(4IIO)~O re1uiY"es c.'Oj&(o):8o 'r"v;res 8o :.C a

- (~1 T \ (~1 1<.) ~

nP y.: y' h.f."Yo]
", e,: 90e)( P~O(
V il T-TCIID
~
To-Too ':. ex P io(. - '10(1. + 'KA) X

163
9.9 A very long crystal (dia. = D) is slowly
withdrawn with a velocity V from a melt v
maintained at only a few degrees above the
freezing point. The diameter of the crystal is f
small enough so that radial temperature gradients Cryatal-
Interface (T· TI)
can be ignored. There is heat loss from the
crystal to the surroundings, maintained at T.; the
heat transfer coefficient is h. Assume steady-
state conditions. melt
a) Distance in the crystal and measured from
the interface is oZ. Derive the energy
equation in terms of temperature.
b) Write appropriate boundary conditions and solve for temperature in the crystal.
c) If h = 110 W m-2 K-l, what is the maximum diameter of the crystal so that the radial
temperature gradient can be ignored?
[Note: If you have solved Problem 9.8, then you can write the equation for temperature by
inspection. J

a.. Sa.me as Prob.Cl.g with X rep\a.ctd b"f -=,

£:I _\/- .ll - b.f. (i-Too) :. 0
d;,1. Ci( de. 'KA

b. aOlLnd ar-y Condit-ioft S'. T (0) ~ Tl ') TCoo) : ToO

The So I u t ion is deduc ed .from Prop. q·8

-r - T coo rY (V"
~:eXPtacl..- '1«1.+lC.A
.h.f.)"~1Jf

.,."'. 1.;.1
0.1 It --~ ,,0 I, W e waY' t 6'Itt
hI\' -- ~ < C),1

, 0 (Max.) :. "k aiR: (d.) { \()(o, I)

. h (II o}
r;(Max')':1.8~x";'k with D In WI and kin \N m-I'l\-I

164
9.10 One end of a long thin rod is
inserted into a furnace through a hole Air at Too
in the furnace door. Two
thennocouples are inserted along the
length of the bar and indicate steady-
state temperatures of TI and Tl • I- L - I
respectively. Assume. that the
temperature in the bar only varies
along its length and derive an equation
which can be used to calculate h of the
surrounding air as a function of TI • Tl • Tz
P (perimeter), A (area), L, T., and k
(thermal conductivity of the bar).

Give'(\ that T:f()()) then an ~~eY'~"{ ba.la-nee on adiHel"eYftia\ \eY"t~th

Of bar is''~::'2. - ~~ (T-T..c»):'o. This c.an b€ seen b..,. ta:r(\()~ V:.o in ?f'ob. 9.g.

Let B:T-Too ' Then b - hP 9-:0

) ~)( ~ \<p., t

( 'n ? \'/a Lhf\~a.

:. $: C. exp(Y", )() t~~exp{'("~ ~) wne'i"e r l ':.+~) and r~,:-~)

Tne boufldar,( (.oY'\(Htiot\s are~ e(o) ~ T,-i.. -:' &') 8(l):T:-T..o '!.$:lo

• C :. a-a.-ToO)-(T,-T.,.) exp(r,l.)
.• ~ eX'p (,"'. L) - e)(.p (r, '-)

C1 : (T,-TIIO)-C-..

9.11 One end of an amorphous rod is heated so that a portion crystallizes. Derive an
equation that can be used for rmding the position of the interface after steady state is
achieved. The interface temperature is T*. Assume one-directional conduction along the
length of the rod and heat loss to the surroundings at T. with a unifonn heat transfer
coefficient.

~. I amorpbous] aysoaIliIIe S X" -. T· T.

T*
7
a) Assume equal thermal properties in the amorphous and crystalline states.
b) Assume k (crystal) = 4k (amorphous).

G\. AssL4me tha.t T:f(x)· rhe rod is sta1:icna.r,( So that we Ca.n lAse

the ene'('~'( e~. of Pt'ob ""0,

dir n P ( T \-
Txa.-kA\T-coJ'O 165
 ~ Yo
:. IS i T- ToO ': C, exp (Yj X) + C:l exp tra xJ.) whe re Vj:'1' (~~) ) ra ~ _ (~~) .a.
6ol.lnda:r y Conditions', 9(o)~T\-\-T06~6h') $(00):0

$ecO):'o re2uires ttlat C,:o) SCo):.Bh ~"',e.s en :C~

:" T-,...o ': (T", -Tee) e.xp (raN
l.eT x 1 :. p~s it ion 01 i nt e rf ae. e at T*

,I'-TeO :. exp(ra xtf) Or )(w-:...L\ni,T"-T..o\

~-~ ~ ~-~1

b.l.lse'~· and "e" -For $'4bsGript ~or atr)Ot'phDVS and tr,{s'C8..II,ne prtop.

Pav-t a. - amor phou s side. ~ TQ,- T ~ '! (Th - T!,) t.xp (Y"'.a~ x) ) 06)(' x w.

crysta''''"e siJe~ Tc -TeO :. \Tn'-T.o} e)(p ("Cox) .x~' x ~ CIO

T~ and Ih are integra.tlon Constan'tS.

The inte~ra.tio1\ Ce>nsta.nts caV'l be v;suall!ed '0'1 ex.tra.po\atin~

the te.V'nperature iY) the two difie.V'eV'lt re~ions. The broken curves

a~e the extrapolations.

~
Til.
,
T", 1"- ..

-q..........
T·~r---~"'"

....
- - ToO
,
. . . - .... - -- - --T .."
o )(jf
x

T~ Solve fO'" the two iV'ltE'~ra.tio.n constants) we a.pply two

ConditioY15 at the interface.
T. ... : ,... -r t · . an"J ~1\0. dT'Q,
10. - Ie. a J<- x iix -- t...I\c dIe.
dx at x .- x ¥

The first condition qives\

(Th'-Tob) = (r.,-T~) e)(pUr.lQ.-r.c)x*] + (T.:o-T.o) exp(-I'"ae. x") U)

166
 Th e sec 0 n d Con d i t 'Ion ~ i ve 5 ~

(T~ - rae!) : CVo..X ~~) 'ex pO rae. -'80.) x 'j . (T'n~ - Too) ( i i)
8'1' comb'lY'linq the res~lts of the. two conditions) we. ~ et "
III

(Th'-T..c)~ (~~)tr'~-T_)+(T.!-T..) exp (-raex")

Or \ :.(\<c:\I/a +(T.;-rllO ) exp (-r,acXiIC)
ka:J -Th -T_)

I:.
Kt
(1(0.)
I/.A
+
l/00·'-
' )
r"'.T.. ) ThiS ~i"e6 ToOI - T..o
ilf ..
Kc
ToO~ \-(1(Q.))
'<t
fro,,",
.
w~\leh
I •
ToO j s determlne.Q'
.oJ

8ecause Ttf"s spee1fiea) x. ... is knDW" and then E'g. (j) can be. ~Sttl
,
to tal(,I"date Tn a.nd the prDblem (s ~olve4'

9.12 Consider the Newtonian cooling of a thin plate (15 mm thick) with a length and width
of 1.2 m each. Initially the plate is at 530 K. and then it is cooled by natural convection as
it is suspended vertically in air at 300 K. Use the simplified equations given in Problem 8.14
and answer the following questions.
a) Early in the cooling process, does h vary with (Ani'. or (An l i3?
b) Near the end of the cooling process, does h vary with (AT)I/. or (An I/3 ? Determine the
temperature at which the transition occurs.
c) Derive (an) equation(s) which give(s) the temperature of the bar consistent with the
assumption of Newtonian cooling and h varying with (AT)113 and/or (AT)I/•.

T... -:. !"30 K) T 000 ':. 300 I() ~:. I.~ m " From Prob. (e,J'f~

:l. ~3 Ll T ~ (I. d.) \ S' 3 0 - 300) : 3" '7 ,'. h:. I. J.f 5 .AT Ii:, \I a r i e s as (A i) v~
l
b, A~5(Jme ().T:.'OKj L3AT:'(I.~)(IO):)'7:. fAT)'Af >var-i~S as (AT) 'IIi
h:.)·I1Q.\T

Trans '\ t i 01'\ occurs when L'a~T~5'O') AT ~...5.9..()3 ~.;') \(

I,.
:. TranSitfoo te.mpe.f'&"ture. ':.~aql<

C, -Vfcp-ff :.hAlT-Tf) where Tf:' Soo ~

I A \
Then w',th h:. htr)', (T-T~}h aT::: - V VCp dt

(j) When T~ 3a~) h :. ,,"'5'(T-T~ ) 1

~

1,~5- L
t
i/
i
I
T- T,.) .11/3 ~ I [
dT :. - V fCP (J dt

r.
~5L(Ti-T~) -(r-T~
-v, )- J= - ..a..
1
1/3 , t
" ~Cp Jwhere 1;-= S30K !'Tf ':.300K.

167
 + ~~p it
(Ii) when T < 5841t) n:. \.'4;' ~)~:: /.36 (.Ai)'/t.t

( "Jear' f
T~
T
(T-Tf )- ~ aT':. -
t*
dt where ,..~ 3." 't< a.nd t W

" clet"f'mi1'led ;rom Pa. ... t (l)

( 11.
,.~I>I ~
, (Ttl. Tf).~
- (T-lfY ' ' j :.- av ~ (t-t')
~"p

9.13 In some alloys, grain refmement can be achieved by cycling the alloy above and below
a transformation temperature.
Suppose an alloy sphere, initially at a uniform temperature To, is immersed in a bath of
heated oil. The electric heaters are controlled so that the temperature of the oil (7j) follows
a cyclic variation given by
r, - Till == A sin wt
where
Till == time average mean oil temperature (constant),
A == amplitude of variation, and
w == frequency.
Derive an expression for the temperature of the sphere as a function of time and the heat
transfer coefficient. Assume that the temperature of the sphere is uniform.

- V(>Cp$ ~ hA' (T-T~) where A':. area. ()f tbe sphere.

.let 9 ~ T- T,.., :.11- + (l ~ ~ b sin we where a. : (+)(iE-p) ':. ~~Cf'
aVId b = f.K\
- ~v
(...b..) A ~ 1M
7 fC, R~Cp
L.t 8 ~ 8" .,. SF where eH is the S(J/" ticn to 24,w
dt
+-CL 8 H :. 0 and 9p ;s

th t .5olutilJn til ~~ ra..t;;, ':. b srn wt

.'.1)" :oC, e-a.t dnd 8p-"C, sinw't rC, coswt where C"(,,C, are C6l)t'itsntS.

C .. ~b
a ... a,'t+cul.)
• C - ..2!L
1 - - Aatf.C)lo.

with the i nitia\ cortdi t'lJn T:T..l at t:Dj 8:(J. ':. ~·-7ffJ at t=tJ
• ~._~ _ ~
a
A. .. ~ _.6,+..w..
" 174 - "",
D. tW 1. .... , "'I" f.7....
1.
4 +w a-

5(J Jut j()n~ 8:: 8,,;. +-1.[ bw (e- o- t()S. tcut) tAb
e_Atof- Q+-W sin
g
we

Thl's can be written ciS: e :~.l T~~e-a.tT ~,[(\, Sin wt -WtoS w~

168
 :. () ;r~SA + &+w~
o.Aw1e-a.t+ O;~ l.ra.
o.~W ~
s',n wt - W eo~ wt1 Sl'n~ e
J
b: a. A

, st term eDntain5 the jr\itia) conclitioYl and deca.ys -trclnsient portio'"

""l"J t el"m,s
Q'
. per.I'' d Ie.. -sus",alneg
~. J pDr t IDf),
.

~ewrite. the t1."dterm as: 8 :(:'l.~f.U1.)l/alJa.;",W1.)'Ia Sin wt -(a.':...w...)'/~ Cos UitJ

.
1 ...1
~'"
p,. I
I"'-tan(~)
th
eY'l:
S'}a - W .....;o.~.....
,n -(a.2.+W1)'ll) COSja:'(Cl.1.-rW1.)'I:t .w~Yl· w
(~'+:L
cA.
, f):(~Aa)'1,,[C()5f3
a. 't'1C •
Sinwt-5inf3(D.sw~:/;,A
'J a. r~ 1.)\/~- sin (wt-,s)

) 1/.,.
as w-o th en f3-+o and ((A.1+ tv'l :.a,.

(j:A sin wtj f()r sma.11 f.,.~zuenc.ies) the obJec.t can f61/()w rt~ht

al()nq in phase and w,'th the same amplitLAde·

a.S w becomeS infinity) (JJ-i'oC then ,B~f a.nd (~~"'LU1.)Ya-+W

e:: ~A Sin (wt - ~) the temper4tl.fre of the- obJect {s qoo OCAt of

phase a.nd it a.mp,,.tude becomes sma.J/er.

For ~l"a'n refinement we wou Id wa.nt low fre~uenc.ies dt.(rin~ the
1"11..( ~leCition sta,<7 e •

9.14 Ball bearings (12 mm diameter spheres) are austenitized at 1145 K and then quenched
into a large tank of oil at 310 K. Calculate:
a) The time to cool the center of a bearing to 480 K.
b) The surface temperature when the center is at 480 K.
c) The space-mean temperature when the center is at 480 K.
d) If 10,000 balls are quenched per hour, calculate the rate of heat removal from the oil
that is needed to maintain its temperature at 310 K.
Data for ball bearings: h = 1700 W m·2 K"; p = 7210 kg m·3; Cp = 630 ] kg· l K· l ; k =
43 W m· l K·I.

~•
i=I ••
..,1 -
M-
K -
(170o)(O.Oop)-:..o,a"l' 0<.':.
Lj'!l )
't'3(
('7_10) b30
)':?~7xID-omz..s·'

T-Tf ~ LoJ8c-31Q : o,~o'1

T i - T; II Y5 - 3 I 0 169
 To ~5tl'mdte r:f;e time} we do a hori!onta! interpola.tion betweer. 6i: 0-/

~nd 8; ':. S,
0.'7. _
- ~
- .... t~
oc
R1. c:' -
1(')
Q,'t7Xlp·· (
-(0.004)1
) _ L"
~.o -/'()OJ S
0.1 ~.I.# )
o •• L.f Lj·o (intfl" polate.d
0."10 ,.",

Parts b) and c) a.r~'best done by p'"tt"n~ l-Jf.~ versus ~ for 6i:.o.1 aY\d o.y

0 •.., , , 1 1 r r-q'r I 1 -

I- Si :0·1

o.! ~
-
... -
0.,. 6i: o.a... _
-
T-T£
Ti-T; ... -
0., ...
... -
81' :. 0."1 • -
I , I 1 l I I I
o o.s /.0
r
If
b·R'f" :'1). T-T£ -='0·/8
Ti -1+
:. T=o./8 (1I1.f~--310);-31(): libo K

- T -If _
c. From!he ~raph: 8-:. Tj-Tf :::'0.185".', T~O.18S'(1I"I5-310)+-310:: 'YbLfk

(If done -prec,',ely, it wOllld be: e:+£rsr'dr)

d. Let

Tn e.n \') "H:

'-I
10 OOy
'bOO 1/41l1,·I.lQ
S ..... .. '1 (...
1'3!1 &........... v w I vLf""I!
.
II ~""IJCI") '"

Heat remova.l ':. 7.77XJ0 3 j S·': ~.SOXIc)7"J h-I

170
9.15 Rapid solidification of Cu is effected by dropping molten droplets into water at 310 K.
The droplets may be approximated as spheres with a diameter of 5 mm. Calculate the time
for the droplets to cool to 365 K if they enter the water at 1450 K.
Datafor Cu in S.l. units: Freezing point = 1358, Cp (solid) = 377; Cp (liquid) = 502; heat
of fusion = 2.07 x lOS J kg· l ; p (solid) = 8970; p (liquid) = 8490; k (solid) = 346;
k (liquid) = 311.
Data for water quench:

Temperature range h, W m·2 K"l

1450-920 K 450
920-360 K '2270

l:<ol the L."y1d)T:Trn (s.,\i~ific.at.io", temp.) j~ J··i.1(·dd c.oolS

_ -r f . . $ c 1i d i i ", a.t i 0 Y\
1.. _T,i
11'1)- ': ex P(I....
_ (!CpV t) .~
'A - R3 - g.33X1b...,
Tl Po. I ' V 0 - -
~..: ____ :___ ~~ _ _ Sohd CoolS

t : - ~ Cf V ' t'\ Tt'I'I - Tf

%51< - - - - ~- - - - ~ __ : ~
I '0 A 1..( -Tf t, ta,
_ (a~90)(5~i.){i.'33)(/D·It), tI3S8-3JO) "t ---+
.- l"tSo) '" (1"f5'0-3105
t,:,O.~(, s
Sc",d.it i eat ion.'. m'! m a.. s s ': (8'iC\ 0) ~~){ •. S)( I()O'r\ S. 562X 10-~ \<~

t -
mtl,: hA(Tm-Tf)ts
I . ) _ Ynt'i (5'.5''')ClO·''')(~·0'1X)05) - 1\ S
ts\scltd.t,me - \iA TlII-~r ("ISO)('7.e5"XlooS)(1~58-3\O)-'3'
:.t.":1." +o,~o :.3.17 S

Cool soUd 4(000 1!!"8 to gao \( I,

t:. - ~Ct\J \n.i-Tt ':. _ (gq'7o){~'1')(S.33xltt'l) \n \qao-~,()) ':. ~.3~ 5

I

h A T",-T~ tL.\S'o) ~r~&"5-3'O)

:. t 3 ~ ~. 3Cf + 3.'" :. 7. I 6 s
Coo, Sol;O from 9.. 0 to M,S\(
t:. _ (8",10)(!'71)ta.33X'o·~) \1' ,34~-3to) '! ~.'tq S
(J~70) (~ao- 310)

:, Total tirtl~ :.1·,6 +_.9'1 ~ 'O·I~ S

171
9.16 Steel ball bearings (60 mm in diameter) are austenitized at 1089 K and then quenched
in fluid X at 310 K. It is known by utilizing a thermocouple that a continuous vapor film
surrounds the bearings for 72 s until the surface temperature drops to 530 K and at the same
time the center temperature is 645 K. Knowing these results, determine the time it takes for
the center of smaller bearings (6 mm in diameter) of the same steel to reach 920 K when
quenched from 1089 K into fluid X at 310 K.
wab R:O.03m

S1.I'r f ac e. ... I.. i ..- _T

T ~ S3 O">,. $'30" aI 0 .. 0 ... 8
11.. ..-lnm~"~IO"
at LU,.,." v
-Ill a

. T-Tf .. faLf5"-'aIO _
at center ,-"t'r) T~''''5"'I<~ T,-Tf .. I08'"t-310 .. 0 .'t30

8y t'r'lal a",d et'T"or) determine values Of 8i a.nd FO which ~i"e the

rela.t',ve ter'hper-atures ~f tne Sl.4r-f'dce and center usrt')~ Fi~S. '1,/0 a

and q,fO d .

- Surfa.ce

Fo

o
6,
with Fo: 0.• '1 ) theY) c<; (o.a(~~).O'3ot: ~,3'1Sxu,-'m1. 5·'
III i t r, R-:. 0.003 !!)
6i :. o.aS'

-i+
T-Tf
I, Icenter': q~O-3Io
IOSC\-~ \0 :0.18.3

Fozo.5'S F"~. '1"0 a,.

1.
. t:. (O.5"5)(O.003) : I, "17 S
•• (3.~'l5X/O··)

172
9.17 An open-ended cylindrical section of a steel pressure vessel 10 ft in diameter with 8-in.
thick walls is being heat-treated. The wall temperature is brought to a uniform value of
1750 oP. Then the vessel is quenched into slow oil at 70 o P. Gather the data and work the
problem in English units.
a) How long does it take for the surface to reach lOOOOp?
b) What is the temperature at the center of the wall at that time?

a. Treat as a flat walt

.T-Tf :. looC?-'70 :. 0.5S"1) ~Stet\:' 78po k~ m- 3 :,';qo Ibm .ft-!

ri-T~ ,"50-10
Cyst-tel -:. '7Ja J k~ \< -- 0·17 P.>iu Ib~' 0F-'

h~ 670 W m_at(-~ 8S etL.\ h -'ft--·F-' (SID", oil, F,,~,S.''+)

k-::~7.5 Wm-'I<-I~J,~"'tL\ 'nr-'ft-'OF-' (alloy 3) Fi~.~.8)

~ ': 11 in':. +ft.

ei :. (85')(~):.t. 71) Fo:' 0.16 (F'9· 9.8 d)

. t:. fo
.. 0<
l2. :. f91.~fCe :.(O'IJ(~)'l.~l.jqO)(O.'1):
14
0.0'13 h =333 S

b. 13 i: ,.77', Fo,: 0·16

T-T~ ~O.q5' lti~-q.eo.) ,:.(O.9S)(Ji50-70) +70::. '''(0G, oF-

Ii -T~

9.18 A cylindrical piece of steel, 50 mm in diameter and initially at 1145 K. is quenched in

water at 295 K (H = S9 m· l ), Calculate the temperature at the surface of the piece after 60 s,
120 s, and 300 s, Compare your results with the temperature at the same location if the piece
had been quenched in oil (H = 20 IIl'1). Data: a = 6,4 X 10~ m2 S·l,

Steel fr~ferties ~ f-:. 785"0 ~q m- 3 ; Cp:h90 j ktj-'k-'; k: 3'1.' Wm-'f(-;

C( ': • • 'I X /()-, m'" 5-'

auer"/che.d in wa.ter
a; = H" -:. (S't)(b."~5') ~/87S'O,J t't "'~rJ -N~Ult~"ia.lI C/)I)/ing

S'1.t\'" -T..4, -T., J use h'3.'1'-1

time Ft> 8 sur· TStJr+ae e ""
w"ere 9 _T5-1£. -. l:Ib

'() S 0." 'I (). ~.1 '18_ K Ts ::I S(T:1-Tf) rTf :. 8(J/'f5'-~9S) +295'

la()s /.;2.1 ~ C' oct 3?;1 I<

31)" S 3,1) 1_ {}.oo!i' . dq9 K

173
 ~uenchecJ in oj J

£3 i :: HR ~ (.ao){ 0.0_ s) : ,,·5 > 0.' :. }Jan -Ne wt.oni8.n CODling

It,-mel Fo e SUf". Ir,ur;4ce
6() S I 0.','1 I ~·.sl 'JJ8 1<

la-oS 1/·~~9 I ".30 5'1:1. k

laDDS l3.o'1-. I O,f)7 I 35''"1 k

9.19 Compute the temperature, as a function of time, across a slab of steel 100 mm thick,
cooled from 1145 K by water sprays from both sides. Data: a = 6.2 x 10-6 m2 S·I.

Dat.a. ;0'(" water sprays are provided in F .. ~. e./s· Obvjously the

heat transfer coefficient cha.nges si9nificant/y 'Nith

SIA r f ace t emf era t u r e, Tfll.A 5) by the met had s d f 5C~ sse din t his
Chapter; we can only make aY"l approxima.te ca/cLAlatian, The
averaqe surface 'Cemp~rature is lJsed to estimate the heat.
tY'ansfer Cotff/c/ent, FMr-the.rm()re.) C.o~Jin~ to aba",t ?So k

{s "ften Co" s/dered) 50 we assu",e ehat /s the CdSe here.

Av~ .T~ T~ T(JI'1St?S'e) ': ~"I8 f(.> h (9'18 k) ': ~()()o \N m-zk"-I
(extrafolate the ~L4rve ffJr 13.7 L. m-1s·';.; e(9't8 k):' 7''1a ~ m-?>

( Table e.,).} "I' (9'18 1<) ': 8eo:r k, - I k-'; L:. 5"" min ': ",Ocom ) T",' ': JI"I S' 'ft\)

Tf :. 300!( j 0(:: ~CP : '.:V.C/o-' ma. S .. I (9 iVtn ); k: (,.,. xlp·')(7''1o)(8t>o)

': 38 W ..,,-, k"') B I ' ~ l :. (4DQ)~~.()5'o) : d.' 5
T-T£
Take value S frDm F.·'!s. Q.8 a. - q·Bd for I <: Ti -T, (0.S3

For the time seale.) consult Fi'3' '1,8 ~I with S: I.-a -:'O.S'() and

8i : •. ,. We '3~t Fo':O"il) So let's select FO:'()"Jo.3 a.ndo.'fJ.

174
 Fo 8({-:0) 8 ({- :.0· '3) 8({- : o.~) 9(+:1.0) j

0# I o.qS (1I~8 K) t).q,(JlIIX') ()·8S'( I(JIB If) 0, 'I B (70' /()

0.3 0''7 S(Q5''t »<) 0."; (' J 'II<) 0·" (alS' /<) a. 3JtS',~ k)

0.' O. SI (731 k') O. '1Q(7''I K), 0.'10('38 k) . (J., J(4.J 77K)

1.
The correspondln9 times are C~; Fo ~
t~ (O.OS,?)l
,.~XIO.' Fo ': LffJ' Fo

C ~ 'fD. S J I~ /) and ~'1~ S

I~OO-~-----------r----------r----------,-----------r--------

I fJr;O

;;K ~oo

(,00

~O/) I I I I , I
So 100 l4'fJ ';Db # Sf)

i:;me) oS

175
9.20 Considt:r a short cylinder 150 mm high and with a diameter of 150 nun. The cylinder
is initially at a uniform temperature of 530 K and cools in ambient air at 300 K. Assume
steel with a = 6.2 X 10~ mZ S·I and k = 3S W m· 1 K·I.
a) Write the partial differential equation that describes the temperature within the cylinder.
b) Calculate the temperature at the geometric center after 3600 s of cooling.
c) Calculate the temperature on the cylindrical surface midway between the end faces after
3600 s· of cooling. Estimate heat transfer coefficients by consulting Problem 8.14.
d) In answering parts b) and c), show why your calculation procedure was justified, that
is, demonstrate that the differential equation in part a) is satisfied.

a.. The partiaJ d;ffer~n!ia./ e:Udt/on /5 deduced fram Table 7.~ Eg. (8)

.iI. _~r~
dt -
L(r dT) ;-irJ. However) if we d.SSLAme Newtonian
C ar 'tf" d ~ J
cao)in~)

=~.(9,ao):.- vecp-fr:hA(T-Tf)· Use the Sitnplifted e~uat;ons of

R--oblern 8.1'1 for the neat tran sfer t:oe.ff I'cents -assume th e
Cy Ii n de r is hod "!ontal·
for tne '! 3
f!VldS J 1.. AT:(a.IS) (S'3~-30()):0.7?';h'!/'''1_~
r:sO)'!"t:B.St:twm-"K- 1
F()Y" th e si de s 1 D3 6T : (0.,5/( 5.30 - 3(0) -:. (J. 77,; h : J.; ~ (;.~}/'\ 7,,3 W m· 2 ~('

A1"l aver.3qe) wei~hted accordin~ to area) is~

h ~ (t)(7.1.~)+(+)(8,8q}::. 8, OS' 'II m· a 1<-1

(8.05)(0·01 S) t .
wtth k: 3!'wm- ' l<-'i Bh,-:.Bi R ':. 35" ":.0.017<./ :.New anl«'"

eG>olin~ is valid,
T-Tf
b. T;-T, {nAt'
: exp - PCp"]:: exp (hOCAt)
- k V .) ..a.
v .• -.L"",o-1
DdS" m

T':. (530 - 300) exp (- (e.OS)(';:~JP""')("IO)(~'OO») + 'aoo ~ YSS )(

c, Since Newtonian coo},'n~ applies) T:tnter ':::Tsut'12ce' :. T='188 I<

d. Th~ part i a I <Uff ~renT:iaJ eluat/on for Newton ian (.oolin1 is Just/fied
sin, e l3/ct No. is less than O.J •

176
9.21 A steel blank, 300 rum in diameter and 600 mm long, is heated in a preheating furnace
maintained at 1410 K as. the fIrst step in a forging operation.
a) Calculate the temperature in the center of the blank after the blank has been heated for
5400 s from an initial temperature of 295 K.
b) Calculate the time required to heat a smaller blank, 150 mm in diameter and 300 nun
long, to the same center temperature as the larger blank in part a).
Data: h = 110 W m·2 K"I; k = 35 W m· l K"1; p = 7690 kg m·3; Cp = 500] kg· l K"l.

1. AppljC3.t\,~Y1 ~f Fi~,',SQ. and q.~a·

00 s!ab·. L: I).~,o m) 0(
~
':.~:.
as- KVi
(71
I m.:L~::iKI;r
'7~Cjo \"'~16ooJ' WS -
- q . 1)( IO·Pma s -I

F.~O<~
o La.
:3.1~IQ·"maISI:j~9pl
~ (o.3)a:: m iO
:.O·5"lf6 f--.-.......1T.
1 - 1~

S'1-- hl..._ IlowlC)·ooomIYl"lK :o.q&.l3

k - rna K asw
I-T, :o.1~ Fi~. q.e Q..
ii - i"
00 e.yll'nder ~ R~o.150m

F.<:) -- (,.])(10·")(
(OdS},
5''ioo) .. ':I , ~·u
_ •• o~,

6' ':. (110)(0.)5)_

I (l5) -- o. 1'f7

I-If
T i _T;. -:. 0. a,; F i ~. q. Cf Q,

:. r-rt ,,(O.7'f)(O.~5):O.18S'·) T:o.185(.C:H'--'''I'o)+ \'1\0 ': IQ~&'(J<.

Ti-T•

b. 0<,
l
\!- _ot"ta. 0'" aC'I' .•ata. ~ dfOn"t.ty-tea.\\v SiMi J..a.~
... \ a ' c'L .'
\ -a 0
1'\
-
~\
1

S;nc:e 0(.: ~i. ~ ttl ~ t~~)\I ':. t'"i)\S'' OO) ':.136'0 5

t,l ':: 135'0 s

177
9.22 The temperature field r(x,Y,t) in an infmitely tong rectangular (2L x 2l) bar must
satisfy the partial differential equation
a2T
-+-=--
a2T 1 aT
ax2 ay2 a at'

Prove that T(x ,y ,t) can be found by the product

T(x,y,t) = T,(x,t)· TL(y,I) ,

where is the solution for the temperature history in the semi-infmite plate bounded by
~(x,t)
I < x < +1. and TL(y.l) is the solution for the temperature history in the semi-infinite plate
bounded by -L < Y < L.

d~ + d2.r :...!.- c\T • IT ~ 1i tT~

~ x a. d '( 1 Q( d t . d x :& L dx&
. da'1.T"'( ~ t.t dd'(
)
i ,,,
1.
·n -T
) ..
~t
dTI. +T .m
0t A dt ~

. T. 1:J.~ "I'" Q1.it · I (T ~TL.

" I. d)( 1. + I JoY • -;;; iI dt +T..m)
L c\t

f::rL. I ~ ~. I ~ Tao
However~ c\x~ "'oc ~t and o'(~"'-;;C ~

lo. t·
So t l1a I (T ill
• C( ... c\t, + Tot dTt.)
c)t
-.. 0( ot. to T.\ U~)
' (TI. dT.t ~'t

9.23 A strip of spring steel (0.5 nun thick) is heated to 1090 K and quenched in "slow oil"
maintained at 310 K. Using Fig. 8.14, calculate the· cooling rat-e at 1090 K, TSS K. and
S90 K. Data: k (1090 K) = 26 W m'l K'I; k (755 K) = 35 W m'l K"; k (590 K) =
38 W m'l K'I; p = 7840 kg m'l; Cp = 628 J kg" K'I.

From Fit3. S.I~ h(/oqold:.

I. S$'O W m- a tel) h (,,]551(): 600 ) h(~;90X):.Y4C

8 i -: h~ -:. (i>X 1;2~)Ga·5)(IP-'t) ': '1.5 x 10" 6 « 00\

:.Newtonian c.ool·ln~ applies 4d T 'nAtt-1f)~..a.~--L li

t :,- V ~"txlo3m-'
\'Cp V 5x/o·

ciT :._ hllr-'3/o)

dt

: - e.I~'i)< IO-~ \i (T-310) ma. K W·'S-I

T ( loCi 0 I(); jJ -:. (- 9.1 ~ '1 x 10-"4)( 5 S' 0 .) ( I 0 q 0 • 3 10) ':. - 3'1 q K 5 - I

178
 T ('156' t<)., ff::. (- ! ·1~'1 x 10- X '4 oX / 0:11.)( 155" - 3 /,,) ~ - a17K s~ I

TUr'to k) ~ 1t:. (- 8.\~'i)(lo-'t){~ "I" )(S'tO-310) ~ -I() 0 /(' s·,

9.24 A thennoplastic (polypropylene) at SOO K is injected into a mold at 300

K to fonn a
plate that is 4 mm thick, The plastic may not be ejected until the center-line
temperature is
360 K. Estimate the time required so that the plastic can be ejected (this
is called the
"freeze-off" time).

C><::~'~:'O
c.p ""\{'Ij\ .--.~
m1\ 'rs~'t<
"'-" ....... ~.- .. T I'J" .. ' :b.qS XIO- 8 1'r')1 S·'

Si ': ~L ~/()OO Assu me e)(celltY'lt tnerYfla..l cont act betlN~en po!ym

e.r
and ~he mold.

T-Tl -.:.%0 -300 _ • X

i, _ I~ 500-'3 00 - o· '300 ) T (cent er) ~ 0

Fi9. or· 'Oil. to'" 00 'plate ,\ives ·. Fo"!. ocli ~0.5~

t ':, (o.5~) (~)( 10·~) ~\ "!. s~.8 S
t"."
Sx Itt

9.25 A very long cylinder is cooled in a fluid in which the heat transfe
r coefficient is
constant but its value is unknown. At the center, the te~perature does
not noticeably
decrease until the relative temperature at the surface cools to 0.5. Based on this
infonnation.
deduce the heat transfer coefficient. Data for solid: radius = 80 mm; p
= 2000 kg mo3 ;
Cp = 480 J kg· 1 Ko 1; k = 0.246 W m· l K"l.

-. ",q~a..
Fro"'" rl~' 1-1£
I
):
\
T,-T~ stat't~ to dec.rea.se Wh!Vl F'o"!c::oc.t
..~ ....-0.0S "
FrOm f'i<3.".Q(b) (Sl.\rtac.e) when -:!~~,. ':.0·5' and F~':.O.o~-th
en 6i~3.,?>
. h - is Bj _ O.2'ib
.. - R - m K
w\ 3.! \ 0.05 Y"l
"!. 10.' wr~,-~)<·I

179
9.26 The end (z = 0) of very long cylindrical

F~- --i~
bar is heated uniformly with a constant flux of qQ.
The side of the bar loses heat to the surroundings
at T. with a uniform and constant value of h.
Before heating,· the bar is at a uniform
temperature of 71.
a) Por constant thennal properties, write an appropriate form of the equation of energy for
temperature within the bar during the transient period.
b) Give appropriate boundary conditions and an initial condition for part a).
c) Is it possible to reach a steady state? Give a reason for your answer.
a.. T:; f (r) i J t) Table 7.5'} E1' fA) Cy ; Cp

dT [, L I ~T) ~1T.1
c1t : oc[F dr\ro-r + Wj

dT
b. V (O,r) t) =0

~~ (R)i!,i) ~ - t[T(R,i,t)-T1
H(1')o,t):- t . U(rOClt)~O
~. ~ , I. C.: T (r, '!.,o) -: : T~
C. Ye.s. e>-t .J..4~
""';'tl a..()pf"" ..... \.
-~~
~e(' ... ~r~ ~ 1"'_ •
~Q"W\ ~ ~ D.J ~ f. Jo ... ,.
Ov--d. re . . . "'v.t!
r", etJ~/,'r,.,." ~4e.
pouJoU' ;""/A!J o..t 'l'-O fAI,'l' Q1"'~( 1-«f. fDNe.r- /.,t fr~ 1't.a..
~ ,.It. '1 +1... . . . _/o'llj ~L..,... ,fer,

9.27 A very large and thick slab of copper is initially at a uniform temperature of 6OO oP.
The surface temperature is suddenly lowered to lOOoP by a water spray,
a) What is the temperature at a depth of 3 in., 4 min. after the surface temperature has
changed?
b) If it is necessary to predict the temperature in the slab for a period of S minutes, what
must be the thickness of the slab so that it can be approximated as a semi-infInite solid?
Data for copper. p = SS2 lb.. fr3; C, - 0.100 Btu Ib~ Op-I; k = 215 Btu h· l frl OP-l.
Work this out in English units.
a.. Asst.lme h ~oo '.,r wate.r Spf'~'('

I,
T-T
.':$ :. erf U - \ ·
\a(o(t)~ll ) oX:Ji ':,
3
0,g5 Ft.)
...Is- (,2/5')
ot ':. PCp: (SStl)(O.IDlJ): 3.S'i It
ah
r
·'1J

t:'1min.":. ',"7Xlf/J.h

x tJ.~~
~~t)~:' d. [( g.Sq)(L." 7 X Ifa)J'~ ':. o. ~ 'IS'
180
 Ta.ble ~f error fL.u~eti"n C\'"/es

.I.=.h : e.l't (0. do ~ &) ':. o. a"11

i" T,

T-; (o.~'1,) ("OO-IOC») + I~O : ~35°1='

b, ~ foe t )"a ~ -. Vol

x~ Lt~'3.8q) ~~ ':. ~.Q5 ~t (di5ta.n"e from sl.lrf ace )

:. Thi,)(ness ~ ax. :.'i.5, ft.

9.28 Initially the mold for a junction-

shaped casting is at a uniform
temperature, To. Then liquid metal at
its freezing point, T" is poured into
the mold. During the period of time
it takes for the metal to solidify, the
surface of the mold is maintained at
T,. Assume constant thermal
properties of the mold. For the upper
right quadrant of the mold which
extends to 00 for both x and y, write
a solution that yields temperature as a
function of coordinates in the mold
and time.

rr. _ In
dt _0<,\ c\)C':1
daT)
+ dY1.

Bol.tndary Coodjtions~ T(o),'{,t) -:T5 ., T(x)o}t)·:'Ts

T (00 )000, t) : T~

!ni-:ia.\ Cond't'lot"\'. T(xJy)O) :To

PrOgl.4
J ~ t Sol Ut·tOn of '\ )(- So I"
n. aYlQ..I " y - So I n • It

•,
X-So\n,:
1/ T - Ts x ,\ II r- T s
:. el"'.f ~ )./a·) '{- so\n. ~ 1: T. -:.erf
'<
)'-'
To- Ts do e<t o· $ ~(1X't a

. T-T, -::. ~ 'r~

Tc-T~
+t,
a"
'1a
I
• e. rf ..10(~) '1~
181
9.29 A ceramic brick, with dimensions 150 mm x 75 nun x 7S m.m and initially at 310 K.
is heated in a salt bath maintained at 865 K. The heat transfer coefficient is unifonn for all
faces and equals 280 W mol K·'. Thennal properties of the brick are as follows:
k = 1.7 W mot Kot; p = 3200 kg mol; Cp = 840 J kgot K"I. a) How long will it take for the
center of the brick to reach 810 K? b) When the center is at 810 K. what is the maximum
temperature difference in the brick?

~~Tf. -:.){(o,:;·Y(o,tj. :(o.t) W'hereX) "() l aY'e Soll.\t iOV"l5 to~ -~\ates.
I I-If
\v'itn T sP~~lfjed) we need a.tria.\ and error SollAtion to qet tttime)·
be: t:. (POQ S

\.1
0{ ':.
(3~oo)tSI.fO) ': b·3ax/o· m~s-\
7

- c<t _ (".3d.~IO-')("OO): '.7"1 XIO·.

1"'0,1( ~~ - (1S x IO'l~
t: - C' - (E,.3~x/O-'7)(~oo) ':. ~_"O)( 10·'
roy - loa - l3'1.5"XIO-3)oi\

- - n\.._ taSO)("1S,xIO·3) _,'\ LJ

S IX - k - (1-1) • ".-,
ei'1' ~ ei~: t ..scU(''l.5'X/b o3 ) :. b'~
("1.7)
X (0) t) : ..I.:I:f..\ ~ o.qq ~ Yco)t:) :. t (0, t) :. 0.10 (from F,·~. q. S Q..)
T..: -T~)x
:. ~:rf
,- : (o.QQ)(O.7o)(O.'7o) ': o·'tss-
~

i-Tf ... eIQ-9bS. ."

\Ne need Ti-T~ - ~lo-8cS -o.oqq So a. lon~e.r tIme. IS re<it.\,red.

DimeY"l5ioY'l~\ tempS. tOT' \lar\ous t'\\'T1es are ca\cu'a..ted a.nd p)otted-

. 0.'

o.~

r, ,J!!"
~
rt-=
.

C)-a _Sol \J.t\o. T\

15105

oI J I
() ~-oo 1000 1.500 .-.000

time) S

182
, t: _ \1,.3- xIO·")(15'7aL ,
c. , ,,10. - ( "7 S X I ~ • ~) ~ - Od 7 0

Bil(~I~.L.j

X<I>t) ~ T-T;. ) ~ 0./1 (Sl4rface)

Ti- Tf X

f - i:" _ (b:~~XIO-:'7)(IS70) ..
o,(-,oa- (~'7.SXI"'3)a -0.706
6iy :8iJ- :'·a
y(llt)~ Z(Jlt):. o.o'i (5~rtac:e~)

:. ..!..:ill ':,. (001 I) to. o"'X 0 .tr'1) ~ I. 7 6)(/0-'1

T4 - Tf )corne't'"

Tcnnt t": (1.76 )( Itrlf )(3ID- 8,S') .,. So 5'" ~ g'5" I<

Th en AT (Nl&J(.) ~ 8,5 - SID':. 5'5' J<

9.3() A solid circular cylinder of steel. with a diameter of 240 mm and a length of 183 mm.
is initially at 300 K. A treatment to transfonn retained austenite requires cooling in liquid
nitrogen (78 K). For a cooling time of 2520 s. it is known (by measurement) that a point in
the center of a circular face is at lOOK. What is the temperature at the geometric center of
the cylinder. Data: p = 7690 kg m"; Cp = 795 J kg· 1 K'I; k = 35 W m· 1 K-I;
h = 230 W m'~ K· I .
wah t':.;'~~O$

F _""t -
OR -~ - ~c.p
1st _a5'wlaS~o~1
R;' - m i<
mal k3KI
'l~qO ~ "QSS (0., a)£mwS .1.
~:r - 0

B·.... ~ -- ..b.&...
k" ~.3D \A'm1.K io"a ml ~
m
5WK -- () '188
I

r ":. O'F.~qQ.a-T-Tf<IIJCS'!l3
If , 1 ~ • • -, ~. T.( _T" :. .;a (il'lfiY\ite ''(\in"de",)

e _ eXt -, tOtl;' )\ 1.10

roL, - La - Xll.Oq ~

e,c,l ,,1.. -- 0.1 8 S '-O.tJCf~)

. --~ \0. 1" ~ o.~o ...
183
 ~ : I > F"~. 't. 8 d. - TT: T. :- o. ~ 5' t i t1 fin i t e P Iate)
'" - Tt

• i - T;. -:. (0. Lj 5)( 0.3 '3) : o. I ~ a

" - ...:,- T~

T:. (o.I'ie)(T":-T~) +If ~ (0.1"18)(300-'78) + '18 =" I\(

9.31 A sheet of glass. 0.02 ft

thick. is cooled from an initial
temperature of 1800 P by air 0
Air (SO°F) _.
----.
flowing over the top surface of the )~-- ... - -glasa-- --~~ ---~
glass. The convective heat
transfer coefficient for the air is ~J¥~~~~~~
8 Btu hot ft°I op-t. and the glass
rests on a perfect insulator.
a) What time is required for the bottom surface of the glass to cool to 400°F?
b) When the bottom surface is at 400°F, what is the temperature of the top surface?
Do this problem in English units.
Thermal properties of the glass are k = 0.32 Btu hot ft°l 0p-I, P = 200 Ibm ft°3 and
Cp = 0.2 Btu Ib~ °Fot.

0. . .h1..:.
I<
ahBt"i
ft l OF
r o.oa itl o.'3ah £t e F . . ., -
6t1.4 - 0.5 SA -:.0·5
.2L.
L •I
T-Tf _ =t00-90
T,4. Tof. - le,O 0 - go :. O. \ ec
__ ext -:: . _~. ():~a ettA oft 3 lb,.gF ~
Fi~.q.eQ.' ro-t:r-"t.aJO(-~Cp· h~tOF ~oo\b o.a etl.\::' 8x 10· ft't. h- I
.l.. --'"L.a.1 (o.o~)'I. ft 1.\ h : . O.,al n ~ 75'=> S
~ -~ Sx'o·'5ft1.

b. ~ t:. - u a' e' -...

L-- \ .)10·....,· ~ r
~."".;J

Fi~.q,8d.- *.-:~ :.0"0 iIJ:'!~o ':. 0.16; T:. 0.1' (l'1a~foSO :.3SS tlF

T=35S·F

184
9.32 A cylinder. initially at 300 o P, is plunged into a large melt of a low melting point metal
maintained at 810 K; the heat transfer coefficient may be taken to be infinity. The
dimensions of the cylinder are 230 mm diameter and 150 mm length.
a) After 100 s of heating in the melt. what is the temperature in the geometric center of
the cylinder?
b) After 5 S, what is the temperature at the centers of the circular surfaces?
Data: k = 5.2 W m· 1 KI; p = =
4810 kg m·3; Cp 420 J kg· 1 K·I.

0., T.A,:aoor~30oK

ex:.~·
~ - 1)1 K
,.,,1 I
,z. wi 'is/ok, k1 \(~
~~o 'J"rsw:" a·s 7x It> -" mt s" I

_ 0( t
Fo - ~ -
.. a,S'?)( 10-" rnt
s
I,op Sf ..
(0. "s)"m'L - 0.01 q I.f

6,;. -:. "': : IOOO'::!cO

..l:.R ~o) Fi,!.q.qa,. r~T":.\ (in~'lrl'lte C,'\f\lnoer)

'.A.-Tf

ro -L:l -
."
e .",t .. (;.5'7)(/0- H'PI2 )
(0.0'15'):1.
~o.OI.fi>

+~O) Fi'3. q .S C!l "!.~1l ~O.4\qb \infinite plate)

:, T-T£ ::(\)\o.qqt.) j T:. c.qc",(30o-elo)~Slo,:SO~ \(

T~-i;

b. Stcal.tse h:oO)the sUY"iace temperatl.lresa.-. SIOK-

185
9.33 A laser beam is used as a moving point source to harden the surface of a thick piece
of steel by multiple passes (Le., rapid scanning) across the surface; no melting occurs. To
what depth is it possible to produce manensite with one pass if the critical cooling rate for
the~teel is 280 K s'\ at 810 K. For this steel it is known that austenite exists at T ~ 1090 K.
= =
Data/or steel: a 7.2 X 10-6 m1 s'\; k 3S W m'\ K"; initial temperacure 300 K. =
Laser conditions: Power = 4 kW at SO percent efficiency; speed == 420 mID s·\.

!~::: 260 I< 6~1 ...t T -= 810 f< (C"t."CA\ (."0\"'"j ...... 1::..j
T(= '300 K 6"2' lOOOW V ': O. ~2. 0 IYI ~ .. ,

AssvV'n~ ~~t Pe. r >5 t-Ao.t:. ii'~. (cr.?,.,) "'~

So.
b f&. v.s~ ~ +c> (.G.,\ <:.v\o..t e.. ~c.. pe,k. ;-~ p eA'CI...~f"Q...

Tp
_
'00 -l QV
-l2".
~(I
I.e. 0( e. J 2. + Pe/"
)
Pe~ - QV -.t
r - .2.'1T kot. e, (Tp - T,.)
~ (2.0 0 0)(0.42.0) -1-= ~ tf~
(J.'TT")(3S )(7. 'lA/&-6 )(e )(10 '0-300)
Per -:. l S. '5
Then r -:: ~oe. Per. -::.. (2..)(1.2')( 10-'-)(1 S". "S-) -::. G, l<I )1./0-'1 ""
V O,4~

r ': 0.531 r'r'\f"I"\. T~ -:.. ~~c.e.. wh1e.( ~

0.. re..4.,~ ~p~~~ $f IOcr 0 l< i ~ 4..C.~;....ye~
~ e\ tML.6 t..~ ~ t f!.. S. • fcf"''M
NO\AJ e..h,t\c. 1e ~"'Q. wh~;-(er ~ (.fi~t.J
uJ-t,-
c...Oc.. t, ~lo) t.:tL. ~ .~ a..c"'- l ~~ .

E~k\ ~1''8J ~'\Je.~ T

~ ~ ca.... "'- ~ ~ jT o.N"\ to.. r
"* ~ e&.-rJ.~~+u
tl,~
~a..~~ t'\ ~ w't..
~ ttCl'o-c.. v.. IJ. """" tor"" 0 (.0 Vf \ ~ '1Q +l.t.. . s tee \ <VI' ~
o b~e("'1~ ~~t~~v("c. \J~\J~ ~"t<I\ e"

A-
I
'.
t!
.d' === fi "'" (,
186
1:0 'Problel 9.33 Telperature ,ersus tile at tbe location Ibere the peak
2a . telperature is lOgO I. Me rant coolin, rate at 310 I.
30 T: 81u : R : .000539 : V: .42 : ALPHA: .0000072 : TIM' : 300
4~ r!R: Vt R/(2*!LPBA) : Q: 2000 :!: 35 : PI : 3.i41S
SO ~FRIRT" t, I t. s T, 1 .
60 LPRIMT" t.***.*** t ••• ,.... tt**t*."
10 'solfe iq.(S.78}
80 FOR Z: -.OOOS TO.. 017 STiP .001
30 PiZ : VtZ;(2tALPBA) : PARA. : PiZ'PIZ + PiR*P£B
lDO rACTORl: Q*V/[4*PI*I*AL?BAl : 'ACTOa2 : tiSQR(PARAM)
liO iACTOi3: FEl - SQR(PAiAI) : raCTOR3 : EIP(fACTOR3)
i20 DILTAT: fACTORl*'ACTOB2*,aCTOR3
130 T: TIl' + DILTAT : TI81 : Z/V
140 LPRIHT USIIG" 11.1.···· II .•• •·•· "'1.' ";Z,TI81.1
150 MilT Z
ISO END

:
unuu*
..
-5.001-04
t, a
un*nu
-1.191-03
1, 1
UUIU
300.0
0", C.oo I \'~d- -K ro.Jj h 'iro -K)

dT (7',. ~ - ~I f~f(
5.001-04
1.501-03
1.191-03
3.571-03
313.0
668.S dt ~ 2.,g, 1(10- ~:::::: -10000 k ~
-I.
2.501-03 5.951-03 965.8
3.501-03 8.331-03 1070.9
4.501-03 1. 071-02 1085.3 1~~s c.4W"~'1 ~c..~, ~
5.501-03
6.501-03
1.311-02
1.S51-02
1063.1
1027.4
C'f"Lt" t'.J ~C()\.~ r~+e "0 cUI
M4Jft~'~te. I.J~\\ f.<~ ex t. 'I tI'\'"
IA ~
1.501-03
a.501-03
1.191-02
2.021-02
988.0
949 .0 . loqo K
9.50g-03 2. 261-02 912.1
fec..~ +~~o.:tu...t"e. \~

1.051-02 2.501-02 817 .9

1"'~'
6'-{
1.151-02 2.741-02 846.6
1.251-02 2.981-02 818.0
1.351-02 3.211-02 791. 9
1.451-02 3.451-02 768.0
1.55£-02 3.691-02 746.2
1.651-02 3.931-1% 126.2

187
9.34 A laser beam is used to remelt
silicon in a process to produce material .y
for solar cells. The silicon is 100 mm "Pool- - . ~
wide and 2 mm thick. The molten pool
passes across the width of the silicon, as
mm -11-1
shown in the diagram, with a velocity
V = 4.0 m S·I. The bulk of the silicon is at 293 :K. Assume that the pool can be treated as
a moving source.
a) Calculate the maximum cooling rate in the silicon. At what location is this cooling rate
achieved?
b) At what distance from the centerline of the path left by the laser beam, is a peak
temperature of 1280 K achieved?
Data: Beam conditions, 5 kW at 50% efficiency. Silicon: melting temperature is 1700 K;
heat of fusion is 1.41 X l()l kJ kg· l ; thermal conductivity is 100 W m· 1 K·I; thermal
diffusivity is 5.2 x lO·' ml s·'.

~. The mc1xlmum Coo/inC] rdte is a.chieved d;re,tly behind the beam

where r-=-o. F()r 'a. JJ'ne SOI.H"ce (the S,' /s (Jnly _111m thic1'()~
r 1. ~ \}'I,t
T-TQO ': Q exPL(Pel) -(Pee f Per J
'fB'fr k , (Pt~2. +- fer z.) Y'f

We Wa.1I1 t ~ T'I~t -:=. V(d i/J z.) 0.../C"'J13 111 e.. r o..tt, ,.. = O.
O-t Me J/Vle ..!.ov~Cf!,,1.selfJ }:.n'f1, H,t. tempe.rArtJre, cv..~(
b1~t 4..re- ot:J I ,so .'G~JJ5 .~~(cu/"..tl! ~ eODI""j
,. ... te. Q...t f-I, e.. ! 0 I, .4 - /" tJ,,{ {tt fer f~' e. ( I ':.. 1 M ) • -rAe-

eool,'nj f'A, te tUOI'l ~ r =Q / ~

~' :-.J. f( k f Cp ~1)' (T'- T..)'

- ~~ ~ 7
k ecp : ~ :. fi=-C.ln-l ~:~ :lr.~~~;~~··~~(110.-.1q31" '3 .'IS" /0 k &-'
or- To Q • Pe • :-;::;;::Q?;;=;=t:'7T'-~
p.Apply ~~.(9.85)~ IP'" ttIJ ':.\It:I,.,''" k~Ptr' r· V9flo e. ki(jp-T.. )

": ;'S(J(J
vane ~'oo)(o.co;a)(/~8o-"q'3) :'/.53~

_~p ": (~)(S,~)t/~·5)(J.534):. 3,'18 x 1/)-"7", : D. 3'18 A( m

r- V e.r ..,00

188
Data/or Problems 10.1-10.8 and Problems 10.27 and 10.28.

Mold material· k. Wm'l K" (). kg m'l Cp. J kg" K"

Silica sand 0.52 1600 1170
Mullite 0.38 1600 7S0
Plaster 0.35 1120 840
Zircon sand 1.0 2i1O 840
Ceramic shell 0.70 18'00 llOO
Copper 390 9000 380

Casting material Tit. K H,. J kg" p'. kg m'l C;. J kg" K" k'. W m'l K'I
Iron 1808 2.72 x 10' 7210 750. 40
Nickel 1728 2.91 x 10' 7850 670 3S
Aluminum 933 3.91 x 10' 2400 1050 260
·Note: OnJy typical values can be given here. Actual propenies depend on temperature. panicle size.
binders. porosity. etc.

10.1 Plot distance solidified versus the square root of time for the following metals (in each
case the pure metal is poured at its melting point against a flat mold wall): a) Iron in a silica
sand mold. b) Aluminum in a silica sand mold. c) Iron in a mullite mold heated to 1260 K.

.1 (- l'
Et·tIO.')M1:1T~2\T~Hf07(Kecp)1I
If,
t II~ J AssL(me Tb':.';ooK f()r ll. and '-
v

!II 10)" :r !fa.l 5 va.l :r va

k~ Ila K v~ -S-'I!-~-W--~jl ':. 8. S~ X 10- Ii t Va m

't
b. t m

C. M ~ ~VA
a. (1&05-1:60) flI).3Sl!lbce\l(7Sol\ v.
(7~/O)(~'7~}{I()5) :. 9... 13 XI(J-
~.t I:&.m

189
 /).b'i

~.o3

~,'~
M) m 0,0;'

~·Ol
..&:-
/7""

o Qo ~o 60
t 0.5 0.5"
I Ii

10.2 How long does it take to freeze a 100 mm diameter sphere of pure iron in a silica sand
mold assuming: a) no superheat and neglecting the heat flow divergence? b) no superheat
and realizing that a sphere is being cast? c) 110 K superheat and realizing that a sphere is
being cast?

l.. E~. (IO.IO) t ':. ~ (*)~

'/\~ _ R1. • (o.05)~. ;,.78x/O·'" m"
(T)
(': tr
'" 'i
- Oi" - q .
f'H~
(T~-Tj \(~Cp
2. I
"t
l
:.1!.. ('1';'lo)(a:;~xlo5)
tI808- 300 )
.(Q.5~h!bOO)(I110)
" ':.!.;6xloDSm-a.

+- :. (\.36XI~")(a.1SX/o·Ioj):'379S or '.30mifl.

b. £~. (,0.11) j3 ~ r(~+~Ja)

't :: CTrt\- To) ~ C : (I?JoB - ?Joo)(' f> 0 0)( 117 o} :. ,. '139
\ \>'ri+ P t'l~lo)(a,1ca,t;\05)
::~':.1''''139(~+;~) and \S:.\.es)o(:.ic, :., ~:~.t. ~~,'lSXIO-'\il;;l.S-1

t: (*)~
Q( ~),
. _
.;.18)(/0·"
(a.1 8)(/0·') U.SS)l : ~83 S 01" "i.'~ mlr\,

c. H.t ':. Hf + C!p)Jl .6T~ : ~."I~ x/oS' +- (750)(/10) : ?.S'1S x/oS

r :. \.)0) ~:. /. "f &.s-

~.i8?(lp·'"
t:. \;.'l8Xlo·') (P"SS)2. : ~6"a5 or 7.~6m\fI.

190
10.3 Plot distance solidified versus time for iron poured at its melting point into a heavy
copper mold, assuming that a) there is a large flat mold wall and no resistance exists to heat
flow at the mold-metal interface; b) interface resistance to heat flow is finite
(h = 570 W mo2 Kol).

(T"" -To) ~ ~ (1808 -300) ?!t... " .: ,.,."

FrtHt'I FI~./o.S ~ -~ :o.3a; Ts :,(,8cB-Soc)o.3a t36':' 783 J<

tit - 0
,
(TM-T,}Ce '''(18 0 8-783) 75'c :'/~S'1'Q(/,: 'to :.'/.3~7)(l6-"
H.,.V7F ~,7~XI411f1f J (7;'10)(750)

FrlJtt'S F,;. 14. oJ ~ :". S S

M.: _PCC<'t)".a :..(c.SS)(7.3'17XIIJ-") '~t '4 : ly"'X/O-!t 'I'.t

... M : '1,7'1)( 11/ at '{1

b. h M'G+ Vt.tf~~pJ h {I +
h C' : l'-~
,,,
e + k ~ CfJ
C h: 800 W mea k·'

Fol/"\,,n~ the pr"ced,.H"e on p.3'17,

T5 :. 7831< (f~m pa,.t 4)
M: b,,(TM-Ts) t - k, M1. or t: tt'H.ra.. rM+..b.S., M1.1
E>' H~ a. ~k he (Tv.-Ts)l: S Ie J

Q. • T
- t \ /J. +
TV 't
C,'(TM-T$)
OS Hf
-:....L-4/.1..
a ~
+ ?5'9C1§o8-7S3)
3(~.?,X /fJ1)
:',Sq~

he -~ -10
.k' - (~('fo) -

f:.HJ..a...- :. (7~/O)(~·7a)( 16')(1.5";) ..

~ (T~-T,.) (800)(1808 -'183) - 3807
191
 t ~ 3607 (M T 10 M1)
'0 ~I
.L.i. -
I /r
M) mrn
10 '11."
I
iI
"10 i-
l
~c qr. "t
M,mm rI
30 I"IS·C ~.-

50 JOD ISO

t) S

10.4 Show whether iron can be cast against a very thick aluminum mold wall without
causing the aluminum to melt.

;::
( T.)
(10 a5)TM-.0 ce :/3e
",,!., H; 'IfF""
Sl r~ ,~
k/f"Ce)+e't"f
I

k ~ Cp
f3 ~I

(-IM- ToJCp
\ , • """ ........ ---... - .
/-1·f -

.
From F.,. Ts-To
to· S TM- To ~ o·~Li

Ts :. (1806 -3(0)(0.'1"1) t 300 ~ q ~'i K

The aluminum is .above tne melti"~ point. However) if int-erfa.,e.

resistaVlte is taKen Into a.ceDlAn!) it is likely that T$ < "331< a.nd the
alUm; num would rlot melt.

192
10.5 Slab-shaped steel castings are prone to center-line porosity, which-for our
purposes-is simply an aligrunent of defects along the plane of last solidification. The sketch
below shows the solidification of a slab cast in silica sand and the location of the centerline
porosity.
l Porosity
~ .;:::::.

iii
;:,
':1"
:.:J

1111
At time" uler It'2 All Solid

The solidification time for the 2-in. slab cast

in sand is known to be 6 min; when cast in an
insulating mullite mold, the time is 60 min. If ting
a casting is made in the composite mold
depicted to the right, determine the thickness
T the casting should have 10 yield 1i in. of
sound metal after machining.
To be removed
by macbining

(TN\ - T~)( k \ Ii ';..

~
a
'I

E~. 10·7 ,v., . . At

'1.1
where A~ '!iYa \~ ~cp/ t

A\-:. M. I
t .~:. b'/a
.'
5 I I" a rn 0 \ d

A..... -- ~ - -'-
'to'I,. - too '/~
rt'lU II ite mold

For a. sound castinq ~rom the corn POS·I~e.J M sh,u id be .i1. ir.. frcm the

sand side.
'I 1/;1.. v.;l
:.t~~~(b} mIn

lr. this time) the. thic.KnesS solidified (1'1\.1) from the Y7'l'-lllite side. is

t,.,:. ~ (bIO)I/:l (~~) ~ .o·b3 in.

:. i,;:: a+ o.~~ -: a." in.
193
10.6 A 2-in. thick slab of aluminum is cast in a
mold made of silica sand (forming one face) and
a proprietary material (forming the other face).
The aluminum is poured with no superheat, and
the as-cast structure of the slab is examined after
solidification and cooling. The examination
shows that the plane of last solidification (i.e., the
plane where the two solidification fronts meet) is
located I! in. from the sand side. Knowing this,
calculate the htat dijJusiviry (not the thermal
diffusivity) of the proprietary material.

let 1'1"11 ~ ~.S' in· from propr'leta'f'y material side.

M;. ':. \.5 in FnH'Yl silica sa.no side·

k, ~I CPI propv-ie.ta.Y"'( V11ateY"\a\ properties

k.l~.Cp_ Silica. sand properties.

_ a ( TM-To 'I.
a . 'It
::~. UJ''7) M =-rtr .~' Hf )(K~Cf) (t.)

t ~ tA
I 'I
. M\ ( k I ~ 1 Cp,) .t I
, ', ~ ':. l k'a ~l Cpa ) 'Ia':
.. -v:- ~

1<, e, cp , =(".1.'. C")~~~l" ~ (o.n)( '.00)( 11'70)(+)": l.o8~ X",'W '5 ",-" 1<-'

10.7 Consider solidification in a flat ceramic shell mold with a thickness L. There is heat
loss from the outside surface to the surroundings with a constant heat transfer coefficient
(h = 150 W m· 2 K'). Except for very early times. the temperature in the mold is at steady
state. a) Derive an equation for thickness solidified versu~ time. b) A plate of nickel
(38 mm thick) is cast in a ceramic shell mold (l0 mm thick). Calculate the solidification
time .
a, ~/eat evo)'IEd '; ~'~t d~
. l '.
T,.,...
Heat conJuctd ciWa.y ':. \c.(7i-A-TJ=-h{T,-T,,\
Ts 'To Cera.mlc,
R,-::..b.. ~-:._I
\<. h
, fJ·,~_T,...,-.,.o_~l';-;,_ hk 1,-;")
-
1<,+"1.. l..+ h
~ r. - - \, \ I'll - 10
.. or :rt l'n+'f'
h k
194
 (
L 'n + '< '\
h l<
e' ~.; ('WI
I h-",,·--"" , ) d M:
f':d~
\ ••.. '010 0

, I

, (L h + k) ? Hf _t ~ , ( iM - To" Ih ku \
,. ~ k J (It.,,- :0; M. - M - ~ 1\"'hCtk7

b. 't ~ Ib,olo)(!:O}.j..{OI7~~ (r:8~O)(Q1.~IlCl~S')("ol~1 : e37~

[ Uso)/'O.'lOl ] (1~;'8-300) -

10.8 Repeat Problem 10.7. but replace the flat mold with a cylindrical shell of thickness L.
A cylinder of nickel (38 mm diameter) is cast into the mold with a thickness of 10 nun.

1. Thermal re sistances a.re {rom Eg. (q.I'7)

rl 1-1{ ~ ~ :. .J~,:-:-"':.....;.T",,-o_ _ __
a- In (Yi/r,) + _ __
10

•• 0
,f;Y' (;M~:,)L[kln (,r:~r.~h_\__
~I r.
Ht
J-j:t-.Nhe-re \):. volume s~lidified·
.. !'T L l< ; fr L 'h ~

I
V ':. i"TM - 10)'
\ ?' H.f
_ \
[ I '
\ y\ .. Y";, /r, J
;, 1)" L k
+ I
~ 7r r~ L h
J
_I
t

It we way"): thicl<ness Solidified~ V:.rr'f',"L-rr(f',-$/L where. G:. tn,'Ci(n~SS

Soldified.

b. ''''hen V:frY",1.L then solld.ifka.t'on 'IS carnplete.

~ ':. (rr r 1 L)(e' H£ )[1'0arrLk
(faIr,) + I 1~ r;2. (~'lif 'f Ih (f';,/r,) + l I
~fr'r,.l~ ~k
l
TM- Tl) hM-T o )[ ;;r_ h j

+-
"
:,(,,o,,,)4U'765'O)(a,~,x,0521[\n (6·.~~)+
~'7~8-300 J ~(of70)
I J ;'d.~o.6
(.-)(a.o~")~15(»)J
S ~~.Ol
m
In.

195
10.9 Low density polyethylene is injected into a water-cooled copper mold. The temperature
of the melt entering the mold is 465 K. The polyethylene is molded to fonn a plate that is
10 mrn thick, Estimate the time required for all of the polyethylene reach less than 335 K.
when it can be safely ejected from the mold. Assume that the heat transfer coefficient at the
polyethylene-copper interface is relatively high (h =4000 W m·l Kl) because cooling occurs
while the molding is under pressure. The enthalpy of polyethylene is given below, Other
properties of low density polyethylene are k = 0.26 W m'l K'l and p = 920 kg m·3.

700

600

~ V
-...
SOO 1---+--+--+--+----+ Low density
polyctbyleDe ./
110 \ ...,~
...... 400
~
.,e. Crysta~iDC ~~" ~ i

.a matenal
\ 1\ / III
300 I---+--~f--- -+-1,H-.;---;---;---;---~1i::::-

~= LateD~ beat ~/
of tils.OIl ,..,- ~
200
X~ -,' ~~ ,'\
/ - . : '"....... ~ Amorpbous
100
~~­
~,~
o
o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Temperature, ·C

Tn this case the "castin9" is d poo,. conductor whereas the mold ,'.5 a
good c~nd/Jcto"'. Hence We ca.n d.55ume tha.t the rna/or resistance
is within the ?o/ymer a.nd the m"IJ ,-S at a lJnifoRm d.nd canstant
1: em pe r d t /,l r e .
Let 11). : en! na. Jpy at '16!)- k (i;z)
H, : entha.lpy at 335' I( (r,)
-'0 Mold ,
Cp: H~-H, ':. "'f'o-?,; ~ 3.osqkJkf'j(-'
7j - T, '-I'fJ--3J5'

=3.d!9xl()J J ~-I k-I

0( : :J.;.~ -8
(9Jo)(;.~39)(ID3): 9.3~)(/() m1.s· '
196
 AppJY f/9' 9· 8 ~ w" t h B i ': /00 0

I-T.:- '; 335"-~'o -:. O.~/;' ) I~ O.et'f : C><~ (L: smm)

. , Tf
::

T. - 1.</ 'i.
I ~....
":lot;
..;
L

, ~

t~ 0.11..!:--:0"'1 (c.cos) :/8S" S

o c< 1.3"XIO-8

10.10 Repeat Problem 10.9 for amorphous polyethylene (p = 970 kg mol), This polymer
can be safely ejected at 315 K. Compare the achievable production rates of the two forms
of polyethylene.

H~ -ril -:. a?S'-;7 .: I A-~7 ' "r 1_.' I·'. 587 :3 -,-,
Cp :. T.
..... - T,
4" 5 - '3 IS" iJ Q I'f... ~ ~ :~ - /. X /" J" k<3 1'(

c< : o.;.~
(I.S87x/o"!)(no) :/.6=tx/o·"ml. s·,

T -T; : 3 I !" ~ 3 ,,~ : O. 09 c 9} ro ~ /. 0 S'

T;
j.I - L.J65-300

L2.. - (".005)1 -:. /50 S

t :. /. ~ !;- -;;;- ":. /. ~ 5 /. b 9 x /" - 7

rr:;i'..,lc:/on rate /s propor'C,'cnal ro itH'ers~ of t/me.

!fate (a,m,rpho:.JS) :. 18S' 5 : /./9
8ate(lowder,sit'() /55'S

10.11 Aluminum oxide is solidified in a water-cooled molybdenum mold to fonn continuous

fibers with a diameter of 200 I'm. Estimate the length of the mold required to completely
solidify the aluminum oxide as it exits from the mold, as a function of the fiber velocity.
Assume that h = 4000 W m'z K't in the mold. Data for A120,: k = 11 W m· l K'\;
Cp = 1230] kg,l K"; p = 3016 kg m"; Tilt = 2327 K; H, = 1.07 X 106 ] kg· l •

This is simila.r to cont/r:uolAs castint}. To ma.Ke !Jse:),f F/~. /"./~-J we

mfAs:: malfe a.n app'('oxima..tion becduse ;)f the cylindrical

symmetry.
In F/Q./!)·/~- J A1 /s
~
the thIckness solld/f;ed. L~t'$ t3rr~ "1 to ViA>

Nher~ V is the volume $ol/dif/ed a.Yld A IS the (.'ont4~t a.r~i wl'th

197
 ~;!~ molri. For :~mpt:~:'; .so/tJifit;:Jtio n ~f :"e A);. 0 3 fibers:

..:L. rr8~ L • .JL

A • ;,rrj?L - ~

H~nceJ the Drdinat:e in F/at,.

v 10,1S' /5 .b.Ji
Jk' ~ ('1()l)o){JOOJ(
(~)(JI) / O·').-/t8~x/o-J.
A/s " ,lJi .; /.f)7 JUt) ,
Cp ' (7",,- To) • (/~30)(.t~2'1-300) : o.I.f:J'1

;h~(J
wdh y:LI b1L
) (..(L/p'C'
- o,.,U. L'
- •...,') -0.:;'1
(JI)(3~/6)('.t30)
i t.(
~ P ¥ooo

L :O./~;' t.4 with L in m and I.A. in m 5- 1

10.12 A continuous casting machine foms molten steel into a slab, 1.93 m wide and
229 mm thick. at a production rate of 52.5 kg S·I. Assume that h = 1135 W m': KI.
a) Detennine the vertical length of the mold if the solid shell must be 12 nun thick at the
mold exit. b) Calculate the cooling water requirement (kg S'I) if its temperature rise is from
300 to 307 K. Data/or low carbon steel: k = 35 W m'l K·I; Cp = Cp.1 = 670 J kg'l K'I;
P = 7690 kg m'); HI = 2.79 X 10 5 J kg'l; TAl = 1790 K.

a. u":. $'~,5'kq\ m:L__

S 71:.CJ() k~f?I.q.3)(Ot~d~)m2.
~/.SLU<.l()·;'m 5·'

...b..l::L:. j 13 S WI O.,j I
I
~-~j !'JLK_ : a. 3 9 q
k' /11 1 K 135' W

• H;'
Cp (T/'I\-i;,)
~ [~.?hl""'+li8~O-17qoJ(".J}
k~
JI k, KI
(,,'70 j
___
(17'lO-335Jk
_00.3.,
r-rom '
F I~. bty
10.IS t..l k'~ICf :. ~,;'J

. y:. (()'~/)(I'S''1 X/~·2)(35)(7"(J)('7~)

., (1135)1 :. a·II5m

b. From F/q./o.l7; IN ith Y-:.L

Q :. ( 0,36) L (7"". To)(L lA ~/C'p k') ~ :. (0.38)(0.1./$)(1790 - 335>[( o. "15)(/. ~1{)(/~'")(7' 9tJ)
111.
('7~)(!5)J ~a.78xIIJS'W

In terms ()f 'the temperatlAre r'-se af tile 1.1r18t~,..) a= MCpAt where.

M "S t.he ttJaSS flow rat'!. tl': "'/IS"I :r k~-I k- I (water).

:. M:.~· 78 x I~
('1'8'1) ('70)
~-
': 0.9 S" k<J 5. 1
198
10.13 The dwell time in the mold of a continuous casting machine is defined as the period
which the metal spends in the mold during solidification; that is, I = Llu, in which I = dwell
time, L = length of mold over which solidification is occurring, and u = velocity of metal
through the mold. Since the skin solidified in the mold is thin, a simple analysis might be
expected to apply. a) Neglect conduction in the withdrawal direction and write an expression
for thickness solidified versus time. b) Compare the results for dwell time in Problem 10.12
and the dwell time calculated from part a) for the same conditions.

=\ ta.
a., ~ea.t eVc:'Jed a.t the 'Interface fH~ ~~ X-:.O

~e:i: ':'r'\d\..l:~~e:d a'Nay from in~ertd.ce

lSI
154
V::I../
1--;
t '(I'io("(~ hSiO
dl , k'(iM-i!.)
M I
NOl..e
~ th at'T"I~var,es.
'
~
~'H I~_':K' \TM-T~) . M,
f dt [VI.
\ To-
1--'

A:~:.l'iT1e tn~ -:e.""'peratu~e p""fiIEiY' the )(:L

f'l'a, \
{ , '\
, . ' I i -:5) I \
(~) \A....l I
SolId IS /I'Vlear) t'r1eY"l \< ' ~\ :. n\.Ts-ToJ
:1,,'5 is' a. vrobl€m of heat flow throu'3h two therrYlal Y'eSI'sta()Ces,
T~
_-"",I\/'
1"5 <.J'.NN'
'To R. l'V\
'i - F +
\
-h
Q M Q _..L
!\I:'V i'\a· h

TIne fate ,+ hear:: ~low expressed in te('ms J; the total temperature

1..d.1::1.-~r '-\
- l o}
\ • I
dr 0 f (T~ - To) IS'. ~ H~ dt - _I \ T ""
\0'\ + 'K'
'!r:e~ f;rt e~
I (\+~\.h." -TM-Tol~t
M ..

o \if) 'rc.,):J\". - ~'H~ 0

M -:: n(TM-To) t - ...b- M~

t>'H~ ~K'

b "". ~'I-Ip",
... - 'n(TM-io)
l ''''
hl-/\
a'r<I"j-
\_('1~"o~~.'lqxIOS+(~'70)(50~~o.ala)r
tlI3S)(18I.fO-30o)
(II35')(O,OI,,)\_ '1'lS
~+ (aK~5) j-I .

Frort'l pro ble m I o.,~ t:. ~ ':. 1~t,5x IO-a ~ d,q. a s

Slm?'e anal'1 sis \.\'(Iderestimates tnedwell tin'le 0'( 53% ir'l t'nis ·:3se.
199
10.14 A junction-shaped casting as depicted below is
made in a sand mold. The junction may be considered
infinitely long in the z-direction. For the upper right
quadrant of sand:
a) Write a differential equation for temperature.
b) Write the boundary conditions (for time and space)
that apply.
c) Write the solution yielding temperature as a function
of position in the sand and time.
d) Derive an equation for the heat absorbed by the sand
as a function of time and the lengths of the junction
legs.

Ct. ~~+£I._\
dx t dYZ." ex ~T h
dt were 0('\
tln:ryYla. Id'~"""
l't'rViS/Vl.'( 1fth e .
sahd-

b. I.nitlal ('~nditionS'·. T(.~)'G J) ':. To .

B~U()dary Cond\tionS" T(O) 'f) t;.:TNlj T(x)o,t)-:TM

T ( e>O) J t) :. To

I}/'r-€'f''? 1M : +,r~e: rr'l~ poin! of meta}.

T~: i~1itl·a.1 WloJd temperature

_ .• (erf ...,--.,\'1/-
c. .,.T-TM 'X )(
erf Y
.;l(<<t)'/a
) .

L~ L.
. T -TM I (( ,c. ~
d. Avera<Je Tlnthe mold~ To-TM :. L,L;. )y:o /)(:0 er'f~(<<t)I/A erf cit(oct)Vl. dxdy
Where l, an~ l~ dl'fine the junc.CioYl le~5.

[£.>.
~e~ app"o)(lmati~n b) I.mder1abJe Q.3j erf_~t)'1t~(;oct)t/,,

. _'T-TM
.. T, _ T",

pr 0" ;Ae..d
.
~--L
to L ~
L-,
to L.\
~ I

(1'tbct) v.
a.'" cl Lz. Q.\" eo
l. ...L dx~ dy
(fl'oct)" _
\e 5~ ~(Mo1
::,J:.U:..i. -1-

o. 4 VCI(t .
'i 11"'" t ,

Heat absorbed byrYJolJ (o~Y'L~) o'x'L'))'V:~,LaW) w.lto t,andL~

l.. L - ( ) LILt
GM -::: V f - \
Cp (T-ToJ) -
T: (To -Ttt\) "f~o('?"t tTIIo\) T-To':. To-TM ~rro(t tTM-To

~N\ ~ V~CP[(,TO-TM)'1L~;A + (TM-To~ ~ V~Cp[l- ~~::t](TM-To)

200
f=vrH-.t'.r- A;scIJ-sS\d"\". 10.P+4')

C~r.sL4No.) o.,.,....J J"a:..e.j~{"""'" .s:lje t:J...M ~o-c.t SC\·..J;"'·o,,",

~ i"'~\~lj \CH''I,j j ... Vlc~·~ \e~~. r~~ ~I'~t flvx
\'1"\ ttl 0... ·m () \ d \.oJ \' ~ ~ f I o..:l S IJ W'" f<..c..e- :
Mold..
k (T~-To)
[---to- "C
1?:,; 17T"OI.t
~:O

"""- _ j
.
Heo..t fl u)( ~t1""\ S ut" f-.c.~ -x '::: 0 II VI c.:h d"'\-\ :

MolJ
I
~X~O
=
~
k (1;.,-10) er f(---L
.(f;:E'
)
I
?C
I
~ e 0-.; f .c. f...A" eJ'v1 c. ~ ~ e. tw 'l...eM ~ ~~ 0")(,=-0
Vol
J )f ..... ()

q - ~ I = k (T,"-To) erfc...L)
o?c-:'O 'X~ 0 iTT"oC t (ly;:E·

~O\JJ .$l,)p~~5 e. we.

d.e.telt' ~c.. ~ ofJ."t-rlilre.M~.e"
(..NI..t~Aiet:\ ~~ +k, s,,~ f...ce 'X'D 0 ~ t\C((X'~S
+0 oQ~~lt...vr ~ J"o..!!rj2\' I..t ,'s.

f (~~'o- 'b~:o) J~ ~ Zk (TM -T.)

~~o
• • I
As Q... A.:tttr
~,/lc.+ CA.l \N ~ kv- j,..) ~ ...t
l"i' '0 - t :::: 0
f'-r~de~ L.z/.f;r ::> 4- .) wit{ ~;5 r)t·"Vls.O~)'!~~ )(t~\ce
L...:l. ~ ~~ \~...I"'~'t-k tI-~ +t.a.. j"M ti~ ~ f ~f"t(,~'cM T...A.c..- t

tk ~~ "'6 ~~ .....:H~Jt~e "

1- S (~ - bf ) & -:::. ~ k l T To ') /11\ -

l-2 ~=() ,,~o x~o} ."... L2,

~ H.S. C,,-,"S\Il'-W <tJ'lld J.c,.JA.e 5e C- ~ Ht'4-t C(}\"tdvc-h~ I'~ SolIdS ; 2. hJe-d:;
O)r~d Sr./~ce fvbl/c.'JFf,I')/-;?l,
201
5 ; ~t'N.~ La'"
f
j

-C I
L, (<<
~ t} ~ C
- "6'
~ ': fa
\ d. 7"'" 2.
)
k( T .. - T,)
'TT" L
~o I

T~G- ~~ tt ti-. cJ..;ffe.·'("('.A'Y.~ ~ ~ f.. h~Q.t ( J)

~b~of" b,,& ~ i"t...c..- ~ eo \A ~ ~:: 0 IooC

~t L'2.

w L 2. Lj[
[ ~

o j= 0
(1, - L ) J:t
)< 0
,
'l(. 0
.Lt}:. W L 2.
2k (r. -T,
.". \ _"" 0) t

Whe.(e., W \4 f-k.. ct;~~~;~. ,\~f'r~""d';c.ul~r' +t, #.e,.

c~ ; 'f'I\ e.,.A , i &v\ S. L I o..N'd L 2. I

H ~ c. ~) ~- b~ ~ S IJ t"" fc~ (' e. ~ +e-c-.. d Ff- -€A"" ~ c:. e..l' I ~

Q~(flAt) - QMC.jv~GhO\,,) :: (4 W!r)k (TM-To) t .

~ ut Q", (fl~t) ::. 2. ( L, .. L... ) vv k (T" - T. )ft

~rrO\ )
.5 c::> +,,,,A,.1:-

Q M ( J II\'IG.~~ J
o • \

=2 w k TM - ~
( ) r(L
L -vn;i
I of- L1.) v'T 2.
- -;;:- .
t]
10.15 Equations (10.32) and (10.33) are approximations for the case depicted in Fig. 10.9.
The exact solution for the temperature in the solidified skin is

T - To
-=-~~
TM - To
= [ erf1 ~ 1erf [Mo
~ Mo +
+
1
x
M t

where 13 satisfies
c',
{3t~1 erf /3 = (TItI - To) H {i
I

and Mo satisfies
2Jc'~2 c;
liM.o .. (TM - To) 7l'
I

a) Show that the above relationships are exact.

202
 b) If to is a ti!:r1e defmed as

M;
to = 4132a"
show that the thickness solidified is

M = 213 r;;: [(to + t)"% - tJIl].

Cl. SoUd Uquid
TM
Notice that there are two coordinate
systems: x and x'. The two systems are
I:s· ,:' ·· related by
···· ,,,, ··
, JI-+~ x' = Mo + x (I)
To ······f····
"

· 14 = Mo + M (2.)
%
t' = to +t (3)
~--. %' where to is the time required for the
thickness Mo to be formed.

In the x' -system the problem is the same as the case of an infinite h, so the temperature
profile is given by combining Eqs. (lO.IS) Cl.,4 (10.18) ..

x•
T - To
---=
TM - To [ern] eTj'-
2Ja'l
llf-)

in which
M'
13 = (5)
2{;;
With the aid of Eqs. (I ), (2.) and (5), it can be shown that
x· Mo + x (~)
-=""0---
II

2Ja't Mo + M

so the temperature profile is

T - To _ {
TM - To - eTj' 13
1] eTj'
{13 Mo + x
Mo + M
1 (7 )

203
 Notice that Eq. (7) contains two unknown constants, 13 and Mo. 13 can be calculated using
~. (10.2.2~Inorder to determine MOt we write a heat balance at x = 0 at the instant (to) Mo
has been established.

TM h{T", - To) = k' [a~] (8)

ax ~'-"'o
Equation ('*') gives

To ··-T·- [ aT] _ 213(T", - To)

(C))
ax' "'0 - r; Mo e7f 13 exp 132
%
and by combining Eqs. (8 ) and (') we get
~%'
, 1.
2k 13 =
hMo
r; 13 e7f 13 exp 132 • (10)

Finally if we compare Eqs.(lO. U.)and (10), we see that

2k'13 c' (II)

- = (T", - To) ....!...
hMo H,

After 13 has been evaluated, Eq. (II) is used to calculate Mo. Then the temperature profile is
completely specified by Eq. {7).

b" To get the thickness solidified, Eqs. (2), (~) and (5) are combined with the following:

fJ = Mo
2Jet.'to
The result is
_ U 02 (i2. )
to - -
413 l et.'

and
)
M = 2{3/et.' (to + t) - Mo
(l~

or
(d)
M = 2fJr:: [(to + tt2 - tJIl]

204
10.16 Usually when Eq. (10.48) is invoked, the solid-liquid interface is considered to be at
the freezing temperature (Le., at the equilibrium temperature). In rapid solidification
processing, however, the interface can be significantly undercooled. If HI is the latent heat
at the equilibrium temperature: a) rewrite Eq. (10.48) in a more precise manner, taking into
account that Cp of the solid and liquid phases are not necessarily equal; b) rewrite Eq. (10.48)
in accordance with pan a) and also account for the densities not being equal.

a.. At tr.~ in:erface.) let i:T~dt'ld T*<TM Solid \

'
I ~
•
fJ:
I
J

jTI -:. k ..:iII

~

'~'S 'x I. \;<1

;- ~v
\
~H 'IJner"e cH ~ HL-HS
0, SOIL

and H",) Hs ~ enthal pies of 'the liru;rJ and Salid. at Til.

Hs : Hs (1"",) t CpJ $ (Tif-TM)

H/. :H~ (TM) + Cp)1. (T 1t -TM)

LUi,: H/,. (TM) -Hs (1M) + iCP1L - CP1 s)(T* -T~) ~r

~ H :. Hf -+- ( CPll.. - CPI s){ T'" - TM)

Then with c;.s;' ~~)s anJ GL.! $ )L ) we have.

ks Gs :. kL.S L + ~VGf + ((P,).. - Cp/s)(T *- T~
b. Sf-Ippose' ~s>~L.·Then"to sat;~TY cOY'lti-ouit'{,there will be a

velocity no,..",al t~ the. it'1terf3ce. Co t1tinuity rejl.lires V:' fs·p"

...... h e.re. V i 5 the velo cit y of the i nte('fa~e a.nd V IS the ve loc it.., of
'the 'I'%!.414 at the iV!terfa,e. S"n~e 1/~l.Iid flows tow&.v-i the. 'mter-face)
it b r j n~ S wit hit (\ . e. ) a. d'It ct &) 5 "m e en thai p'f. T h LA S) at the.
inte't"'faC e) we have:
\0( 5 Gs ~ kdh -to lI(e" )'1L - (>, Hs) T flo V H1-
or ks Gs :.kLGI. +V (()\. HI. - 'E'~ '"'s) + (~s"~,")VH&.
k s G\ ': ~L G-a. + 11 ~~ HL - Yf.>s Hs +"U"~:. HI. - V E>Lo HI.
~~Gs ': K-LG" -1f(~s Hs + ~I..HI..)
Whe..-e. Hs: Hs (TM)'" CPIS (T "- TM)
HI." H",(iM) + cp,£. (i-'-TM)
205
10.17 Is it possible that GL < 0 during crystal growth? Can there be solidification? Do you
think the planar interface will be stable?

With ~rowtn 1/>0; Kc;G-$ :k~J~+~lJHf 5 L

!:'.':n if ::",(oJ :hese er.er~,? balance at tr.e 'tnterfa:.e

C3.f"I be s~t.isfieJ. For example) solid c",;/d be ~rcwih'3 x

into an underc!>oled I'·~uid. The temFe.r"l.tu'{'~ Fro{I'Ie. ,,,,'Dud .3.FF~:ir-

as
Sol i ~ '\~:.tid
- 1<>0

Tr.~ trterface would 'IIot be stable. bec;~/.Ise the 1I'lt./id I'S at: a..

t!mpe'f'at.I. ,u"e, below TM. Act t.( a ~I'f J a stable iht erfa c.e Cou Id

S:Jppo'('~ a sma.1I u\"1dercooliflld (iM-T.o) becawse "f ·1I")t: er f a c.ia! eYl~~'(

that would playa role shoc,cld the flat iYlterface hecome per'turbe.d.

10.18 A single crystal in the form of a long thin rod is grown by the Czochralski method
(Fig. 10,18(a». Assume that the heat conduction is one dimensional and that the heat transfer
coefficient is uniform along the length of rod. a) Write the energy equation for temperature
along the length of the crystal and obtain the solution for the temperature distribution. b) Use
the propenies given in Example 10.8 for silicon and assume that h = 100 W m,2 K"l
(uniform). Calculate Gs for growth rates of 1Q-6, 10-$ and 1O~ m S·I, c) Calculate the
corresponding values of GL and briefly discuss your results.

l. Refer ba.CK to tne so/tAt.ion for Problem q.'t

dtT _.-:L u.. - ..h..e... (T-Too) - 0

d1"i ot. oe kA •

;;~;: , e xp~';,. -(~:. t ~K~~ i! Where ~,~g, '-'6

*I ':
~

b. Gs ~ 1:0
(TM - T_)fl - (.:i.!:.l.
~co< ~O(
+ ..:t..h)"il
0 l< J
206
 From Exa.mple 10.S·, T""':.,,,g'3I<·, T.-:.30o K'i oC:I.!~XI()-~m"s-')
k ~ 31 Vol m- I t'C' ) n :OIOf) W m-l. K-'; H; ~ J. 80 )Ub' j k~-'

A sSI.Ime ma.ximum 0 for N~wtonia.n ,"oolin~" Problem q.Cf c:.

O(max.) : r kl..Bi t : e9~)~O.,)':. o.(),~ m

c. (fl,:' kGt:fYH~ whe~e k'L:.~~wrn-',}CI) f':~300k, m-~4."'. V>oto

b~ C'..<TI"\.S i..st&y"t vJ,.J.{.. ~vts tt:lt.) o..n<1 (Ira).

10 'Problel 10.1B
20 ALPHA: .0000132 : 1 :31 : D:,062 : IL : 50 : IBO : 2300
30 Tft: 1683 : TIB' : 300 : a :100 : af : 1800000!
40 FOR I : 4 TO 6
50 , : 10'{-I) : 1 : "(2'lLPBA) : B: .*B/(D t l)
60 BBACI : A- SQR(A'l + B)
70 GS : (Tft-fIRf)*BB1CI
80 HUM[R : I'GS + RBO"*Bf : DEnO! : It
90 GL : BUMER/DEBO!
100 LPBIRT i,GS,GL
110 MilT I
120 EMD
V, M 5- 1 Go" I 1( ",' G-LJ k W'-I
.0001 -15389.15 -1261.213
.00001 -19434. 51 -11221.4
.0nOOOl -19899.18 -12254.69

Awythin'3 ~reate,. thanIG,J. S')t/~a I<m:-' wOCJ/~ be cJ"ff"cw/~ to achieve I;' a.

process So a ""D&ut~ rat. of Ifr' m ~-I is I10t praettca/.

10.19 The propenies of aluminum near the melting point are given: 1'.." = 933 K;
k = 210 W mol K·I. Consult Chapter 11 for emissivity. Calculate the power loss to maintain
a floating zone in aluminum. Compare your results to Fig. 10.19 and discuss.

!='rcrfI F/'j. 11.8) €. ~O.,

Q : ~n-.R Co 0'" TM~ Ao (1- + i;)

0---:.. So '7~xlt/S W m-z,I<-Iof j TM: QS3 :<; L':" 'CM ':: 0·01 m) R~O·5'CM: o.oo5"m

(~ame as FI·'3'lo./'t); k:;'IO """m- I ~<_I

" _ [(S)(~JO)(D.005) _ .ll/a
o - [Cq)( ~.I)( :r.';7X ID-9)(q;3'~ ~ o. '35~ m
207
 Q ~ (1.)(rr) ~·r.:~XO.I)( ,".107o~1 O-!) ('\ B ~)( 0.35,) [ ~ .\- :'.~~ J
Q~ 59.0 WeT his L"'-~e!.. VJ~te...
r-:(;-, \0, lq]

10.20 Welding of a "thin plate" can be analyzed by starting with Eq. (9.8S) for the peak
temperature around a moving line source. With' as the cylindrical radius from the line
source, we can set Tp.= TM (the melting point of the base metal) at , = 'M; then
Q
TM - To = pCpoV'MJ21re .

Show that
1 V,' 6C{f J21re 1
-= +-
Tp - To Q T", - To'

where " = ,- 'M' For,' ~ a this gives the peak temperature in the base material next to
the weld.
L!t ToC =To; th en )
~_. ~CeSVrM~
lW\-To - Q

Q • - L _ ec.e6vr"~
Tp -To ~ ~Cpi'VrVafte . Tp-To - ~

L-- ~Cpi\JV~n-e (r-rM)

Tp-To TNI - To - Q

. --L - \Jr'. fcpvalfI + =-1~

.• Tp.io - Q T",-To

10.21 Welding of a "thick plate" can be analyzed by starting with Eq. (9.81) for the peak
temperature around a moving point source. As in Problem 10.20, set T" = T..., at, = ',.., and

r· .
show that

~ = 2rrkut [~: ~~
where " = (,1 • ,~)II2, provided,' ~ O.
208
 T? - \-et ::.(~~ ~ e '/,LII,~.e,.J
III
-;;--'-t)'a\ w~e."'e P€r ':. '{:,
CI
and. T.. ~To

Tp-\o ~(afTk",e
9V ... , I
a+( 'trY" l[ \
.,. ':. C;'1'rKOI. e \ r;.;- tLt.\~
.p-1o \ Q'I 7L \~c;of.·/J

T",,-To,::(GV
\ ;.rr koc. e"/\[ a+~\J';:Y'
I J where Tp ': TM at r ~ 'rM

L- ~
T~-To
\a rtko( e)\[-a + (~\aj:
~v \a~J

L - "'~-T. ~ tiw,e)~ a ~l¥!t) -(H(*)')] :(a:b.. g)(~)·\ r'-r..')

. Tp., To .- ,,.n-G"lSI( t (vrl)~ + =-I--=~
\a;& T",. io
where. ",': tr'l-rJ').1
It

Problems 10.22-10.26 should be attempted after Problems 10.20 and 10.21 have been solved.

10.22 Sketch temperature versus time at r = 0, r = rM and r > rM in a thin plate that is
welded.

t~ -vi' -t-
Li iU id

r""
i
T

i b JsfP" -- --
o t~

209
10.23 A very thick steel plate is welded with S kWand 75 pet. efficiency aE a welding speed
of 4.2 mm 5. 1• Prior to welding the plate is preheated to 480 K. Assume that the fusion zone
(Le .• the edge of the molten weld mew) corresponds to the 1644 K isotherm. a) Calculate
the peak temperature at a distance of 1 mm from the fusion zone. b) Whal is the cooling rate
at that location when the temperature is 1070 K? Dmfl for Slet/: k = 35 W m" K'I;
p = 7690 kg m·l ; C, = 754 J kg" K",

a.. F('om Prcb/e.m lo.alj "'t"

'f
'_1 ::~"Q ~lX e (~£'/i' To'M _"'f" 'N;"~'fe 10= "160 \('

tc
0 I) )

~: p :(r;/fo)(7S4) ':,'.~'1xi()-'ml.s-1 j G.'! ~~O()OXO,75):375':J w;

.3 !
1M: 16 '1'1 I< j k -:. 35" Win - I
I I
'I -:. "/. J. :< I" m S- j r : I X I () - m j ,,- I

• I _ ( (3S)(".O'ix/~-·)pr{7·g;(IQ-!)(')(Jb-3~~ I -Lf _I
"Ip-To - (37S0)(Ij,;'Xlo·!) ;'(~,~4/XltJ·") J+,/IlU .. 1">- :8.B7xlt> I<

Tp-Tt> ': 1I~8 k ,'. Tp :",oB

b. _"'lose eno,,~h to r:he use the fe)lIowin~:

(!~nter s~ Wt Can
,. '. _ a v (:Y...L\_I
"t r:o) E.g, -(q.7S) ~/veS. T-T~ - 'fT1' kO( 6/« I
! 0 t r a.. Vl sf" r m t Q a. t I'm e. bas,' 5) "" e (..t se "
dT. V~T - V QV
'ot - - -:;r1: - 'irr-kC'('
'\I:\-a.(V)
\OloC I .:IC'(

.ll
dt
:. V(i"Toy~)_I(.L)
\ lot _(;II. ':.V(T-To)l.Lirrhoc.~
~V ~O(
':, ~r;Vk(T_To)4
Q

dT : afTkv-(T-_r:)"'':. (~fl")(35')(Li.;ZJC/,,-3) (lo70-ygD/'-:. gS.7 k s·'

at Q 0 J7~fJ

10.24 Derive an equation for the thermal gradient. aTtar, at the edge of a weld pool
(r = r...,) of a material with a freezing point of T",. The plate is steel and very thick.
Thennal propenies"are given in Problem 10.23,
~A wdJ: ~~ ~~~: b'.,.,..,' '
we want tnt eratljent at this point,
Stir! With co,() (9.7S) - -_ ~ weld _ 1; - -
----r
_Poo'
:t
_ t"rtI
-t--

i pre .-(p~~ '"e~) ~

1/ VIr

.) ,,;,.. ex {oe~ -(Fe.1+?e

\ -'-t
. (j y -:.0
~o<. (Pel" Pe~)
~ ~
~ { ~ #. .)' 'I" Yo
.; Per - q rr r) i- ex ..

\ "ei!!o ('Fe"I + Pe;)

1-
~I
. Y~} 210
 .,..
~..!- ~ QV ~
r 1 " \. II.a.
(Pfa -+- Pel"')
r
e XP Ifie! -(Pel +Per)
l. i\ IL'
1-&
'i.! • ~
PelL - (P!'l ;- Per}
~ a ~
Ill.

d Per L.f 1T k oc. - L ... a

n:"'(' - ...I
'-

+ex p rpu
-
-( re; ~ Pe ~ ),'1J (- ~)(Ft~ +Pe",/'( ~ Pe.)1 .)
I

~
~T ~(7-T_){-,){pe:+Pe~f A( Pel') + (T-TCIO)(- +)(Pe:+?e;fl(~P~r)
oFel'

- ,,, 2.)-1
- I/a
.IT ~ (i-T..)( Pe'")I-(Pe~'" ~;f lPe! + PeW"
dPef' ...

We use approx, of E~. ('·81» and set r: rM',

~r) ': (r- TGO) ( Pc r )rl-(~'" T P;l"M) - (¥ +- Pe

~ -
'I1 !of a.1
rN\ )
J
d r!r r .. r",

~~)r,r~ --(T-Too)(-.¥rxj (r~)

a
t (Pf*"
-
...
TPe~H\) -
• ~a
( ?~"M
"'\ + Pe '"M -)-']
In order t~ find rM) we. set Tp ~TM and r:.r"" and use. Ej. (~,81)

~TM - TcoD) -- ( :11'1'

r;. Vlor e)( c2 TI Pe..~}\
t)(

"'"1'1-"18 - (,7so)(¥,.ax'<f 3) (, )
o - (Q T1'e )('5)('.0'1)(/0·') 11+ Pt~M
I
- p'2. ":. {), do .H. 8 ~ Pe. r ~ "l. ,. ~~~
...... E!\"'M

'(. :: ~ Pe ':. (,,) ('.0'1 X1D-')(t,'~i1) - 3 8 -a

M v t" r.\ LJ, *' X 1(> - ! - , I> 3 x 10 m

ti.)
~Ilr':.rrf\
~ (16 '1'1- "''1S0''?\ ~x"·oo~~ '.0'47(10. 11
).a (3. S03 x I,i 3) [- ( 1.3~~&·\. '3 ;jJ1.)'I: (I. 3;.
...
I.
c;
~+ J. '3~~~J

R) :.5/3SI)(/~5"[O""-O,.398l :.-S.5{)6)(IC~K m-I

d r r:.rm l J
~i) -: S. 5SIXID.)-rO.'?I -o.!'t8l ':. JI~"I7XI05'K'fVl·'
CI'- f:.'-rn L~ -
211
10.15 The surface of damaged silicon can be aMealed by passing a laser beam over the
surface in order to effect melting to a depth below the damaged layer. When the silicon
resolidifies. it does so epitaxially so that the crystal structure of the underlying single crystal
is maintained.
Assume that the' silicon is at 293 K and ·is "thick." The molten pool is 1 mm thick. and
the laser beam moves at a velocity of 20 cm 5. 1 with a power of 8 kW at 75 % efficiency.
a) Calculate the distance .from the edge of the molten pool where a peak temperature of
1273 K is achieved. b) Calculate the maximum cooling rate directly behind the molten pool.
[Hint: Stan with the steady-state temperature associated with a moving point source
(Chapter 9) and make a transfonnation from moving to stationary coordinates.] Consult
Example 10.8 for propenies of silicon.

p,.,rn e~arnple 10.8'. k:. 31 W rn- ' ;<-'; kl.:' ~/)W m- ' K- 1, 0(: '.3a.>OD-S'm" s·t s

C<L :/.tl"l></IJ-S'm'" S-'j TM :.,r"g3 k) Hf :/·80 J"k~-'j ~:,(300 k-~ rn-"3

(') I \ - la ft kG( e\(.)J..:L.)a. ,

~. From rro b e.rn 10 ... / ~ ip.To -, Q V ) aGO< + .:!::TM""'-""'!;:::"O
Q: (8000)(0.'75):' 'l>o(JW., Tp :./~;':J31<) To :.~'t3 k') \J: 0._ rn s·'
Now Solve for r'~
QV (\. 1 \ _ (V I \z, • (Tp-To) ~ (1~73 -~,,~) ~ 'Iso K
~f'l"kCl( e Tp-To - TIoI\-ToJ - \~J .
(TM-To) ~ (1"83 -;ltt:s) -:: l~ctO)(

&Y -:. (kooo)(O •• )

.;1l' ko< e. <~ne.) (31)(" 3"X/~·"): 1·?}7 X If) r I<

. (.YL..)'L-:'1.7/7X/IJ!J-(-.!...-o -
•• \ ~ 0( ,2> ,;'10)70 51.'8
~ -r) ='1."I'tx/o-~ m
'. (51.'S) 2.(,z){"3~)(IP
r . (o.~)

b. Fer derivati~nJ sl!e solution to Problem lo.aab

~I ~ mU~ V (T/_To}a.~ T': "8S K (dir~ctlr b,n',nd molten poot)

. ..tt..
t. dt - _"'13IwIO'~MI
m\( S'ooo'" I(I "S!-."3)l.K 1.
~,.~S"l"')(IOLi K' 5·'

212
10.26 Steel plate, 19 mm thick, is welded with 4 kW at 80 pct. efficiency with a welding
speed of 2.5 nun S·l. Assume that the edge of the molten pool corresponds to the isothenn
of 1700 K. For this steel it is known that some martensite is found in the vicinity of the weld
when the cooling rate exceeds 4.6 K S·l at 866 K. a) If the plate is not preheated, would you
expect to produce a weld with martensite? ~) What is the peak temperature' at 0.3 mm from
the edge of the weld metal? Problem 10.24 gives properties of the steel.

a.. Whether ~h15 is d. \\thiCk"'",."thin"plo.te is not spec.'lfied) So we

c3.lcu:a:e the coolin~ rate ~o'(' each case (atr-:o and behInd the weld),
for th i n p' at e "
2.
R __ ~:rr k f cp (V; )~ (T- To) 3 :.- (~rr) (35)(n'ta){75~) (ct. Sx 10. 1 (0,0"))( S'bb ·30(i~
~t - r..x :;~oo

~T :. -so,q k S .,
dt:

ror t b i c. K p )at e ~
oT:._ aJrkY
~t G
'T-~)~':.-
\ I>
(~111(35)(a'5'~/o-~)(81
3~OO
)4
~'-30o -:-SS·()k"S·'

Nr;t/c.e that the thin plate seJwtien '3/ves a. c~"n'j rate that

var/es w,.th 0) blAt t.he thicK plate SO/lAt,'cn /5 Independent 0f~'

Hence) the thic k plate Se/ut/on represents the maximum

c~,;;line rate in any rea} sttlJat/cn, 5'" we us/! the lesser of the

two and a.ppf'O)(irna.te the plate. as' a "thin plate". In either- case.)
the cr·/tical c6~1 in1 ratt "1$ exc,eedea s~ ma.r"tenSite. w/ll fDr""

dLArin~ c.co}in~.

b , ,..- rc m PrDI11..) em 10/ ca I:

I
Tp. To --. _rr kc< e.
G. V
(.:::b:.!-\-...'
~0( -,
. -(?,QO)(?51i)
TM - To)
. as"
0(
-
·,.C'iXJb m
·ft "

(~Il)(3S)(,.o''''X/()ft) r.~a.S'xJcf')(;Xlo;''1)l~+
,"co . 3
':.7.1'iQ;XIO· 1of
(3~eo)(~.S xlo·3) L(-H ,.()~ XIO-t.) J
_I_ . I
Tp. To • DO

Tp':.I£~8.a K (only ~A.4m frOM 11',LlidtAS isotherm)'

213
10.17 Nickel is "splat cooled" between two platens of copper which are rapidly accelerated
toward each other. The process is sketched below.
Molten nicbl
-11-6
Copper
j Nickel
plate11S splat

Before splatting After splatting

The splat thickness (6) is 0.1 mm. Neglect superheat in the nickel droplet. a) Calculate the
minimum freezing time of the splat by assuming no interfacial resistance to heat flow.
b) Calculate the freezing time assuming that h = 2000 W m·l K·l,.and the temperature of the
copper platens is 293 K. Properties are listed at the beginning of this section.

a.. (T",,-To) ~~ :'{1"d.8-~~~) .. o""~~ ._ .. :3.30 TM

Platen spl.at
(copper) (file 1(( I )

Fi~. ~I o. 8) !-5:M-To
-To :. o. ~ a; T!I ~ (11aS-~(f3)(o.3~)+ ,,,If 3
.

Ts:. 75~ \( To
I
Then (T~-T5) 'fJ,C/V1f ~(1'l~8-76'~ ). b7() i'0=- ~ 1.~7

Fi'3.ID.S' ~:.o.8a ~ M:. a. ,("oe' t ) 0(' ': 1 ... ::.,1 U'A\ : 4.(.4,)C Ib-" ma 5·'
M il \
t:. t_~i -;;-r: (aUo.Si)
I
I [
0: 0 5)clO· tll. \
. _L :.
-"#
!''iOX 10 S

b
.
}J\-n(T",-T,,)
-~, H~rA.
t .. ...!L.Ml • t· ~' H~ A.
. k ' · " h(TIt\-1.)
W\ rL + al\'
J:L ""oj
J
TM

CtA TtS Nt

<4=.++ \, JUt, .... w WI' ~&W' :'1.,,,- Tc

t - ('1&[o)(~.q I x Ip5')(I·")f. ~
• (aooo)(/7~8-~") ~.OS)(/'fa.,. (~~~j (0,05)(10· 3 )j:: 4.("x/O·.t s

214
 Maybe the thermal proflle.;s bet~er representEd as',
r ~----TM
h =1\+
L t<."-e 'n-:'(\+O,31~)(J..jOo)~~/Y'1WyY1-'J.rC'
1.'0'" I ]

c: k ~ Cp I

Cu Ni
Ts = 7SJ.
I \
part
~

'" \ Horn a)

a. :._1- +
~
V_IY+ '(pj)(i'7~6-75"'()
" _ -_ /.S"v To-----/

t:. ~I Hi 0... (M + ~ M"Z.) -=. (785D)(;,Q))OOS')(I'OO)[S- x I()- 5"+ ~¢oa ~

(SXI,,-5'
nc(i,..,-Ts) ak/ (~?YII)(17"8-'7S~) (.;;)(35) /J

t:.~.'iX/O--S

ne >h but Ts (?sa. K) >Ts (';13 K) d.'rla th-e two prac.tica.lly balance. each
other,

10.28 In melt spinning. a jet of molten metal is directed to the surface of a rotating chill.
Solidification takes place very rapidly, and a very thin ribbon of metal with thickness 0 is
produced. The process is shown on the next page.

w'·
~
~ Rotating
chill

Calculate the rate of solidification (dM/dt in nun 5. 1) when M is one-half of o. Assume one-
dimensional heat flow in the solidified metal and in the rotating chill. with h = 1.7 X 104
W m- 2 K"l. The metal ribbon is aluminum with a thickness of SO ~m. and the rotating chill
is copper. Propenies are listed at the beginning of this section.
215
 .l::!1~;3 \ da-;d.- All ne_ s'L:perbgat i?ctat.\~~ :1)1\' data.

TM ': ClS~K C~-~q3K \~uIK tempe.ra.ture)

Hf: ;.'n xJt/ J k~-I ep ': '380 :r "'f l

loCi

Cp:: 1050 J kf' )(-' ~ ': 'U)()O l<~ m· a

~',: aLj 00 k~ m- 1 \< ':: 3Qo w .,,-' k- I

k!~ ~bO W 17')_1 l-e' .., ~ /·,,/xJ()"'W m-' Ie'

S: fro )( 10·" m
I

,
IT""I-T.)...£.e. ':.{~;-;-aq3) 1050 ( , , , ". r
:.1.1:1.' tlhl_f(aOo)(~"'oo )(
105"0 ~a- 0'10
\ 0 H~ ~.q\)<,oS· ~ lS~qO)(C\OOO){3BO) - •
F'·9.(!C.Q) ~~:~~.= O·5~', T~ ':. OIS"5'(IltH-~q3) + ~q') ~ b45'K

he 0 ~\ +V ~'f;~' )h 0 (I ;. 0.10)1.1 X 10' , .·e~ X 10' W m-> K-'

EQ
6'
(IO.~~) M-:. 'rIdTM
e'HfQ.
-T,) +- -
..
he
a\('
1v\~' a. -:: _I .,.
. - ~
[!
..L +
Ii
('05'O)(93~-b~5n
t3H~.~\x'o~\
l~

- I
--
~l
d"" _ T\c (T",-T~) _.b.£li dM or dM • (he \Tto'\-T~)/~'H~~
dt - e't4Q. . k' dt dot - (I +h~~l

I~
,-- ._-.,- ....... " .....(
__ 0 . . 1 .. _
_ 7,:&" ,VIA-a
- 1\" m 9. 1

10.29 Silicon dies are attached to the lead frames in microelectronic devices by soldering
(see sketch below).

ji
0.0.5 mm
~ I
~ Die (Silicon) ~ - l
j ~d«0Wa-) 1
( Lead frame 0.06 mm
~ <Pe-Ni alloy)

~
Assume that initially the die and the lead frame are at 423 K and that the solder is molten
with no superheat (T", = 456 K). The ambient above the die is at 293 K. a) What is the
temperature at the solder/lead frame interface during solidification of the solder? b) What
is the temperature at the solder/die interface early during the solidification of the solder'?
c) Estimate the time required for the top surface of the die to achieve 428 K. d) Has the
solder completely solidified in the time calculated for part c)?
216
Data:
T". K H,. J kg· 1 k. W m· 1 K"I p. kg m· l Cpo J kg' l K"I

Fe-Ni alloy 12.6 8700 670

Pb-Sn eutectic 4S6 S4 x 10l 33.6 9200 209
Si (See Example 10,8)

~. (TM .To)(~p~):: (~:b-~a3)(;$lr)3)~o,,;g

( k e CpI)'/.a _ r
, I
,(33'b)(q~O" )(.a oq )"j Y:z :o.q~· f,'~./o.S Is-Ie
k~Cp - Llld")(87DO)(b70) ). TM -r~ ~ O·Q6

TS ': (0, 9.)(T,.,-To ) t7b ':. (".'1'){"I5"-'I_ 3) + 'id 3 ": "f S5" /(

b. The rmal prcpert ies for Si fr~m £xarn. J().e: k: 31 W m-I 1<-' i (': ~3C() kCj m- 3;
(>(:/.33.X/~-;m2. 5-') Cp :'~:/O;'I J' k~-' K- '

( k ,e,(p')Y.? ::;r(33."')('J~"o)(aoq)~Ij~;. o.q",· F"I1 10.6 Ts -To ::: 0.9b

k~C'p !(31)(~300)(/~0l1) ), TNI-To
'-

15 -:.(o.q')(TM-To)+,To -:.(o.9')("'5'~-l.fd3)+'1~3-: "ISS' /(

c, Ne'l/ec7. the hea.t /"55 rrofYJ the top surface :J/ the d/e a.nd dfply
FiC]·9.8tJ.., with 8i:lo~". 5;
T- if :.!:i;' 3- y~~
~, -If
'i~3-i-/5'5" ':. (J.g,"!,! Tt: Ts : 4S!"
,: - ~ t . ~ ( ) (sx/()-5fl. -5' £f;'8 k'
0- L~ -t>,/5".", t: 0.15": /Q!).,.."".. _'!' ':.~.BJ;xl() S

Ii -:. '(~3 K
d (7.
• M
T)
-,s
Cp
H.;V1f - ,-d
- (u", LJ -r) (~o q)
--d;.1_ (!-A{X/~3)(Y7F) -"·oo~a
_

F/9· 1().S-{ di ff i cult tc read). We r~sort to the SO/I.I'C'/cn of

,e e ,8 ~rf ~ ':. 0.00;'8... {J -::: O. ot.l-t./.
/'I)':.
I r ~~
~~ (Q(lt)iI'Z.:: (;7.)(o.O'fLi)L(, . 7~~/,,-5')(;a.8"fxIO-~~ a

M ': /. qb ~ 10-" m (from 0 n e 5 ide)

rotal th,'cl-(ness s"lJ'd.ifred ':.~M':. 3.qax/~-'m, The Solder is

'v()-sm, Sf'.) that in the t/me sl'ec; f,'ed, it /$ n~t completely sol,'tI.
217
11.1 A radiation heat transfer coefficient is often defmed as q = hr(TI - T~.
a) For a gray solid at Th completely surrounded by an environment at T2, show that hr is
given by

hr = aB I (r: + Ti)(TI + r2).

b) Calculate the rate of heat transfer (by radiation and convection) from a vertical surface,
1.5 m high. and the percentage by radiation for the following cases:

Surface (8 = 0.8) at: Air at: t, vi 'fr.-a. fll rad.

500 K 300 K '1.11; ~/r} 5'.'"
800 K 300 K i.~O' X lO'i 75.8
HOOK 300K 7.,/8/(/0 14 8(".0

a... hr ~ (7;i _Ta) : ~£I(r,'f_7j'4)

(i,-T,J
-:: ~f, (r,.1Trl)(7;+T.a)

b.
S"ri ace at ,.00 I<
5',"'X/O- S W ~e
I I[\5 o.-Ho 0') 1<1 (soo +3 oo)~ =I A.1i W m" K"
h t ": ma k''1

FoY" he use Simp\ified etuation from pr 6blem 8.1'i

I/!
he. ':. I.'f5' (4:lTl'/S : '·'15 (Soo-300) : 8.'18 W m-at<-I
~~ (h,,+he)(T,-T;.):'( 1;".'11-8."18)(500-300):' '11'16 Wm- a

~\"'ad.:. hI" ~{ 1~·Lf )(I~O) :.59."1%

hl".ht. 11.·'1+8.'18

Syrface at 900 K

h r :' a,,·, W m- a 1(-') ne ~ )1.5' W m-.l }<-') i ':. ~.'fO'XID"t W rn- a ) ~o rad. ~ 75.E)~
S u. r f a c. e at " po K
'tiT' :. 83.0 W m-·k-'~ he:' /3.'11 W m- a 1(-', ~:. "1.7/8)( ID"4 W m- a .) '0 rad. : 8'.0'7"
The results have, betn added to the above table..

218
11.2 A metal sphere at 12SS K is suddenly placed in a vacuum space whose walls are at
355 K. The sphere is 50 mm in diameter. and we may assume that its surface is perfectly
black. a) Calculate the time it' takes to cool the sphere to 420 K. Assume that a uniform
temperature exists in the. sphere at each instant. Data !or sphere: p = 7000 kg m-3;
C, = 1000 1 kg-' K-l. b) Discuss the validity of the assumption in pan a) with quantitative
reasoning using a conductivity of 50 W m- 1 K-I.

«..Ka'Ce Of 1()S'~ Of eneF"9Y :a. rate of heat trAnSfer tD S'urrCllndin<3 S'

- V~Cp ~ :. A0" (Ts'i_ Tw lof

) ~ -l tia
1$
7j:T,'
't '4) :.
,- w
+ (
~ eN:
t

P )t:o
T

*
lli(~
t ': - (J" ).,; lTs '4_ Tw\4)
k:va\ uatj.,n of. the i nte~'('al
.,. '4_ or I.f - j, '"
'S 'W - w""f.;'t
(I'~ _~')). Lt tx.-Iw)
Ji. .
'0
JT$'t.T
dI, _, ( dis
w\4· T."q/(x'i-t)

X~-I ~(- T)(x:+ I i -(T)(xht + (*)( ~-11

(efTs
ITs"·Tw"·
• t
Twit -
[ I (dTs
T)(f!:i-') -lfJ{-R +I}
' ~~ + I
if"
j \{:!
dTs ]
_I)

:·f TsdJS..
Ts
':.~,
'i
[
- ttan-~;Swn -
liS t \n (~ + ~ \T-.S + t trl(':'r'1o -1)1IS'J': -3· 309 )(16~1I1\3
Tw I", '#I II T' '#I
Ti ' I

Where. T,' :/.2S!")(> Ts:' ..,_C K') Tw'& 35'S K ) *:~5'"m

t:.- ()I();'{rl/I/C/!( 01.tI' ... :v .l/~I 'Of ~ .r""· . . ..-.,

b. Ma.ximum /3; when 5fh~rt. be~ins to ('c,,1

"yo :(5".",q)(/o·8)(I)(/~5'5'a1'3Sr~)(I;'S'S"'3S5) =/5'5.3 W rnJl 1(-'

8 I ·-.b.!!.B.. Sf. 3 Wlo,,2ft5'm\ m K - 0 0'78 • Newtonian (o.,lino

k • 1m 2 I< sa W - '
0

. . "

219
11.3 Steel sheet is preheated in vacuum for subsequent vapor deposition. The steel sheet is
placed between two sets of cylindrical heating elements (25 mm in diameter). The heating
efficiency is kept high by utilizing radiation reflectors of polished brass. The steel sheet and
radiation reflectors may be considered to be infInite parallel plates. a) Calculate the rate of
heat transfer from the heating elements (maintained at 1810 K) to the steel when the steel is
at 300, 390, 530, 670 and 810 K. The reflectors may be assumed to be at 310 K. b) Plot
the results of part a) and determine by graphical integration the average value of the heat
transfer rate as the steel is heated from 300 to 810 K. c) From part b) determine the time
it takes to heat a steel sheet 6 mm thick from 300 to 810 K.

Renector.

o o

t.!
o
o o ". Heating eh:ments

Rc:nector
f

Data: B (heating elements) = 0.9

e (steel sheet) = 0.3
B (reflectors) - 0.03
p of steel = 7690 kg .m-3
Cp of steel = 628 J kg-1 K-1
Area of steel to area of elements = 10/1.

a.. Subscripts~ I fOY' heatin~ elements) a f()r steel) 3 for refltc!ors

2.::!L {
Q
bJ
)Is e3 T. Si nee t3 is Dn Iy ().o.?3 then the '\c\.tff'el'lt 1/ from
, J 3 t" ·eb~ ,S n~\i~ib/e and the netwof''I< i~
A,f13
e slmpli fitcl) that is) the reflectors are treat'eci
~~e"a
J.=.!L 1, _ I_ J~ 1.:h
Ale., A~Fal A.e', a~ "no-VIet-flux -surface.", Tnerefcre the.
circuit red",cesto F,.,. II·18C. and E:.(II.~s)appl/es.
FI~ -....!....
- ~)
F.,a --T)
1 • A F -A ~
a. _I· Ina j _.• ,"
E:' -~f
-"'a la -...L"!-:(J()t:"'.
- 10 ~ ';/)

F~I l' F~~ ': I ==> F~~ ': I-ott)$" :o.9!,

- - , _
A, F/a - o.S A, + , I - A, ( 0.5 +~
I
.-',--,..,,.......... ) :. O·97S A,
0·5 A. + (",,!X/c)Ii, +(1J.95")(IO)

-L -...L ~ + --L- +,.!J.!.:!1L - _'--:-

A,':F,;. - A, o· q 0.'175 A, rlt".,,){O.3) - 1J.730A,

220
 Q I)n~t :: A \o;;a (Y (T, Ii - T~Ai) ':. AI (1).730)(;,' Cf'f >< It> - 8)(181(/"- JOI) 4)

QI)~et ':. '1.l.IbXIOrW m- a

AI

TbK~ T2., 'I< i. W m-l.

,SIO 300 .., • "1 Dd. )( '05'

ISIO 3Qo Lf.L1S'~)( lOS'

I elO 5'30 'i. ~ ~ ~ X 10 S-

ISIO 670 'i.3S1 X 105'

18/0 alO "t.~8" '" /0S'

i ~ &of."! O~ X 10 f; W m-2.

"1.'100

~)wm·l

"'t. 'aoo

300 ~oo soo '00 706 800

T)K
C. Siflce g does not vary Si<3t'u'fi cantly> it is acceptable to use ~ a.s ;ollows·.
V ~Cpe:.T :~A~ t

t: "fF~AI ~~~)(O'QQ.,)t'7'9")('~8)(~/b-3/~):.8.3q 5

221
 11.4 A large furnace cavity bas an inside surface temperature of 1090 K. The walls of the
furnace are 0.3 m thick. A hole 150 mm x 150 mm is open through the furnace wall to the
room at 295 K. a) Calculate the power loss by radiation through the open hole. b) Calculate
the power loss if a sheet of nickel covers the hole OD the outside surface. Data: emissivity
of furnace refractories =" 0.9; emissivity of nickel sheet = 0.4.

0... AS5~ me the of. rn ace I'9fractori es LU perfect

. ii ~'etl ( 1., ,,1--':
Insulators. rtat ". re,ratto~y as 'no-net fl." SlItface.
f"rAnce

n11t~....,·1 ROb'"
:..-a

\
A,FIR A~rA~ l\, ~
A, F,,,
eba
ebl -L- e'oA
A, F,a,

r,,, (tota.l ex~ha.n~e tattor) Can be fOl.\ncl from F.~.II.a\

.. . 0
-X':.O:;
0.15'
-:'0.0-

F" ~ o."to
Q 'A,F.. o-(T,'-T:) ~ (o.'$}·(o.~o)( 5'."q) li ',,::,:r-( ~ ~nj :7." J( /0" W

b.
• ~l_ Nlelfe} N,'c,l<el
mSII* in"4C ,..iel(e\ owulde
~u""'a.c.e. ~ ~,.~aee 'W'fVtN\ s~eet wM SUi.fACt IIf.Nw. ",OOTf)
eb \ --L- J",. 1+£. eva. ..!.:fa.. j~ --1- ebB
A,F,,. Ai E... Aae,. A.Faa

-L -:.....L + .l:1a. + J.::.h + ..l-

A, ~a Alt,,, AI. tA Aac'.. Aata!

G-:.AI~la(t"(il"'-T,I1):E'va\ua.teAI~a·)Aa:A,) C,2':C''t) F1a:O.... 0') Fn:'\

--L .. I
A..... -""if'"
'.r,~ I
b' '"
0.'i0
a(l-o.'t)
Of'"
+ a---,;;;-.
I
~ ':.ol5"'iA,
'.5'0 • A ,.rn ·

~
Q (0., ~'i)(00I5)'(s: m)~~~g ~~ -( ~:%)1" 2077 II/0' Vol

222
 11.S Cast iron is continually tapped from the bottom of a cupola into an open refractory
channel. The metal enters at 1810 K and runs down the channel at a rate of O. SO kg 5. 1• The
dimensions of the channel are shown below. Neglect the heat loss by conduction through the
refractory and estimate the metal discharge temperature. Data for molten cast iron:
=
C, 830 J kg-I K- 1; p :. 6890 kg m-3; e 0.30. =
I_ \50_ -I
CUpola

Rdnctory

J'~ ( s)
R1- - - - - - JR
(\) ~Topsur.ra.ee of ca9tiro"

ebl J; ebS

I ~ -L- \-(, + _,_

~,,. (11.~I.j) A'~IS- AI e. A,r'5 srY\c.e. E:s ~ \

\
-
A, f\!>:. A, Fis ..
A\F,~ +---1-..
I
A,FsR

Flq.II.J~~FI~:O.70) FI~ ~'-F,~:.o.ao; F5i: F'R'=O.30

A,F,'i ':.AJo.'1O + ...l- I -L- ) ':. O.85A,:'..L ~ \ r,-o.~ + ~l
\ 0.\0 +0,'0 A,".F'l A{o.~ o.CJ!l

AI ~'5 :. o.~e5" AI) AI ~IS ':. As 'l=" ~ ~Sl ~ '1, \

AppI'1 Fi'l' lI·as tp) t ':. . \.. :. ~~A ~ (;)("590)(0.,50)(0.05) - ~IO 5
f* w lo.~) -

'.--"'" , "'V "c-.--'" .'\ -..... , ,. 'Vi :. "i.'1! x I o-'t : ~ "! I~~OO~ ': '.03

+0 :o,qa.: T:. to.~a)(I~'(»)':.lb"51(

223
 J\
11.6 A method of melting metal so as to avoid crucible
contamination is levitation melting. A metal sample is
placed in an electromagnetic field from a coil wound as
a cone. The field not only supplies power to melt the

nl-
metal but also to levitate it. But with· this setup, the

o( V
strength of field necessary to keep the sample levitated is
Met•1sampl.
sometimes such that the metal is overheated. A means of
preventing this is to flow cooling gas past the sample.
Develop an expression that relates the steady-state
) 0.. Coil
o o
temperature of the metal to the heating power supplied by o o
the field (Q,). the gas temperature TOt the gas velocity V, o o
and any other parameters which you think are essential. o o
Metal temperatures of interest are 1360-1920 K. and the
convection heat transfer coefficient can be expressed as
Cuoling gas
hC = ,KYO.7,

in which K is a known constant.

At steady state

Power to sample ~ Rate &t 'hen lou by radiat'/()n 'T Rate of heat loss 'by Convec.

~p~A[O"t(T~-T,Ii)+h,(i",-To)J wh~re. TM':meta\ temp.j T~ :.tenlp. o,f

SUY"rouY'J djf1~ 5. j To ~ ~a.s temp:) A: S'ur-fa.ce area.

Since TM"4 >,Ts'" ) we. ~avt;

~~o-E.i~+KVo·"{TM-T.) Which can be SallIed ,OI"'TM'

11.7 A steel sheet, 12.5 mm thick and baving the shape of a square 1.S m x 1.5 m, comes
out of a heat-treating furnace at 1090 K. During heat treatment its surface was oxidized so
that its emissivity is O.S.
a) Calculate its initial cooling rate (K s-') if it is suspended freely by a wire in a room at
300 K. Neglect all heat transfer with convection, i.e., deal only with radiation heat
transfer.
b) Calculate its initial cooling rate if it is supported vertically on a horizontal surface (also
at 300 K) which bas an emissivity of 0.2. Again deal only with radiation heat transfer.
Data (all units in SI);

Supponing surface Steel sheet

Thermal conductivity SO 20
Density 600 8010
Heat capacity 630 600
Emissivity 0.2 O.S

224
 I I Steel sheet
Support ina surface

I
It/
~ Js 3m 3m
.f/ l
Setup for (b).

Subscrjpts~ I for steel) ~ for the. room) 3 for suppot'tin~ SIArface

a.. ~::. 0-- E, (T, If - T.'i )

AI ~ :: - ~ Cp v, ~~
:. dT:,_
dt.
~~
cp
'I,
e O"{i,'1-T:)-:_
..
I (l'O)(D.S)(5".6QQ)G(,
(8t>ID)('O()
U)q,,\"_(~~:
~:-i'0'D7 \" 100 j J
-~,J3 K s·'

Solve for all the resista.nce!

...!.:f!.-. _ (1- D. 8)
A,e l -(~.~5')(b.8) ': Odlll m-z..
-" I
. ,. .:r. --- : ' . . ) 23) '! I.cr 3~Li ",-z.
-'-
~
J",
A\F,~
3 L.:..!L _ (I • ., • .a )
A,£, -C'f,5)(D.i) :o.BSBCJm- 2
I _ I
AI It, a - (~3,-.a-!,""'Jl"'~-.?-?) : (). S 7 7'J. ",-ol

I I
'( 5~)""'(o-,s-a-S');
As F.u ~ ":"'1-, o. z.o" In - 1

At each node) ene. sum of the current (flux) /'nU st be rero. at

steady stare .
J • ebl-r,
.. I .r,,- r, E>bi -:I, ..
HCae/· o.i/II to 1.'1'.2'1 + O.5'7?~-0

~ . b, -J', J. - !3
Hode 3. _ ........ o.D + . tU,"u + epa - J)
O.~51J
':. 0

225
 '0 'fr~ble. 11,7 ,
20 'subscript.: 1 for .teel .beet; 1 for rool i 3 for .apportlD' eurface
30 AI: 2,2~ : A3 : 4,~ 'areal in .·2
40 r13: ,23 : 112 : 1 -113 ',ie. flc~ors
50 f31: 11*f13/A3 : '31 : 1 - f31 ',iel factorl
60 11: ,8 : 13 : ,2 'e.illi,itie.
10 Tl: 1090 : T2 : 300 : 13 : 3nt 'telperature. in 1
80 11: 20 : SHOl : 8010 : CPt : 600 'therlal properties in SI unita
90 1: ,0123 'thickaess of Iteel Ibeet
100 SIG!A : 5,6991-08 'Stefla-Boltz.aan'l coni tInt
110 'lo1,e for the resistances
120 Bl: (1 - il)/{ Al*ll ) : 82 : III Al*112 ) : 83 : III A14F13 )
130 14: lIt 13*132 ) : R~ : ll-!3)/( 13*13 )
ItO ',ol,e for black' surface elilll'e poler. (realI, ka'e alitl of fluxes)
m !II: SIGU*Tn: 02: SlGllfT2" 4 : 03 : SlG!A*Tr 4
160 'sol,e for eonltalta .0 tbat ulilo,. radio.ltles can be deterliled
110 C: ( IB2/12 + IBI/ll III 1/11 + 1/IZ + 1/83 )
180 »: 13*( 1/11 + 1/12 + l/R3 )
190 I: ( 1B3/1~ + 02/14 l/( 1/13 + 1/i4 + I/B5 I
200 ,: 13ll 1/13 + 1/14 + 1/85 )
210 Jl: r*( c*» + ! l/( B" - 1 I 'radiosit,
220 J3: I + Jill 'radiosit,
230 PIIIT Jl,J3
240 'beat 10.1 frol Iteel Iheet
250 BIATl: (IBI - Jll'll 'i. V reaiader for oae aide 011,
210 BIATl1: (Jl - IB2)/B1 + (Jl - J3)/B3
270 PIIIT IIATl, IIAT11 'BIATI Ibould equal BIAT11
280 IATI: -2'IIlT1/(RHOltCPl*Al*l) 'rate ia 1/1, BlAT1 is for ole side
290 LPIIIT: LPIIIT : LPRIIT" Tie coolia, rate is"iIATEi"lls"
380 liD

The cooliac rate is-2,094041 lIs

11.8 Brass sbeet, 1.6 nun thick. passes through a continuous temperiDg surface. The fIrSt
portion of the fumace is filled with gases at 920 K, moving against the strip direction at a
speed of 0,3 m S-I, The strip itself moves at a speed of 0.05 m S-I. The walls are of Si02
brick. each 0.3 m from the brass sheet as it moves vertically, and the gases are 40% H20,
10% CO2 , and 50% N2 • How many meters of strip would have to be in the f11'5t portion of
the furnace so that the strip could exit into the second section at a temperature of 700 K?
Data:
CPbnu - 428 J kg-I K-l C,.. - 1110 J q-l K-l 7J.. - 4 x 10'" N s m-2
Pbr.. - 9200 kg m- 3 p.. - 0.48 leg m- 3
k.".. - 170 W m-1 K-l k.. = 0.086 W m-1 K-l

The sheet loses enert!y by r'IlJ:ation and (.Dnveer;on.

Con y e. ct i or,.. Relat ive. veloc', ty bet wten the. 'trip 4."d C34$ is V.o :O,3S m S .',
Tal<;", L:.3m liS an estimate) then Rtl.:' l.'¥i"()
Re :. (3)(0.35)(0,"8) ":.13.'}(lb~
.. '1X/o-S'
For flDW fa.r&.IIel tD the Flat Plate) use E:. (7,~7):
N uL. - -II."..,
Pr 0.3'1' I:) D'~. P • ..n..tL. ':. (liX/Qo!)(III 0) 0.$1'-
,ltl. J r- k o.o8~ D

NUL:' ().." 'I ()

(J.~/'
~3"(
IJ., Xlb
3)~S
:. 5'9. 'I

226
 h~ - k Nil'" ~ (4.(18,)(59. 'I) ::}.?o W m- a K-'
• L 3

Raa,'a.ti on ~ F,_ ~ Faa ~I Co, (goo k') ~ 0.' (Fl',' ,,·s)

hr : € r." (1}\f-T,~)l bra. 'Ss ~

~
~ SiOa
)L Ta -T. J shfet bt'iC'rI;
(I) ~ (.)

When strip entu' s f!H'nace)T, :'3()O K) and when it

~
leave$~T,~?DO)(. Assc.(me T~~T~a.6.,.qciloK'

tnte rs, hr ~(O"X5'6,q)(ID··{~·:0·: ~~~~ : ,~. 04 W mo' 1<.'

Leav e 5'. h, '(0.') ( 5. 4<l'l x 10· 'J~~:: :;ooo~ ,~~. 0' W ",-' K· 1

Obv,'o\J<:.ly 1"lld iation domi nates ) Sf) we can i~flO1't ne. a.nd ust F'~' 11 •.7S (I.\).

+ __ 2M.. ':. a. S3 ').14..r. ':. i

10 ~OO .t.
DO
7f)
D :. o· 3.10) ~, :: e, : 0.' j i z 6.8mm (htat ,d fr~", b~th sid~s)

.; t
rrl , 7:"4 ~ o.S"~t ~ (Q.:rX9iPo}('iiS)(o.8)(/cf 3L
(), ef, ; (5.'9')(lfJ.')«(),')(9~()S) .!'1.~ $ ~ L ':. (().(Js)l1r9.~) :~·9o m
11.9 Estimate the length of the- furnace. shown below. that is used for fonnin
g sheet glass
(3 mm thick). The glass enters the furnace at 1500 K. and it should leave at
1100 K. The
liquid tin and the furnace arc kept at 1000 K. Assume that the heat transfer coeffic
ient at the
tin-glass interface is infinite. The emissivity of the glass is shown in Fig.
11.27. Other
propcnies of the glass arc k = 4.2 W m-I K- 1; C, = 420 J kg- l K-'; IJ = 3320
kg m- l . The
emissivity of the molten tin is 0.1.

Rad iati~ n hetween vpp~r sUr"fdCe ~f ~Ja.ss (I) and furna ce refra cto rl'e s (.;I.).
ASSume J=;~: €, (,3001 -<):' O·S3

T~en h t '- Col [a-'(r,"-Ti~)l wher t e, :0,53 ) T, var/e s fr~m I~()()k to 1I00k. and
[ T, -T~ J
T:J. ,:/ooa jt( ••'. h,.(,S( )(Jk) :~L!s.'I) h,..(lIook)=/'io.a.,

If we i,nor e the therm al cDndlJ~t"on it! the dlrec tian of the ma"tJ4n c;
227
iht glass; then the t~mperat:vr~ In the a/ass must .satisfr:

~~ ~ o<d:!'1. Wh e re:I.vltj1.ll!(mdit;on;S(x1 o):$; (et'lteril'l'j;f.lV"na.~e)

Boundary ctJflditiD"'S; e(olt):.O (~Ia.ss Itin interfaee)
!~ (l,t): - f 8(I.,t) [upper- ~Ja5s s~rfac~
whe.re 8:.T-7;. (T1. ~tlJ,..nac:e and ti" ttfYl pera.tures).
S~/utJon by separt3t",m ~f varlabJe. s is:
(~) o;'tk"';.A~)SinAn x [J.... _CQsJ.,U
)" J
e<J
$: ~e,. ~;;"'P -;\"ott (~~ +,,\';)l+ (h,I\() An

Where Ar at"e the. positive rDots of An cotAI'IL + ~ ~~

io Simplify the problem) we a.ssume that durifl~ most; 0'; tne caoJjn~

perl'od there is a linear temferatut"e d,'strl buti~n in the ~/ass.

_ 0
tI
Cp LAI.. :. \~ T,,·,.,
I c\t ~I ,
+ hr (TI.-Ta) tin ~ lase;, furnaee
T...
bvt T: TL.1 Ta ., T~:. ~T -Tao hr
\.,J
- .fi
dt
:..i!!J
L.'I.
tT-T&) + ~te"
jb-rL t'f-i:l.):' eJ {r- TJ \

\ 1';1.
T:J.
I I
x-=o )(,,\.
IU" ere. (3:: ca~1
L.
+..i.h.c...
~I CP11.

wl'th T:.Ti
- -
At t:.o) L •
-eniS C3iV'es t ' ,n
:. -.,:-
-
I-Ia

c( I:' If·
('1~O S(33aa-~ -:. 3.tJl x If)· , m 3. S·') L~ 0,"4)'''''' > hr (ii. : I Soo k):. ~ '15" 'II m-2. 1<.'
i

nr{7i.:'II,,(H<) :'1'IfJ,~; Use hr: ~'1S':11{()'~/99 w (1).1)(./

f3 ~ (;a){3.QI )(/~·')+ (_)(193) ~ 0.7" S·I
(~. (03) 2. ('3~0)('t~~)(().()()3)

-T,' : 156fJ+I()()Oa/~SOk'
~ ) T-:'IIO()/<

I I 11 (J Q -I d ()O ':. / • .1 0 S
t: - 0.7" n I.S'O-I()()()

228
 L~t. L.; :'/~n1th t)f fvrnacaJ m; !(=pr4dfJctlon rate) In S·I

8J m s·' 4 ':. R t J m
0./ O./~

I.~

10 I~

11.10 A slab of steel is placed into a

reheat furnace so that it can be heated to --7
flame
I
re=
1500 K and subsequently hot-rolled to / )
~~~­
plate. The gas temperature in the furnace I!
bas been carefully measured and found to
be 1520 K. Energy to the furnace is by ~ - -...... ps
burning gas, and its flame behaves as I", m _'----=s1a=b'----'_ _ _ _ _ __
though it is a gray surface (e = 0.9) at t
2000 K. The convective heat transfer
coefficient is S5 W m-1 K- 1 and the emissivity of the steel is O.S. Estimate the temperature
of the slab after the system comes to thermal equilibrium. For simplicity assume that the
flame and slab surface are parallel planes that are 5 m x 5 m, and the gas is transparent.
Consider only heat exchange among the slab, flame and gas.

f =C: flame. j q::C: ~ a.s j s=:;: slab) r~ refracto ry

"!.,.

Radilt,'ot) tr~m flam e to s lab ~

ebf tis

Th"s circui'C redl..lces ttJ'.

...!- _
A1~S-
I
Af
1-£".'
4 .,. A;~s of" As
I I
c/)
t
As~Af

...l- ~-L[I-tf +....L .... l:.€Il

A, ~5 Af:L 4 Fls es J
A~ Ifs ~~~ 115'"_+....1-.
-
I
I
I )
-
F;s ': F;s + -
-\+
I
- - I-
-
A-F 1lY' As Fs1" Fff' F, f'

Fi~, 110\3 Ca.:b :.S'm and C.=2.S'rY) ,fr6m the sl<ete.h)·

~s:' fH ~O.3a~ Fsr :. 1- Fsi' :. D.,;t :, Ffr ~ 1- rfs ~ ~"a

229
 FH =c.3S+ I I I :·C.I/to
-
o.,a+0·-
• .1

...L-. ,r ,-o,q +- .-L- + ~l :. l'AS1

~ 'is - AT[ D.'1 ().,'D <,.a j ,.
j:. ~S ": o.~5'.1

At 'teady stAte (~,,·th Af : As)

~$ 0- (1f ., _7;If):. he (T, -7,)

Where r, :;.C()O I< j 'i :/~~D 1<) he:' 85'W m-2. K-'

S"Ive. by trial and error. Ts ~/q't1 K

11.11 One side of a flat ceramic shell mold (30 mm thick) is maintained at 1500 K while the
opposite side radiates into a large room at 300 K. The emissivity of the radiating surface is
0.5, and the thermal conductivity of the ceramic mold material is 0.7 W mol K- l. Calculate
the steady-state flux and the surface temperature of the mold.

Consider radia.tion f1"om r\Bht s,'de of shell rr'ldld (I) to "the. ro"m (a).
~ ~A,-:r,'~er(r.'t-Ta~):' A,e,cr{T,~-T;.'i)
150oJo(. ~
(Qf) S" de ... cenduct \~on throut3 h -che. plate ..
Q :G.cond. ~AI-t- (T3 -T,) Ro"rf'l

At stea.dy sta.te: "Jf~O""(i;"-T~Li) :'~(T~-T;) 3oO'K1.

(D.5')Is.m)~:S-( mJJ' ~:;5 (iO()() -To)

B'{ tri al a."d error r, ':: e5'~r t<

;, g=f- (T~-T,): §:1'!(ISoO-8S:f) :./.!'as'x/o i4 w m---

11.12 A plate is heated uniformly tv 810 K, and then it is suspended vertically next to and
parallel to a cooler plate in a large room. Both plates are 1.3 m x 1.3 m x 12.5 mm thick,
and they are separated by 0.3 m. The cooler plate and the room are at 300 K. What is the
initial cooling rate (K. 5- 1) of the hotter plate? Data: B = 0.7 and pC, = 8 X 106 J mol K- 1
for both plates.

230
 Subscri pts~ J for hotter plAte) • for room) 3 for coo/tr plate.

(~OOK) aJ
~K

d(300t<) rO¢r7'I

The foI/6wif\~ pr~ram calCL# lates the initial (oolin~ rate.

10 'Problel 11.12
20 'subscript.: 1 for hotter plate; 2 for rool ; 3 for cooler plate
30 A1: 2.69 : A3 : 2,69 'area. in 1'2
40 r13: .62 : r12 : 1 "13 ',iel factors
50 r31: A1*'13/13 : r32 : 1 - '31 ',iel factor.
60 '31: Al*F13/A3 : F32 : 1 - F31 ',iel factor.
70 11: .1 : 13 : .1 'elisai,ltle.
80 T1: 810 : T2 : 300 : f3 : 300 'te.perature. iD (
90 BBOCPl: BOODOOO! 'product of denlity and Cp in 51 uDits
100 I : .012& 'thickDess of steel aheet
110 51G8A : S.699E-08 'Stefan-Boltzlann's constant
120 'sol,e for the resistaDces
130 B1: (1 - EI)/( AI*ll ) : R2 : l/{ AI'Fl2 ) : R3 : 1/( AI*rI3 I
140 R4: 1/( A3*F32 1 : RS : (l-i3)/( !3*E3 1
150 'sol,e for black surface elissi'e pORers (really bale units of flaxes)
160 iBl: SIG~!*TI'4: EB2: 51G8A*12'4 : iB3 : SIG!A'T3'4
170 'solfe for CODstanta so that unknoiD radiosities caD be deterJined
180 C: ( iB2/R2 + !Bl/Rl li( l/B1 + l/R2 + l/R3 )
190 D: R3 t { liB 1 • 1/R2 + liR3 )
200 i: ( iB3/R5 + EB2!R4 l/( l/R3 • IIB4 + 1/25 )
210 !: R3 t ( liRS + liR4 • liBS )
220 ;1: CtiC t &*F III elF - 1 I 'radiositJ
230 ~3: E + Jl/l 'radiositJ
240 FRIN~ Jl,J3
250 'helt loss frci surface of hotter sheet facing the cooler sbeet, W
260 SEAT:: (EB! - Jl)/R1
270 aEAil1 : (Jl - EB2)fR2 t (Jl - J3)!R3
280 PBr~7 ttlA!~. 3!!1~1 'HiA71 should equal HiATl1
~9C ':eat :css :rol nctter sbeet facin, the rool
3C: ::A72: !:tS:J~!&11*( ::'4 - 12'4) 'in W
~~v =E!~: 3E!Ti t 3EA12 'total heat loss fro. botter plate. W
JZO a!r~: -BiATi(iBOCPl*Ali!1 'rate in Ila
330 LPB1NT: LPBIRT : LPRIRT' The coolin, rate il "i8ATE;"I/s"
340 ERD

The cooling rate is -.322901 lla

231
11.13 A light bulb (100 watts) can be approximated to
be a sphere. It is held at the top level of a large amount
of snow; after steady state is achieved, a hole with the
form of a hemisphere of radius R is made in the snow.
Consider only radiation heat transfer from the bulb to
the snow and to the surroundings. Within the snow, "l snow
however. there is conduction heat transfer. The snow
and the surroundings are at O°F. The surface of the
snow forming the hole is at 32°F. Thennal propenies
o/snow: k = 0.2 Btu h-1 fLl OF-I; pC, = 10 Btu fL3 OF-I; e = 0.7. a) Calculate the radius
of the hole. b) Calculate the surface temperature of the light bulb. Assume that this surface
is black and that the radius of the spherical bulb is 0.2 ft.

el. Stea.dy - Sta.te for snow 1r~'f"a 1;): 0

6oundA.ry Cond·,tioV1S~ at r:.R) T'&i1t~!a.°F

'("".0 I T::. Teo -:.o"F

r a. sa.. - c -....sIT.. .. ..£! • TOo.. - ~

elf" • '~d r - r")
,..
r"'-#.
at r~.R: TR: - ~+c.a.

at rs.o: ToO -=-C. :. -c, ':.(TR-\~) R

T-T.o L.
Then "~.ToO ':. r

At Sur, a.ce of ~o\e) r= R \ ~ l"'a.ci.

tt ra.d. :. -K(~~~"'~R i a fl' R~~"Ad. ~ -T Qblol\b

I t-kfl.
• ~b
•. YfTR'l. ':. \<: [Tp --wr • R:. .~. .,.,\..
\ " - T eO)JL· ~\l1 ~T_ .'T'._\
•
~
\ -v.1 ~ ~ .\.11 STU";' (ir

0-
,,-
?I~ I aTul
h'tfr
I h
0,;'
tt.SiU
Of \ -
l3_-0)'~ - .... a'1
ft

b. 5", b s,,·j pt. S ~ 5u rroundi n~ s -~) S now surf ace -_) \i~nt DU Ib - \

BeeaL4Se Snow i$ poor therma.\ ~onduction we

expt.et J"a~ e ba , AI,o the surface temp. Of the
bulb CA.n be expu.t.ed to be >""3 and» T;..
e bl \ '3'.. e~a.
A,t'a Therefore) ebl Will be oivideG Ya. to surroundirlqS

ay-,O va. to ~ no"".

232
1/0/3 tonto
Q ':. 1- G b\l\b -:: AI F'I~ ()-'(T."t -T'!I'4)
To ~ _ T"t ':. !I" QOl.&lb _ ljL
I S AI F,! t:Y - ('11t)(o,;)2.(Q.5){O.''7I,&X/O'') :. ~,Cf'03)( 10" (tR~

\Hft." T,-::'UooR) "T, ':. e,5°R-:. -as'5°F

1114 Thin sheet of alloy is prepared by "roller casting," In
! melt
tIU process, a melt solidifies between two rolls that are
wacr-coolcd to produce sheet of thickness 8, Assume:
(1) that temperature in the sheet is independent of x;· (2) that
collduction in the y-direction cannot be ignored; (3) heat loss
fran the surface is only by radiation; (4) the sheet
temperature at y = 0 is To and the room temperature is TR, .... 1 I~a
D (5) sheet velocity is U. a) Give a differential equation
fOl the temperature, T. in the sheet that applies for x ~ O.
Be sure that your equation is consistent with the assumptions.
b) Write appropriate boundary conditions for T. c) If this
had been presented as a numerical problem, how would you
solve it?
110- S
a.. ASSume stea.dy·sta.te)!on ~ O\4't -y
In ~ i ct'1l y + (u. Cp TIl() ~fl
!
-'1+ A'(,
Out " Gllyl '(TAt( + (lot epT \,,(+A'S') $ ~ + a A'( %rad.

S~.." Iy T (U Cp Tl y), p ':. Sty \" .. A'( + (Lt Cp Tl Y+A y) $ e't' a A l' ~ 1"80 U

l.i¥1l ~'1I'f+A'1 -~"I"f + lie 0 -n'{u'C-T\y + aClrao - 0

A,,(-+O A'< ..,. p.. a'< S-

o~~ dT ~o_.
ci'< + UCpE>(f(' +Tcl =.0

e",t *: -\<~~~ a.nd tluci -:. 0"6. (T"-1'«'i)

,', -k& 1~~ +ucp~i*+aO"e(T"-Tf(~"O

01" nIi ~ ... _JL .dI. _ . . l.~..t-'il4_ ift~) " 0
oe. d,( T. \
233
 b. Bound&y"« Cona,t'onS·. ,(0):' To ) T(oe):. T~
c.. Use finite diHere.nc~ approximations a.s presented in Chap, ,t..

11.15 A sphere is suspended by a wire and is lowered at y

a constant velocity into a very long cylindrical tube as
indicated in the sketch. Assume that, over the length L, the
view factor is constant, the tube wall has a constant
temperature T." and the rate of descent (V) is constant. If
the sphere has an emissivity 8 and enters the length L with L
a temperature To, derive an equation which gives its
temperature as it leaves the length L. T",» To and the
sphere radius is R; consider only radiation heat transfer.

Subscript's', W for waH) S for sphere

.
ebS ~,
-
e'o~. ~_, ~
\
~bW

~
A, E" A!Fsw A,~w

Q.w~ ':. A! '1~cu 0' {,.':-Tsloi}

~ -,
.rS W ~
I...b...)-'
Fsw-~ -r\\_ h ~~ -l
..r,,'11 ~ I.... ..l.:.b
e., '!. €,; 1 0'- ~S1N : £5
Then Q'H~ :.A$e.,&'(T~~-T~~)

Srnce Tw >}"o ) wf. Ma.,{ a'&sv.",e T~ >'>,,'" over \et\~t h l. a..V'ld

With QW$ ": Q 4.nd es :'£) we 'na.ve Q:: A~£ 0' Tw~

Th\'~ tner~'( ~eat~ the. spht'r& b" an an'\ount~

a~ Vs~Cp* and ~\t'n ~i :."-S-

G. :. Vs ~ c p V :1
T'ntW" A~etrT~'4V$~CpV 1*:, ~:~t-
[
Tl.clT·~Jw'"
- ~~CpV
1""dx
o
o

,to" r; \.
T\, - To :. ~ (> cp V
234
11.16 A ladle of hot metal is used to feed
1
Stopper rod
an atomizer to produce metal powder. By
means of a controlled stopper rod, the metal x
slowly leaves the ladle at a constant mass
flow rate, W. Assume that the ladle
refractory can be treated as a "no-net-flux It
T Refractory
ladle
surface" and that the only heat loss from the
ladle is by radiant heat transfer.
a) When the ladle is full (i.e., X = 0),
write an equation that gives the radiant
1
heat loss (Q, energy/time) from the top To atomizef
surface of the melt.
b) When the ladle IS 3/4 empty and DIX = 4, write an equation for Q. Use the following
variables: TI = temperarure of ,metal; T2 = temperature of surroundings; h = depth
of melt; D = inside diameter of ladle; A = .,.~/4 = area of top surface of melt; 8 1 =
emissivity of melt surface; and X = distance from top of ladle to top of melt (see
diagram).
In your answers give numerical values for view factors and total exchange factors.

0..,
:l1:J'i:. 't - ~
G=,.-€..0"(TM-10) where TM':.metaltemp.) To=Atrnos.temp.

b. I-metal) a-plane ac:'roS.s open'\n~) .3-ref ra c:tory

E~~a.tion (H·LtS) can oe I.Aseci~ G'.>net ':A~~O'(T,'4-T;.'4)

\ I I-E: \ \ I-I'·
whe"'~ -
A,~til
~.--
AI e.
..:.....=.L. + AI
----
F.;. + -A.. ~
£;.
A I -A
-
-A-rut.
2. - - '1 .)
L!_\
~i-

Also) Fi~. II.al can be used to ~et F,~ ·)+':~)then F,~:".7~

I ..!.::..L. I ~ [I-e, I ]-'
Herace)~a':. e, +0.7'1') r,a':[£, +"'07ff!J

• 1'f p1.( I-E, \ )-' I ~ ~)

., ~\)net ':. '" \T- + o.'1Q 0' ,T, -T;.

11.17 A long rod (8 = 0.8) is heated to 12SS K and is placed

ncar a well insulated'reflector (e = 0.01) as shown. The
purpose of the reflector is to retard the cooling of the rod.
The diameter of the rod is 75 mm., and the diameter of the
reflector is 500 mm.. The room surrounding the reflector and
the rod are at 300 K. a) Calculate the radiant power loss per
unit length of the rod when its temperature is 12SS K.
b} Repeat if there is no reflector.
235
 a.. 514bStriptS', I fo"l,on~ro~(~,.ay), ~ for room (bla.C.k) 1 R for l"eflec.t.or
jR

A~FI~
~r
.l.::lL.
A, e,
'6'
:s,
~" fRiI.

....l-
AI F,a.
eb~

View Factors
FI~ ~ r,R ';. 0.5' lby \n&pec.tioY'l); F~I ~ ~~ FI~ ') FR~ ~I-Flfl:' '-~p. FIR
A, : ~..1 ft
II gl.ll j
A~ ~..1
:'Tgl\~)
n, • AI .. ..i..!h - ~ - 03
,.-,;::;f - dR - (Soo)· •
Ff(a :. 1- (0.'3)(0,5) ': O,S5'

Total EJ(c;.ban~e Faeto'r (1:'l,'I'''~)

-
AIFI,,~A,F,a+~/A'IFI(('" A~F~;.
I I )... r (' A, I \-1]
:A'L:'i.;- rifi:'" A,., "FR~J

AIF,~: A.[O.5+{o'.5'' ' g:~5YJ:. o.~~5 A,

A,".r'i

--L ~ I-e, +..1.- or...L -:..!.:L + ..!.- ':. ~ ,.. ~

A,~,a"AX; A,-,:',a. ~a £, ~Ia o.e o.a,~5

~a ~o. '15'1

Heat La 55 per mete r 0-1' tenqt b

Q -:A."'J=;a. (e".- eba ) ~A, '1, a O"'fr;'i-r.a '4)

& ,(rrl(~·07S)( ,)( o.?SI)( r. ~11) K'~05lr--{ rgg)j::.a· ¥'Ix 10" W

b. Q ': A,!, o-(TI~-Ta~)

Q ~(TT)(o. 01 S){I) (0·8)(5. ta~')~

rr.le5'5')"1
ID 0
(.~llO\G1J
-\'"i'Ooi

~ ': ~"b )(10" w P!r' mete~ Of len~th

In this c"nf"~\lrati"n) ~Dlif\~ is not reta.:rded very m~Gh.

236
11.18 Two parallel plates. 0.3 x 0.6 m. are spaced 0.3 m apart in a large beat treating
fumace and heated uniformly to 810 K. They are then removed from the furnace and cooled
in a room maintained at 300 K. The emissivities of the plates are 0.4 and 0.8, respectively.
Other thermal properties are equal. Calculate the ratio of the initial cooling rates (K 5-1) of
the plates. Consider only radiation heat transfer.
10 'Proble. 11.18
20 'subscripts: 1 for plate litb 0,4 elissi,it, j 2 for rool j 3 for plate
lith 0,8 elissi,it,
30 &1: .18 : &3: .18 'Ireas ia 1'2
40 '13:, n : 112 : 1 -113 ',in factOfl
50 '31: &1*'13/&3 : '32 : 1 - '31 ',iel factors
60 '31: A1*'13/A3 : '32 : 1 - '31 ',iel factors
70 11: .4 : 13 : .8 'e,i.si,ities
80 T1 :'810 : T2 : 300 : T3 : 810 'telperatures ia I
90 iBOCPl: 8000000!: iBOCP3 : 8000000!
'product of deasit, lid Cp ia 51 uaitsi aa1 ,alae lill do becaase the,
calcel Ibea the ratio of coolia, ratea is calculated.
100 11 : .012S : 13 : .012S 'thickaesses of platea are equal
110 SIGKA : 5,6991-08 'Stefaa-Boltzlaal's conataat
120 'sol,e for th~ resistances
130 81: (1 - 11}/( Al*ll ) : 82 : l/( Al*I12 ) : 13 : II! Al*'13 )
140 14: II! A3"3Z } : is : (1-131/t A3*13 )
150 'sol'e for black surface elissi,e pOlers (realI, bale aaits of flales)
160 IB1: SISKA'T1'4: IB2: SISKA*T2'4 : IB3 : SISKA*T3'4
170 'sol,e for cOlstaats so that aakaola radiosities caa be deterliaed
180 C: ( IB2/B2 ; IB1/il )/( l/Bl ; I/B2 + l/R3 )
190 D: B3*( I/Bl ; 1/82 ; 1/R3 )
200 I: ( EB3/RS ; IB2/i4 l/( 1/R3 + 1/84 ; 1/85 )
210 ,: 83*( l/R3 + 1/B4 + 1/85 )
220 Jl: C+ ( Ct 1*' }/( D*' - 1) 'radiosit,
230 J3: 1 + J1/' 'radiosit,
240 PUBT Jl,J3
250 heat loss frol sarfaee of plate 1 facin, plate ~, W
260 BIATl: (EBI - Jl)/81
270 BIAT11: !J1 - IB2)/R2 + (Jl - J3}/B3
280 PilBT B1AT1, BIAT11 'BIATl should equal BiAT11
290 'heat loss frol surface of plate 1 facia, the rool
300 BIAT18: A1*SISBA*11*( T1". - T2"4) 'ia W
310 BIAT(l} : BlAT 1 ; BIAT1i 'total beat loss frol plate I, W
320 BATI1: -BEAT(1)/(BBOCPl*'1*11) 'rate in III
330 LPRIBT: LPRIIT : LPRIIY" The coolin, rale of plate 1 ia ";RA111;' lIs"
350 'heat losl frol .arfaee of plate 3 facia, plate I, W
360 BIAT3: (IB3 - J3)/15
370 BIAT33: (J3 - IB2)/i4 + (J3 - J1)/13
380 PiIBY BiAT3, BIAT33 'BIAT3 shoald equal 8iAT33
390 'heat loss frol surface of plate 3 facia, the rool
400 81AT38: A3*SISKA*13*( T3·. - Y2·.) 'il W
410 BIATl31 : BIAT3 + HIAT3i 'total heat 108s frol plate I, W
420 RATI3: -BIATl31/(iHOCP3*A3*13} 'rate ia lIs
m LPBIJT :LPiIlT' The cooliac rate of plate 3 is ";IUI3;" lis" .
440 LPRIRT :LPiIBT" The ratio of ratel, plate 3 to plate I, is";8ATI3/8ATI1
milD

The coolinc rate of plate 1 is -.1642466 lis

The coolia, rate of plate 3 is -,3462781 lIs
The ratio of rates, plate 3 to plate I, is 2.108282
237
 h.19 A long rod, with a diameter of
3 mm, is placed in a vacuum parallel Rod
to a large and flat heated surface. The
other side of the rod is exposed to
vacuum chamber walls at 300 K.
Assume that the heated surface and the
surface of the rod are both gray with
equal emissivities of 0.7. The rod has
a volumetric heat capacity of
pC, = 6.7 x 106 1 m-3 K-l. Calculate
the heating rate of the rod at 335 K, Heated surface
500 K, 700 K, and 800 K. at 830 K

10 'Problel 11.1'
20 'subscripts: 1 for rod; 2 for ,acuuI chalber ; 3 for heated surface
30 Dl: ,003 : ~ : 10 : PI : 3,1416 'dialeter and leneth of the rod in I
40 AI: PI*Dl*~ : A3 : 100 'The laree beated surface il 100 1'2.
50 '13:.5 : .12 : 1 -'13 ',lei factors
60 '31: 11*'13/13 : .32 : 1 - '31 ',iel factors
70 '31: Al*'13/A3 : .32 : 1 - .31 ',iel factors
80 11: ,7 : 13 : ,7 'elisai,ities
90 T2: 300 : T3 : 830 'telperatures in 1
100 RBOCPl : 6700000! 'product of density and Cp in 51 units
110 SIG!A : 5.6991-08 'Stefan-BoltzlaDD's constant
120 '80},e for the resistances
130 81: (1 - il)/1 AltEl ).: 82 : 1/1 !2*112 ) : 83 : 1/1 Al.'13 )
140 &4: 1/( !3'F32 ) : 85 : (I-E3)/( !3*~3 :
145 .
150 'solve for black surface eli~siTe powers (real~l ba'e ani:s of flUXeS)
160 tOR I : 1 TO 4
110 BEAD;1
150 gEl: SIGMA·!l'.: EB2: SIG!A&1Z'4 : t33 : 31GHA*73'4
190 'solve fer constants so :bat ~nk~ow~ rad!csities cat be deterlined
2~C C: i EE2,B2 + lEI/il III l/Rl t 1/32 t l/a3 )
::J J: 3~*! 1/31 + ~iR2 • 1/~3 )
::~ i: ( !B3!RS • EB2/R4 II! I/B3 + 1/B4 • 1/55 j
23: F: ~3.( 1/R3 + 1/~4 t l/RS I
Z4a Jl: C• ! C• ~'i )/! n-i - 1 ; 'radiosity
:50 J3: i + Ji:l , radiosity
26~ PRINT ;1,J3 'check that these are posit!,e
270 "heat cain to rod
280 3iA!:: (EBI - Jll/Rl
290 EE!r!l: iJl - EB2)/R2 + (Jl - J3)/R3
300 PRIR! HiATl, BIAT11 : PillT 'BI!T1 should equal BIATl1
310 VOLl: PI*Dl*Dl*L/4 ',olute of the rod, ."a
320 RATi: -SI!Tl/{IBOCPl*'OLl) 'rate in II.
325 LPRlIT: LPiIIT' When the telperature of the rod is"iTli' 1,"
330 tPilBl' ita heatinl rate is "iRATI;" l/s.·
340 SilT I
350 KID
360 '
370 DAT! 335, 500, 700, 800

238
 Mhen the teJperatare of the rod is 335 1, MheD the te.peratare of tbe rod ;s ,~C ~.
ita heatin, rate i. 1.260S26 l/a. ita beatin, rate i. -.~4552~5 lis.

When the te.perature of the rod ia 500 1, Wben the te.perature 'f the rod is 200 I,
ita beatin, rate i. .8643503 I/a. its heating rate is -!.391:07 lIs.

11.20 For a cylindrical ingot of steel, 1 m diameter by 2 m long. placed m a refractory-linea

furnace at 1500 K, calculate the radiation heat transfer coefficient to the ·steel surfaces.
Repeat when the surface of the steel has reached 500 K and 1000 K.

The steel/s surrounded by the furnace walls.

I'Itnce) g:tYcs (Tr-Il-r,'1) r=C=refra.ctot"y; s*=steel
c rj g:: "r (Tr -75)
H• h - 0:£, CrrAt -is 'I}
.. nee) ... - (ir-is)

Use 1;. =1.1"fJO k a.nd est/mate 0; 6'$ (CO,,: ~·8) from ""9 LIre /I.q
751 K br ,• 'Vol m-z. Je '
3(H' 19;.

Soo ,;~8

ICCO 37()

239
12.1 Show that the units in Eq. (12.1) are as indicated. Do the same for Eqs. (12.2) and
(12.3).

~~. (.'30-1) \IVAx -- - r". (9 ~J\\

v~ \ oX) WI'"
."'h D •
\A 11"1
k~ m. 3
I x .In rn and D'
JI\ In m .a S-I •

L'nits Of Witt,. l.Y"e rrtt'l ';;,1 m '::. I<~ (o.f: A) mea 5. 1 (ma.ss fllu),

\::1. (/a-~) JA~ ':. - DIt(~~A) with CA in mDI (of A) m-') )( in m a.nd 0.4 in m:l 5·'.
Units OfrM a.Y"e ~1.1"!..cz!1 W'f'\ ':. mcllof A) m·as·, {molar- .fll.tx),

"fI
1::". (Ia.~) WA.x:' - () DA (~) w ith ~ In k~ m-\ D/'l in m2.. S .1) ~AfI no unit 5

ano x in m
Units of JM at! k~ m·As- 1 (mass thoP.)·

12.2 Discuss the reasons why self-diffusion data must apply to homogeneous materials only.

Self-diffuSIon refers tc> atomie mot,on in the absence Of a

COr'lcentra.tion ~,.ad"ent. Thus) SeJf-oiffus;c::)n dpplies to

ho",o~eneous materia.15·

12.3 Read one of the references of Footnote 1 and derive Eq. (12.5).

COf) s', de. r ex(han9 e of atoms between two ato rY) i C

planes X and y wfth a.tomic spacil"l~ S. a

Ra.~e at whkh atoms JUrrI? from plafle X to pla.ne Y is

Jx~'( expressed as n'..lmb~r Of a:t'ornS s·'.

x y
J:~-.y : ~ vclfS A wnt1"'e b is the number Of Jump

directiofls) V is the Jump fre~~eflc'((s·'» c*(s the concentration ~f

radioactive atoms (m· 3» t "IS the iflterpla.na-r" spa.cin~(m) a.nd A i5 the

a.rea.. normal to 'the t lDW (11)4).

240
 J''1~X,:+))(C*T S*-)$A

Thvs) net rate is J: !)(-.'( - j'(~x ':- ~

6 V ~
~x

FieI'( 1st law ~'Ives J: -D*A ~

dX
..• DM ':.,~
I ~V

12.4 Look up the aniele by Compaan and Haven (Table 12.1) and summarize the method
used to derive the correlation coefficients in Table 12.1.

If all atoms were radioactive, then Eq. (12.5) would apply directly to tracer diffusion

coefficients and D/ = Dr As discussed on pp. 423 and 424, however, we cannot directly

measure Dj • in the laboratory, so dilute concentrations of a radioactive tracer are used to set

up measurable gradients.

Keeping in mind that the intent of such an experiment is to get data that can be used to

calculate D/, then we must realize that D/ relates directly to the exchange of positions

between vacancies and their neighboring atoms. Now with tracers introduced, we have a

system in which vaca'lcies and tracers both diffuse, so there must be a means to track both to

accurately calculate Dj *. We can measure Dt but not D (vacancies), so we rely on the

correlation coefficients (viz., Table 12.1). The correlation coefficients are calculated (or

were calculated), using random walk theory restricted to direCtions in the crystal.

12.S Work out the units in Eq. (12.20).

Unl't S·. nAX:'

. at ems m .a 5-
1

flAX ~ -nASA· oGA

NI) 6X nA : atoms m-~
6A!.m" S·I j-I (Of" m1. a toms S·, J-I)

No ': mOrl (or a.toms mol-')

(1A ": J mol-'

x ~ rn
241
12.6 Derive Eq. (12.28), after reading Zener's article.

JlAmpS':. (Attempts)(Probabillty of success)

to
Hence) v: lJ6 Z e)(p (- ~~.)

Vc>Z:. attempts C"jumps ine" (lei~hborinq site) 5·') where Z is

the YllAmber Of. nea.rest nei~hbors and Vo is the v/brat/cnal

f'ft1ue.ncy) 5. 1• exp (- ~~")~p"'()babilit'f that an attempt /s

•
Sl/(,cessflAl) where ~G! is the free enerCjY barrier) Jmol-'.

12.7 Using the method of Fuller, Schettler, and Giddings, estimate the diffusion coefficient
for a CO2·02 gas mixture at l-atm pressure and 700 K and compare the result to the data in
Fig. 12.21.

D ( _!) T It?S (
-L- '/'1GO'
A8 - P(VB "3 +- })J\ '/3 )~
_1)( If)
MA
I
+ M a)
D"e :. cm l s·~ which compa.res very

12.8 Given a tortuosity of 2.0, a void fraction of 0.25, and r = 5 x 10-3 cm, calculate the
effective-diffusion coefficient for CO-C02 in a reduced iron oxide pellet at 800 K .

D,~8: 'g,•VA'3 T t-\.'70

0;:
~
II' )__
V6 :3
t I
-.:::;::-
"II,
\)~ Whe~e VA (CO):. Ig,c:!> Ve('O.) :.. ~" q
+M
e

D'(:: Q700 r(M

r.T )"a "!(q10()(SXIO-3)\~~O)
'- :\ I/~ :.. ~oq cm7.~·1 (Co)

01( (co) :. caSq em l 5·') Dtt (CO_):' ~o" crn1. 5·'

Since DA6« DI() ord'mar-'( diffuSion preva.ils,

Deff :. DAB W ":. (o.qoe)(O,~5) '!. 001"4&.\ trr."2. S·I

-c; d.

242.
12.9 PbS has a NaCI-type structure. Would you expect the self-diffusion coefficient of Pb
or S to be higher? How would you expect the addition of Ag2S to affect the diffusion
coefficient of Pb. knowing that the defects in PbS are predominantly Frenkel defects on the
Pb sub lattice. and that the undoped PbS is an n-type semiconductor? How would BizS3
additions affect it? [Ref.. : G. Simovich and J. B. Wagner. Jr., J. Chern. Phys. 38, 1368
(1963).]

sa-
@ (2; l(jj The Pb2+ ions diffuse faster than do the S2- ions.
The ionic radius of Pb2+ is O.84A, whereas that of
S2- is 1.84A. The Frenkel defects comprise
00 . O~ . Pb l + interstitials of Pb2+ and corresponding vacant sites.

'0 @ r/li, Diffusion of the Pb2+ ions readily occurs by the

Frenkel defects, whereas there are no corresponding
o defects for the diffusion of the S2- ions.

/'~-J...;
, .' ~;J @' When Ag 2S is added to the structure, we can expect
that some of the Ag 1+ ions will fill the Pb-site
vacancies. Hence, the diffusion coefficient of Pb2+
will decrease.

When Bi 2S3 is added, two Bi3+ ions can only substitute for two Pb2+ ions, while producing a
Pb vacancy. Hence, the diffusion coefficient of Pbl+ will increase.

12.10 Describe the conditions under which the following terms are applicable: (1) self-
diffusion. (2) tracer diffusion, (3) chemical diffusion. (4) interstitial diffusion,
(5) substitutional diffusion, (6) interdiffusion coefficient, and (7) intrinsic diffusion.

(I) Pure meta..ls and hotflo~eneorJs allcy.

(~) Jsed to determ',ne self-dlffUs',o'() coeffic.ients with iadioa~tive

atoms li.e.) tracers). £g. (I~ •• ) r-elates tra.cer diffw5lon to Se>lf

diffusi"n.
(3) DiffUSion due t.o a. concentration ~rcidien'C.

("1) DiHu5ion of Interstitia.l ~lements via ·'nstertices·

(5) Diffusion Of subst.itutiona\ e\e.me"ts via va.ca.n~·'es of \a.tt ,'(a sites,

(t) Satisfl'es the diHusion e~&.4atjon umen bull( motion due to the
diHlAsion is ·I~nored. Commonlv reported S',mp\y as Q·'ffl.ls;on

toeffie',!nt and I..Ised ~or en~'lnee,'ln'3 calculations.

243
(,> Basic for a ~i 'len element in a.n a\Io.,. in the Sense that

Sl.(bstitLAtional e\ements dlffuse at their respeet',ve rates)w nen

b\.lIK mot' on IS tak'en into ac.~oLAt'lt.

12.11 Calculate the self-diffusion coefficient in liquid lead using the Sutherland
hydrodynamical model, and the Eyring acti~ted state model. Data for viscosity of liquid
metals is given in Fig. 1.9. Calculate D at 873 K, 1073 K, and 1273 K. a) Do the
calculated diffusion coefficients vary linearly with temperature according to the fluctuation
model of Reynik? according to the Arrhenius relation (Eq, (12.27»? b) What is the error
in the calculated values? Experimental results for liquid lead are given in Fig. 12.18.
I d Mode 1 DM :"t1T1<Vl.)
,s:ytber.!n k'A T
1(8 =).380)(IC
.13
JK
., a
j 1':
-IC
l·iS"x/D
t.::;)
m rb

~ Y'l)cp rl.1 ~ 5 af-- D:m 1 S· '

I·LiO ). L.f)( 10· ~ ~ .91 )( lo·q
8'7~

1073 J·ao l·dOXltJ

.3
5. 6/x 10
-,
,.73 /.0 /x/o· 3 7. q, )', I (). q

E'( r ina Mcd e \ 0" : ~

'II
.IJL D. m~.s·'
.8
e73 /.6I.xlo

1073 ~. Z5x /(,-8

I). 73 ~-, 0 ... X It)- 8

Q., c* Uoear WI·tb T -Only the SlAt'neda.nd \/AllAes are platted bec~$e

the E'1'rin~ values are too ~reat. Both curves are approt"1 m ate1y

1\'Y1ear.

'/0 -. -------);r--,
SI.A th er )a.n d
0-
~
...l(
I
III 5
...
~

It
....
~

0: IQOO 1'100
Soo 1000

7;1< 244
 8hhrenjus Sen-a,vjOR D"'':.Doe.)C.P{-~)
plot of It\ 0' \1&.+ ShDIAId be linea.r •
..:t.K. J;' )(-' h., D (Sutner.) In p Cexpt.)
-Lf -IC,. :36 -~p.o3
&'7'3 1\,101 X/C

10'13 ~.~_x,o-'i -/'i.OO -/9.0d.

,';'13 1. B" )l.lb- 1f -/8 ... 6' - ,g. ~3

-If,

I
-Iq

-,\I)
A.....
IW
E
~C) " .. at> '(,
-s::
L
'-
(, ~ 10

-L. ) I<' _IX 10'"

i

6Dth cal'! be r!preset'lted by AhhrenilA's plotS. T'heY'efore. it is diffl.(,ult t~

state whether- 11'J1ear oW" Ahn ren""t~ i $ cbeyed.

b. frrcrS wittl the S'yri"'~ ~d~1 are v~r,,< tru·~e.. The errors with the

SlAther'&nd MDdel are as follow,;

..4K Error) ?..

S7! +'10-
IOf'J! 2.2

I a7a -,..-
245
 12.12 The self-diffusion coefficients of gold and nickel in Au-Ni alloys are shown in
Fig. 12.4. Show that the alloys of Au and Ni are not ideal solutions.
""
....DO:XAOe~ + Xs 0A' ONe of the. .
'('e.~ulre,meVlt' tor t:hi& relationship IS

that the a.lloy be an ideal Solution. Acc()l"'dinq to FI~. l;l·'i howeve.r,

D<D~i < D~,,- for e>!:XNi' 0.8'7 Sothi$ eyuation Can Vlot be ~beyed,
Henee.) A",·Ni alloys do not exhibit ideal 50)""tion behavior.

12.13 The diffusion coefficient of acetone vapor in air is 1.1 x 10-5 m1 5-1 at 273 K and
1 atm. What is the diffusion coefficient at 500 K and 0.5 attn?

\.'1 S'
f~. (1~.5'i) DAB ':.Alr where. A ',s COflstant ~ot' partic.~lar qas.

\.,5"
V, T 1.15 p~ _ (~'1',;) (0.5) o. \'7~
p,
'!
Then 0;. ':. Tl.,.75 - ~ \) (soo) ,.1$

I .5' ,
:.0,;: \. tiP ';, ',36)( 10· ma S·I
0.\ '1 ~

12.14 The diffusion coefficient of He in Pyrex· is 2.6 X 10-16 m2 5- 1 at 373 K and 1.6
x 10- 14 m1 5- 1 at 873 K. What is it at 1000 K? 1>yrexa is a type of glass commonly used
in laboratories,

This involves 4iffus'lon in a SDlid) $0 we a5sume, that 0=0 0 exp(- ~)

G-i'len 0, and I)a at i, a.Vld Ta ) 'IN e have',
01) a,bX/o·,6)
~ ':. ex pLL ~R (.1.T. _l..~ or .Jl. :.l!l.lli, ':, In ( I. ~)C; IO-I~ ':. ~.~Ba x/o 3 K
f)a Tao R...L - - ..L _ ~
T;. T, 9'l~ ?>"l~

and Do:"
exp (_
01
t 40 :.. i'~x(_10.a.k8!XlDI) ':. 3 .... 5'8 X
exp
16
,.--'1 m' 5- '

:. D(loook)-:. 3.~5S}(IO-I'e)(p(- ~~~~) -:. •• 3"xlo·\\tm"'s·1

246
12.15 The diffusion coefficient of oxygen in liquid copper is not linear with temperature.
The following data are available:
at 11S0°C, D = 7 X 10-9 m1 5- 1
at 12S0°C, D = 10-8 m1 5- 1•
Predict the diffusion coefficient at 13S0°C.

Not linea.r) therefot"e IJse D=Oo exp (- :,.~

( 1X/Q-9)
• ....Q..._ \oO,-lnO.;" _ In If)""
•• - R-...L_..L - I I
T, Ta I "i ~!> - -,-=5~":""a=-

-t :. '7.7'30 Xl o· 3 t<

Then at T3 :. 135"0'" ; 1"«31( i We ha.ve

I~(-%.) ~ -1.130x IOa~ -

or..Q.l ':. \.'\ 5"3 ? D! :. (I.QS3)(1)(IO- Il ) : I.'S" X 1(; 8 rna $-'

0,
12.16 What is the diffusivity of Mg vapor in helium gas at 1200 K? The gas has a
composition of 90 He and 10 Mg (by volume).

=or Mo'. ~6 ~ ,.15' Tb ~ (/'15)(1~1~) ~ 15S~ K £~. (,~.5.i1)

~e ':. \.q~ TM ':. (1.9;)( ~~"i):. 1"l1~ K E'%. (I~. 53)

~(') (a\l~.) ':. I ~ 7 g K'

&' ~i:-{ "3.00+:;.16) ~ ~.o9 A
For He', ~tJ ~ lo.~.lKa'nc:l 0":' ~.5SI A

For the mill.t~",e·.(~)':.V(\b,e)llo.~) ':)~IK)0A8"::+l~.o8 ... a.55)':._.6aA

~e
Tit _ ( 1(1) T. lao 0 _ /l I'
l,4e- £ AS - \11 . , . " .

1:'0 (la.SI).n :. \.o"o30 + 0.19'300 t-~I.:.::.O;..;:,3-=-5;:;..S1~~~_

o· O,A6 (q,I") 0.16,10 exptO.Iof'.35)( q",,) e)(Pt'·5.~q ..)(q.II.)
+ 1,""'~11j :. 0.'15S"
e"p{~.8ct~ \ 1)(q·1 b)
247
 '1.1
Eo. (/2·5"0) PA. :
"
\/.'B"'!X10UjWilOO)
II)/~ ...'&1 .. ".11("\
(..!- + -'-\ ~ ,. 91f
a"l.' If7
ern a S-I

OAe ~ I.. 94 ~ 16-" mi 5·'

12.17 At 1500°C, the diffusivlty ()f~Cr'fn molten nickel is.5 x 10-9 m'Z 5- 1• At 1600°C, it
is 7 x 10-9 m1 5.1• Estimate the diffusivity at 1700°C.
-QIkT
AS5!Ame an Arrhe.oius '('~\atJ'ot'lsh·'p D:po e
,a .lrli.ii
D')
_ \n{ S~lo-1i
"I ,p.q
1:. ,./:2.;2 XIO'"
T- ...L_.L ---1-_...L-
TA T, 18'13 1"1'73

-'
a.r..:l
- 0, _ 5xIO
Da - exp(-~..L) - e)(p(-I,\81.a'l<IO~)
.~
:. a.ao. X/O· 6
KT \ 1"'1~

:. D(1700 DC) :. ~·aOI x 10·· e,<p (- \;~;";'O~):: '1.101'17 X 10·Cf m'l. 5·'
ASSyme a uoeAr law D:.a. ... bT

b: ryXIO· Q -5";(I()'" :~X'/C:)"maS··I<-'

1000 -/~OO

a. ~ 7)('6 014 - ;xlt'-"(187~) ':. -3.,,¥6XIt:t"

:. D(I7c1DOC) :. -3.fJ"J' xio· e+ (.axllJ-")(19'l4): f/.()O lC'11J- 9m .a s-,

12.18 Calculate the diffusion coefficient DAB for zinc vapor diffusing through helium at
773 K.

"'in ~ .a.ssA>(+,) an '! [,.l&){ q", +;1'73) :. 13 S' I( or (~)!n =- (l.q.1)(~Ic:t.5 r.?'13)k:.IS301(

use(~&)an~ \S'i~'r<

O'He : a,S5' I ~) l ~e~Ht ' lo,a~ K

Th en ""AS '-1: (can +0'".). a. 55' A; (+')..8 {~)J' I\ £K!\~eJl~: . 111 1<
,..~ - ("") T. 1'7' -
JAS·\TA8 -m···· I L L

248
 Jl. - I,Q"'034:a
D,AI - (I.." ,)0.1""'0
:O,7{f8
/. 5"
... (I.gS83Xlll· 3){?'13) (' --.L. . )Va
S'~. (/a.S"o) ()~6 - (1)( ~,~5)a (0,796) '1.00' + ~ ":. a.q 0 crn~ S-'

D~e = ,,~, X 1,-"1 mi 5- '

12 .19 At 1 atm. pressure and 1900 K. the diffusion coefficient for a gaseous suboxide (~O)
in argon is 5 x 10.... m1 S-l. Predict the diffusion coefficient for AlzO in argon at 1900 K and
10-6 atm.

We can apply f~. (1~.5'Lj) whlc'n is Of the ;or m '. OAS ':. .. P
l!LC5" where. A ~constaot

~~r ~iven c.ompi'l'lat,'cns of A a.nd e·

T~ e'('" e tOr e (0'
i A8),-- ~ \ ~ ),.'15'\ P'
-,;- i
\ OAIi. 1 I , r;. J

:. DAB ('0·" atm)": Soo m'Z.s-1

12.20 At 273 K and 1 atm. the diffusion coefficient for cadmium vapor in nitrogen is 1.5 x
10-5 m2 5- 1• Calculate the diffusion coefficient for cadmium vapor in helium at 1500 K and
0.5 atm.

(/XI().3 ) T 1."5' ( )'~

E~. (1t~.S'''1) let 6: N~ and A:. Cd
I I
DA8 :: P( Vl' + lJf\',,)a \"'1,4 oj. Me j

(v'/3 )0\ _l!E.b·~) T I·

'I tr
+ ..1-) • I/.

"'.l T I)Cd
'/5
• P DA6
(_'_
Med M Na

( v! '/!)~
3
_ (, X/{; )(a?3) (I
'·'75
I) /1',a
17·Q +IICd. - (1)(0015) 1I~.'t+1T :-'S·8A

.•, Ved ':, /Lj.qq (not qlven in Ta.ble ,•. 10)

Now TO" Cd-Ht at 1:>'001<

249
 1 Ins ~
~ ("(lb- )( 1500) ( I , \ a- '" •
&lA' (".~H., •• \o'It."'L(_Ai~\a. \\a.~-\o-T) -a"'·~c.m s I

0,\ 8 ':II •• Lf?> )( If)- a.",1. 5- J "er), \t't~ h oec.a. uS e of I()\U p) h', ~h T arid on e.

~Ol\ pone"t ',s He,

12.21 To quantify the nucleation theory of the liquid to solid transformation, it is necessary
to have a value of the self-diffusion coefficient for the liquid at temperatures significantly less
than the freezing point. Given that D* of liquid metal A. is 5 X 10-9 ml S-1 at 1200 K and
10'" ml S-1 at 1500 K, estimate D* at 900 K. Use two distinctly different methods and
compare the two estimates,

Method 1- Ass~me activated type. proc.ess

O~Doexp(· \~)l t.~exp[-~T, - +a~')ltl~a)~- ~\~,-iAJ

. .lL. \" (-~) _ l n fIO·~5)tlO·.1 • u ,.c"q
.• R - f. I , ) - 1 I - -, ~
\T:" - Ta "'i"iO"5 - I?Oo

01) :. e,pl-
10·'
!Ufi.) ':. 1·6~O x/o'? on" 5"/
\SOO

Then 0 ~(qoo \<) -;. (I.,oo x 10·'1) e)(p(- 4k~~) ~ /. 5'8)( lo·q m l S-I

Mc'Chod a.-Assume linea.r

.. '" .1 .q
0*:' (l. + b T) 0: - 0 ~: b (Ta - T,) ) b-;. 0.-0,Ta - T,
: 10 -5'x/o
1500 -Iaoo
:'1 •• &.1)(",-"

1:>;00 : 0 ..• +- b (qoo -Ta) : tt>· 8+ I· "6.'l,)tlO -" (qoo -I S"oo)

O~qOO -: 0 yn'lfS·1

ObviOl.lS\'( the linea.r method ~,,,e, a.n aos\.\ .. ~ result) So at

'ea.st. in thira ~a$e. the \'aet,'Iatecl type" t,ua.ticn is better.

250
12.22 At 1500 0 e the diffusion coefficient of Mo in an Fe melt is 3 x 10-9 m1 S-1 and at
1600 e it is 3.5 X 10-9 m1 S-I. Predict the diffusion coefficient of Mo in an Fe melt which
0

has been supercooled to 1200 o e.

AS$IJ,me O:.Do ex p (- A~
lTi""~Y'l 0, and D~ at T, and Ia. J we. have ~

eXfl [ _ t!. _D~ "l'

lA, (gXIC'-C! j a
A':.
o~
&
~!. T:l.1
~ ~ In \D~;
l'.. _, _ _
,
-- "''I'I $.5":<16-'1
_ __ I
:.5.J~)(/O K
I.. Tl IS'13 \'1'1'0

aYld D - o. - 3XIO-'1 S
o -exp~R ..L)
R.T
-e)(p(-
\
5.I,01XIO')S'\ =I-f,C,I"X/O-
1875 I
m:l.s·'

D:. ,.,."1" XJO- 8 ex p(- ~~;Xf/3) J.,.,~ 9 X urq

'! m" s-'

12.23 A binary gas of A and B molecules has a diffusion coefficient of 10 cm1 S-1 at ooe and
1 atm. Predict the diffusion coefficient in the same gas at 500 0 e and 10 atm .

Referrin" to F~. (/~'S'l)~ DAB':

.AJ.!.:..'S
P

r.'7~- ,·7.5'
(D AS )4 :(!)A8)'(~) (~:) ~(IO)(;~;) (+O)-'~,Jac.mz. S·I or •. '!;<I()·~m~s-I

251
12.24 A chamber containing 0%(1) and N%(g) is divided by a porous solid. 1 cm thick. On
one side of the porous solid, there is continuous flow keeping the composition at 80 mole
percent O2, On the other side, there is also continuous flow which maintains the composition
of O2 at 40 mole percent. The pressures and temperatures in both parts of the chamber are
uniform and constant at ~ atm. and 1000 K, respectively. The porous solid bas pores with
an average radius of 1 J.dD, a porosity of 0.2 and a tortuosity of S. Calculate the flux of
oxygen which diffuses through the porous solid.

_ 10- 3 r"76"
DAB - P(I,);-i +V"Ii). MA
(I +'
I \"'a
Me} where. P:'I atm.,) T; 1000 K; M", ~ 3.i.i Me :..il8;
VA : I &." j Ve ~ 17. 9
~{ ),.7;" ( If..
DA :. /0-'000 L + ..!...\~:.'.7.a em's-'
,8 (,) (/7. 9 lis +' ",., ~t 39. a.81

CheCK for knudsen flow) 6'J. (,;,.s-,)

Ok ~ (~700)(I"'IO·'1)(~~ :. $tse em" s·'

DAB:. I.7~ : o..~q7 So we use DAB
DI( 5·8c

(o •.a) : ().c'89
Then Oef~.·.. DABi W •. (,. 7-')
S

j: Def-F. Cei
C
I) where Col:
Q.\ ' mqle
Ii> MqleS
'OOr1\Oa~QaJ"Ioocm3{STP) l73 K
'O()O)(
I
-:.Q.7SXJb· tI m., Ie s o~ em-'
. -D I
C, : '1,88 X If) mo e5 6.1 em _3
~ ":. I em
. .1
~: 3·34)( 1{) moles s· • em-'"~

252
1.3.1 One side of an iron sheet, -1

0.01 cm thick, is subjected to a S X 10

carburizing atmosphere at 1200 K such
that a surface concentration of 1.2 % 4
carbon is maintained. .The opposite /
./
face is maintained at 0.1 % carbon. At
steady state, detennine the flux ..
.J!t
3
,/
,.....
5
---
(mol cm-2 S-I) of carbon through the ~ 2 ./
sheet: a) if the diffusion coefficient is
assumed to be independent of
concentration(D = 2 X 10-7 cm2 S-I);
b) if the diffusion coefficient varies as
shown to the right.
o
o 0.4 0.8 1.2
% Carbon

0.. j ~ - D d.C..
d ~0 C, -Ca
x S
" .. " I . .... ·v· I ,. H5 Ii 41/0y : 7.5"8 )( I f)- , ~ mol em- 5 j C;:. 0 •• 3)( 10' ~ ~mol em-'
C:m'

, 'I) (7.6'S-O.'3)XIO· 3 _.'7

~ =. (ax/o- O.OJ :1.3Q X/O ~"'ol em· l ~-I

i
I'
b. At steady state is c~r/stant.
, I '
~:'s Ode, The inCe'lr41 I'S tvall.Cated rlLlIn!rically by the a.rea
c.1
under the Curve betwuVl Ot\ '10 C and I,a.,. c-

i t,
0 de : a, "f. x 10''7". C c".,1. So, =. 1.53 X/D-' ~l1Iol em-' ~-I
c(

"2: I. 5 JI( 1()''1 :,.I!)(ID_?,

':1
tpnD em _a S.,
t>.(H

13.2 A composite foil made of metal A bonded to metal B, each 0.01 em thick, is subjected
to 0.5 atm of pure hydrogen on metal A's face; the other side, metal B's face, is subjected
to a perfect vacuum. At the temperature of interest and 1 atm of hydrogen. the solubility of
hydrogen in metal A is 4 x lQ-4 g per em3 of A and in B it is 1 x lQ-4 g per em3 of B. It
is also known that hydrogen diffuses four times faster in A than B and that A and B do not
diffuse in each other. Draw the concentration profile of hydrogen across the composite foil
at steady state.
No discontinuity in c.hemical pDtentia.{ A e
C, -:.;l,&1>)(,i'f
of h'(droqe" across tnt roll· Wenee, in
'P(:.Partial prtSsure
terms Of c.Or'lcentration, tnere is a 1-41 a.t interface C't: 0

di.5 con t ,'n u i t '( . e, :.Lf",o· li fi,,5 :.~.83X/O-1i ~ em·'!

253
 At Heady state\~A-:.i8

DA C,·Ca :.Oe C'iCllj Since i>~':.S8 a.nd DA!4De then

SA 6

(\) ~ (C 1- c~) ~ c-~ -c,,/

Al!lo C;.:' "1 x 10 - ... f1SI '> C, ~ I X 10·'4 Wi t: h en

(~) Cot: liCa

Com b"nl'n~ ll) a.nci (a)

c, ':. -M C ~"")(I'''~-~ em- ~

I

C2: .1.~'X/O·~~ em-!

.il.g~,,~.1f

10·"

13.3 A thin sheet of iron at 800°C is subjected to different gaseous atmospheres on both of
its surfaces such that the composition of one face is at 4 atom percent carbon and the other
is at zero atom fraction carbon. At steady state, make a plot of the composition profile in
the sample indicating clearly compositions and respective distances.
The thickness is 1 mm and density changes during the experiment may be neglected. At
800°C, it is known that the diffusion coefficient of carbon in iron is given by:
D = 10-6 cm2 S-I in ferrite (a),
D = 10-8 cm2 5- 1 in austenite ("Y) •

.,
/
., + lfaphit
a+.,
~ 800
...: I II
O.lS :¥,) 738·C
3.S
-Fe
700~r l + IJ'Iphite

o .1\1 2 X~ 4

Atom perc:ent carbon 254

 "l
ThE phase c!ia.~ra.m .nd ic~te6 tha.t - a.nd t aY"e in

e~u'lI j br ....un at 8cooc. . I'Y'lterpDIa.tinq) we. ,!et: i

X,
'7 ~e-~oo :. o.15-X, ) X, ':. O.oql> %C. (at. pet.)
t"J')8-Q 0.15'-0 o XI

)(:0 lI'~a'l.\rnm

'nS-Soc ...
'7~6-qIO - ~.5-0
,.so-x;".J xa-- ~.~38 7.c.

(. dc' l~)..8 ('i-~.~~8). .flllo.o't.-o)

At' stead" state'. Dt("dir... ~ D. 4X .c.) IC> ~:a. -II> s. "i'oC
wnere i. a.nd i" eire·the thlC.l(tle-s,es ofoC and 'Iln vnm· )(,,: ~·.238
Also S,+)a=lmm :. SI :'o.S'ISmm, S... :o.I5bml1') ':I(' It
~ (0C0): 0.8'15 JY'M 1 ~ (r')~o.155 mm X,':.O.M.
o

13.4 Often electronic packages are hennetically sealed with polymers, but after being put
in service corrosion is sometimes observed. This happens because H20 molecules can diffuse
through polymers. Assume that the equilibrium between water vapor and water dissolved (or
absorbed) by the polymer is simply represented by the reaction:
HzO(g) = HzO (dissolved),
with the eqUilibrium constant
C
K = = 10-4 •
PH20

where C is the concentration of H20 in the polymer (moles cm-J) and PH"o is the pressure of
H 20(g) in atm.
a) Assume equilibrium at the surfaces and calculate the flux of H20 through the polymer
(in moles cm-2 S-I); assume steady state.

PHlO • 0.05 atm Atmosphere

in sealed
package
PHlO • 0

polymer (A) film,

0.1 mm thick
D820 • 10" m1 S-1

255
 b) Now two fllms polymer A and B are used. Each is 0.1 mm thick.
t t

PIlsO • 0
Paso • 0.05 11m
CA
A B KA PBao -10'"
• -

DA, • 10" rrf S"l

c.
g. • p.- - 2 x 10'"
D. - 10" rsf S"l IIsO

Assume steady state and equilibrium at all interfaces. What is the pressure of H20(g) in the
gap?

a..
..
J H,2o:: JA :: D-;-
~

CI ': K PH.,36 ':. (11)-11)(0 • O!) • 5>< I~·' mol cm"3

jA ':. IP-' w"l (5")(/(('-

.
0) mole sl
em 3 1()·'1 rTl
=S XI,,·9 m()/es I';'''
•
cm· a S·I

b. At steady State. ~

., S -
J',..::

. Dtd CAI-CA';) _ DB (cal - Cea)

i
js

CAl
I, !

CAl: (lo·'I)(C,05): SXlo-'m(}1 em- 3 .> CSOI:'O ~--J

(U,ct)(SXh;'-CAa) ~ (Jo· 8 )(cS I -O)

Sx 10·' -CAil ! 10 C81

In the '!a.p. therrnpd,(namic.S reftAire,; CA~ ': I(AP"~b) Cel:' ~8 PH.;,o

.~.-,-
.. CSI - A

5"XIO-' -D.SCS' :/0 e" ) e'l ~ '1.76J(lo-7m~' cmos

C.A~ ~4.38xlb·'1 mD' cm- 5
~H~4) -:.~":.
1<'8
".14XU'-'
.; )( I/)-~
:« • 38 xlo· 5 cit",
Or PH :.~:. a.36xllI-? :.~, 38 X10-! at.."
aO I<A ID-"
256
U.S Hydrogen gas is maintained at 3 bar and 1 bar on opposite sides of a plastic membrane
which is 0.3 nun thick. The temperature is 25°C, and the diffusion coefficient of hydrogen
in the plastic is 8.7 X 10- 10 m2 S-I. The solubility of hydrogen in the membrane is 1.5
x 10- 3 krnol m- J bar-I. What is the mass diffusion flux of hydrogen through the membrane?
Gi"e your result in krnol S-I m- 2•

At J bar) C;.:' So I u b j lit '( ': j. S' l( 10" a k Mol m' 3

3 barl c, ~(~)(,.5)(lo·3):"t·S-Xlo-!krnol m·~

de. _ ~.'! "1"'·roll(I.5'-~ ...)m" kmoll

I Sa.r
.• _
J- 0 dx - S m?l I o.~)(/o·'&rn c~

j ~ 8/70)( /1>-9 k mol m-;l 5- 1

13.6 The Grube solution is used to analyze diffusion data

for a diffusion couple in which the solid is semi-infinite
on both sides and when the chemical diffusion coefficient
is uniform. Now consider a diffusion couple made from
CAl
two thin solids so that the Grube solution for semi-infmite
solids is not applicable: Such a couple is shown to the
right with the initial condition for CA shown. a) Assume
that l5 is uniform. Write a partial differential equation CAl
for C,..{x,t) where x is the space coordinate and t is time.
b) ForO S x S L. write appropriate boundary conditions
and an appropriate initial condition for CA' You may ·L x-o +L
assume that component A is not volatile; i.e., no A is lost
from the diffusion couple .

...lli _...., 01.CA

a.. d t -D c\)(1.

b.r.C.~ CA(xJo)-:C"a

B.C,: CA(O)t) ~C~ (CorJ5ta.nt)

l..£d
0)(
{llt):O

Th e first S.C. arises trom the fact that tht conC£.1\tr4.t'l()Y) at x=o
'IS simply the. avtra~e and ~emains So a"r'ln~ ~\fflAsion'

c.~ :. 7 (C.AI t c... ~)

257
 The second s.c. Simpl.,. sta.tes that there. is no lossof'A fro"'th~
51U'f act..

-
8dded note', If 'we Sh,r~ the ori~''"l tntn the solut,'on must be.

E~. (1!I.AiI) ) where C!I: CA) C; :CAa) and

, o"t)·

CA'

,c-:\. X:O
<:

13.7 An unknown amount of radioactive gold is deposited as a thin layer on the ends of two
rods of gold. The two rods are then joined to fonn a specimen having a planar source of
radioactive gold (Au·) atoms at the origin x = O. After diffusion for 100 hours at 920°C,
the distribution of Au· is as shown below. Calculate the self-diffusion coefficient of gold in
pure gold, based on the data at 0.3 mm and 0.6 mm as indicated in the plot of the relative
concentration of gold.

Thin laver of A"·

,
I
t
Gold crystal Gold crystal I

\. J

1.0

.1•~. 0.8
-..
110.6
a.1
.1)0.4
"Ii
'I"
='0 0.2

o .---~--
-1.5 -1.2 -0.9 -0.6 -0.3 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
Dlstince, s, mm

1'0 tnt. X,_1"Ylm s:..

0.3 0.78

.t 0'0 o·~8
258
 Apply £1' (13.4.2) 41:
c* J( a 1 \1
eK't- ~Dlt) T(~1 :' ~:~, : .2,7'1

- I r
L
X ~
-..!!L...
DA* "It -
i.]
..&.....
J;t - I.o~'i

Of'
Q*.l I )f...!..)( !.60XIO"
" -\1.0.7"1 \Lt
I )r,(J
Lltle/l,...)1 -(II.,Xlli _")j. ·/.83)(10
-IS
m2 s-·

13.3 Silicon is exposed to a gas that establishes a concentration of 1011 atoms (AI) cm-3 on
the surface of the silicon. The process is carried out at 1473 K. a) After 30 min. at what
depth below the surface of the Si will the concentration be 1()l6 atoms cm-3? b) Calculate the
amount of AI (in atoms cm-2) that diffuses into the Si after 30 min of treatment at 1473 K.

I Cs : 10'8atolYl Ch]-3 ThiS is an appll'.:.atio,", ~f the "error fl.lnctirJr')

~ I .. '
";~ Ut.lcH1
II
10-r d'
U6e:;lJ.!. -,.
' ::-tt..l:IO'; ,,nl.o
• .:I
Q.
-- I Ia.·
Toc ':J() J

X":o Co - C5 : e r t -L-
ca V~
Cj - Cs
~x

--
().. D(/475k):.
'a' ~
ClXI()-
r-
3 2 ~ 000 .,
exp[(3.;~~)(/'i73~ ':/,,0;;(/0
.16"
rf)
2
5
-I (
\ Table
\
1;'.'7;

.x ,;", )(
IOrr - - - 10 -I) - 0 ql:) • - -, s~
- "I (~t)'/z. •
. .,..
;-
.... 0 - 10-,8 - . , • CII"/-ot)
\
'.1'2, . , '"

8~)(~) 8/.0~ ~ 10· d)(t 80clt : S',o X 10-'

,~ V:
X :. (,. f'II :. S.o M m

. - '-'1,
b. J!x:o ': (cs -C;)( n-°t) I atOMS em-'&. 5. 4

\Io/e .,. It j!x-odt)

wa.nt..lf- ':.
,.., 0
0 atort\ em-oil.

The. v-esL(/t ~~ the. inte1ration i$ J. ,:(-ff-)

-
(C!a·Ci)~VlI'DSX~·'5'XI800)(IO'·.tr/')
V'l.

-i:- ':. 7.'''IX/o"atoms mot.':, ".''I)(I(J'Gacoffls cm-2.

259
13.9 The Matano-Boltzmann analysis is used to calculate the interdiffusion coefficient. D.
from diffusion couple data. It can also be used to determine the intrinsic diffusion
coefficients in a binary by insening inen markers at the original interface.
a) The distance moved by the markers is proponional to the square root of time. Show
that V,r in Eq. (12.14) is given by
S
VI = 2t'

where S is the distance moved by the markers and t is the diffusion time.
b) Assuming that D and S are determined in a diffusion-couple. what two equations are
needed to simultaneously solve for the intrinsic diffusion coefficients in the binary,
[Hint: Review Section 12.2.2.]

1'\
.....
s-a1-
-..J_
Y;z. ) w'ne.re
L
'"' .-
p c~n5 t a..n +..
",.. . M ~ t.\v" .- ~ S~i
VII • d-: ... ;.. ...1.
\
~1.
..
-
L
a~

b. "I~ -..2-(D-O)~CI
- C I 2 ""IX

0:. )\,O,a+ X.l 0,

:r. the course of a'o e.x,'::eriment) determine. i5 d.Yld ~~l at a. pa..rtl'c,ular-
pOI·nt'. ;-i!V)C,e. XI)X;, a.nd C 3.re also ~t1Dwn' f3y meas~rin~ S)the.n Vx is

alSO K"Y'~WY'l. It;( thiS leaves ar~ two Un I(nt>wnS) D, a.nd D~) whic.'n are

calc!.( \ated from 'C\')e CSimui:afleou5 e~ua.tion5.

13.10 A gold-nickel diffusion couple of limiting compositions XNi = 0.0974 and XNi =
0.4978 is heated at 925°C for 2.07 x .106 s. Layers 0.003 in. (0.0762 mm) thick and
parallel to the original interface are machined off and analyzed. a) Using the data tabulated
below. calculate the diffusion coefficient at 20, 30, and 40 at. % nickel. b) Suppose that
markers are inscned at the original interface and move along during the diffusion process at
a composition of 0.30 atom fraction nickel. From this, determine the intrinsic coefficients
of gold and nickel at 0.30 atom fraction nickel.

Slice No. at% Ni Slice No. at% Ni Slice No. at% Ni Slice No. at% Ni
11 49.78 21 35.10 29 .21.38 38 13.26
12 49.59 22 33.17 30 20.51 39 12.55
14 47.45 23 31.40 31 19.12 41 11.41
16 44.49 24 29.74 32 17.92 43 10.48
18 40.58 26 25.87 33 16.86 45 9.99
19 38.01 27 24.11 3S 15.49 47 9.74
20 37.01 28 22.49 37 13.90

260
 - ". \.'
"\ '\ ~:-'\.",
~\ , ~"'\I T':oq~&,°C
\ :t\ 'I t:. ~.O'lXIO·S
\ ""
00 'I
1.10 ~ ~\ \J
+",1
\ ,I
elk Ni \1

30

80 ")
OX 3,()'bHi
-:. 404. 0.10 Ni in· l :. 15''' Cl/o Ni ,,,.,-1

10 L _____________ __

10 ao 30 "10 50
She. No.
xo;o
Ma.tano I;,te1'~a.c.e (sa.tl·sf its Ett. 13. ~3)

a. D:: -
-
a:; I I
(de) I c
x de
'\ clx "

at ~o aIo N,. (S" lie e 30) ~; ~ - I s-q Q./o em·'

f ex d Co :. iD.;6 SqYares l- slises.lea.

ISQua.re,
Nq o,oq'
ct./o
sltce. I
'In I~·~'tc.'n) ~ 0,903 % Nj-Cm
,I In
"
o.It)Q{oNi~+t~Ra.o'l)(/t>')(15Cn
(1)( o·So~) - ., a-I
-I.~~)(/O em S

at 30 o/A Hi 1~ ~ -15'1 0./0 em-'

c
fc )(dc :31Isssy!.lctres:. ".9S'5'Q.~ NI'-Cm
I

OSD Q{i /oJ'::'" Q.9S'r -:./."f'l)(/o·'cm" s·J

o I (.)(~.o,.,~ 16 "XI6'?)

at I.iQ %Nj *-: -~~q 0../0 em-'

Lexde ':. ~ •. 8 5' sf~ arlS :. o.~~" ClIo Ni - c.,.,.,
1:,

261
 15 ~O 010 0.'"
Ni·-+ (~)(Q,f)'1x/O l)(~.,ct':. 7,63)( If).If) c,.,,-t S·,
b. 5 (ma." keY" mot,'on) ~ 9.1)( 10· 3 C",

\I _
'1,<'
.J....
~t ..
9.1110. 1
. ..
,m -
." .. -a,;,X/O
-" GW\ s-
I

(A) 0: ~Ni 0"", + }(,.'" ONj

V.)(':. e\ \
(OA\A - '0".) ~14
oX I

0\".(0
(01 0 .)~14 ,.Jh • ~'J."",._i.!!I;-..L de.
v ' AlA - ~I
x ~t 'IV er~ 6)(. - ~x· 100 ~x

50lvin~ (A) and (8) S'multa..neolAsly at XIoIi ~O·30

I.'i'l )(,o·q : o:~o VA'" +0.10 J)",j

.l."" )(/0·' :. (DAIA - DNA) '·57

DAt4 ':. a,"IS-x/c· Il "".,1.,-'

Ilvi '& 1,05 "'f)"q (m l 5-'
13.11 Metals A and B form alloys of fcc structure at 1200°C. They are allowed to
interdiffuse as a diffusion couple for lOSs, and the concentration proflle obtained is &!ven in
the accompanying flgure. Determine the value of the interdiffusion coefficient, D, at a
concentration CB = 0.02 mol cm-'.
0.10 ,
, ,
,,'.,,: '~;....+""T'_'
I i ~ ,,....,.-r !
; I ! I ! I : , :
, ' I I , , 1 :
I
!
; ! I
:
I ,
I
,
! 1,1111,~,~"1
, I I I I
I ' I I ,
1 I
I
' J
, :I'~'~ I
, ,
!
I
, " I' I

O.Dt
:
:
I
I , :'11.!'\J
I ' I 1"\/ .A
I J I , ~
I
I I I
J I
,
I
I
I
i ,
I :
;
I

I I I~ I I I~ : I I I ' ,; i, 1 I
I : I i I I I I .1 Ik""'" 1 I I I : !

.,B 0.06
, i,
, :
I !
1
I I i I :
I i
'\..
, :
I I\.
I
,
\ I
I I
I !
I I I '
I 1 I I

, I i ! I
, , I'I'\. , I
I I
I
I I
I 1.1 . 1 ' 1,
I ,
CQ , I I I I I I
1
. II
I
, '
I I , I I I I I I

c1 0.06 I
I I ;
I : .f I I
I
I '\.
I
I
I !
I I
I I I
I I
: , I I , iI(' i I !
! , I
.... ~ I I

,
I I I 1

I I .... 1
.... I I I
1

I I 1 ! 1 I
O.C
I ;
I ! : I
'J,,-
I
,,. I I
I ! !
,
I
I
I

"".
I I I I I I J
II , ~'I:
, Lj J
,I I -~ I·r-,· ' - . I ' I "'t , __
I
: ;
o
...9
~

262
 .0

Fi"t) locate x~o such that we sat/sfr L:~dCs:()

Seccnd) cle.te rm i t)e slope at C, ~ GI. o~ ",,,1 em-~. j~8: -0.'183 m,,1 e.m-'f

Third) determine thearea.f"'~m Ce(xa-.o) 'to Cs :O.Dil mol em-!,

Ce
L X dcs ~ -1.08'1 x
CSI
1f)_1 m.o~ em-I.

-0 :• . -I -
at (d CD \
feB)( d~8 ... I
(;.)(ID5') (~3)
I
/.0 S"t x 10" 3: 1./a x ,,-8 em \ 5·'
d.x ;Ie., ~el

13.12 Intrinsic silicon (Le .• pure Si) is processed in a gas which establishes a concentration
of 10 ppm (1 ppm = l~ wt. 'to) of boron at the surface of the silicon. Distances from the
left venical face are .given in the following table.
t

I·
Distance,
f.Qim am
1 ~
tab •c ·4
Si J a
b
0
1
c 3
d 5

After 10 h exposure to the gas, what are the concentrations of boron at points a, b, c and d?
At the process temperature, the diffusion coefficient for B in Si is D = 10-12 cm:! 5- 1 =
10-' #'m2 S-I.

Concentratio1\ depu'lds on two dimen5.iona.l diHL.l5iol'l'

~ ~rerft~
Ci-C, [ d.~)
\~'r~(y---
\_~
~

Poi"t a'· '(" \ A.ln'l) X~O

C- C5 - (e "t 0\1 eT"; , )~0

Ci -c!> - -A a ~ tiO.'I)(~.~)(,o..)

;. C:c! :'/Oppm

PaInt b ~ '(~, J,l'M) Xto I .u rY'l

~ :. e'f'~{-I_) f.r,l ~\: (o.aqo)(o.~"o): 0.08141

Ci -c, '-"43.. ~~11")
263
 :. Co: (o.OBIi')(O-/o) +10 ': q.~pPm

Point c: '(:'\ MM) x: 3 .um

£..:..f.1. : el"f
Ci -Cs
'_3-) e.r t ('-!'- \ ~ (O.1!")(O.~'to): o.al'i
~aVT.r ~'h.~)

c ::, (o ..a ILf)( 0-10)4-10: "'.q PPm

Point dj '(: I um) x: 5 ~m
c- Cs ~ e. r-t'--..5:-). {o.aCfo)::. (o.'J5'7H o.~qo):. O._7~
Ci-C, ~-~
C: (o.~'1")(O-IO) + 10 :'7.~pprt')

13.13 A fine steel wire of 0.2 Wt. % C is passed through a tube furnace at 1200°C which
contains a carburizing gas. The composition of the carburizing gas is adjusted so that it fixes
0.8 wt. % C on the surface of the wire, By neglecting diffusion in the axial direction of the
wire, calculate the average composition of the wire after it passes through the tube. At this
temperature the steel is a single phase (austenite). Data: diameter of wire, 0.01 cm; length
of furnace, L, 1.5 m; velocity of wire, V, 15 cm 5- 1•
Gas out

i~
Vue
~.~.
-
.= .1

il '-Seal
Oasin

I~ L ~I

C: f(r,l) but i, we. ne'3lectd"ffu'jjon in the !-ciirectio~ we ca.n treat

di Hl.tsion Such that C~C (r,t) where t: ~·

To pass thro""''3n the tube. ~ t" ~ : ~,~S's..'fl: '00 S

APPly Fi~.13·E» for oo-C'(linde.Y'. Fi~.la.,o ~i'4eS o(laoo-C):.'·'Xlo·&c.m 2 s· 1

ot . (I,"XW")(/OO)
Rt - ~5XID·')"
''1
•
.'

TheY\ ~~:~~ :0,> c: Cs :0.8 wt:. pet. C

264
 The process 'C()uld be carried Ol.\"t at a. muc.h hi~ner veloc·,ty. txtra.pola.te

the cur'le to e- c~
C',.Cs :0.001',
- 0.7'19'1 wt. pet.
c.:; Co
ot (5')(lb·~)"
nan T ~ I.\~·) t: (\01"') (I._XIC'4) ':./'7.8 S

,.,. eS ': o.8"t~ m ,-'

V:...li..:m

13.14 A thin layer of Au is plated on to the end of a Ni bar. The bar is annealed at 900°C
for 10 h; at 9QO°C the interdiffusion coefficient of Au in Ni is 10- 11 cm2 s·'. It is known that
Au and Ni are completely soluble at 9QO°C. After the treatment, the concentration of Au at
a distance of 0.05 em from the end is 0.1 atom fraction of Au. At what distance from the
end is the atom fraction of Au equal to 0.05?

- • ) 13 ( X 1. \. c ex p (-
)(,~
9 Pt"
j
E~. (13, .. 0 C ~(1)'Dt)Va e.xPC "tot oJ) 7; ~ exp\- "iX&)

ex p (_ ~) .. Ca ex p (- _x,2. \ O~ x; -:.In f£L);. X,"

Ii Dt - r. -;ot7 !.tot '\ C:l "i Dt.

• t) I -c, +
'\. • (LI-,On
•• )( 1. - X I1-
Ca
C,:;Od at )(,':.o.~5 and c.;t :0.05 atX'lXa

x~ ~ ('i)(,o-I/)(3.C.l(IO~) \n t~.~~) or (0.05)2.

X.t :. ",001 x/o-OlCm

13.1S A long cylindrical bar of steel which contains 3 ppm of hydrogen is dt:hydrogenated
by a two-step vacuum process. The first step is treatment at 150°C for time period ll'
followed by the second step at 300°C for time period t2 • If t1 = 2t2 , calculate: a) the total
time (t = t1 + (2) to reduce the average composition to 1.S ppm of hydrogen. and b) the
center composition after the two·step treatment. Data: DH = 1.0 exp (-4000/n with DH
in cm2 S-I and Tin K. The diameter of the bar is 2 cm.
:;:;-C." \.5"-0
'" "- -oS'
Q. ti -Cos - ~.o-o - .
FI·~. l/o·4) ~i ve ~ tlia : : 0.073-
ot _ O,t, [
hla. O,t, ~"~J
a • [0 I
+Alt
a~ ,
BlAt ~ - R\'';' R1. - R4 - Ra.

D,":. exp (- LjoOf) -:.7.Sa.xlo.s- cma 5·'

'"fa

Da : e)( p t- ~):. q. 30 )( to· ... cm~ S·I

265
 t. ': (1.oza H,)·
(1.8a .. 6-< ... ".3 •• /0'"\ ",a.5S " t.' ~ ,"·35

T<lta\ time It,+t a) ~ ICf'l S

b. For the. two-step process) cia ':o.o7~. use !='i~. Q.6Q. Tor a. ''(Iinde.~ with

the h i~'nest 6.i t-Io.

ci_c~:.O.q'T.,
C" CS C.,:o·q7t~-O)+O': ~.qlpprn dn
I
centev-)

13.16 The solubility of hydrogen in solid copper at lO00°C is 1.4 ppm (by mass) under a
pressure of hydrogen of 1 atm. At lOOO°C. DR = 10-6 cm: S-I. a) Detennine the time for
hydrogen to reach a concentration of 1.0 ppm- at a depth of 0.1 mm in a large chunk of
copper initially with null hydrogen if the copper is subjected to 2 atm pressure of H~ at
lOoo=C. b) Copper foil. 0.1 mm thick. is equilibrated with hydrogen at a pressure of 4 atm
at 1OOO°C. The same foil is then placed in a perfect vacuum at lOoo°C and held for 60 s.
Calculate the concentration of hydrogen at the center of the foil after the 60 s period.

4. At the 51./ rf! ct) C, ':. \'( P ~• '" (t·'ih"

I )'"
: 1.~6 ppm

£:iL-:.erf)( '.J.::.li! ':.E!r.f2- -:.,).From Ta.ble.q,a))(

c.-cs a {'bt)"t. O-l.C\! -m a\[fft
-.0."1'1

I
'
Th eY\ t ':. (O.'t'l);a. (0,01) ..
'iiii." .. U! S
b,AFte.r t,loAi\ibt-·ia.t1on at f'w,,':.Liatm ..
C'Ci '! K{l"a 'Sh,~)('1)'Ia: ~.e ppm

C" ':.0 va.eu UM

M ~ ~o··)('o):. 0,6 APply F'I·~. 't,! Q. ~ C-Cs ~ C-D ': 0·3

l1. (0. o/) 'I. Co i - c, a·s -.,

:,c:o·8"1

266
1.3.17 The tenn "banding" is used to describe chemical heterogeneity in rolled alloys that
srnws up as closely spaced light and dark bands in the microstructure of steel. These bands
represent areas of segregation of alloying elements that fonned during freezing of the ingot.
D'Ilring rolling the segregated areas are elongated and compressed into narrow bands.
A~sume that the alloy concentration varies sinusoidally with distance after rolling according
to the sketch below.
i Band spac:ina
to: 0 t .. .,t~>t, >t:o
t~ tl
t.: t4

-------
~• (minunum concentration) :t. 0

c. Co+(C:-Co)COI T
If the steel is now heated to the austenite range and held at some constant temperature. then
a) schematically sketch the concentration proftle as time passes; b) write a differential
equation for concentration (state assumptions) and c) write the boundary conditions (for time
and space) that apply; d) solve for the concentration as a function of time and x; e) derive an
equation for the residual segregation index.

:t. Se e the. Con centrat ioYl prof; les SKetche.d in tht. problem statement.

b. N~ flvx into Of" Ol.tt of ~o\urne eleme.nt eonta..ined between )(0:.0 a.nd )(:.L.

One dim enS ion a.1 d iff L4 S jon·

- .
D IS I...lniform and consta.nt.
de - 91.C
~t -: D dX.t

c, e. c. " i~ (0) t) :: 0 ) ~ tl) t) :: 0

I.C.', c(x)o) ':. Co + (c:" -co) cos ~lX)

d. Sol()tion ~Iven by E~s.(13.,~) and (\~.o3)

) tos ---;r-
00

c lx/t) :: Co + ~
1"1 &,
An exp (-nafTa ~t ~
a rl
whe-re Ar. ':oTL f()() cosllfdx
I!)

let's ~va'uate the An with as the '",itial but ion

J:
-Hl() di~tri

A~ ~ t [~o J.icos~X)dx + (c2, -C.) Co~ ,Of') 'os \~~) dX]

267
 =- ,l( a,n j n e. t "e t irs tin t t ~ r a.' ~
f ~
:05 (n¥)dX ~ r/rr sin
IJ
nfl< ~ -:. ,,~ (s/nnfl-Sin
,
oj-:o Sine e n /s ,,.,, inte':fe r.

Fxamifle tile Sec,",Yld intt'jrd.l~

nyx 1
~
j ~~~ ':JS X dx":.o except f~r Y1-:./) where we have)
~

4¥Ht ~) ,+ '. All A. ~o except n ~

; 1t
f, tos" ¥- dx ~ ~ f cos '(1~? l I
frXaO
~

A, ... ..a..r(
...qLCM-0 tl 0 , .
ceI \J~:'C"",-'-O

:. C (Xl!) ~ Co +(c~ - Co) exp (_n1.~) ,oS t¥)

Of' c-c" - exp(-fr'Z.~cosrfT){)
cM- Co - -p:7 \-r

~. c: c,.., at xo;o'
) ella
cW\o--C6 • exp( (l1.0t )
Co - - -p:-

Co;C m at x:~·
C,.,..o-co ~ - tX?(-
) em-Co n1.e
; .
t)

c",-c,.,.. (0 ) ('TTt.ot\
We want ~:e-CM-C': but eM-em':. eM-CO exp,- oR" ~+C~

+(c~ - Co) exp (- 171ft) - Co

~ ~ (c~ - Co) ex p(-n- 1. ~lj

or c"'"c m "! (c~ -c~) exp{-1'r~~i ~

S -:. exp(-n-1. ~i )

268
13.18 Assume that the banding in a
wrought cupronickel alloy (single
ptuse) is described by the cosine 1500~i----~--~----~----~--~
fullction in Problem 13.17. The 1455 0
avuage composition of· the alloy is
10% Ni-90% Cu. and the segregation
racto before homogenization is 1.4.
1400 . L
Segregation ratio is defmed as
S = C!.tt ~. a) What are the
m~imum and minimum compositions
.
~ 1300

-
of nickel? b) In order to homogenize ~
::2
the alloy in the shonest time possible.
t!
what temperature would you select?
e) ]f the average distance between ~ 1200
maximum compositions is 10-2 em. ~
determine the time to achieve a a
residual segregation ratio of 0.1 at
1100
950°C. A diffusion coefficient can be 1085 0
obtained from Fig. 12.9. d) The alloy
is given a "step" homogenization
treatment which consists of 10 hours 1000
I
at 700°C. 10 hours at 800°C and 10 Cu 20 40 60 80 Ni
hours at 900°C. What is the residual Weighl percenr nickel
segregation index after this treatment'?

o
a.. S:. ~
Crno an d Co:' T' (.
eM t emrJ)
" -
CWI- s \.m-:.S
.o ( CO).
_C~- M )
rrJ. a5C, - ~(I'''I)(/O)
·;t\-'+5 - ' L ' U ~1I.'
7
',NI
. .
MalC/murT'l

cm:'
o S ': ..!l!.L2
~ '.~ ':. 1!J31.1"'N·
O. """.,' M",n,mlAYYl

b. SolidtAS ;l'Icreases 1~~~i!0&5": 3.7o·e above 1085'°' fl!Jt' e~ch percent tli content.

:. horno<3eni!e just below /l1t.(JC

.:. FrQm Fi~. l~.~ 0:;. 3.

, XJO -'''I,
m~s· j ~:.().5")(IO
-"I tn) £:0./
t '4)~
t. t.·frJ.... O Ini~1'l''Y33xIO.'''I)
1.
\ C __
;r'\<,-
1'1' D
~ )
1 CO· 5'X 10· I Y'lQ:T
\ --"w"'7' XI() If 5 --...,.
u 38 t..
n

d. D7C() : /,9 )(It)

.15' •
m'S-I)
l2.t...J
~l 17Qo ':.o.O~'7'i

I"
;...goo ~ 5.
e XII) -15m '1.
5
-I
)
Dt \
-pisoo :. 0.0830
,.

D<too ~ ~.I )(/0

.1'4
m' 1~ . \ ) JlL\
1'2. }etoo ~ o· 3aa 'i TOt al ~i : 0·"11 ~
~:. exp(- ~~): exp (-0."113): 0 •• '_
269
13.19 A junction in silicon is made by doping with boron using predeposition followed by
drive-in diffusion. a) Five minutes at llOOoe are required to deposit the dopant. At what
distance from the surface is the concentration of boron raised to 3 x 1018 atoms em-).
Assume that the silicon is initially pure. b) How much boron (per cur of silicon surface) will
have been taken up by the silicon during the deposition step'? c) To prevent loss of boron
during the drive-in step. the surface is masked with silica (SiOa). Now calculate the time
required to achieve a concentration of boron equal to 3 x 1018 atoms cm J at a depth of 6 x
lO..... cm if the drive-in treatment is carried out at 11S0oe.

l.
:-:5 - I) ~(X
rt ,,..
'''V-Dt :,
) t =W
I I...
n) C -: 3xIO
,S 3
3t"1f1S em- )' C~:.,,·
I'
·o-~s
.., ' ..
)
C5 ~ S.1 x/()7.fJ a.:-orns :m-~(Taole J3.1)j D~S'.8XI()-~n"l..h·'(Tab)e /3.3;
18 ;~
:: -cs :. 3x/¢ - 5·/ XI() : o. '1'1'1 ) ~ :. 1.9S'
:, - Cs () - $1 XIO),f> 3.VDt

X,:(J.~S)(~)[(~-'SXIO-~)(/~~'/:,; 0.~71 ""m

ft / ~ Y,2
b.
i'
-;3;-: tr\a (cs-co)(Dt) I/~ ':. trY,a~
.
(s,/xli" a~"'!S)~5.SXI"-~)(7ij Mml ern

*: '1.00 X lOiS atoms eml.

c. Cs :5"xI0;''' (f"~mp4rt~)j D:I.bX/()-Mm'lr,-'; C:3x// 8atoms cm- 3; ;<:'6",(,P11;

; : (ot> 1/.,; -:Q 5'.8.(1,,-4)( ,k ~ '~ -: ,.95' XIO-a,M m (fr() rn part 0.) .
VIP'S -:.--L.( ,.95'Xlp-.2 \ex (_ ,1 I)
5./ x/o JO rr V,.,x//i-'t 1 p ('1X/·'XI()-~t

S.88~XIO·3; (l,~/!.' exp (-~) 5()l'fe by triAl and err()r

t :./"18 h

13.20 By ion implantation, lithium can be concentrated in a very thin surface layer (1~ cm)
on a nickel substrate. After implanting the surface layer. it has a lithium concentration of
1()2° atoms cm-3 • Determine the time at 1000 K for reducing the surface concentration to
1019 atoms cm3• At 1000 K. the interdiffusion diffusion coefficient of lithium in nickel is 5 x
10-8 ema. S-1 •

270
 ~ ()( a ) ~o -, -:z.
f~. (13.~i) C( ) :. (fjDt)~ ''I
)(/; exp • "tOt. ,; j1:,Cjt:Jx: 10 /0 :/0 e¥tottt5 em

• 10
,9
:.
/0'"
• t '/a :. ID
,.,
': O. 0 ~ 5.2 5
Vm)(5XIO-')t.) n-""(SXID-'t'ID'"

_'I
t : t." 37 X/~ 5 very) vO"y Sh~r! t jme

13.21 A cylindrical bar of Fe (dia. of 1 em) is suspended in a well-mixed and small melt of
Mn maintained at 1300°C. Assume that there is local equilibrium at the solid· liquid interface
and calculate the time required to raise the manganese composition at the center of the bar
to 1 wt. %. The interdiffusion coefficient of Mn in Fe is given by

D= 0.49 exp [_ 33 iOO]

with T in K and D in cm2 S·I.
Iron, a/o
o 10 20
15~~1--~~.....+---~--~~--+-""'~--~""'~

2600 •
&&.

-•e•
U

l
.
° .. 1400
~

!
e
• 1300
rL L
12 13
2400
Q.
E
t!
12~ 2200

30 40 50 60 70 10 90 100
Iron, w/o
.6... 5S!,H'ne that the Mn mtlt becom es saturated with respeet to Fe. a.nd

-:her-e is ~~!.Jil;brilAm
J
a.t the melt/solid interfa.Ce.. TIlen C5 (surfa.ce
~.mceVl:ration) jc,; 5'~ ..5''7. MY').

D:." . . .,q exp[- '3&;D';~ :''!.3'i)( IO·'O em \' 5·'

C ... , " M n ') R ':. 0.5 em
Apply Fi~.q.q(Q.) with Bi"'oo()

C - cL ';. 1- 5'.!;· :. 0.98-. • ...Q:L :: o.OS5"

Cj -(!s IJ-5'1·5' ) R1. ,

t::. (o.o~-!') !o:':~~~.JO ': 'T.J~ )( ID" S : '1" cla.ys

(We doubt that anYDne wi II verif y this resuJt in th e. lab~ra.tory.)
271
13.22 A very thin sheet of Fe·O.2 atom fraction B is "sandwiched" between two large pieces
of iron, and then the entire assemble is heated to 1000°C. The sheet is only S x 10-3 cm
thick and at lOOO°C .diffusion bonding occurs as the boron diffuses into the iron. Assume
that the boron is completely soluble and that there is only a single phase. a) Calculate the
time required for the concentration of B to achieve its maximum at a distance of 1 mm from
the original joint. b) What is the maximum concentration at 1 nun? c) At· the time
corresponding to part a), what is the atom fraction of B at the original joint?

Ei.C1!.aa) C ~ .ll~Dt)'" exp(~b;1~JJ~C4~XI

C,1 4X' 1.)(1.. \

:. e ~ a(TYot)"& exl'\- "i:i15't7
a..
~ c: Ax l.)rt ol\{ I\a.s ( 1)(
at ::~)Y:le)(p(~~t L\~01-h -"'I tJ\4t]
*" : ~(-fo )(t)s:a-( ~)( ~ 1~
0 j t ~ fa-

to; (/ y..IQ_~)2. _
_ <"I . .rX/O. )".',XJ""'S
II -=S.o, h
Or"

k . .L(~_ 2r) > oC ~~ j D':~'~)(IO-"Cn»1.5·' (F,,'!./_.ID)

dt - t .~ot ~, dt

. I.
.. ~ot-T ) t ~
~_ .:!yz.
-:r..L2L:.
'"I [) it 0
t -:. c,.,)a
(_)( '1, G)( 'D.i) 'II 10/ I XIIJ "15 : ,.09 "

b. C:. (o·a>(UI6- 5 )
..... , .. t j .. t e)(PL- ~(...5X/O.,t (l.n)(/O~J : ~·,.,aXlo-l ato"l fraa.ion
[-~ 1

Maximl4'" concentrati~ At lmm :. ~.1)c>,..,a Atom fraction

c. at x =0 e_ C,' A)t' S
) • a(n- Dt) 1\ ..- .2[n
(9._)(SX/O· J
('f.5X/O· II){ 1." x IO"~ II" ': o.P 0 'fO atom frltion

272
13.23 A batch of steel exhibits "banding," which is a form of microsegregation in the
wrought condition. The spacing between the bands is 50 JLm. After 10 h of a high
temperature homogenization treatment, the residual segregation index is 0.2 (determined by
electron beam microanalysis). A second batch of the same type of steel has a band spacing
of 100 JLm. How long must this batch be maintained at the high temperature to achieve the
same residual segregation index of 0.2?

s ~ f( D~ 1
Since. co S
iI,:.~)
thO. t. . 1h t~ i50
en-r,r---=rr-) \ O,a:'O,

. t . t I (...b!.)2.
.. a· lo, -
.. (10 h\1 I\ loo,""m)l
50ALrI'I
:.!fO h

13.24 A melt with uniform concentration of solute, Co., is solidified with a planar interface.
Chemical equilibrium is maintained at the interface, which moves with a constant velocity V.
The concentration proflle at steady state, with no convection in the liquid, is as depicted:

CfJO/k

CfJO - - - - - '.....- - - - - CfJO

I x •
a) Use a moving coordinate system with the origin (x = 0) at the solid-liquid interface and
derive the differential equation for the concentration proflle in the liquid.
b) Write appropriate boundary conditions and solve for C(x).
c) Determine the concentration gradient in the liquid at x = O. How does the
concentration gradient relate to the velocity·of the interface?
d) The characteristic length, 6, defmed by

}.o = E.
0 [=-=.
k -C COD
1'
where jo is the diffusional flux at the interface (x = 0). Determine 6 in terms of the
solidification velocity and the concentration gradient at the interface.

273
0.. The ,011 is to dacribe the conc:entrarion profile in die liquid.
Steady-state
jl. + RCLI ••.v - jl.r•.v + RCtI.r

lim - (jl ••.v - jl.) + R (CLI ••.v - CtI.r) _ 0

. .-00 Ax A.r

..... where

j - flux, k& m·l s

x - distance from interface, m
R - solidification velocity, m S·I

CL - concentration, k& m·l

But

J - -D dCL
7Z
where D - diffusion coefficient in liquid, m2 S·I
dlCL + ..!!. dCL _ 0
dr 2 D dr

p. B.C. 's: CL(O) - CoSk

CL(oo) • ~

I
Solution:

C L
COD :II 1 + [1--r
- k) exp [R
-0 x

c.
[4;'1... -c,.[y] [: I a

d. $~ R
1)

274
l:JlS A powder-ceramic compact is outgassed at 500°C in a chamber fllied with pure argon
in order to remove air before sintering. The tortUosity of the compact is 4, its porosity is
0.:2, and the average pore radius is 200 A. The compacts are 50 m.m long x 25 nun
dianeter. Calculate the fraction of air remaining after 1 h of outgassing treatment.

we nee:J D fo't"~:lS ccmpri~in'3 ai~.and aY'~.:>n. From Table ,.,10 VI-:.V(alr):.~o.1

arlO ~ :.1.f(At') ~ 1'./. Then £~. (!~. SLf) 11'yes ~

_ IX 10. 3 \{<7'73)
,.75' -
I I
j!1l
em'· S·/
D,~ - ~J)(:lO.I'/3 +/1..1 ~)" ~8.8'1 + 3ct.Q5' : 1.01

Ch ec l-'\ for Kn IA d sen d iff U 5 jon ~

DK : 9700 r-V~ :(CnDO)(~OOXI()·8)V '773 :~.IOO cm"s·'(maximum)

-%! :./0. Based on this we wi)1 use DI('

.
OK (rninlmlAm);.o./oo
V.g.8"1
Sq.q;- -
-0·//8 cm"s·1
Hence) D,~ ~ Ok' ~ 00/0' em'- 5·'

D(H: 0.; 1M - (o.Jo't)(o·~L r ur')(J _3 cml 5·'

1; - £.f -;-1.7;'; 0
~~Sm,..j
Now wetreat dif{us"on in a. Short cy/'nder
"1
Let C: Concent-rat,'orl of air a.t surface) c_ :o} pl.Ire. Ar. Somm

Initia.l cOr'lcentration) Cj: I) a.11 a.ir. ~ •• -. j

""---------'
1
12.t.... _ (5'. "15' )( Jo· 1X3' (0) .. 3 p.J
..\ a." (..S). - .-)

Jl.t.. .. (So"lf x /()')(34,fJo) ': I~. 6

R~ - (/.2$)1

F,0.,. c.-Cs...
' oS'"w. ,.. ~ d F'c 0
- fJ·(Ji g.n
0,.,.
c·,- CS
C-C$ -
-, C 10,- 'J' 7 ' 7 _ '
S -0

:. AFter I h trea.tment) the compact is comp/etfl,( oyt~assed.

275
13.26 In order to make a transfonner steel with the proper hysteresis loop. a low silicon
steel sheet (2 mm thick) is to be exposed on both sides to an atmosphere of SiC4 which
dissociates to Si(g) and C12(g). The Si(g) dissolves in the steel up to 3 wt. % at equilibrium.
a) Indicate what pattial differential equation and what boundary and initial conditions would
apply in order to calculate the diffusion of Si into the sheet. b) Using the data in Fig. 12.11.
calculate the time to achieve an average concentration of 2.85 wt. % Si at 1255 K.

u. ~C :. 0 0'1.,-. Where 0:. \5 ~ cn~mica\ diHu~;o" COeffl'c,'lent

1t ~x
I)f $1' 'In ~; C:. eDrlCentr4tioy) of 5,') )(: position

with'ln sheet·) t ':. time..

I·C.~ C(x)o):.C; {init1a,\ COlltentration Of Si~:O'r.Si

e.c.'. c(l.,t):.C, (Surfa.ce C01\cttltra.tiotl of Si) :S~ Si

,,-:.\.
~\o

~(o)t):.o
~x

I
b. T~7.9?x/o-"II<-'

Fro", F,·~·'~'//O:'8.~)(IO
-,,! m " 5- I

The. S~llAtior'l we se.e.K ,'s ffOIYl E'1.(13. Ioi3) for the al/cra'le. ecncentraCion:, or

FI'" , 1'3." Carl be used with ao t)(tra..polatio'f'l of the "SIa.h" l..iY'e,

c - Cs :. 6.e5' -3·0 ~ 0.05 ') ~ :: I,I~

:i-C~ O .. s.o L

. 1-
(IXIp-3\ ,
:. t : (1.13) rg.aXI~0:'i"5)': 1.~18XI() S :.3S3 h

276
14.1 A solute is being desorbed from the surface of a melt. The concentration of the solute
varies according to
C-Cs
C.. - Cs = a
[:,l [:J +b

where C = concentration, moles cm-J ; Cs = concentration at the surface; COlI = bulk

concentration; a,b = constants; x = distance from the surface; and 0, = thickness of the
concentration boundary layer. What is the mass transfer coefficient'?

. I
+ b(L) ',k,., ':. Icoo-Cs\
a
c -Cs :. a..lS.. JAX x: 0
Cao-CS r.c it

~
jAX - DA* :. - DA (c.. -C s)[ ~ + ~:" ~

JAl!, l)\~o ~ -DAlc ... -c~)t

t. ~"":. Ds(C ... -C,)I4-:,.A]A
(elO- C,)Sc. S~

14.2 a) Calculate the diffusion coefficient D4.8 for He at 1 aan •

T
zinc vapor diffusing through helium at 773 K.
The atomic weight of Zn is 65.4 g mol-I.
b) Calculate the flux of Zn evaporation if the
vapor pressure of Zn at 773 K is 0.1 atm. 3c:m
Express the flux in mol S-1 cm-2•

Liquid Zn
1-
1
at 773 K

a. parameters .for 4n~

F~.(/~.53.) ~8':.1.I5'Tb -:'(/0/5)(1/79) :'/30'1<

f~. (1:,5"3) +e:. I.q~ T~ : (t,q~)( ,,~.5') ; J330 1{

Use +e tav~.) ~ 15~3 k ) Ta.ble .a.q (j-'=o,5' (~.Stt+~·5J) :t2.5'S'A

Paramete,r5 tor He ~

Table. 1·1 ~:. 10. aa K ') ~':. a,!'ol A

K~

Para.mete.ra for ~as mixture.

•
tt'AS : o.~(a.IS5'+~·$"~/) ":,2,S'SA

+. :V('3Li3)(Jf).~;') ': 11'7 t< 'J T" ':.llT ,,11; ':. (' .• 1
277
 n . ,.O.OJ. + 0./ ... "0:iWPJ__ ..
.. (4.,,)&·156,6
j

D,~, e~p (O.Ii,?..,!)('."'l] ex

~ O,7C:Y~

~
..L 1.. • (0.00 5'8 rna ~... \)~
~. • 2.POI 15'8& I I.
E (/ a.56) 0•• - w. - P("Aa)".J'I.O,AI
'i
(ilIA +III.) - \I Ha.s S)~ (M46 450'\ ~...
...L- + ...L

Orn-Ht ":. ,!,cu em's·' ': ~,q~"/O·"'maS-'

.t 0
X. "XI \- o.et
b. Let Ao:!V-!on vapor And 8* HI ~ E',.(I'fo/~) (x,) I" '; 'rl(X.%i) :"1_ LL \ ~ O.qLiq
C .. ..L .. \·Q"aXIG'N 1 mOl k\
.. RT ..
\'1
nt'l S,'I'i 'J' "" lK , /'II tr\
:. 15.', mol m- I

M (1'f.IS') N : CDa (Xao-&t~~;. (If!7'){~'.X,o..'f)(Oi'-o)''il "XI(J."mole&~-'

" Ncll(:o (~I)'n ~ J (0.''1')(0'0') ...

NAXIK':O : a." tltr~ Mc71f6 mea s·'

14.3 Silicon can be grown by the chemical
vapor deposition of silane (SiH.) , Given a ----..... pure SiH4 (g. 1 atm)
system in which silicon grows from the
bottom of an inen crucible as shown adjacent,
predict the growth rate of silicon. Assume
that at the gas/silicon interface equilibrium is
1
.5 em
established according to the reaction Crucible _

SiH4(g) = Si(s) + 2Hz(g),

dia'mID
1
Si(s)
with the equilibrium constant given by
Z
PHZ
K -
- -P- I O -4 •
SiH.4 -

It is also known tbatDHz.SiH4 = 1 cmz s·tJ and the terr)pera..ttJrf.'~ '700\0(-

Assume e~tJil ibrium at the \(Apor-li~uid if"lterfa.ce

'" ':. 10.... .

l< ~...fia a\ So PHa + PS\ H" -:. \ a.tm •
PSiH ..

ObViol)sly the ~a.s \5 very d\\l.Ate in Hot) So P~a ,::,o·a atm

o 0
)(Ha ~O'OI and XSi~'i:'O.qq

Because. the ~4S is So dilute) we can writ~ the flt.t)C Of H.lI~) a~

.I
J..,:. -D~
a
I
. .(
.t
"\ :.-DC)Ce-X"
1
0 • I Ic#
:..Lo;.."OI'?,tIO
~1 (e.'31'i)('700)
~
~1'7.iofl vnol rn- 3

278
 jl.!~ :'(IXIO·"f){11.'tI)~O'~I_-..Ol ~ !."ISX'ID-'" mol 5-'

The stoic.h'iornetV"'( Df tne. reac.tion re~uire5 jSi ~ J:a.':.1.7'i)(/O-~m"l s·,

The ~rowth rate. ~

Aft ~
dt
).'1'1 IC1 f"YP\Olli 8 . 0 '
S I mo\
~\) \<,.
ICDOg
I yo'!
a!OO\<~
-:. ".I~X lo·q rn 1 ~-'

ft. (~)(~"!X/O-q) -:./'08x/o""ms-' ~ IDB.M.m s-'

dt - to')(5'x/o-') 2.

T~\I'5 hypothetical prDblem "i"t.5 a. Y"ate whic.h i5 ~ to"! times qr~acer

ty,an fo.und I~ prac,tiee.

14.4 Consider diffusion through a stagnant gas as in Section 14.1; however, in this case the
gas is not isothennal, but rather temperature varies according to
T - To X
~~:!!'"= -
T, - To t'

where x and t are indicated in Fig. 14.1, T is temperature, To is the temperature at x = 0,

and T, is the temperature at x = t. Assume that D,u varies with temperature according to
Eq. (12.49); i.e., D,u = AT312 and A is constant. Obtain the concentration proftle which
gives the mole fraction of A (XA ) as a function of distance up the tube (x).

St ar-t with f"q.

,
I~. e -J-f Dde dX,J -
C
oXLI-XA ax] "0
p .
c:.~ but T varies W',th x) as does DA

-L rr:A8 _1_ dXA1: 0

dXLT l-XA dxJ

In t e~r3.te and sub st i t (..\t e. ~ -:. AT Ita.

1/a.(~ \ ll&.. .
T \ 1-'XRl dX - c, '/a
but T:. (T.A.-To)tt-T~) Tl/a -:'[(~-To)j-tT~

~ ':. c.
(I-)(~ -r;~T.A. _T.)(~)
dx
0 l(
+T;1J
Ila

279
 I"te~ ra.t e. .sqai n

-In(I-l(A) ~~:}.~TrT.)t +Tf to C.

or
Ivd,- XA ) ':\
r, To) T)C.
c.I L(lj- l'a
+T~ + c~

at Tx ·1. X".)
:'0 J X" t &, ) X,,:. XA .t

In ( \ - XA0\I : CI To
"1. If).
I i" Ca ) In (J - XA - c, I r. '-11 1" c,I
c'_ln(I-X,;)-ln(l-xl>_ , In(l-'l.l)
,- To'lJ. - tr'~ "'10"'- iliA t
'-X'i
and 0 A)
c' - 1,.'( J-Xft ). In {,-X,
~ - C'TI/\, • c'T-'1A
• 0 t .t

14.5 Derive expressions for diffusion through a spherical shell that are analogous to
Eq. (14.12) (concentration profile) and Eq. (14.14) (molar flux).

-:.xl'
rt
Q. B.C. ~ at r:R~) x", ':. x; j 'f":.RI, xA

F/!AX Of A is NAT"':, XA (NAt tNsr) - C DA , ~l

I r.- 0
"'0

At st~ady state. Nar : 0 a.nd ~ ~ ~~

lr ..
Tne.refoY'e) '''Ar'' - .£.1?A...d2t"
\-XA dr (I)

Ma s s bOola-nee on A ~ ~ 1r r a NAY'\ ~ Lt". 1"'2. NAr\

r r+4r
<'t 1r (r N 1 Ar ) :. 0

. ..,.2. N"f"-:" C. or)D"'t' substitutinta

.•
(I» 'f';
\- '"
~
<1r
':. c.
m -ck
I-X" - r1. 1

\n tl-x,,):c'V+Ca From the. bounda.r\{ conditions'.

In tl-x/) :1to + Ca
I", {I-)(,,-) ':.t +ea
In I ...
I-X;'.
xt -:. C (I\To + 1t
' )
I

'I':
, + Rl
(R; ')-' \n I-X:
\-xl. ) C;.O: 'n (\-XA0) - To
C

In(I-)(A):: CIt- + \n {I-X~)- C'fl;

\" tl-'I<A) ': CI~~ - i;)+ \n{I-)(~n
280
 ' )_' I ' - X:l (' I)
To + 1ij'""
\ n I - XA .. ( '
I-Xl'I - n\=XA '"F' - To

To obtain the f hA)( a.t r: Ro

~•
dr·
C (
I
x)
I - A -pi ) dr
I ..d.M) \'": Ro ': C\ (I -
- -
xl)

Then NAr \ .0
_
- -
~
I-X 0 c.,
(I-xl)
0 \0
I'"
or NAY'T':.i _-C, evA
1'\
r. "t A "0 0_

C De. \ •
R1 f. I +.L)
I-XA
.'. N Ayo- \ T' ~ h I- 'XA~
R.t
.0 -
0:. ... 0 0 \Ro

14.6 Liquid flows in one direction. from x = 0 au

to x = L. with a velocity VAt. Because of the
IIno-slip" condition. the velocity of the gas along yL
the surface y = 0 is also VAt. When the gas z Vjf
z-L
crosses the plane at x = 0, its concentration of A Liquid
is uniform and constant, CA.' However, at
y = 0 and 0 S; x s; L, its concentration is C:.
Assume steady state. a) Write a panial differential equation for ~~(x,y) in the gas. b) Write
boundary conditions for CA that are needed to solve pan a). c) Solve for Cix,y).

o...Assume fUlly develop~d f'~w and Vy :'0- PIs, diffusion in '1'-dn"ection

·a~ \~. ~~~
. t ts)
dom1r,:i So ..~r.aw
, ... ~»~S
d\e. c;x7. 0 we r:e~ I"'~
ec~ ~x. t

~
Vx ~ x - D,., d Y.1.
- t'e",

b. c" ( 0 /"f) :. c.,c 0()

o
CA ()C,o) :. c~

c.,., (..x I ~) : CAoO

V€lo~'I~Y var,"es frornYII\ at '(:0 to Vx =0 at y:.oD

C. For short contact time) we approxima.te V;< -:..V".. (co,.,stant). Then the
Sol ut io't'l "5 E~. (,At· 3B)·

~8-C~o - er~ y
CAeII-CAo - ~ (PAX)
VM

281
14.7 At lOOO°C metal A is soluble in liquid B u
but B is not soluble in solid A as shown in the o
...:
pertinent pan of the phase diagram. A 5 cm
1000 I d>..
diameter cylinder of A is rotated at
1000 revolutions per minute (rpm) in a large melt
of 0.5 atom fraction B at lOOO°C, and it is noted
that after 15 minute's the bar diameter is 4.8 cm.
For the same temperature. estimate the bar 0 0.20 Atom fr.Action 8
diameter after 15 minutes if another 5 cm diameter cylinder of A is rotated in a large melt
of the same composition. but now it is rotated at 4000 rpm. By analogy with Eq. (14.78)
assume that
Sh == (constant) Se 0.343 Re \/1
R R '

where R is the radius of the bar, and the velocity in the Reynolds number is the tangential
velocity of the rotating bar.

The melt 'f B is Jarqe er1ou9 h thdt as the sohd A diSSoh'€s) the

Compos iti"" "f 'the mel: does nlJt cnanc:e.

jA-:.kMIA(C:-c.f) where C:~c()ncentrati"n ofAinthe rr.€\t a.t the SA

in !erface and C~~ 0 b€cau se the melt is lar'g e .

For tr. e two case s) cl - t:.ll.oO remai n s the Sam e.

J~
4A..
:. k~.AI
k,..,),,~
bu: k ""I
'r<M,A.
AI :..ihJ. :. (h.lli
Sha \ ReRaJ
1/01
:.. ( 1000,'\ v~-
'7000 -.a
_I

For 5ma~\ chan~es "n diameters a.nd with "the same times) the chdn~€s Il"\

d i ~m €! erare proport,'onal 1:0 the. +lux e s:

He.1c e.) tg; t '!.. ~r (j D2. ':..;1. tJ D, ': ~ (o.~) ': 0-'1 em
:. D.(Q~te", 15 mil"l.): "1.41 em

14.8 Use dimensional analysis to show:

a) Sh == !(Re, Se) for forced convection;
b) Sh == !(Gr, Se) for natural convection.

a.. 'The fUY'lctiona..1 relationship is k'm ':.f(V,D) PI~) x) whel"'e )( is the

~eomet","cal term. 1he d"mensi~ns "f eac.h are'.

V'.le-') ~:ML:'\ krt'\~ le-') n~ ",,\:1&-') D: ~8-') x·.L

282
 There are 3 .fundamental l.lnitS :' 3 pr;,nary var'"iables.

Choosin~ ~)D)X 4S primary variablt5 (arbitra.r,{)ihen k,rtJVAre the

second ar-y variable s,
.
Formlf"l'3 t"" , rr k -=> _=-l..:9~·'~_~_~
"e. TT 5) , ~ ~~D"xC (ML.~)Q.(L~9-I)b{L)e.
L', I:; -3~ +2b +c.

M~ 0 ~ (l.. Tht..tS) ~:o) b:l) c:-/ and TT, :.¥ SherwDpd No,

8: -\ :.-b

Similar-Iy) 1'f~ -=-fr; Schmidt No.

TheV'! TT~':.1f-' T)',,'s i~ not reeo~niaable a.$the. Rtyno'dSN~.) but

In spect'!on Shows tha.t the. aimens.i~nS of 1) a.nd V are both lae-I) and

theref()re) subseitlAt'ton Ot V forl) inlTlI wi'll result in a.V'lothe.r

dimensionless Y'llAmbtr, TI'; : ~ Re.ynOlds Np,

b. The fttndamenta, Y"tlationsh1p is kW\":'H~)~)f)")~) ~C)X)- ~':.(~)t

~c~ Ml-\ ~~ le-~) X~ L )krr\~ lS-I) 1>'. L~9-', ~'. MI..- 1 ) y\', MI..-'S-' J ~: ""'-'1..3

There. are 3 fundamental unitS·,', 3 primary v!:ria.ble$,

C~ooSin~ ~)Yl)X a5 prima.r'1 va.riables) 'then \<M)~) 'D)~) AC. a.re th~

Se c.onda.r-y varia.bles,

F . t'" \ N km __ .,..-...!'-:..:e~-~\:----~~:---
orm 'n~ fIe Tr $) "I:' ~"rtbXC ..,. (""L-,)o.(""'L.'&-')~ LC
I
l'. ):.-3a.-btC'

M'. ·j-:'O,+-b Th '..A t: ) a ~ - ') b:. I) C: - I

~~ -l:.-b
CI a
K f.h, v."
j 5i m
\ ~ e p• ~ ~~ 'IT _ ~x
'3
"7. ....
0
x •
.• II,..
' -f"'I' - L
Y\
\" :. ~
)J ."''' Y 11_: ~ \ ) I.!I ":. ~)
"1.'1'-1 .
"t - Y 2. )

"'" _ AC
115 --V-

8y ir"lspection} ft! ~ Schmidt NQ.) and) as fn (a..)) Swiostitution Of

o for V in IT. wi IJ 'f'es\'(lt in. 'fI', ':. S'nerwoQd No·

283
 The rema',n,nC3 th'f'ee diWltn5ion\ess -rr's may be multiplied

.
to~tth~r to ~btai\"l a)'lother dimen5i~nless number'.

1T.- fr'1'1l's t
~ rr, ':. (~e)( ~x1.l)( ~) ':. ~ s ~ x3 :. tzr as h 'ff NQ' fC1r ma. ~s
tY'&nsf e r.

14.9 Levitation melting is a means of

supporting a metallic melt by an
electromagnetic field. No impurities are
01 10 Induction coils
added in melting and operation under an inert
atmosphere removes dissolved gases. At o I ~ 10
1920 K and °1 attn hydrogen pressure, the o01 ~ ~:i:d iron drop,
solubility of hydrogen in iron is 31 cm3 per
100 g of iron. Estimate the rate at which

i
hydrogen can be removed from a levitated
drop of iron that initially contains 10 ppm in I~ Vycor tubl:, 13 mm
the set·up shown to the right. Assume that no
convection occurs within the iron drop, and Pure argon, 3 m S·l
that the gas temperature is 1920 K so that
Eq. (8.11), in mass-transfer form, applies.

,;~~; -:.a.c+o.c.o(cl8~oof;'"i/. Sc'

Yo
This is 1:<t.(S.I1) in mass trans-ter terms)
''''Ith the. diameter written a.s ;.R to 8.\loiO Confu.siDn with th-e..
diffusion CDefficier'lt, OAe'

Solubilit'( of l:i in 'Fe with PHa~la.tm.

eli':. ;)1 LW-rr1.\'i>'Qlb'!2J'!Ic"l,mp,nilt I;.rnolli :.1.qObx/o·lfmo\H cwi\'t

- ..... '" r::"" 11'_& r:"11 ........ ,u. I'Wll IL (('To\ 1 mol Ha -

rroM tl'1is we obtain ~uil,brium constant,\() Tor the react'lon ~ Ha(~):J:i

:.7t:a ': '·CfObxlo·"m~11:I. crrt'

X-
where .ti repte se.t\,ts dissolved h'(dro~ en· K til? ~~ ppm If)
0 \rp;-.~.
liquid HI ~-:.l.!.iLm <>'f'" P~~:'O.I~,a.trt)
_ _ PH.o ':. 0 10 fpm ~'·H ~pm
1.

284
Ma.t&~ tra.nsit'" in tht SAS phO,S,-

J( "'1)\")
5 :kMA(C~a-C~)= (wt(?:\.-p~::)
Diffy.siQO coef:£icient) e" (li.S'''t)
"5 ~
DA - (IXlC{')( l'i_o)' ('
& - (/H7'01l1\~14.1''i)a. 3ct.<t5+TJ:~o."iem a. s· , 1 '\
-:.a,o'lx/o·'imi s• J

yrscOs'lt'( (depends on CQmposition of ea.5~

P)i,1 (a.v~,) ;. t (0,151 + 0) :. ~, 5''1 X10· a cit m·

:. X,H;:'O.()6S'1 and XAr';.O.q3'1o~rt:.nMllC-::::XHaYl.H.+XArY1Av-

r=i~. 1.1 can be lAsed for estirna.tinq the vi~c.ositie.s Of H3, and Ar.
Then VI. ~ (o.OI.5'''I)(3xlo-I.f)t'(o.q!~.)(7.ax/o·~)::."qlxIO-I.fP:. "liIXlo·5'N s m-.

Den S'It.¥
M (a,,~. mol. w~t.) ~ (0,01>:'-"'1)(;') ~ (o.q!'1~)(~,.q5) : 3'7.~1 ~ mol-': '3"1"'11)(/0-· kC] mol-I

,· ... '''' .. ''111 "1 .. •... • O.;'376N~II:r

~ - -I>-I - , III'U? I II
.p-" _- m"'J' IN1'tI

:. O. ~ 3'78 k~ m· ~ ~ -. 3 '7 8 x JD - '" 9 em - ~

Sc:,bmi at No.
S - JL - ',ttl XfO·S' - 0
C - DA& - (o,~3'18)(d..O"x /o·3r ,,..,,
Now we have eno~qh data. to evall.\ate. the. Sherwood No. and the. ma~s

tran£fer coert1'cie"t.
Sh :. d.1<!:'I R ':ta.o + 0, 00 [ U? "tXJD-~ )(3) ( O,;/378~~
l (0,1'1 t) v.a : 1;.5''1
DA~ (~.~IX/O-S) ...j

,'. k,.....:. (~'S''4~(~o.,,) :"1~6 em s·':.. ,.l1b m 5·'

In it. i al rat e.. of loss Of bydco~en

_\j.d.£~ -:..lsa8 (p.,o _ P:) where V is volume of oroplet·

cit RT \"'1. nQ

'Tnen ~~li :.(~;~ e) (p~~ -f~7): ~ :. +:. ~:l mn'l ~~, ~'lS em· I ~ q 37.5 rn- I
285
 ~~l!:._ Itt'!"!,.. ___ ... __ /"61.~~ 1.". __ .J93.!·5"I(C,/3/-0)Q.tm
.:_,.I'lX/fIlOII,m_". 1''3!:!I'K! J/O"".'Yf'1f1 ':./f,S ppm s·'

dCtf
dt ~.".5" ppm $"'

NotIce thdt: t.h'" is an e.xtreme Iy rapid rate. This t~lIs "$ rha t en e m4 S!

tra.nsfe.r in the. qas phase is very hr~h) ana the rate lirn"tin~ step

WO~ Id be the maS5 t r a r1 sfer fn th e Ilfu.iJ. In thi $ prD/)Je.n?) we. a,s$ume

no c.onve.c.t;c,., in the. drop, Sf) that /()5' ()f nydrofJen r, by diffusian

ol")/y.

Exa.mine Che m&SS tran~fer Bj number. Est/md."te Dtol ':.I()-S't() It/"'I

em'" 5·' in the ,,"fGl.id.

8; (tr1IiJC):' k;R ';. (/~o)(~O,3_) ~ "I,' 7 XIO'

",., H 10·

B'·NI(Mi,,):. '1.'7XI()~
For certain, the. ct:mcentratlan In the liil.,fI'd cit the interface. drops

al",cst immedlately tf) ~ero) c,orreSptmding to PH:,:PH"';:aum.

Therefore) rl9' ,~., a.pplies,
To drop the a.vera~e Ccmc.,,,traticf) Of .tt in tb. drcp to 'ppm, Wt. have.
c-cs ': 1-0 ':.O./~ rhus O"t -::'0 •• &.\
Ci-C!I /0-0 R'l

t ':.(",a",)'o ..~~)l. or (o.;t'f)(O.3~)"

10· 5 10·'"

S6 a~o (t<. ;"16 0 5 depcndinca on Ot!,

286
14.10 Hydrogen gas is being absorbed
frtlm a gas in an experimental set-up shown
in the figure to the right. The absorbing AllllllillulD runftin.

T
dOWlllb.WlII
lic:pid is aluminum at 1030 K which is
falling in laminar flow. with an average
velocity of 2.5 mm S-I.
What is the hydrogen content of the I
allll1linum leaving the tube if it enters with a
no hydrogen'? At T == 1030 K and 1 atm
hydrogen pressure, the solubility of 1,.~., s.. rf'~ct conccftlnlion
UIIIIIIecllO be equal
sal.rallon conctlllDllon
10 Ih.

hydrogen is 1 cm' per 100 g of aluminum,

the density of Al == 2.5 g cm-3, and
DH == 1 X 10-9 m2 S-I.
t

At' /03Jk) Yl: 3.7XIO- 3 Nsm-Z. (S'~""'H.-S070A"')h~./'7)

F,'JrfI thi:'l(ness) from 1:). (';;',1'1)

('l. _ ~- ... D,?

I I s
XI" - '! N s 1.1 m 31 ~'S'XI()- 3vr): 1)3 -, 2-
() - ~~ I ml. ~.8J m a~oo k'~ S' XII) m

Now evaluate D~ L ~;l. PAL ':. --1,x,o-"m1.\o./.aS'm\ ~ s

~iVMA)( :3 ~l 'it 3 9 (J.13><IO·Q)am a,SXJO-Sm
:.a,./xlo" Lonl3 time solution is in order.
-I. 0 r j
E:~,(I'1.Li'f) ('~-c,\ ;0.795'7 e.xPlJ-S.Ja/3)(-,./.l(IO'~-='0
o CAl - CA

-L 0
CA -- Cit

ForH.;(1):.~.t1> j(:.I cm'3 pe. r loo~ofAl at I atm.

,~t PH. -:"0·5 atm:, -I..

Cit :c,..:
0 (
't<.?W,a)
~'1 r; J ~;a~(),7f)7. em 3 per
:'L(I)(O.5~ laoS of AI
-L -s
CA ':::.'7X/~ wt. Pet.

14.11 When ceramic oxides are used to contain molten metals, they can dissolve and add
undesirable impurities to the melt. This is especially true when melting is done under
vacuum. For example, magnesium oxide decomposes (slowly) according to

MgO(s) - Mg + Q.
where the underlines indicate that the elements are dissolved in the melt. The equilibrium
constant for the reaction is

K =C M• Co = 10-6,
where CM• and Co are the concentrations (moles per cml of melt) of Mg and 0, respectively.
287
 a) For flow parallel to a plate of MgO, calculate the average mass transfer coefficient for
Mg dissolving in the melt. Assume that CM, = Co. For x < 0, CM, 0 in the melt =
and Vo. = 3 m S-I.
b) What is the average flux of MgO dissolving in
the melt? Melt properties: p =
8000 kg m-3; MgO ,j
k = 50 W m- 1 K- 1; Cp =
840 J kg- I K- 1; ,., = F! ~
1.24 X 10-3 N s m-1 ; and Do DM, = 5 x 1~ = • L-3m •
m2 S-I.

~- n. _ ,. ;. ~ X 10 -~.q ':. 3\
~.
Sc ':. 0 - '"'fD - (8ooo)(sxlo )

ReL, ':
\.. VfIIO
n.
e _- ('~){~)(~ooo)
I.~~ x
_
5·81
10') - X/I)
?
The flow
.
IS tUY"bl.A lent so Wf! shce.( Id tI se.

the. maSS tran'Sfef" e~u ivalent of Ef. (8.")·

0.8 II! )0. e Va S'
Shl.: 0.0'3"1 ReI. Sc a ~ (o·()''')(~·81)(IO''! (31):: )·Ict~xlc

k", ~ (/. S'tox IOS)+:, (I,S,O )('6S)(5xl"·~) ': 3.' S)( 10-'4 m 5. 1

b. CM~::C() a.ndO&':~,.,ca 50 we canca.lculate eitnerfllAx,

. v
JM~ -:. I'M
(I'"''''1
0 C.o) b '-4t
- ~~
oCo
C~
. :. 0 il
CN\, ':./0-
It
:.
•
CM, : If)
- !
m~1 ~ m' a
j~ ~ adS-XlO·"! 'P I(10. 1-0) moL_~4 ! 3.I5"x 10·'1 r1Io/ ~, ",-as·'

14.12 A common procedure for decreasing the hydrogen content of a melt is to allow
bubbles of an inen gas (viz., He) to rise through the melt. Assume that Eq. (8.11), in a fonn
suitable for mass transfer, applies. a) Estimate the mass transfer coefficient from the melt
to a single bubble for the removal of dissolved hydrogen. b) Will the overall kinetics of
hydrogen removal from the melt depend on mass transfer in the liquid, in the bubble, or
both? Justify your answer. c) Derive an equation that can be used to calculate the
concentration of dissolved hydrogen as a function of time. Data: bubble diameter. 2 mm;
melt density, 7000 kg m-3; melt viscosity. 2 x 10-3 N s m-2; diffusivity (bydrogen in melt),
5 x 10-9 m2 S-I; and diffusivity (hydrogen in gas bubble), l~ m2 S-I.

:1 1/
r~. (B. 1/ ) in ma S~ Crans f'!r f~"m is Silo : ~.o +0· 60 l?er} SC 3

0.. SC-O H
_.lL. : .lL _ a.x,{'J N 51 -- m~1
~Cl'j- m:'7000k~sxlo·"m~NS'l.-S?1
s I k'1J'11 ..

For 'Joe "'Ie can not: ~se SC:okeslla.w·, Use F,·ca.3.~.A5S!.{me f:o.y

r8R~(~-~~as~ Ij.:r(6)(O.06/)(9.8 1)(?D06)~ Ila.... ().~S, m S·I

Then 'fIX) ':i
I-
3f ~ l (3)(o./.f)(7000)

288
 Re -: CV..o~-:.. (~.D()d.)(O.~S6)('iCO(;) :/.79X/fJ-3
"Y\ ~XI(;-~

:-te"c~1 :i5$Umpt:'on that f:~.~ is sat,·sfactory.

'I. 'Ii
..
~h",: ;..0 +(O.~O)(/.?'tXI()-3) 2(57.1) '-:Q9.8

. .kMJl ':. ~'M~::=). k ~ (qq'!>1 (5x/o· Q) m1.! ':. a."'I'tXIO-'t m 5·'

., DM "" S 1.1:o"-~m

kH! ~ ;'.'1,\ XJ(/'" m s··

b. eiM '::. '-<toll
Dli 0 ':.
L \n
,; •..,,, XIt)'" ml GI x/Q·:" m
~h" 5
Iw'm ~ . ~.1' x '''~
S.1
.

Th;s indicates that even with no cClnyectjon 'In the. bubble (unliKtly),that

tf1e rate of diffusion 'In the blAbble. 'IS very hiC3h.Therefore.) mass
trans';e r is not \,'mited within the bul>ble itself. The overall kinetll~

are cQnt'f'oll~ by m.;ss transfer in th~ 11·~lAid.

C. (t118,SS tranSfer af n-,(d't"O<3el')) '::. (~ecrease of hydrc<3enj

(C. rom melt to tht b~hble ) lIn the. melt \

oIJ
I toO ,.~) dCH
KMA,c.14 - '"jol '" -\j dt
W~u·~ kHl -:. Mass traYlsfer coeffJctent in the \i~uid
A: slAf"f ace area. of the bubble.

V: VO\OrYIe. of the melt

CH':I!I:. "~n.:entratio'() of l:::f in the melt) mol m- 3
c~ ': ,:"r1.::ent'f'aticn 0; tf at the oL.tbble/melt ·Ir.:'erfa.;;) mal m-!

CH~ ~3.n be 3eterrn;)1ed from t'ne thErm~d'(namic.s 1'r)volvir1~ the

press\..\re of hydr-o~en in the bubble and the appropriate €~ui;;brj'.AlYl
constant· In turn the pressure in the bubble as it rl'ses thraL4~h tne

me It w; II be controlled by tnt ma $5 tranSfer of hydro~en I'n the. me It,

Hence) c~ will cha.n~e as the b~bble rises. A numerical S4lutioF') is
rEquired)in order' Co est/'mate the hydr"'3en r-em..oved "'rom the. melt
,) I

when the bubble I eave 5 th€ me It.

289
14.13 Consider an electrodeposition process that is
controlled by mass transfer at the anode. Calculate the • - Cuanode
average mass transfer coefficient for the dissolution of the
copper anode assuming that the process is controlled by
the flux of cupric ions .. Assume natural convection and
an isothermal solution. Data: Mole fraction of Cu2 + ~
ions at surface is 0.05; in the bulk it is 0.01. Properties ~
of solution: p = 1200 kg m-3, ." = 2 X 10-3 N s m-l t

D = 5 X 10-9 m2 S-l, and ~ = 4.

1 .:c

G-rM::I3'C,{.)(~
~
-xAG6 ) '""\JT: 11- -3
V:. E> ~ @,x../~A -:'1."7~/o·l.m7.s-1

Gr~':. '1·$1 rtllJ:fIO,O,+! /)

(o.~~ m
~
s'L :.J,S;'SXIO'o
sa. (1.,,7x/o·'J"'m"t

S c -..JL- /.t,,7xIO·" - 333

- 0 - 5 x 10· , -

ASSume low mass transfer So that heat transfer ::!orre/at/on is

appli c a.ble to ma S S trans fer. /)$e sect.i(Jn 8.3 w/th approp r i ate

chaf1ge Of dimens;on/ess va.riables.

3r",,' Sc. :. 6-'078 XIO/~ ~ 10910 ($or,..,· Sc :. 13.7

Use Fi'f. e·8 /·t:XfIO Sit ~~. 90 ~ Sh: 7Qo

• ~, 7'10 • L- - (?90)(SXltJ'~) - 1. 2 X IA-=-. 5-'

•• D - • "N\ - (0.3) - OJ ,., ,.,

14.14 A schematic diagram of a vapor-phase epitaxial growth system is shown.

RF coils
000000000
J
-
-Si Wirer
' - - • Exhaust
~ Susc:cptor )
000000000
Assume that the reaction at the surface is

SiCI.(g) + 2H2(g) = Si(s) + 4HCl(g)

290
 a) Sketch the concentration of each gas species as a function of the venical distance from the
sil:i:on s'l:.d'ace. b) Assume two dimensional flow (rectangular coordinates) and constant p and
D for all species in the gas phase. Give an appropriate equation of diffusion for HCl(g) in
an isothermal system, Also give the momentum equation. c) Select an origin and write
bo1Lndary conditions that are appropriate for the equation of diffusion, with the intent of
pre:licting the growth rate of the epitaxial silicon.

o
S iii ~o d CHe I
.
..
(;.a s
C. ~2

... C. SiC1 ..

)(-:.0
c;, ::0

I~ ~
PrOGuct must be. ~eac.ta.nts mu-st b~

tran sported awa..,. from tran sport e.d to the.

the interfa.c.e interfa.c.e.

Flow pa..st fla.t substra.te.let CA:' concentration

V)f'~+V"..2SA. -:."
"~x 'dY II
teA.
dYA •
ASS(.tmptior)s _.stea.dy sta.te
• ~e"st.A.nt- PY"().~rtie5
'Ct )( PI/Ii""'"
5, wa,er
j
• I~no,..t ciiU'-4sion in dlreetion of
,low
•~nort ¢'l. 1./)(
~)(1..

The momentur1'l e~ua.t;OYl

.,.
V)( ov" 1'{ -:. V AJ!!
oX +Vy ~ ,,'flo

:. CA(O)'() ': C: (upstre.a.1'r\ Conee.ntra.tion of Hel)

C,.. (x)o)::. c~ (e1ui /. c·one. of He/ at the so".dlqaS intef'tace)

CA (x)oO): c;

291
14.15 Boron fibers for composites can be Substrate payout
made by running a very fine tungsten wire
(12.5 J,Lm dia.) through a reactor tube that is
continuously fed with a gas comprising 20%
BCI) and 80% H2• The substrate wire is Oases in
heated electrically and causes the gases to react
and deposit boron. Assume that the reaction is

BCI)(g) + Jh H2(g) - B(s) + 3HCI(g).

and is controlled solely by mass transfer. The Variable

standard free energies of formation are de supply

AGO (HCl) = -22 240 + 1.53 T. cal grool-I;

AGO (BCI) = -96 560 - 12.35 T. cal gmol- I.

a) Pick a substrate temperature for depositing

the boron. b) Estimate the mass transfer
H : ; ] Ouaout
coefficients for the reactants and products.
Which species will control the overall HI electrode
deposition rate? (Fo.r a' discussion of the
technology and applications of these fibers see Filamalt take-up spool
M. E. Buck. Advanced Materials and Progress
In Meral Processes, 9/87. pp. 61-65.)

a.. t H.{~)t- t C,,,(<!) ---+3~CI (~) ~&:.':,.3(-.1c1)IP"D +-1.S3T) (I)

6(s)+ -\-CI"l~)~8C\a(~} AG:~-q5jS,o-/;Z.35T (.)

SU b'tra.t:.t (,\-(a) ~ tHa(ci\) + 8C'~ (ca) ~ 3Hel (ca) +a(~ AG·: ~e)s",o +/I,.CfIofT
:t11'la.,it')e. a tiny ru.etor At 'the ·Intt.rfa.ee.
(0.'- ~ n) M4I1 Hl
0.8 "'01 Ii", (o.a - n) mol 6(.1,
0,_ m.t Bels 3n Mol~"

6t.fort rea.(tion I~ ~ n mot total Aftt.r Y"ta.c.tion

\..et ,,~MO' eel!) rea.c.ted ~Qmf'9sitiQn after reaetjoo

-t r! : mol Ha -re&Gted X&el,:' I +

o.J,-n
tv,.
3 n :. ~I He! prod uced '" 0.& - 30/..
Xu, , .... n/...
XMe, ..-...an
_.
\+
292
 TD deei~e on a 'temperature) 'We. use. A&o:-RT'n K) cal m~l-I

With R~I.q87cal mor'!<'-'j InK:-li"ei~+,·,qI:fT):- 1"4>:rfI4 -a.5'~5'

• .,. _ _ I~) 5'1 '"
•• I ..

I" I( + 8. S'« 5' ) To ~et a positive tempera.ture In K<-9.5aS

1!L~ 1;'1<

- 8. "00 1.'J'1X/DS" The meltin~ point: of boron is a!o3 '<, So we.

-10 QS"tO need. T<iil3031<. Notlc.e that asT decrea.ses;

-,- '1/S0 k dec.reo&ses rapi'ly. Hence, the va.lue of

-1"1 a" 5'1 PHCI at tl1e inter,ic.e. a/so deerea.ses w(th

- 10 ,q"t~ dec:re&.Sin~ T· A, PHC:\ decreases the ma,s
-I! 15"'';' tr-anSfet' al so dec.rea.se, So we sh"ulJ

select as hifdh a tempera:ture as pOS$i ble wIthout meltlng the.

boron· Use IQ5ol(,
b. F,'rst we should ca.lc.u\a.te the. compo,itron ()f the '3a.S cit the.

interface) which rs a.ssumed to be the e~ui';brium compOSition.

In/<: - Ij,51" -8.5'.15' ~ K:. ',J'~KIO-"

,Q5'O

K-
( an )'
H· 'iVA
- (Ot a... " v.
0.&- !nlt
.- (3n)
.. " .. i/, )• n'::: a.sI XIC) ... mo \
\ \. n/a)\ I + "Va

:.At the. \nt&rfa(t.~ Xec1a ":O·IQQI

xHa '; o."q&~

XHcl -:. O·()OI.51'

at the
+
I.ook ~luKes~

J8C ,. -: (o.aooo -o."q,):. q~ 10-'1 ~

JHa ::' ...Df- (0.8000 -0.7Q8") ~,&. X/O·'i I1f
- J HCl -: J2f (o.ooa6'"5'-o) "Q4xlo·'" ~
The c.o~troIHnC) spcc.'e-o i$ SCI,
293
15.1 Argon containing 2 volume percent of hydrogen is bubbled through a melt of aluminum
at 970 K. The bubbling is continued to equilibrium with this gas at 1 atm. Initially the melt
contains 5 x 1Q-6 m3 (STP) of hydrogen per kg of aluminum. It is known that the solubility
of hydrogen is 10 x 10-6 m3 (STP) kg-i. Detennine whether the rate of mass transfer is gas-
phase or liquid-phase controlled, a) at the beginning of degassing and b) near the end of
degassing.

I YI i t i ale O'nc e n t fa tic I'l "f!i inA I.

'! !,~O&.l x IO-!' mol.l:1 mol-IAI

Mt the. ~a.S-li~uid iF)terface)the ma)(im~r"fl x: i~ fc",nd by first

deterrnin"n~ "the e1ui1i brium Constant ':-or the 'Yeactjot1 tHaC~),:.!±.

with p~ ~Jatrn) Ct.":'lo·Sm3(srp) l<~-") therefore k-:.--f.JL :'10-5"

a - PH ".
'I.! S It. a
WI' th p... ~:. o.oa. at.m) c!:i :. \( Pt4a,#. :. 10- (o,oci/) a ':. Pt 1"1 X 10·" M' (':iTp) k~-'

a. ... x~ (N\~X) ':. (11"tIL.fXIP-~(I.~0'1XIO-!'): 3.'i05';1.10··

H (5XIO.t.)

Tnen toner-e. Is mas, transfer of tt from the 1,'1uid to the ~alS.

Th e dr ; v ; n ~ for Ce 1'1\ the I i 1tA ',d i s 0 Y'I L. 'f' ~ X HeO - X ~ :: B.' ')( J() - 6..
Since YH.o ~ 0·0 at we. canexp ec.t y 1'100 - Y,..'" >"» xtf"o - X I-f""

So t.hat mass tranSfer is lI;uIJ,- phaSt cOY'ltl"olled·

b•.'.:e3.r the. end of de~d.SS·'n'3 the. concen.tra.tion dr,'vin~ forces in

both phases wi\! be small) So it becomes a competit,'on ,between

the yr, ass t r d nSf e... C(> ~ f f j c. i en 1: S. S,'.1 ceOtOr 8 ('3 as) ~, 0 (I f .~ tA f d) ) the
mass tf'anSfel'" wi II be controlled by the. mass tranSfer In th£
It'j!-Aid,

15.2 Iron wire (4 mm dia.) is boronized at 1200°C in a gas that establishes an equilibrium
concenttation of 15 x 10-3 wt.pet. boron, The transfer of boron is partly controlled by the
reaction kinetics between the gas and the iron, as given by Eq. (15.11) with r = 5 x 10"
m 5- 1 at the surface. a) Make a plot of the concentration of boron (in wt. pet.) at the surface.
b) When the concentration at the surface is 90% of the equilibrium value, what is the
concentration in the center of the wire?
294
a.. (;&5 I Fe. r:,sxlo-'m 5. 1 a.t the. surfclCe.

0'1;5 (earl '< in the prt)ce 55)

b, ~=C~ :.o.cto Ce :. 1.S5'Xlb·;a~ 8

C- ce !. ,.~5Xlb·3.-I.$DXI()·A: OolD' O(8J"~)":.I''1xlb·'Dm1.s·· (FI,,,a.,D)

Cj - Ceo o - I.SOX/b-" )

rR. sXllf'mleXlo-&m\ 5 :.().'1P1

-0- S '.'iXIO·'°t't)'L

For" a cylinder) we use Fi~. t:t.~ Q. (Ctt)ter) and qe.t: ~t,. ~ .,a
Then -t-rern FI·~. q.q b (surfa.ce): ~~c~ :: 0.0'7
,- e
C: (o.O'l){O-I5'XIO· 1 )+I5"x 1o· 1 : ',"lOX 10·1. ~o 6

IS.3 Refer to Example 15.2. a) Plot the distance x that satisfies the specification in
Example 15.2 as a function of the gas velocity up to 1 m S-I. b) Repeat if the separation
between the sheets is reduced to 5 mm.

,~, from Example 11.~', x':. D.'i 50 V1> ~~b ~

l<e~p'Hl~ the Sa.me spec.ifiCc1tions)e)(cept f.or cha~'nl:3 vi) we have
x-:.An) b~t n is proportiona.l toveloGity. Hence. x':.6V where. Aand8

are. consta.nts.
!='rom Example 15'.cil:)Co: o.l5'm when V:()"(t)S-'. SI> wnen \j ': Ims·') x'=/.5'm.

a
P4'1"t Q. •

.x.) rr)

oL ~ ~ftL
0·. o.~ 0." 0.8
.t Pa.rt b.

v) ", s·,
295
 b. n i~ pt'op~f"tio"a.1 to the sp&c.inC! 'between the shee.ts. So if we.
'("educe the Spaein~ .from act)') to Srrlrt'l) then whe.n \j~lms·')

X -:,...!.£ rn ':. 0.''15",

Li

15.4 Assume that the initial thickness of an oxide layer on silicon is 10 nm. Determine the
thickness of the oxide after oxidation in dry oxygen at 1350 K for 7000 s.
c .1
('Ii: lonm~ IOX/O m

£f.(t5,l"1) ""he.re A;'I.,gxllr/~exp (~fig)':. S..i1SbXIO· S rn

6:.1.8IXI0·
f!
exp
(- 1'1050'
ISSO)':.5'·'ibSX/O
.Ie m
T:. (IOX/O·tift· +(8.~1'XJfJS)(JO)('o-q) :./'e,.c:t S
50 "'8 xlo· /8
~ -:. g'f3~X,o-8 [((I
~
~ (Y)(5.l1j& x/Q·'S)(70QQ "" 148.'1 )\': i .
(S.~!G.XIt;.')" I J\-I." )(/0
.'1
m:t~lnm
~

15.5 The standard free energy of fonnation of SiOz(s) is

AGo = -215 600 + 41.5 T, cal mol-I,
for 700 s T :sa 1700 K. Suppose the pure oxygen in Problem 15.4 is replaced with
90% Ar-lO% 02,' Would this appreciably change the oxidation kinetics?

00
) . J'...u.I. pp! S
£0. (IS. 364. + \ +D
_ )(
() I<'M I<r I(

Po;o is I a.tm in Prob· 15•.., wner!a.5 ~t is 0.1 at." AJDW· HeNce) We Ca.n

expect the f'L(x to be only I~~ ltf that 'In E.d.mple IS'·&.I.

15.6 The vapor pressure of Zn(s) is

10gl0 p(mm Hg) = ~ T6850 . 0.755 10gl0 T + 11.24.

(Note: 760 mm Hg - 1 standard atln = 1.0133 x 10' N m-2.) Thermodynamic data at

1200 K give
In 'YZIl
(1 - Xz..) = 3.875 ~ - 3.425.

296
 that T In 'YZn =
For other temperatures, assume that the regular solution model applies 10
constant. a) Calculate the initial flux of Zn from 70-30 brass by sublimation iDto a vacuum
n of time
as a function of temperature. b) Calculate the surface concentration as a ftmctio
with sublimation into the vacuum at 1200 K.

be w"ritt en .: AeWe 0" fA ttl!

S

*:
\J. tI
~. roo ('5".38) Can
t. J As~(~ftMRT)"'.
ASSLfme I ar\d We:.1

PlIo Ca.n be caJcu lated

".,. ~ ""01 ~!l '" .
d 1)(
,. ..
;"A ~ 3D 'lilt .". ~,.,) CDIIVe r", I. 0 Com1 • \lD'f den, Ity I:; n"I the. A p pen

~ See the Affe. nd;x

5lti~e we mvst comp ute;' ':off; )) the" it ;s c()nV eY1le nt t() set 4P a.

cern ptA t er pr()~ ram.

b. Apply £1- (/5'."11)) with )(':0. Use F;~./~.9 1Dr O.

The foJl()w"n~ f('c~ ram s~/ve s a. and b.

10 'Problel 15.6
20 AI: 1: AS : 1 : II : 1 : PI : 3.1416 'areal aid Claulil' factor
30 IZI: 6~.38 : leo: 63.54: I : B3IS ·ato •. lalle. of 11 aid Cu, te/tlol
aad ca. coa.taD t. J/( tlol I )
40 ell: 30 : 11SSJI : CII : IASSCO : 100 - CZI 'CII il 'ct.S Za
50 BOLli: IASSJI/lll : IOLCO : IASSCO/I CO : IOL : IOLll + IOLCO
60 Ill: 10LJI/lOL : ItO: 1 - IZI ',tOI fractloa. of I. aad Cu
70 'calculate actifitr coeffic ieat ,t 1200 I to let t.e cOI.t.at
ao IILI: ( 1 - III l*t 3.115*11 1 - 3,425 I
90 GAIIAR: IIP(ZILI) 'Ictifitr coefficielt of la It 1200 I
100 COl : 1200"IL I 'C OI : T'la(SlIIA)
110 'part a
120 LPlllT • I'lp. fIll"
130 LPIIIT" T. I taol/.·% I"
140 LPIlIT· "~"~f' ""*"* ""
150 rOI T : 500 TO 1200 STIP 100
160 TLOG : LOB(T)/2.303 '}oc(bale 10) of T
110 PLOG : -185011 - .755'TLOG + 11.24
180 P : IO·PLOG/TID '"por pre.sare of la ia at.
190 P : 101330! • P ·,.por pre.aare of 11 ia 1/.·2
200 If T : 1200 TIll PI : P 'PI i. I.ed i. part b II f,P, at 1200 I
210 GAllA: IlP(COIIT) 'actifitr coeff. of la at T
220 10111 : 1I*ll'G1IIA'P'111 : DIIO! : lS'SQI{2*PI'BII*'*T)
230 'LUI: IUJII/DIIO! ·ef.por.tioa flul, klol la/(1·2 I)
240 LPIIIT OSlI6· .,.. .,.,.·····;T,'LUI
250 JilT T
252 LPIIIT : LPiIl'
260 .
297
 270 'part b at T : 1200 I
280 T: 1200
290 1106.0: 1241 : 110'00 : 8080 'de.sit, of brill It 600 aDd 900 I, t,/1'3
300 'OLIIP: 110900*( 1/110900 - 1/180600 )/300 ',o1. elplDlioD coeff" 111
310 'OLI200: (1/110900)'( 1 + YOLllpa(T - 900) )
320 1801200: 1"OL1200 'deDlit, It 1200 I il t,/1'3
330 BAYS: 111*!%1 + ICO'BCO 'a". Itolic 11.8 of brass, ie/ilo}
340 iBO: iI01200/lA'G. 'klol/I'3
350 n: 31-12 'diff. coeff. of I. in Cu at 1200 1, eltrap. in ri,. 12,9
360 HU!ER: AEaVE*GABBAI'Pi : DEJO! : lS.n*R80*SQJ(2*PI'B1M*B*T)
370 Y: RUBEI/DEROB 'under iq. (IS.tOe)
38u CZRO: (C%R/I00)'RI01200/!ZI 'initial concel. of Zn, iloI/I'3
390 LPRIMt· Tile,! I 6. at s~rface •
400 LPRIMT' •••••• ••••••••••••••• '
410 fOF TI!E : 0 TO .000001 STEP .0000001
420 TERBI : ElP(Y.YtD'TI![)
430 ARG : Y'SQR(D"I!I) : PRIRT • The areveleDt i8·;AR8'.
PRIMT . MOl use Table 9.3 0. pace 302 aDd ilput the error fUlctioD here, or hit
cODtrol breat to eld .• : IIPUT IRf
440 IRfC : 1 -IR' : RATIO: TiR!l * IRfe
450 Ct"S : CZRO. RATIO 'iloi/,'3
460 CZRS : lOO'CZRS*BZR/RB01200 ',t pet Z.
470 LPRIRT U5I"G' 11.1.···· ••.•• ';TI!i,CZMS
480 lIlT TIKi
490 IRD

0..
hap ..flul
T, I klo}/.·2 s
u*u* un$tun
500 6.281-10
600 1.831-07
700 1. 021-05
800 2. On-Of
900 2.061-03
1000 1.291-02
1100 ).731-02
1200 1.971-01
1.
Tile a I I b at surface
uun UUfuuunu
0.001+00 30.00
1.001-01 13.03 ·it 1_"01<) the e'lapotat Ive fJI.I)( at the
2. 001-07 10.10
3.001-01 8.91 $Uf'fa ce is Sf) ~ rear that the (oncen tra7:/~n
4.001-07 8.11
5.001-07 0.00 of in at the sIIrface is iertJ in anly 0.5'",5.
6.001-01 0.00
7.001-01 0.00

298
15•., Ferritic stainless steel parts are vacuum heat-treated in order to maintain a shiny surface
fmim. If AISI 410 (12% Cr) parts are heat treated in a vacuum of 10 I'm of Hg at 1140 K
for 2 hours, what will the concentration of chromium on the surface of the pans be? At
noW K, the vapor pressure of pure Cr is 1.33 x 10"5 Pa, aDd Dcr in iron is approximately
100u m2 5.1•

£~. (/5.'11) ~o ~ e:r~ .1Orw:-;- exp Nx ;-y"'ot) er"fe {~ T.'(. ~m

$
at 'the surfa.ce )C:'O j ~~ :. exp (y1.Dt)erfe(rV15t'7
Where ~:. At We. ~A p,r
Ar:. D~(Qtl"MRT)I'a.

Ass~m e 1'14: I ,*: I) We II I ) M (cY') 0:. S':t k, krtlD ,.,) PdaJloy) "::! 5S.'1I1'~ krnd- '
e~ 7?;a kCII
",3 S5'.", k~
Irmq! :./'/3 kmD/ m- 3

y_ (I.33XI"-S) I ....
- (1".I')(1"3)~rt(S.;a)(S!IG)(I/'{o1YO\ :. 1'~71 m

e r Fe ('( VDr , ~ 1- erf (". 7/Vu/ l, X7iPt» ~I

~ -:. e.xp {.(lot) ~ e)(p~,.71/·(Ii>")(7:"6~ ':= ,

til

Hen ce J efts,: CAo and we. WDLo1/d n.,t be c~" ~~rnerJ t ha t th ere w;J1 be a.

depletiDn Df Cr at the Surf a. Goe.

15.8 A model for the reduction of a
spherical oxide is illustrated to the
right. Assume mixed control, with
mass transfer in the gas aDd diffusion
t
through the porous product layer

t
controlling the overall IdDetics. A
reducing gas flows past the spbcre with
a concentration C., aDd at the product-
oxide interface its concentration is c;..
t q-c·
Derive an equation that gives the rate
at which the oxide is reduced in
lanol 5-1• The overall reaction is
t t
MO(s) + CO(g) .. M(s) + CO2(g) ,
where MO is the metal oxide.
299 t
 Mass tri1nsfe r bf the. redtlc/n<~ ~as (co) frortJthe bulK stream t~ the
SLlrface at r" is ~ J": "Irrro kM (c.. -eel I kmD/ 5·'

PI a. ss transfer t/lr"lJ~h the spher/cal shell ~ Yi ~ r ~ YO) is ~

J':LfrrDtff (c,-c fl) / ( ;. - ~i)
where C6 i5 the Ctmcent:rat j"n at r:r.
C· is the C"fI~entrar; Dn dt r= r,o
Or;; ,'$ the diffuJ/on cDf!Ff/cien"C ~f to thrDu'3 h the
po r()u 5 prfJJ uct Ja '(~ r.
Thl'S is th~ st~ady state mdSS tr.J.nsfer thrtJlJ,h a. r,ner/cal shell
(an; lo~" u s tD h~at transfer ~()nsirJered in PrDbJem ?,/~). /Jet{ can be

determined hy the method Jes cri bed in s~~t/(Jn 13.7. 7h~ t,ta I r-f5ista.n~e
' ( 1",' -'('0 )
for the mass tranSfer ;$: R,.,: r,aI kM + Dfff '('i 1"0 So that th~ ma$S
., (.,) '1" «(-1>-C") ., b
f Iow can be written In terms Df COlO - C713 S J:. n • C cein e

Jet~r"mined fr()rfI the ~t"""'br/um c()nstant f~'" the '1"ven react,'on,

The r~5lJJt: for the md 55 fJpw ta.n be usea to calc", late the ra te Cit
wh,.cr, the ~)(ide core sh/,,;1?K'S'. JIJ"h i. /;?o'~1 /s r~ferred t() a.s the
L· •
Snr1nt<ln9 core fl'U)ge
II J I" •

15.9 Using data in Table 15.2. plot the change in concentration with time (up to 3600 s) of
a melt of iron containing 1% Mn. 1% Cr, and 0.05% S. The melt is contained in a
nonreacting crucible, which has the dimensions .0.5 m dia. by 1 m height.
'IT p'L
lAse FlU a t ion (15. '17) ~ In.il..
CA _ ~ hV .&.:. --1...
l( t ). V 'TT 0 'L
: y':.
I
\ n")-'
-q- H
KMfl': 8.4jX,,,·S m s·'
KCr':.;'./X/O·f>M 5·'
ks ': ?()X If)-"'" ~.,

Hence) eMn ':. I exp (-8.'1 X/".St) j eM" /" ~ and t in 5

Ccr : J e)(p(-_.I.Klo-'t)

Cs '(:).O~" ~J(p(-7)l/()-'t)
300
Uti..1 ~nUhl H~UhJ i~Ubl In vAcuum refininq of stetl
0 1.000 1.000 0.0500
~OO 0.975 0.999 0.0499
SOD 0.951 0.999 0.0498 there is Htt/e loss "f Cr and 5
~OO 0.927 0.998 0.0497
UOO 0.904 0.997 . 0.0496 but th e Mn I~ss can be
HOO 0.882 0.997 0.0495
UOO 0.860 0.996 0.0494 5", b S't ant i a. ,.
2100 0.838 0.996 0.0493
2100 0.817 0.995 0.0492
2100 0.797 0.994 0.0491
3000 0.717 0.994 0.0490
3100 0.758 0.993 0.0489
3500 0.739 0.992 0.0488

/·0
D.,
0.8
0·'1
0.4 --------------
."• ().c"tt
C 0.05
.
s:y

".03 t
".oa ~
0.01 ~

c>
I 1
0 I~OO JYoo 3,o0

t) S

15.10 The melt of Problem 15.9 also contains carbon, which reacts with the magnesia
crucible according to the overall reaction:
MgO(s) + C - CO(g) + Mg(g).

Assume that evaporation can only occur at the surface of the well-mixed melt.
a) Hypothesize the reduction reaction at the melt-ctUCible interface. b) Hypothesize
vaporization reactions at the melt surface. c) What are the mass transfer steps for oxygen?
for magnesium? for carbon? For each mass transfer step. make a schematic concentration
proflle.
mE'/t
Cdrbon) mal3nesilAm and oxy'!e" are di sSolved iF) thel\as ~,~ a.nd..a.....

301
4.

M~o ~~ eo It M~O(~) >M~ +..Q.. (I}

t+
CM~
(Setter tD describ~ this as the decompDsition
~~
of the M~()')
o
CjfM'3 a.nd Cblf WDU ld be at e1u//i brium \AI,th

M~~. Hen('!, C:'C3 C:-:. K

Gas rO(q) fMI)(~)
b.
Melt Q.~ " ~ f O+..f.--+CO(~) (~)

M9 - M~{~) (3)

If we add reactions (1»(a)and(3)) we~et M~O(S)+~---"CO(~)+M~(~)

c. Mass transfer steps for- DX'(gen~

I. M~o/rnelt inte'('face. to the bUIlt. melt.

;,. Sulk melt t" the melt/~as ·Interfa.c-e,

~. React/'on wl'th ~"to f'orrtl CO(~),

Y. Melt/'3aS interface to the chamber as Cc(~).

Mass tra'1sfer Steps for ma'3Ylesiurn"

I, M~o.'melt /nterface to "the buIlt melt.
~. 8~ I k melt to the m~/t 'gas in terfa C!I;.

3'/f~6:t"on to f~rm M,(fj).

Ii. Mt! l t/'3a.s "nterfa.ce :" :he chim/;er.

M.aS5 traflsfer $teps for carbon:

/. BulK melt to me/t/~as in:erface,
;,. /?eaCrt'DYl with -0 '"CD .form coca)

'S. Melt/9as interface tc chamber as ('0(13)

302
15.11 In vacuum laser welding, it is difficult to measure the temperature of the molten pool.
One estimate of the temperature can be made from collecting a sample of vapor evaporated
from the weld pool. The ratio of elements in the sample is the ratio of vaporization rates of
the elements. If 201 stainless steel is welded and the ratio of CrlMn in the condensed vapor
sample is O.OSd estimate the pool temperature, assuming that the pool is an ideal
thermodynamic solution.

we need the vapor pressure Of chromium and man'3anese. Th€.,( a.re.

~a ch t3 ;yen by Jo'j 10 P : .¢ + 8 + C I~/O !) mm H~

..a. ~ -f.
Cv- OIC6S0 I AI. 00 -/.31

Mn 1'3900 /7. d'J - ~'5;'

~Ol S5 contains 17 %Cr dfld ,.S % MY! i is well as '1.5" % N,' and ba.la.nce Fe.
We can s~/ve £"1' (15".38) te1 'let the el/tipor4t"crJ rates of beth Cr d.nd Mn

and the tempera.ture that ~ives the correct rat,o is the temperature
f)f the melt.
rhe follow'-n'i prc'jram det~rtnt'Y1e5 the rat/os.

10 .Proble. 15.11
2v PI: 3.1416 : R: 8314 'pi and ,as constant, J/(tlol 1)
30 AK: 1: AS : 1 : WI : 1 : PI : 3.1416 'areas and Clausing factor
40 B!M: 54.94 : !CR : 52: BFE : 55.85 : BMI : 58.71 'atolic lasses, igiklcl
50 eBN: 6.5 : CCR : 17 : CFi : 72 : CII : 4.5 'It pcte
60 BASS!": CBR : BASSeR : CCR : BASSFE : eFE : BASSIl : CMI
7D MOLKN: B!SSMJ/KBR : BOLeR: BASSCR/BCR : BOLrE : MA5sri/BrE
80 80LMI: BASSMI/BMI : BOL : BOL!M + BO~CR + 80LFE + BOLMI
9G IMN: BOL85/BOL : lr.. : BOLeR/BOL 'atol fractions of Kn and Cr
100 IFE : ~OLFE/!OL : lfi1 : KOLII/BOL 'atol fractions of Fe and Hi
liO LF;INT . i,ap. fluI iBn) i,ap. flul ICr) Bass ratio"
120 LPRIMT" T. 1 tlol/ll'2 5) tlol/{1"2 8) Cr/Bn .
130 LPEIMT' t".a. .t,*l* •• ,.,'t.. ••• ,••••••••• 11 *.,*******"
14D FO~ T : 2200 TO 2400 STEP 20
150 TLOG : LOG(T)J2.303 'logibase 10) of T
160 PCB: -2066u/T + 14.56 -Ul*TLOS : PCP. : OO"PCR/760\tl01330: ·Mi."
liD FBM : -mO~!T • li.27 -2.52*T1OG : P!fi : (WP!MJ760)'101330! 'Kfl'
180 MUBU : !IfME1PCP.*ICR : DEMOB : AS*SQi,.2*PltBCB*R*T)
190 fLUICR : RUBER!DEKO! 'e'aporation fluI. tlol Crill'Z fl
200 "O!iR : AEIME*PBMtI!M : DEKO! : AS*SQR(2*FI'!BM*R*T)
llC FLOI!J: MUUR/DIRO! 'enporation flUI, hoI !ni(I'2 6)
220
230
RATIO: FLUICR*BCR/IF1UlftM*B!M)
LPEIRT USING· .,..
f' ····;i.FLUIBM.FLOICR,RATIO
.t ... ····
ratio put on lass basi~
11 .• '···· If.'

He NEI~ T
2~[: [Nt
303
 hap. flUl (BD) hap. flUI (Cr) Bass ratio
T, 1 hO}/{I'2 a) hol/{."2 sl Crib
unn uuuutnun .uuuuu.. u unuun
2200 3.721-02 1.891-03 4.801-02
2220 4.121-02 2.251-03 5.171-02
2240 tS7I-02 2.691-03 S,571-02
2260 5.041-02 3.191-03 5.991-02
2280 SJ6I-02 3.181-03 6.431-02
2300 6.121-02 4.461-03 6.901-02
2320 6.721-02 S.251-03 7.391-02
2340 7.311-02 6.161-03 7.911-02
2360 8.061-02 T.201-03 8.451-02
2380 8.811-02 8.411-03 9.031-02
2400 9.611,02 9.781-03 9.631-02

By interpolation) T:~_"fI k'

304
16.1 Derive an alternative to Eq. (16.7) for an
insulated surface, in a way which is different than
that in the text. The insulated surface is at node
N, and there is an imaginary node at N + 1 with T
the same temperature as TN-l'
_ TN 1-. --...--.- . -~, . "",
.~I,.~

Stc..r C ~~ ~ c\,ll".C,).) w:~ M: N•

.!LL- r;
~t: -(4"1.)2. tT.,·, - 2. TN
at
+ TN"~
1

"b1J t T,., .. , -:. TN- I

\4e.\'\C e.

- N
)T: : 2.0(. [T-T.~
~t (Ax)1.. N-\ ..

16.1 Usc (mire difference approximations and set up the one-<iimeasioaal beat cooductioD
problem lhIt is specified as follows:
aT a2T
Tt = Q ax l '

with
T(L,r) == TL t > 0,

7'(O,t) ,. To t > 0,
and
T(x,O) ,.
°
~.

Divide the domain ~ x ~ L into four segments so that, Ax = L14. a) Write the set of
algebraic equations in matrix form using the Euler method. b) Repeat usina the Crank-
NicoIIoe -mad.

lJ...,:. 'T - 'T ~ • ;t' ~ -L. ; Q ':. ad.

) L
TO-T\ La.

-- -a"X'1.
"l.
~u. 'au..
dQ -

<-,,-(1,8):0
lAw (OJ~)":. , I
l4.. (")CliO) ':: 0 o "'-I "" ~.... N:4
-x':.() )(' ::: ,

305
 0...
' ' I t &~te.(~TU('~~
I ~,-t:I'" 1.
~ , 0000
"4., ~ I.J.., :: ""z. ~ \A,! s ~Ifo -= O.
l=ro~ E1 S . (, 1.0..) ~ (\+. I.) ) W. dad. uG Q.
lI...~"':: \ ( e.l4(.ep t \.\: = 0)
, I
'""'-,
Y+' _
..
p t.A.."" ... ( 1-1 t» 1...1.. V i-
•
P ~ 2-v'
t..\~v. , :. p '-I..V + (1-2 P) u.".\J + P u..,a"
t.k~
~,
:: P u.t . . b-l p) 14~ ~
+ Pu...~
lA{+I ':. 0

b.
Set ur ~ CrOt\\k - N ;c.h.o\ ~EM V"'et.hoJ:
"'. , v
lJ..I'ft - \J- "" ":.
.f.
2
[v \J \J
u... ""+t - 2. 1.4. ~ ... \J.,.,_\
..1+1 y.t V+I 1
... L4~"1 - 2. ""'"' .. \.A. 1"1\ -I J
, 0 () 0 0 \lo
..., ....
, 0 0 0 o1r tAo
",y

-1: (Hf) -\ 0 0 \.1.., ! (I-r) f 0 o II lJ..,

-
2.

o -f". (...)-f (J "4.'l. 0 ! (1-;) \ o II '-\1

(':) ! II
)..

0 0 -~ (lit)-; \.4.~ 0 0 ! "',

0 0 0 0 "'-It 0 0 0 \A.

16.3 Write a computer propam that can be used to solve for T(x,t) in Problem 16.2a..

to ·Proble. 1&.3 laler IItk04 (al.o tIO'. I. el,lIcit tet~od)

20 p: .25 : L: 1 : DI : L/4 : DTBlTl : paDI'DI 'P I. the todalaa, L ia
Dotdl.el.Io.al Iellt', I il 10ldllel.lolal coordilate, theta i. 10Ddi.eD-
liOl11 tilt, DI : delta I, aDd DTllTl : delta theta.
30 LPIII" ------------ TI I P I I a T0 I I S --------------.
4~ LPIII" Tite IlL: 0 IlL: 1/4 IlL: 1/2 IlL: 3/4 IlL: l'
SO LPIIIT' ••••• .,..... .a•• **... •.•••..•. ••.••••.• ...•..•.
60 OL: 0 : 00 : 1 let eDd telperatares
70 TBITl: 0
80 rOR I : 0 TO 4 let llit!al telperatarel
90 0(1) : 0
100 RIIT I
110 LPRIIT OS118' ,.'" ••.••• " .• 11 ••.••• ••.•• , II
.111·;TIIT1, 0(0), 0(1), 0(2), 0(3), 1(4)

306
 120 INDll: 0 'ccunting index for printing
130 FOR J : 1 TO 40 'tbi$ 5et~ tbe ~ulber of tile steps
140 ISDU : nDn + 1
150 THE!! : TEiT! + DTBRTA
16C ~(Ol : DC
in FOP. 1 10 3. j : . internal l10des
16D Ulj) : ptOil'l} t (1·2*P)*0(1) t pt O(It1)
19u HilT I
ZOO 0(4) : 01 : IF IIDEI ( 5 THil 220
210 LPRIH7 DSIBG· 1.'" II.J" ".IS' ' •. S,. S'.lf'
"."'·;TBETA, 0(01, U(l). 0(2). 0(3), UI() : I~DEI : 0
2~0 MUT J
23D iND

............ 1 EHPER! TCRis··············

iiae x,'L : C xi; : 1!4 z/L : ~/2 xi~ : 3i4 xit : 1
Iti! t ut"tl U,IUiU UUUtH ... utuu HUHt
. '. .
LOO O.GOO C.OG·) 0.000
~

~# • I .. \; J.~Q~

. ,..
.: . j'! 3
;. •• JQ
:.nao
Uu,j
0.552
iU~u
0.295
'J.424
c.m
.j .201
0.000
a.ooo
v.:34
. " ...
1. :~~ U28 Q.412 a.Z32 0.000
,J.~J.';
.......
~ l' ~:.
4. tII.,IV 0.142 0.459 0.243 D.OilO
;. i
.;~ ". ....
~ ~ U47 0.496 0.248 0.000
j.m .......1 PiS 0.499 Q.249 0.000
~. SF i.O~~ D.75J 0.499 0.250 0.000
0.625 1;000 USO 0.500 0.250 0.000

16.4 Write a computer program that can be used to solve for T(x,t) in Problem 16.2b.

\)..s, ~c. f (" 0 !.1"C).T't\

f01&S () n 58l ~t\ 5 e• .) If.) \' ~ ~e
.fa \\oU)~~-' ~ .lid,' t \c.t..t..'CN\S;
.10 T: I_O.Oll2.S (6.,)(' c.\, .... sec\ -ra O.2.S~ ~o de
'~5 IF I > I THJ:'N t "70 0..\$0 ~o.M9 d ~t"o~r \Q.u\~.)
160 £(1)1) ((I l ') + I =
c.aU\,ge. .A ~o..tr'\)( ('DATA) ) 'j)"lIto 0.5
I ) . 0) 0) 0) 0
-:- 0..2.'5) I. SJ -,25 ) 0) 0
o) -0.25) I.S,) -.25) 0
0 ) -.2.5) ',CJ -,2.'5
0)
0) 0) 0) 0) J
Ch(Ly\~e. C MAtri~ (1) ATA)..,) 'Po:: O.~
\) 0) 0)0)0
•~ S l • 5) .'2 C; ) 0 } 0
OJ' '25) •5 J ,25) 0
0) 0 J • 2.5} .5) .15
OJ OJ 0)0)0

307
 e tAL u", ""'1. \1,,3 u,~

.0 q38 ..52S .2oC\ . O,'~ 0

.\ 1'S ."&4 .380 •I ~ " 0

.28'l, .. 7'5 • ~SO .2' 5 0

.t.jt." .744 .4tf'2 .7..4'1 0

I. 5000 .'50 .500 .1.S0 0

16.5 Consider the problem in FiB. 16.1 aDd me VAX-BASIC program for solving Eq.
(16.31). Modify and use the program to solve for the time required for the center of the core
to heat to 873 K, when molten aluminum eDCapsuJates a plaster core. Thermal data can be
found with the problems of Chapter 10.

\""~(VW'\o..\ frc~t;i&s. of r)e...stc.~. \.c:o.'!>s vJ W'I"" K-'

f= \\2,0 k.~ "",,-~ ) cpo:. JlfO j k~-' K-') 01 :''3.72.~lb-''',.,...1..~-.'
The frC)9~~ ro.~e~ 56l 'V\c:l 552. ;~ ,'t\ te.('ms
OY\
~f W'\oW'\A\f'\~s'8"I\o.' v4.co,oh\es. Of COyf'St J Wf., e~ utrut
+'4-.e 6\w.w.~\~o.l "o..("~~\~ ~rt'I'\ ~t'. W\oY'\d:_~$\ o¥\a..l "o..c-~C\.~\~ta..
T-T,
u." ~. . _"-.I, :
T ... 300
'\33 -~oo => T =(T", - T,' ) v.. .. T "
u.. ('l( ~ 0) : ~\ => T (?C 0 ) = T; 1

~(IJJ): 0
ax'
=> !l(Lt):O~'X )

u.(O,9)= , :::> T (O)t)= TM

A I so) ')(';: L 'X' ( 4. ss V~ e. L = I0 ~~ :. 0.01 ""') o.,.,ci
t"-:.(L"'/c<)t ·
We. w~t t wh'I1 fA..,. =T 1 ___ 1111..
:. 87.3 K.
'I",ert I;"e~ lS'- '8;
IS A\"~A:' ~.12. £-1
I~ .L~O.OI
11 "'T"M: q33
la Tl:: 300
308
 IV14)ert 'I'",~ 2.),-214 ~
2.12., TEMP: (TM-T~) .. 9(5,>1) +-T r
'2.1'i IF "EM~ > 913 "'Oo\e.~ 2.51

O"""t \~",e.S Z"O -2.30 topt',1l'Y\c,.\).

I '" 5 ~ "t" I ;\'11 $ '2. ~ J - l S '3
2S1 Ri~--- AwS~~f' IN i:)\Yl6NtltdJA\.. "~AIA&I.;:
4..5t T,.: l~T /A\..P~-I\
2.S.3 ?~ \..." """) 'TE M-t>

Outfl.l t
T\~e. -= 2.85 s UJ ~E'~ ~ p6'('-..~rc..
o......~ <:&<'Ea. CeM~ f , -:.. 873.3 K

16.6 Consider one-<iimensioDll bomogenization as in Section 13.S. The following

microsegregation data in an Fe-Ni alloy are reponed.

x.lIom % Ni x,lIom % Ni x. ~ % Ni
0 12 30 16 60 29
10 13 40 18.S 70 37
20 14 SO 23 80 45

a) Plot the data and determine the average concemration of nickel.

b) Set up the set of algebraic equations that result from making fmite difference
approximations. For simplicity, UIC Ax :8 20 I'Dl aDd the Euler method.

A,

tJO
c"'; ": '2.,.38 'lo. N;
(r '" j~tc!r~ ,'.,4, ~
~ ..... tJ&o I ~ .Jo-.c! F~s
... s \.w-.J 4. b e.. ~.i~ h t,..ti ~
~
.20
6'Y\"- , , ...If. )
~

0
0 40 '0
':XJ ~M

309
 1. ~ ':. 1) 'd'"c.
~t d)(2..

G (~J 0) -.: f ('f'),) o..t ~. v ~ ~ p."" t --J

~.
)~
(0J t)::.. ~
d'X
(L J t) Co 0

~lR A'X;..2.o ..c..tjv\ ~ ""ott'..~ w; It be..

p cr'WI \'Y\ ': 0 'to
)
~ =~ -:. 4-.

t v\~ '(Y\t ~od :

D
.
'. D!.- ~ -
'\'l.c
(c " - :t c."",v + C.~~I)
(,-,(2. - (A*1.).... ...,-1

- eMV
V+I
)C~ CI"I'I
j"f-
At -At
C"" .... , -
1"'\ -
1)
'(AX~
J..
.Al. (C"
~_,-
2 C ..,
,..., of-.
...,)
c.""".... 4-
C..".,V

ltt Ae: D At / (~-x'l.)

'V
C \J"'I -
1"1"1 -
Ae c~.. + ('-l.AQ)C~ + Ae C~~I
v
(XX, Vlode 0 .• c"" . , ::. c . . . . .
~
(~O T\~")
Q..:t oe\ .. lJ : c'l>,.. . . , = ev (~. -tl~")

t,
\0'\ N _,

H~,"Q. ~ ~e... ;01'4 ~et. Df uo:h~..s .. ~e.. obt...\·~~:

f./ad.e.
,. v+ I v v
_
( I -2 A6 ) C 0 +2.Ae C,
D ~o -
c."+-'
I
1: A.6 Co'IJ + ( \-J,.AG ) Cr-oJ + A6 c.",
'"

l. c.~~1 ':. AOC~ of- (l-l~e)C~ -4- 4 8C l V

":> ,-"'.' ~
... AS c1 + (l-l.A9)C~V + A6 C./'
4- C~' ~ lAse;"" (t-:tAe)c:
310
16.7 Extend the one--dimensional homogenization model of Problem 16.6 to the two-
dimensional model considered in Section 16.1.3. For L = t = 80 J.'Ill. the following
microsegregation data are given (see Fig. 16.7 for identification of the nodes).

Nodes % Ni Nodes % Ni
0.15 14 5,10 16
1.11 23 6 29
2.7 37 8.13 13
3 45 9 14
4,14 13 12 .lL.
Average 20.25

a) The diffusion coefficient for nickel in "Y-iron at 1273 :sa T :sa 1560 K is

D = exp (0.0519 X. :0.11 -+- 1• 51) exp [38

- 3~0 -+-
T
5.85 ~IX'j '
where D = diffusion coefficient, cm2 S-I; XNi = atom percent Ni: T = temperature.
K. Calculate an appropriate diffusion coefficient for homogenizing the alloy at
1350 K.
b) Determine the residual segregation index as a function of time for homogenization at
1350K.

We. ~ vSe. ~ fl"'0ft1"~ ~ ff,S'8J-s:9a

~ M~~ ('e.f\cU.~ ~~ v.JIJe..S ~f ~:'~CoI .'h~s. .
i" Mo....tr't).. D (~'tts Reo - CJ ~o ), .LV'\.

~ rw-00'1~ I h~) ~"'- -t:....:,.e,.. ~ r~es

r
r
~. 90D~.
f' C ~ I (AM
ne. ~e. .st.-lr~
r
~t.s .
d.Q. VVI~ t-'I'\ ~ t1 i f ~~ I c)-/\ C!d ~fA' c..u-t-~
~. To:. 13~o k
( ..2lJ • ..2S") (IDb)
XIIi = ;20.2.5:
..rl.7(

+- (h,o-J.t),2.S"J = 19. ~6 %
~a, 1/ S'J"', '"

J) :. ~p ((), 0 S If x I'I~' +" ~ I).e,

rp r:L3i !10
13S'o
+-~. 'SS-lt I'.a/~
:J
Do:::. S • ILl'1 'I(, 10"'2. C ..,., \. s.. , -- 5• I 11
7 )CIO -II. t¥I
~ S- I

j. N£y.t w-c..- u..' ~ 'H.e ~ e. oS r¥ ' (A8: D. 01).

~ ""'", _
A'X = .3 -
10
r)C.lo
- ,
~

311
 ~ t"& D. 0 I (A ~ )~/J)
"'\~I5.
::. 'P. 01 )(80;1&) lof ",0·"
A t= J'. 8.35" I 03 ~ = 3.J¥.! 11 (".~~ /:40).

V,e r~.s;~ J~r<"~~ ~J(U(,'

(""::. eM - C)I\I1 _ C,.., - c,.,
o Cc2~ - C,...,0 - 4S-f'L
7=r" (J'rfI ~ "....+r'" t ) &.4Jo(... e.......... 4SI!.l e e t
eM --.L c~ o-s ().. ~t:.+"t1YI of -i:,'fV1e
~eA co..l CAJ ...te. ~,

D,9

~,'
b 0,7
0.4
C,S
0 ~5 So 7~ 100
r,-", e h
J

£ "Oof\ o..~U<, ~o..(" ~~ CL~ \SCO \<.1 ' is "'fei"".! -to

~\j 0.1$. To c.ftec:.t ,,",o<'f. "'.W\~~\t4-\"" ~f'\ ~
o..s.()~\.
C' .. teC"\ c~ ... 0.... n~\.. ..,. \t..""p~ ..~<'~ ~o \I\&\. ~e..
f'-e,~~ r-eA.

16.8 Consider radiant heating of a poorly conducting slab as described in Section 16.1.4.
Using the same thermal propenies and furnace temperarure (2020 K). detennine the time to
heat the center to 2000 K as a function of the thickness of the slab. in the range of 30 nun
to 90 mm.

312
 w~ t.,L.~ f-'l....c- pro r- ~ .f--r--
'-'
~ Pf' S"~,,- 5"1:(7 ..
s ~/ fI.....·cJ,c.",t:" s ~
LI ne.. 90 ~I v4$ A~
b/ t. D k1 e... r v
1"""1 M
~•
folio 1.UI'",,j c:.. !'~S,'
/1"1

,
L (s~-;t..;ck.n(!$~)) L/4.) Ii WI e)
/"'VI
AX':.
..,., ~ ,'11 'i"'C.~

/S .x. /0- 3 3. 7~ :J(/O-~ 1,3 .. 2.5

J o)lt 10- 3 7,Sa )'.Io-~ '78,3"

- :2 S'" J1l.
II. -~ I fJ 5.'Io
¥r;~ 10- 3 )0

~ ~c. .s Ur~ Ilt...; eu-~ (lei r~

~,'~ rro~".,.,..... -r M ~ ....... ~ e..... / t.1.tI1 A. f~

;~ JI 'n ~ c .2 ~ 0 - ~~ 0 ..

16.9 Gas is injected into the bottom of a melt contained in

a large cylindrical vessel; the recirculating flow is turbulent. :
; "';,~'J,),o':c
r \I~O ,'0 =~ ~/ ~ ,
Assume axisymmetric flow and write an appropriate ~-,,~~~:~~..JJ \,-4
/............. ' .. ~.:. -..::>v., I ...........

momentum equation for the liquid. I '\ ,~~~~ u,\

I :"'?J ,jl); ;
I '

\
I ;'; <)~" ,), I
.,~~"~O~4
?'Vr /}t : ~ Vi /~t sO •
\
',~') ,;jC~
\
Ve =0 j '? ~ ~~~ , •
'-""
.'
,,-.\.""1 ......
.~}. ."~{:'
j J" ".-"..:"-'"
'-
-r,.,.::: 0 !., ,.-', J .', •
r Co~ pOl1en t: J Sr - 0 ----
'()~~)~'\
C'~"OCI --- II
~ av,.. '4 ~ :.. .1. ef + .!.(lIof-6,.,) ~V,.
T
•
dr ~t P ~r- at!: at:

'J. ~ht'r1t.: fzz.-:::' 0

V:
r
!it. .,. V:.. ~v.
in.
: f ii
~p
to "F rr . r ( y • eM) ~)
, J { _ I \. -
C),-
dr

"iht~(., ~1"''''~·1'''I''I.S "'er~ .bi. ...;,,~ J.,

~t-~.',,;~, t:.J~. (A) ..,.,.,edc J)
tAble 2.3 ();He/.. E,f II.·fo ~WI'Tf\ o..p,ro.,.,.,a.:;e rh .. f\J-e.. af
~ot...t;n) .

313