1
A review on landslides, causes and
consequences
Eng. PM Jhon A. Grajales
jhgrajalesg@unal.edu.co
Universidad Nacional de Colombia
Abstract – The aim of this review is to analyze definitions,
causes and consequences of landslides. It commences exposing
various definitions, its issues and limitations. Secondly, it mentions
different sources of causes that should address either the landslide
has occurred or is to be analyzed. Lastly, it conceives three types
of consequences in order to establish a broad view of a landslide
and its effects.
Keywords – Landslides, causes, consequences.
I. INTRODUCTION
T he process of designing in engineering implies a review of
the factors that must be taken into account so as to foresee
stresses and strains and its relation. However, there is a complex
issue that is not possible to solve in a one-step stage, what is
more, this has to involve more disciplines such as; geology,
civil engineering and economy, not to mention chemistry and
physics. This is the reason why; an open review of various
authors is made aiming to englobe concepts and prove a sense
of landslide processes.
II. LANDSLIDES
A. Definitions
The definition of landslide has been discussed several times in
papers. In this review, one of the purposes is to ensure that
definition is stated in a manner in which the whole process of a
landslide could be englobed.
Starting with (Terzaghi, 1950), the engineer defined a landslide
as “A rapid displacement of a mass of rock, residual soil, or
sediments adjoining a slope, in which the center of gravity of
the moving mass advances in a downward and outward
direction” (p. 1).
Years later, (Morton & Streitz, 1967) expressed that landslides
are processes of what geologist have mentioned as mass-
wasting which is part of a more general category called
erosional processes. Both, Morton and Streitz declared:
“Landslide is a process of down-slope movement of earth
materials, primarily by gravity” (p. 1)
More than two decades later, (Cruden, 1991) expressed that a
simple definition of landslide is: “The movement of a mass of
rock, earth or debris down a slope. Similarly, (Cruden, 1990)
suggested that a significant landslide should have one or more
of the following criteria:
1. Is over 1 million cubic meters in volume
2. Causes casualties
3. Causes considerable direct or indirect damage.
(p. 3)
And, there is a fourth definition that was considered during
class of slope stability (Rodriguez, 2020) “Landslide is defined
as a downward movement of rock, debris and earth due to the
effect of gravity when the shear stress exceeds the shear
strength of the material” (p.4)
B. Analysis
Terzaghi on his paper separates the terms landslide and creep
using the expression rapid. This, as a function of the velocity of
the mass displaced. Terzaghi stated that a mass moving in a
velocity of 1 ft / hour should be considered a landslide.
However, nowadays one can see velocities that exceed 190
km/hour as The Rio Mantaro River landslide (Duncan &
Wright, 2005)
In the same way, it takes into account the fact that a landslide
is made of rock, residual soil and sediments adjoining a slope.
Given this definition, what is the consideration that has to be
done when, in a landslide, the displacement has within its roots
trees and living material?
On the other hand, the center of gravity of a landslide is to be
considered in a 2D solution in these terms. In reality, the
problem is more complex based on the fact that the well-known
definition of center of gravity, c.g. (Beer, Johnston, & Mazurek,
2012) implies that center of gravity is not constant for
landslides, instead, this might change in circumstances in which
the mass that is marginally stable has various materials with
different units of weight. This directly, has an effect on the c.g.
and changes the results, it means that c.g. is not constant unless
the slope keeps the same with time, which is not accurate given
geological considerations.

Another aspect that should be analyzed is that some
landslides classified as topple, (Cruden & Varnes, 1996)
defined as: “A topple is the forward rotation out of the slope of
a mass of soil or rock about a point or axis below the center of
mass of gravity of the displaced mass”. Having said this,
moment triggers the slide and eventually the mass falls and
gravity forces start to act on the mass, but the main force that
triggers the landslide was the turning effect of moment.
The same has been analyzed in Terzaghi’s definition of
landslides, the terminology given by geologist (Morton &
Streitz, 1967) is quite open. Under this circumstance, landslides
are erosional processes that occurs on earth. Even though, not
all landslides are based on erosion. One can consider either
shear strength of the mass and shear stress of the mass,
consequently, a landslide could occur by the decrease of the
first one and an increase of the second one. This does not imply
that an erosional process is occurring within slope, but it does
infer that erosion must be consider as a process that triggers
landslides.
The last definition under examination (Rodriguez, 2020)
involves more paraments but has its own obstacles. First, the
only cause that is taken into account is the effect of gravity in
slopes, whereas a cause such as; earthquakes, EQ, explosions,
are not considered, e.g., landslides triggered by an EQ such as;
Peru, 1946 (Silgado, 1951), Anchorage, Alaska, 1964 (Hansen,
1965). In all ways, the term Effect of gravity is a limitation for
the definition. Besides that, the relation between shear stress
and shear strength is constrained to shear forces, but it is
possible to have failure due to tensile forces. For example, The
small landslide in Shanxi Providence, 2015 and Guangdong
Providence, 2010 both in China. (Tang, Zhao, Luo, & Sun,
2019)
Moreover, there are some cases in which the problem is not
according to either shear or tensile forces, but deformation due
to the ductile behavior of the material. This is clearly seen in a
deformability test measured in rock at Tala, a hydropower
project in Bhutan. (See Fig. 1)
Fig. 1. Typical stress versus deformation curve recorded in a deformability
test of a rock mass (Palmström & Singh, 2001)
2
C. Proposal definition
All in all, this is the opportunity to mention that definitions
have its pros and cons, limitations and advantages, and each one
should be seen within context.
In overall, landslides are complex processes that occur in
earth materials that implies a downward and outward
movement of the mass adjoining the slope in which does not
only the center of gravity is to be considered but also the causes
as a function of processes and conditions that triggered the
movement.
III. CAUSES
In order to determine the causes of landslides, it is preferable
to define a cause as: “The reason why something happens”
(Cambrigde University, n.d.) and something means: Landslide.
It could be seen in its more simplistic way that every cause or
several causes implies a consequence or several consequences.
Note that often consequences are called effects as well. (See
Fig. 2)
Fig. 2. Relation between causes and consequences of landslides
In this review, the second goal is to study the definition of
causes for some authors and establish a baseline that should be
examined at the time of analyzing the causes of slope
instability.
(Terzaghi, 1950) mentioned that the cause of a landslide could
be either external or internal. He defined an external cause as
the “increase of shearing stresses without changing the internal
conditions of the slope” and internal as: “decrease of the
shearing strength without changing the external conditions of
the slope” (p.88). In all cases, it could be mentioned that there
is a transition between external and internal causes that could
be developed in a slope failure such as; rapid drawdown and
spontaneous liquefaction. In the following table, the external
and internal causes are remarked (See TABLE I).
(Varnes, 1976) affirms that there are landslide processes that
act as a cause or as an effect/consequence, depending on what
occurred first. (See Fig. 3). There are several examples in
which a landslide starts a flooding, e.g., The Vaiont Reservoir
in Italy in which a landslide in 1963, exerted a big pressure into
the water of the reservoir causing a big wave to overtop the dam
and flood the Piave Valley (Ghirotti, 2013).
 3

TABLE I Also, there are three vital concepts to understand the sense of
slope stability. Those are: stable, marginally stable and actively
CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES
unstable and were defined by Popescu as:
Causes of landslides
• Stable: factor of safety sufficiently high to withstand
External Internal all destabilizing forces
∙ External changes of stability conditions ∙ Rise of piezometric surface • Marginally stable: These slopes are those which will
∙ Progresssive structural
fail at some time in response to the destabilizing forces
∙ Earthquake shocks changes in slope-forming attaining a certain level of activity
materials • Actively unstable: slopes which destabilizing forces
∙ Seepage from artificial produce continuous or intermittent movement.
source of water
(Popescu, 2002, p. 4)
∙ *Rapid drawdown *

∙ Spontaneous liquefaction *

Note: * This is a transitional cause between external and internal

Source: (Terzaghi, 1950)

In the same way, geological processes can trigger landslides,

for example, volcanic activity which originates mudflows and
debris flows. This is the case of Mount Rainier, place where, in
the Holocene epoch, more than 55 lahars were originated. These
ranged in volume from a few million cubic yards to more than
half a cubic mile. (Crandell, 1971, p. 1)

Fig. 4. An example of changes in the factor of safety with time. Source:

(Popescu, 2002)
Landslide
In addition, there are causal factors that are described in terms
of four main groups. Those are: Ground conditions,
geomorphological processes, physical processes and man-made
processes. (See TABLE II)
Consequence
TABLE II
Cause • Earthquake
• Flooding
• Earthquake
• Volcanic activity LANDSLIDE CAUSAL FACTORS
• Flooding
• Deforestation /
• Tsunamis
Large fire
• Big waves Landslide Causal Factors
Ground conditions
Fig. 3. There is a relation between cause and effect, given that sometimes a 1. Plastic weak material
landslide can cause flooding, tsunamis, or even an earthquake. In the same way, 2. Sensitive material
landslide could be a consequence of an earthquake, flooding, volcanic activity, 3. Collapsible material
4. Weathered material
deforestation and big waves.
5. Sheared material
6. Jointed or fissured material
(Popescu, 2002) goes deeper into the concept of causal factors 7. Adversely oriented mass discontinuities
and how the factor of safety may be calculated depending on 8. Adversely oriented structural discintinuities
9. Contrast in permeability and its effects on ground water contrast in
the processes that occur on the slope and the condition that the stiffness
mass acquires with time. Therefore, it is plausible to affirm that Geomorphological processes
slopes have a time-effect process that allows one to see how the 1. Tectonic uplift
2. Volcanic uplift
safety factor is conditioned more by processes rather than actual 3. Glacial rebound
conditions. (See Fig. 4). 4. Fluvial erosion of the slope toe
5. Wave erosion of the slope toe
6. Glacial erosion of the slope toe
It should be pointed out that the factor of safety change during 7. Erosion of the lateral margins
the time in which one can observe the slope, even; when it could 8. Subterranean erosion
not be observed due to the geological age or proceeding time. 9. Deposition loading of the slope or its crest
10. Vegetation removal
Moreover, there are several processes immerged in a landslide Physical processes
that should considered once the slope is analyzed for stability, 1. Intense, short period rainfall
e.g., crustal movements, erosion, weathering, rainfall seasons. 2. Rapid melt of deep snow
These processes affect the slope behavior with time and it may 3. Prolonged high precipitation
4. Rapid drawdown following floods, high tides or breaching of
decrease the shear strength or increase the shear stress. natural dams
5. Earthquake
 4

6. Volcanic eruption 16. Earthquakes

7. Breaching of crater lakes 17. Rockslopes
8. Thawing of permafrost 18. Loess slopes
9. Freeze and thaw weathering 19. Highly sensitive silt and clay
10. Shrink and swell weathering of expansive soils
Source: (Cornforth, 2005)
Man-made processes
1. Excavation of the slope or its toe
2. Loading of the slope or its crest As it could be seen, several causes have been introduced in
3. Drawdown many journals and one foresees that extra landslide causes will
4. Irrigation
5. Defective maintenance of drainage systems be researched and explored, since the science advances and so
6. Water leakage from services does the soil engineering and subsequently landslide
7. Vegetation removal
8. Mining and quarrying
engineering.
9. Creation of dumps of very loose waste
10. Artificial vibration IV. CONSEQUENCES
Source: (Popescu, 2002)

Among the consequences of landslides, the author has listed

As well as Terzaghi imposed the meaning of causal to the shear
three: Fiscal impact, casualties or deaths and trigger events.
strength/stress relation, (Duncan & Wright, 2005) made
allusion in the same way, but includes more factors. (See
TABLE III) A. Fiscal impact
TABLE III
There are two concepts that must be mention in order to
establish the basics: counter-cyclical and pro-cyclical economic
LANDSLIDE CAUSES policies (BM, 2017). Both of which are distinctive and is the
response of a country in the aftermath of a disaster.
Landslide causes
Decrease in shear strength Increase in shear stress
It could be said that there are two moments in economy, one in
1. Increase in pore 1. Loads at the top of the
pressure slope economic abundance and the other in economic crisis. Counter-
2. Cracking
2. Water pressure in cracks at cyclical fiscal policies are encouraged to reduce their expenses
the top of the slope and save money during booming economic period so as to have
3. Increase in soil weight due
3. Swelling
to increased water content sustainable growth, as well as, increased taxes and the interest
4. Development of 4. Excavation at the bottom of rate. However, in economic crisis, these countries consume
slickensides the slope their fonds in public spending and low taxes and interest rate in
5. Decomposition of 5. Drop in water level at the
clay rock fills base of a slope
order to control the economic recession.
6. Creep under
sustained loads 6. Earthquake On the other hand, pro-cyclical economies have bigger
7. Leaching
8. Strain softening
outcomes (e.g. public spending) than their incomes (e.g. taxes)
9. Weathering and lower the taxes and the interest rate during economic
Source: (Duncan & Wright, 2005) abundancy whereas in economic crisis, those countries decide
to drop the public spending and increase the taxes and the
In the same year the founder of Cornforth Consultants, Inc. interest rate.
PhD, PE, Derek H. Cornforth formulated 19 causes (See
TABLE IV) of landslides which involves more or less the same (Noy & Nualsri, 2011) collected quarterly data on natural
concept that was appealed by the preceding authors. disasters from 1990 to 2005. Natural disasters included
hydrometeorological, geophysical, and biological disasters, this
TABLE IV
defined as “Natural situation or event which overwhelms local
LANDSLIDE CAUSES capacity necessitating a request for external
assistance. Specifically, at least one of the following four
Landslide causes criteria must be fulfilled: (1) 10 or more people reported killed;
1. Rainfall (2) 100 people reported affected; (3) declaration of a state of
2. Springs and seepage
3. Irrigating and aqueducts
emergency; or (4) call for international assistance” (Wirtz &
4. Weathering Below, 2009). Note that the list of developing countries
5. Fills included Colombia as a Developing: lower-middle income.
6. Earth dams and reservoirs One of the findings is that: “Over the period from 1990–2005,
7. Cuts
8. Artesian pressures the average damage amount from disasters is more than three
9. Concentrated water sources times higher in developing countries than in developed
10. River erosion countries (1.095 vs. 0.309 percent of GDP)”
11. Coastal erosion
12. Subaerial submarire flow slides
13. Debris flows Given the countercyclical economic policy that developing
14. Ancient landslide reactivation countries have as a response (See Fig. 5) to the disaster, the
15. Delayed failure

government consumption, government revenue, government
payment and government debt respond adversely whereas the
government cash surplus increment.
Fig. 5. Selected impulse-response graphs from the baseline model for
developing countries (two-standard-deviation disaster shock). Source: (Noy &
Nualsri, 2011, p. 10)
B. Casualties/deaths
According to the Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters
(CRED), Latin-America is a region which allocates numerous
disasters all over the world, this could be shown in the following
map:
Fig. 6. Map of occurences of Avalance/Landslide disasters by Country from
1986 to 2015. Source: (CRED, 2015)
It is noticeable that in the region there is a triangle that should
be called landslide-prone region, those countries are Brazil,
Peru and Colombia. These countries range of landslides from
35 to 59 in almost 30 years. It is important to note that the Fiscal
impact is the same that is followed by the creators of this map.
5
Additionally, it is possible to generate statistics of landslides
according to the Inventory System of the Effects of Disasters –
DESINVENTAR. In the case of Colombia, there has been 201
deaths according to the database, more than 75 people Missing
and 127 people wounded due to the landslide.
Fig. 7. Number of individuals affected in Colombia on events that took place
from 1971 to 2012. Source: (OSSO, 2018)
Similarly, it is possible to review the data for landslides in the
whole world and generate statistics that would help
governments in order to make decisions according to what is
acceptable risk for them.
C. Trigger events
As it was discussed by (Varnes, 1976, p. 2) landslides may
trigger a chain of events that could be as destructive as the
landslide itself. In order to explain the trigger events, it would
be beneficial to analyze a past event that occurred in Peru in
April 25, 1974 on the Mantaro River which caused flooding and
earthquake.
First at all, The Mantaro River whose flow stream ends in the
Amazon River, it starts in the South of Peru in Junin and
finishes in the Boundary between Peru and Brazil to start its
new flow in direction to Brazil.
Preceding studies determined that the adjoining slopes of the
Mantaro River have suffered by pre-existing faults which goes
along the river and other ones that cross the river in different
sites (Bustamante, 1973). What is more, past studies also
established that the entire Valley of the Quebrada Cochocay
appears to have been rather unstable for a considerable length
of time prior to the geological study carried on by Bustamante.
(Lee & Duncan, 1975)

Fig. 8. Geological cross section of Mantaro River slide area prior to the 4/25/74
slide. Source: (Bustamante, 1973)
It can be seen in Fig. 8 that the slope is covered with a thick
layer of weathered alluvium or detritus. This material,
according to (Lee & Duncan, 1975) included cobbles, gravel,
sands and clay without significant cementation. Below this
cover and exposed near the top of the slope are extensive layers
of interbedded sandstones and clay shales.
And lying on the sandstones and clay shales a thick layer of
fractured schist, a coarsed-grained metamorphic rock which
consists of layers of different minerals and can be split into thin
regular planes, which in this case is intensely fractured,
providing a local source of instability, and an aggravation to the
overall stability by providing ready seepage paths for ground
water percolation. (Lee & Duncan, 1975)
The average rainfall is about 702 mm of which about 95% falls
during the period of October through April, which indicates a
clearly accumulation of water in the toe of the slope that may
trigger depth landslides.
(Lee & Duncan, 1975) state On April 25, 1974, at about 9:00
p.m. local time, a massive landslide occurred in the valley of
the Mantaro River in Peru, killing about 450 people. This slide,
with a volume of 1.6 x 109 m3, dammed the Mantaro River and
formed a lake which reached a depth of about 170 m and length
of about 31 km before overtopping on June 6th-8th, 1974. In
overtopping the landslide dam, the Mantaro River eroded a
gorge about 107 m deep, and the resulting flood caused
extensive damage downstream: approximately 20 km of
road. About 1000 people had to be evacuated from their homes
during the flood, and many whose farms were destroyed, would
have to leave their homes permanently.
The landslide was of such tremendous size (1.6x109 m3) that it
produced seismic waves which were recorded by at least four
Andean seismological stations. The stations and distances from
the landslide are listed in TABLE V, and range from 82 to 890
km from the landslide.
TABLE V
SEISMOGRAPH STATIONS RECORDING EARTH WAVES PRODUCED BY THE
MANTARO RIVER LANDSLIDE OF APRIL 25,1974
Seismographs stations recording earth waves
Station Abbreviation Distance from landslide (km)
Huancayo HUA 82
Nana NNA 240
6
Arequipa ARE 580
Las Penas PNS 889
Source: (Lee & Duncan, 1975)
As it was shown in the River Mantaro Landslide. This process,
depending on its size and magnitude, is capable to produce
floods and earthquakes.
V. CONCLUSION
To conclude, while there is plenty of definitions of landslide, it
is paramount of importance to use the framework that was
mentioned by (Cruden, 1991) given that it basically has the
main concept of a landslide. However, it is relevant to
acknowledge that a landslide is a complex process which is
multivariable and many disciplines are involved within slope
studies.
Regarding the causes and consequences, there is and will be
several causes/consequences that can trigger or be triggered by
landslides, but given that it is a multivariable process, under no
circumstances should any professional seek a single
cause/consequence rather than a proximate cause, named by
(Cornforth, 2005).
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