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MAPPING AND

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
IN MINERAL EXPLORATION
Where theory hits the fan

Rodney J Holcombe
Principal Consultant, HCOV Global
Adjunct Professor of Structural Geology
The University of Queensland
Copyright © 2016 by Rodney J Holcombe
rod@holcombe.net.au

All Rights Reserved


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entire sections, may be reproduced or transmitted in any
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ISBN 978-0-9954429-0-0 (Low resolution pdf )


ISBN 978-0-9954429-1-7 (High resolution pdf )

First Edition: 2016


HCOV Global
PO Box 1618
Mudgeeraba, Queensland, 4213, Australia
www.hcovglobal.com

Book reference:
Holcombe, R.J., 2016. Mapping and structural geology in min-
eral exploration: where theory hits the fan. HCOV Global, 233p

Copies of this book can be obtained from:


www.holcombe.net.au/book/

Frontispiece: Top: Exposed fold hinge, Cape Liptrap, Victo-


ria, Australia. Bottom: Array of 3D form surfaces to bedding
constructed from dill core data from a gold prospect in the
Cobar region, Australia
Contents

Acknowledgementsviii Locations and grids 39


The Idea of North 40
Prefaceix
Declination gradient 41
Chapter 1 Declination rate of change 41
Review of Maps and Mapping 11 Structural Measurement�������������������������������������� 42
Directions/bearings/trends  43
Introduction ��������������������������������������������������������� 11 2-D data (bearings) 43
What is a ‘good’ interpretation map? ������������������� 12
Mapping Campaigns������������������������������������������������� 14 3-D data measurement 43
Mapping scales  14 Measurement of planes 44
Map types 15 Indirect measurement of lines within a plane:  45
Importance of map fidelity 15 Why use pitch to define a line?45
Mapping process 16 Conversions of line pitches (rakes) to plunge and direc-
Where to start 16 tion45
Time allocation 16 Map symbols and annotations 45
How much to measure 16 Notebook Entries 46
Data confidence 18 Storing Data: Databases����������������������������������������� 47
Spreadsheets as databases 47
Mapping precision 18
Design problems 47
Contact interpretation 18
So what is a relational database? 48
Types of contact 18
Database design 49
Discordant contacts in sedimentary rocks 19
Reading Stereonets������������������������������������������������ 49
Concordant contacts in sedimentary rocks 20 Types of spherical projection and stereo nets 50
Concordant igneous contacts 21 Geometric Calculations  51
Folded granitoid sills21
Statistical Analysis  53
Reading Outcrops – the thought process���������� 22 Classified Stereonets 53
Model vs Facts 22
Alphanumeric classified plots  53
Reading Outcrops and model synthesis – an example
from the Isla Cristalina, Uruguay 24 Numerically-classified plots 54
Creek Traverse 25
Chapter 3
Putting it all together: synthesizing a model 29 Bedding and Younging 57
Field ‘fact’ map 30
Introduction���������������������������������������������������������� 57
Compiled fact map 30 Sedimentary structures and metamorphism�������� 57
Observed Data Tables 31 Younging Criteria ������������������������������������������������� 58
Observed_unit_contacts table31 Cross-lamination (cross-bedding) 59
Observed_map_data: 32 Density flow (turbidite) structures  60
Structural data file(s) tables: 32 Graded beds and Bouma sequences 60
Completed Fact Map (Outcrop Map 32 Sole markings 61
Compiled interpretation map 33 Load cast, flame, ball-and-pillow structures61
Structure of Interpretation tables 33 Tool markings, grooves, flute casts62
Example of a ‘good’ compiled fact map 34 Convolute ripples and convolute bedding 62
Underground mine mapping ��������������������������������� 35 Scours 62
Open Pit Mapping��������������������������������������������������� 37 Mudcracks and syneresis cracks 63
Chapter 2 Other sedimentary younging structures  64
Technical Basics 39 Younging structures in volcanics  64
Pillows 64
Introduction���������������������������������������������������������� 39
Geodetic Basics������������������������������������������������������� 39 Syn-sedimentary structures���������������������������������� 65
Foundered and collapsed bedding 65
v
CONTENTS

Debris flow (mass flow) folds 65  113


Compaction structures 66 Final statement����������������������������������������������������� 116

Chapter 4 Chapter 6
Basic Structures 67 The Third Dimension 117
Introduction���������������������������������������������������������� 67 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������� 117
Faults ����������������������������������������������������������������������� 67 Contacts and Topography����������������������������������� 117
Linked faults, relays, and duplexes 69 Projecting planar contacts across topography 117
Fault displacement 70 Determination of the orientation of a plane from its
topographic contact trace 119
Fault zones 70
Constructing structure contours in GIS packages 119
Fault surface structures 71
Folded contacts and topography 121
Folds������������������������������������������������������������������������ 72
General terminology  72 Pseudo-structure contour construction 121
3D shape of folds 73 Two dimensional views of 3D folds������������������� 123
Fold axial traces in maps  123
Orientation-based nomenclature 74
Fold Profiles 124
Fold profile plane 75
Cross-sections������������������������������������������������������ 125
Fold profile shape 75 Elementary cross-sections 125
Hinge-limb angularity 75 Orientation of cross-sections.  126
Layer shape around fold 75 Reclined folds: the extreme case 126
Fold Symmetry 77 Projecting field data into the plane of section 127
Fold Vergence 77 Down-plunge projection of outcrop data 129
Fold Stacking: harmonic vs disharmonic 77 Cross-sections in horizontal folds 130
Axial Plane Foliation��������������������������������������������� 78 Section construction by the kink method 131
Types of foliation 78
Section construction by tangent-arc method 131
Lineation����������������������������������������������������������������� 82
Basic structural fabric terminology  84 Constraining parallel folds in section 133
Structural Fabrics������������������������������������������������� 84 Freehand section construction in folded areas 133
Fabric vs structural fabric 84 Vertical exaggeration in cross sections 135
Deformation event vs generation of structures 87 Faults and dykes in cross-sections 135
Recognising multiple generations of structures 87 Shape of plutons in cross-sections  136
Fractures: Joints and veins,����������������������������������� 89 Drill sections������������������������������������������������������� 136
Joints 89 Example: drill sections and steep plunges 137
Structural Compatibility�������������������������������������� 91 Drill sections and folds 139
Kinematically compatible linked structures 91 Three dimensional modelling����������������������������� 140
Local accommodation structures 92 General Comments 140
1. Direct triangulation modelling.  140
Chapter 5 2. Serial section extrapolation 141
Working with breccia 95 2. Implicit modelling.  141
Introduction���������������������������������������������������������� 95 3D structure form surfaces 142
Breccia Classification�������������������������������������������� 96
Hydraulic Brecciation������������������������������������������� 98 Chapter 7
Hydraulic fracturing 98
Working with folds and cleavage 145
Hydraulic brecciation modes 99
Introduction�������������������������������������������������������� 145
Hydraulic diatremes 99
Disharmonic folding������������������������������������������� 145
Hydraulic fluids 100 The general mapping problem 146
Hydraulic-tectonic breccia 100 Bedding in strongly folded outcrops 147
Fault ‘mega-brecciation’��������������������������������������� 102 Transposition and mapping 148
Case Histories������������������������������������������������������� 102
1) Olympic Dam: model IOCG breccia  103 Congruency of minor folds 149
2) Ernest Henry and regional breccias 103 Vergence  149
3) Prominent Hill, Australia: OD wannabe  105 Cross-sections and disharmonic folding  149
Areas lacking mappable contacts������������������������ 150
4) Drazhnje, Kosovo: karst-hosted breccia  110
Folded or cleaved outcrops�������������������������������� 151
5) Amulsar, Armenia: volcano-sedimentary breccia Down-plunge viewing 151
vi
CONTENTS

What to measure 151 Interpolation of drillhole surveys�������������������� 190


The advantage of vergence 151 QA/QC: Error detection and control�������������� 190
Potential errors at the drilling stage  191
Vergence in areas of multiple fold generations152
Manually ‘inserted’ Bottom Marks 192
Location in the larger fold structure 153
Potential errors at the mark-up stage 193
Sense of structural overturning 153
Orientation Confidence Scores 193
Using younging (bed facing) 153
Errors at the measurement stage 193
Extracting all the information 154
Errors of precision.  193
Using Fold Facing 155
Errors of measurement 194
Case History: Northern Quadrilátero Ferrífero 156
Bias 194
Complex multiple deformation: when to call in
the experts������������������������������������������������������������� 158
Chapter 10
Chapter 8 Theory: Deformation and Structures 197
Working in Shear Zones 161 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������� 197
Introduction�������������������������������������������������������� 161 Deformation��������������������������������������������������������� 197
Questions to think about:���������������������������������� 162 Types of flow causing deformation 198
Is it really a high strain zone?  162 Instantaneous strain 199
Oblique folds and sheath folds 163 Finite strain 200
What is the nature of the fabric in the zone?  164 Strain and structures 200
What is the symmetry of the shear zone fabrics?  165 Progressive Deformation 202
What is the sense-of-shear? 165 Strain, Structures, and Fabrics�������������������������� 203
Foliation deflection asymmetry 166 How structures and grain fabrics evolve 203
Asymmetric porphyroclast structures 166 Fold shape changes  205
S-C fabrics and shear bands 168 Foliation microstructure 205
Is it a shear band or an overprinting crenulation? 170 1. Grain-shape fabrics 205
A digression: putting mylonites in perspective 170 2. Axial planar discontinuities 206
Recognising mylonite protoliths 172 3. Crenulation fabrics.  207
What is the displacement likely to be?  173 4. Axial planar compositional segregation  207
Progressive deformation and shear zones��������� 175 5. Transposition and attenuation fabrics 208
Shear zones and Fluids���������������������������������������� 176 Stretching lineations and strain fringes 209
Gash Veins 178 Structural fabric suites 210
Summary 178 3D Strain and Fabric Types 211
Encoding mylonite rocks in databases��������������� 178 Crustal Deformation Modes ����������������������������� 212
Local prolate (L) and oblate (S) fabrics 213
Chapter 9
Deformation partitioning����������������������������������� 215
Oriented Drillcore 179 Shear Zones: ductile partitioning 216
Drillcore orientation types�������������������������������� 179 Ductile shear zone to brittle fault 216
Unoriented drillcore 179 Brittle flow 217
Oriented drillcore 179 Brittle Response to deformation����������������������� 218
Partially oriented drillcore 179 Stress: the key to brittle behaviour 218
Drillcore name and angle conventions  180 Stress Field 219
Orienting Core����������������������������������������������������� 181 Mohr circles 219
Measurements in Oriented Core����������������������� 183
Brittle Failure 220
Measurement of alpha angle 183
Sliding failure on existing fractures 221
Measurement of beta angle  184
Fluids and hydraulic fracturing 221
Measurement of surfaces parallel to the core  185
Veining 222
Measurement of lines in core 186
Crack-seal and crystal growth habits in veins 223
Measurements in Partially Oriented core�������� 186
Geometrical relationships���������������������������������� 187 References and Resources 225
Oriented core 187
Index227
Partially oriented core 187
Stereonet Calculations��������������������������������������� 188 About the Author 233
Procedures 188
vii
Acknowledgements

I owe a great deal to a large number of people who have been influential in my development as a structural
geologist. Among these I hold Bruce Hobbs, Paul Williams, Ron Vernon, and Tim Hopwood in high
regard for lighting the fire in my University years; Nick Oliver, Paul Pearson, Terry Harbort, Renate
Sliwa, Rick Gordon, Mike Williams, Tim Coughlin, Chris Stephens, and (particularly) Timothy Little
for stoking the coals during my academic and teaching career; and Dave Horton, Mike Schmulian, Philip
Newton, Nick Fox, Cees Swaager, Cameron Cairns, George Schroer, Stuart Smith, and all the other explo-
ration people who, over the past twenty years or so, have given me the luxury of seeing more rocks and
structures in more exotic locations than I had ever dreamed I would see. In particular, Stuart Smith was,
perhaps unknowingly, instrumental in starting me to think about writing this text, initially as a manual
for an in-house mapping course in Thailand.

As always, I am indebted to Nick Oliver for trying to curb my enthusiasm with his enthusiasm, and par-
ticularly helping me to not be one-eyed about breccia. And to Rick Valenta for improving the cover design.

viii
Preface

The best geologist is the one who has seen the most rocks
Herbert Harold Read
... and ain’t it the truth!

This manual is aimed at young practising professional geol- and theoretical research preceded a full-time structural
ogists in the minerals industry, particularly those working consulting career. So I put great store in the belief that
in deformed and folded terranes. The assumption is made every outcrop should be understood at both a practical
that the reader already has a geological background and this and a theoretical level in order to achieve a high level
manual is intended as a way to focus and revise that back- of confidence in any interpretation. Thus throughout
ground. It has been arranged somewhat in reverse order to this manual I have tried to integrates the description and
a conventional text in that the early sections explain how treatment of structures with the underlying theory.
and when to apply particular techniques in the context of • A field geologist should assess every outcrop or core
fieldwork and mapping, and later sections explain the the- sample he or she sees within the context of a continu-
ory behind those techniques. ously developing broad-scale model. Does this outcrop
It is also a highly personal, and perhaps idiosyncratic, fit the context of the last outcrop; what do I expect at
manual. It is based on my own thoughts and philosophy the next outcrop; and what do I see here that challenges
about what it takes to be a top tier professional geologist. my view of the broad-scale model? Associated with this is
Thoughts such as: my belief that the concept of multiple working hypoth-
• You never stop learning. In a reflection of the H.H. Read eses is a fine ideal, rarely practiced. It is not what most
statement shown above, I believe that at least one third geologists do. Most geologists have a dominant prevailing
of the training of a geologist is experience, thus putting model (working hypothesis) – and that is no bad thing,
young professionals at a distinct early-career disadvan- provided it is approached with an open mind and a will-
tage. The initial drive for writing the manual was from ingness to modify or change a model based on new obser-
repeatedly seeing the same mistakes made by young pro- vations. Awareness and continuous model testing is the
fessional geologists, while I knew that in thirty years’ time key activity that avoids missing that critical outcrop that
they would probably not make that same mistake. This changes everything. The downside is that in some cul-
manual is heavily based on my own experience (be that tures (both national and corporate) junior geologists feel
a good or a bad thing) with the thought that if I can unable to question prevailing models devised by senior
articulate my experience, it may speed up the acquisition geologists. Nonetheless, for them to develop into a top
of experience by the reader. class geologist they must make the effort to continually
test the model in their own day-to-day observations.
• Orebodies are anomalies, and the structures that con-
trol them are commonly also anomalous. The regional • Finally, I liken a geologist to a GP doctor. Both look at
context may be a systematic textbook structure, but the surface symptoms and, prior to undertaking invasive
local mineral occurrence is more often than not con- actions, have to come to a diagnosis that may be critical.
trolled by non-systematic structures that rarely fit any The range of solutions is enormous, the symptoms for
textbook models. I use the term accommodation structures any solution can vary widely; and knowledge of those
for anomalous structures that have allowed a deforma- symptoms and that solution may only have occupied a
tion to proceed by departing from the dominant mode few hours during the years of university training. Most
of behaviour - brittle or ductile. Some accommodation geologists’ training is considerably shorter than that of
structures, such as gash veins, which are brittle structures a GP. No wonder then that most professional industry
accommodating a ductile shear, are well understood and geologists are poorly equipped to recognise and respond
systematic, but many other accommodation structures to unusual geology, and it is also understandable that
depart markedly from textbook behaviour. In particular, they may have forgotten some very basic aspects that may
mineralisation in orogenic belts is commonly associated have been covered only in their first few weeks of a Geol-
with non-systematic faults and fractures associated with ogy degree. It is one reason why some chapters of this
ductile folding. Such structures can appear to violate manual dwell at such length on some basic aspects. For
many of the characteristics normally associated with example, I have run into enough examples of geologists
faults (such as strong curvature and rapid changes in slip being unaware of the relationship between topography
and slip sense) and it is important to recognise them for and outcrop pattern to realise the need to cover this most
what they are and understand how to deal with them. basic of topics in some detail.
• Theory is as important to a professional geologist as it is This manual does not replace an introductory structural
to an academic. A good geologist should be able to inter- geology textbook. Nor does it cover all aspects of structural
pret previously unseen or anomalous structures on the geology to the same level. It dwells on those aspects with
basis of a good theoretical background. This viewpoint which I have most experience in (such as ductile fabrics,
is strongly influenced on my own experience in which folds, and shear zones), at the expense of other aspects
more than thirty years of academic teaching and applied (such as some faults and other semi-brittle structures such
as most veins). Even then, it concentrates on those aspects
ix
PREFACE

of structure in which I have seen mistakes made by explo- Chapter 3 is mainly a basic primer on the criteria for deter-
ration and mining geologists working in specific types of mining stratigraphic facing (younging) in the field.
terranes, or in which techniques can be applied that are Chapter 4 provides a basic overview of the structures found
not in the usual armoury of an industry geologist. It also in rocks. Its main purpose is to allow a fast revision of the
does not proceed into advanced structural topics such as the gamut of basic structures as well as to provide an outline of
geometrical analysis of terranes that have undergone com- the terminology and concepts that I use within the rest of
plex superposed folding . Although these are mentioned, it the text.
is such terranes that really does require bringing a specialist
Chapter 5 deals with the problem of recognising and inter-
structural geologist into the exploration team.
preting breccia bodies, and includes a number of specific
This manual arose out of a series of in-house mapping case histories.
courses that I delivered in Thailand some years ago. The
Chapter 6 includes all aspects of structures in 3D, start-
main purpose of the course was two-fold:
ing with contacts and topography before moving into 2D
1. to encourage exploration geologists (some quite senior) cross-sections ,and finally aspects of 3D modelling.
doing regional 1:50000 scale reconnaissance mapping
Chapter 7 describes the problematic aspects of folded and
to get beyond the simple data acquisition stage of just
cleaved rocks, and how to extract maximum map an struc-
recording rock-types and measuring bedding, etc., but to
tural information from an outcrop.
develop that data into a regional geological and structural
model that could be used as a basis for exploration. That Chapter 8 deals with shear zones from a field perspective,
is, to push them beyond their corporate comfort zone ranging from low strain shear zones to mylonite. (Theoret-
into the somewhat risky realm of interpretation. ical and more advanced aspects of shear zones are dealt with
in Chapter 10).
2.  to give highly inexperienced young geologists with poor
background training in outcrop procedures, and pit map- Chapter 9 deals with extracting structural data from ori-
ping. ented drillcore and providing quality control on the data.
This chapter is extracted from my on-line manual on
Consequently the first chapter deals with aspects of map-
ping at all scales. Likewise, the second chapter deals with Oriented Core Procedures at: http://www.hcovglobal.
the purely technical aspects of field, pit, and mine geology. com/#!downloads/lf947.
I apologise to more experienced geologists that some of the Chapter 10 provides the theoretical background for many
sections in this chapter are very elementary. aspects of deformation underpinning the material discussed
in the manual. It includes an outline of the principles of
deformation and rock flow, folding, shear zones, and frac-
turing.

Rod Holcombe
Mudgeeraba, Queensland
Australia
November 2016
(rod@holcombe.net.au)

x
HCOV Global
www.hcovglobal.com

ISBN 9780995442900

9 780995 442900

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