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University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections
1992
Recommended Citation
Desai, Mukeshchandra Kantilal, Flow assessment of powders in pneumatic conveying : a bench top assessment, Doctor of Philosophy
thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wollongong, 1992. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1579
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
from
IVVOUONGO**
by \ UBfc^l
(Mukeshchandra K.Desai)
To my parents
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author extends his most sincere thanks and appreciation to his thesis
supervisor, Dr. A . G . M c L e a n , for the skillful guidance, the deep interest and
enthusiasm, numerous invaluable comments and encouragement throughout the course
of this investigation as well as for his personal generosity and assistance.
The author wishes to thank the laboratory and workshop staff for helping to
construct and revise the experimental equipment.
The author wishes to convey his appreciation for moral support, patience and
understanding from his wife Dipika, daughter Ashka and son Vishal w h o have missed
week-end fun for years.
ABSTRACT
This thesis outlines the use of powder properties, determined from bench tests to
predict powder flow behaviour in pneumatic conveying particularly in dense phase and
super dense phase systems. The bench test powder properties examined included,
particle size and distribution, bulk density and particle density, surface characteristics,
fluidization and deaeration characteristics, powder cohesiveness, tensile strength and
wall friction characteristics.
Tensile strengths were measured using an Ajax W.S.L. Tensile Tester under
different extents of consolidation. This property was found to indicate cohesiveness and
indirectly the air retention capacity of powders.
and bottom of the cylinder fitted with permeable and impermeable bases, respectively.
For effective measurement of deaeration characteristics, it was found that the fill rate
should be as fast as possible. These characteristics are important for assessing air
retention characteristics of powders.
Wall friction is another important factor contributing to the pressure drop in dense
phase pneumatic conveying. The frictional properties of powders have an adverse effect
in pneumatic conveying. These properties were evaluated under aerated conditions in a
perspex tube by pushing powders upwards for different column lengths.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF FIGURES x
LIST OF PLATES xvi
LIST OF TABLES xvii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduc tion 1
1.2 Pneumatic Conveying Systems 1
1.3 Flow Patterns 2
1.4 Types of Dense Phase Pneumatic Conveying Systems 6
1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Pneumatic Conveying
Systems 8
1.6 Powder Properties 9
1.7 The Objectives of the Research 10
3.2 Instability 39
4.2 Bends 56
4.3 Wear and Abrasion 61
4.4 Attrition 62
4.5 Piping 65
CHAPTER 7 RESULTS
7.1 Scanning Electron Microscope Photographs 139
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.
NO.
1.1 Basic Components of Pneumatic Conveying Systems 2
1.2 Pneumatic Conveying System Layout 3
1.3 Phase Diagram for Pneumatic Conveying of Solids 5
1.4 Flow Patterns in a Horizontal Pipe 5
1.5 Classification of Dense Phase Pneumatic Conveying Systems 7
2.1 A Single Blow Tank System 14
2.2 Parallel Arrangement 17
2.3 Series Arrangement 17
2.4 Aerated Blow Tank 19
2.5 Column of Material 29
2.6 Pressure Distribution 29
2.7 Force Analysis of a Column of Bulk Material 29
2.8 Forced Flow Apparatus 34
2.9 Conveying Force Results for Millet 35
2.10 Rademacher Wall Friction Tester 35
2.11 Front View of the Coefficient of Friction Test Rig 36
2.12 Variation of Frictional Force and the Normal Load for Brown Coal 36
4.1 Variation of the Coefficient of Restitution of Perspex with Temperature 54
4.2 Particle Trajectories for Quartz and Lime Impacting Various Pipe 54
Materials
4.3 Variation of Coefficient of Restitution versus Impact Height 55
4.4 Test Rig for Particle/Wall Collision 55
4.5 Variation of Coefficient of Restitution versus Impact Angle 56
4.6 Examples of Bend Geometries 59
5.1 Critical Arching Diameters 91
5.2 Critical Arching Diameters 91
5.3 Tensile Tester 92
5.4 Geldart's Classification of Powders 92
5.5 Deaeration Test Rig 93
5.6 Deaeration Experiment 93
5.7 Filling-Deaeration Plot for Zyolite Powder 94
5.8 Pressure Variation in a Hopper; Permeable and Impermeable Base 94
5.9 Deaerated Bed Settling for Group A Powder 95
5.10 Deaerated Bed Settling for Group C Powder 95
6.1 Configuration of Sturtevant Blow Tank 97
XI
7.48 Frictional Force versus Aeration Air Pressure for Shirley Phosphate 195
7.49 Frictional Force versus Column Length for Brown Rice 195
7.50 Frictional Force versus Column Length for White Rice 196
7.51 Frictional Force versus Column Length for Rice Flakes 196
7.52 Frictional Force versus Column Length for Millet 197
7.53 Frictional Force versus Column Length for Wheat 197
7.54 Frictional Force versus Column Length for Sand 198
7.55 Shear Stress versus Air Pressure for Brown Rice 198
7.56 Shear Stress versus Air Pressure for White Rice 199
7.57 Shear Stress versus Air Pressure for Rice Flakes 199
7.58 Shear S tress versus Air Pressure for Millet , 200
7.59 Shear Stress versus Air Pressure for Sand 200
7.60 Shear Stress versus Air Pressure for Shirley Phosphate 201
7.61 Aeration Air Pressure versus Wall Friction Factor uk for Brown Rice 201
7.62 Aeration Air Pressure versus Wall Friction Factor uk for White Rice 202
7.63 Aeration Air Pressure versus Wall Friction Factor uk for Rice Flakes 202
7.64 Aeration Air Pressure versus Wall Friction Factor uk for Millet 203
7.65 Aeration Air Pressure versus Wall Friction Factor uk for Wheat 203
7.66 Deaeration Tester 204
7.67 Pressure Variation During Filling; Permeable Base 205
7.68 Deaeration Time of Fly Ash A', F and 'G'; Permeable Base 205
7.69 Deaeration Behaviour of Fly Ash 'A', F and 'G'; Permeable Base 206
7.70 Pressure Variation During Filling; Impermeable Base 206
7.71 Deaeration Time of Fly Ash 'A', F and 'G'; Impermeable Base 207
7.72 Deaeration Time of Fly ash 'C ; Impermeable Base 207
7.73 Deaeration Behaviour of Fly ash A', F and 'G'; Impermeable Base 208
7.74 Deaeration of Fly Ash 'A', F and 'G'; Permeable Base 208
7.75 Deaeration of Fly Ash'E'; Permeable Base 209
7.76 Deaeration of Fly Ash A'and'G'; Permeable Base 209
7.77 A Filling-Deaeration Graph for Fly Ash 'A'; Impermeable Base 210
7.78 Fluidization Rig
7.79 Geldart's Fluidization Diagram Showing the Classification of Fly Ash 212
7.80 Fluidization Analysis of Fly Ash A ' 212
7.81 Fluidization Analysis of Fly Ash 'C 213
7.82 Fluidization Analysis of Fly Ash A', "C and 'E 213
7.83 Fluidization Analysis of Alumina 214
7.84 Fluidization Analysis of Sand 214
7.85 Fluidization Analysis of P V C Powder 215
7.86 Deaeration of Fly Ash 'A' in Fluidization Rig 215
7.87 Deaeration of Fly Ash 'C in Fluidization Rig 216
7.88 Deaeration of Fly Ash *F in Fluidization Rig 216
7.89 Friction Loop 217
7.90 Exploded View of a Typical Pipeline Air Pressure Tapping Location 218
7.91 Transducer Air Pressure versus Distance from Blow Tank 229
7.92 Transducer Air Pressure versus Distance from Blow Tank 229
7.93 Transducer Air Pressure versus Distance from Blow Tank 230
7.94 Transducer Air Pressure versus Distance from Blow Tank 230
7.95 Transducer Air Pressure versus Distance from Blow Tank 231
7.96 Transducer Air Pressure versus Distance from Blow Tank 231
8.1 Variation of Specific Surface versus M e a n Particle Size for the Fly Ash
Tested 237
8.2 Variation of M e a n Particle Size versus Characteristic Dimensions of Fly
Ash 239
8.3 Variation of Average Characteristic Dimensions versus M e a n Particle
Size 239
8.4 Variation of M e a n Size versus % < 5.8 p m for Fly Ash Tested 240
8.5 Variation of M e a n Size versus Particle Size Distribution Span for Fly
Ash Tested 240
8.6 Variation of M e a n Size versus Average % < 5.8 p m and Particle Size
Distribution Span for the Fly Ash Tested 241
8.7 Bulk Density versus Major Consolidation Stress 242
8.8 Bulk Density versus Major Consolidation Stress 242
8.9 Compressibility Coefficient Variation versus M e a n Particle Size 243
8.10 The Ratio of Packed to Loose Poured Bulk Density versus Particle Size
for the Fly Ash and Cement Tested 245
8.11 Variation of M e a n Particle Size versus Hausner Ratio 245
8.12 Variation of Hausner Ratio versus Different Particle Size Span 246
8.13 Variation of Hausner Ratio versus Average Particle Size Distribution
Span 246
8.14 Voidage versus M e a n Particle Size for the Fly Ash and Cement Tested 248
8.15 Variation of Ratio of Packed to Loose Poured Bulk Density versus
Drained Angle of Repose for the Powders Tested 251
8.16 Variation of Effective Angle of Friction from Experiment and Shear
Tester 253
8.17 Variation of Internal Angle of Friction from Experiment and Shear
Tester 254
XV
8.18 Flowability Index of Fly Ash and Cement versus Arch Length 255
8.19 Variation of Adhesion Force versus Consolidation for Fly Ash 256
8.20 Variation of Adhesion Force versus Consolidation for Fly Ash with
Deaeration 257
8.21 Wall Yield Loci for Fly A s h 'A', V and 'D' for Stainless Steel 259
8.22 Variation of Deaeration Time Constant versus M e a n Particle Size for
Impermeable and Permeable Bases 261
8.23 Variation of Deaeration Time Constant versus Particle Size Distribution
Span for Impermeable and Permeable Bases 262
8.24 Variation of Dense Phase Voidage versus Particle Density 263
8.25 Deaeration Behaviour of Fly A s h 'A', 'C and 'E' 265
8.26 Variation of Permeability Factor versus M e a n Size for Fly Ash Tested 266
8.27 Permeability of the Fly Ashes Tested 267
8.28 Variation of Permeability Coefficient versus M e a n Particle Size for Fly
Ash Tested 268
8.29 Variation of Permeability Coefficient versus Pressure Gradient for Fly
Ash Tested 268
8.30 Variation of Permeability Coefficient a and Compressibility Coefficient
b versus M e a n Particle Size for Fly Ash Tested 269
8.31 Factors Affecting Powder Flow Characteristics 273
8.32 Pneumatic Conveying Phase Diagram 276
8.33 Pneumatic Conveying Phase Diagram (Alternate View) 277
8.34 Schematic Presentation of the Variation of Cohesion and
Permeability with Particle Size 279
8.35 Schematic Presentation of the Variation of Cohesion and
Deaeration versus Particle Size 279
8.36 Variation of Reciprocal of Arch Length and Hausner Ratio with
Particle Size of Fly Ash Tested 280
8.37 Mechanical Interlocking 281
8.38 Schematic Representation of the Variation of Permeability versus
Mechanical Interlocking 281
8.39 Specific Examples of Powder Properties with respect to the
Proposed Powder Conveying Phase Diagram 284
8.40 Variation of Particle Velocity with Time for Cement 289
8.41 Variation of Particle Velocity with Time for Cement 289
8.42 Variation of Particle Velocity with Time for Wheat 289
8.43 Variation of Volumetric Air Flow Rate with Time for Cement 290
8.44 Variation of Mass Flow ratio with Solids Mass Flow Rate for Cement
and Wheat 290
8.45 Variation of Solids Flow Rate versus Air Mass Flow Rate 291
8.46 Variation of Experimental versus Predicted Solids Velocity for Sand 292
8.47 Variation of Particle Velocity versus Time 292
8.48 Variation of Particle Velocity versus Time 293
8.49 Variation of Slip Velocity versus (1- Voidage) for Sand 296
8.50 Variation of Superficial Air Velocity versus (1-Voidage) for Sand 296
8.51 Variation of Superficial Air Velocity versus Mass Flow Ratio for Sand 297
8.52 Variation of Pipeline Pressure Drop versus Air Mass Flow Rate for Sand 297
8.53 Variation of Mass Flow Ratio versus Initial Blow Tank Pressure for
Sand . 298
8.54 Solid-Air Ratio Variation with Initial Blow Tank Pressure for Wheat 300
8.55 Mass Flow Rate of Solids with Initial Blow Tank Pressure for Wheat 300
8.56 Solids Mass Flow Rate versus Air Mass Flow Rate of Wheat 302
8.57 Average Blow Tank Pressure versus Air Mass Flow Rate for Wheat 302
8.58 Pipeline Pressure Drop versus Air Mass Flow Rate for Wheat 303
9.1 Recommended Sequence of Powder Tests 307
A. 1 Settling Velocity in Still Air of Spherical Particles with Diameter d 332
A.2 Settling Velocity in Still Air of Spherical Particles with Diameter d 333
A.3 M o o d y Diagram 334
B.l Typical Slugging Diagram 356
C. 1 Calibration Plot 360
C.2 Typical Calibration Graph 361
C.3 Typical Calibration Graph 363
C.4 Concentration Graph 364
LIST OF PLATES
6.1 Control Panel 98
6.2 Blow Tank 101
6.3 Receiving Hopper 102
6.4 L o w Velocity Rig Blow Tank 104
6.5 H P 3721A Correlator connected to Tealgate T.200 Series Transducer 108
6.6 Fibre Optic Probe with H P 3721A Correlator 109
6.7 Fibre Optic Probe Located on Sight Glass 110
6.8 Chart Recorder Connected to the T.300 Concentration Meter 115
6.9 Data Acquisition System (DAS) 116
6.10 Wall Friction Rig 121
6.11 Coefficient of Restitution Rig 123
6.12 Beckman Pycnometer for Measuring Solid Density 125
6.13 Jenike Compressibility Tester 125
6.14 Malvern Particle Sizer 129
6.15 Jenike Direct Shear Tester 129
6.16 Ajax Tensile Tester 132
6.17 (A) Cohesion Arch Tester (B) Deaeration Tester 134
6.18 Fluidization Rig 137
7.1 S E M Photograph of Raw Sugar Grains (X= 14) 139
7.2 S E M Photograph of Raw Sugar Grains (X= 30) 140
7.3 S E M Photograph of Raw Sugar Grains (X= 144) 140
7.4 S E M Photograph of Raw Sugar Grains (X= 1440) - 141
7.5 S E M Photograph of Light Soda Ash (X= 162) 141
7.6 S E M Photograph of Light Soda Ash (X=780) 142
7.7 S E M Photograph of Dense Soda Ash (X= 180) 142
7.8 S E M Photograph of Dense Soda Ash (X=600) 143
7.9 S E M Photograph of Zinc Fume (X= 90) 143
7.10 S E M Photograph of Zinc Fume (X= 600) 144
7.11 S E M Photograph of Zinc Fume (X= 6000) 144
7.12 S E M Photograph of P V C Powder (X= 360) 145
7.13 S E M Photograph of P V C Powder (X= 1800) 145
7.14 S E M Photograph of Pulverised Coal - Tallawarra (X= 60) 146
7.15 S E M Photograph of Pulverised Coal -Tallawarra (X=600) 146
7.16 S E M Photograph of Pulverised Coal - Tallawarra (X= 2100) 147
7.17 S E M Photograph of Petroleum Coke (X= 12) 147
7.18 S E M Photograph of Petroleum Coke (X= 120) 148
7.19 S E M Photograph of Petroleum Coke (X=600) 148
7.20 S E M Photograph of Petroleum Coke (X= 3000a) 149
7.21 S E M Photograph of Petroleum Coke (X= 3000b) 149
7.22 S E M Photograph of Eraring Fly Ash (X= 1320) 150
7.23 S E M Photograph of Liddell Fly Ash (X= 1320) 150
7.24 S E M Photograph of Liddell Fly Ash (X= 6600) 151
7.25 S E M Photograph of Vales Point Fly Ash (X=468) 151
7.26 S E M Photograph of Vales Point Fly Ash (X= 6600) 152
LIST OF TABLES
1.1 Data for Pneumatic Conveying Systems for a Pipe Diameter of 100 m m 4
2.1 Blow Tank Characteristics and Operation - Literature Survey 15
2.2 Dense Phase Flow - Literature Survey 22
2.3 Powder Characteristics 26
2.4 Wall Friction - Literature Survey 30
3.1 Pneumatic Conveying Models - Literature Survey 40
3.2 Solids Velocity Measurement Techniques 43
3.3 Concentration Measurement 48
4.1 Coefficient of Restitution - Literature Survey 50
4.2 Bend Characteristics and Application 58
4.3 Bend Pressure-drop Factors for Use in Equn. (4.8) 60
4.4 Service Life of Long Radius Bends and Blind Tees Conveying
Zirconium Sodium 61
4.5 Variables affecting Attrition - 63
4.6 Assessment of Attrition 63
4.7 Types of Attrition Tests 64
4.8 Surface Roughness of Various Piping Materials 65
4.9 Piping Materials 66
5.1 List of Salient Powder Properties 69
5.2 Powder Properties 70
5.3 Mohs' Scale of Hardness 75
5.4 The General Relationships between Angle of Repose and the
Flowability of Materials 75
5.5 Particle Shape and Flow Characteristics 76
5.6 Angle of Repose - Literature Survey 77
5.7 Cohesion - Literature Survey 79
5.8 Tensile Strength - Literature Survey 82
5.9 Fluidization - Literature Survey 85
5.10 Deaeration - Literature Survey 87
7.1 Observations from Scanning Electron Microscope Photographs 153
7.2 Coefficient of Restitution 158
7.3 Particle Size Analyses 161
7.4 Size Analysis of Sand 161
7.5 Size Analysis of Brown Rice (I) 162
7.6 Size Analysis of Brown Rice (II) 163
7.7 Size Analysis of White Rice 163
7.8 Bulk Density 167
7.9 Loose Poured Bulk Density 167
7.10 Solids Density 168
7.11 Arch Length and Drained Angle of Repose of Cement, Fly Ash and
Sodium Ferrite 171
7.12 Instantaneous Yield Loci 181
7.13 Tensile Strength Versus Consolidation Stress 190
7.14 Deaeration Time Constant and Exponents 210
7.15 Air Pressure Channels 219
7.16 Transducer Locations 219
7.17 Material Flow Properties 219
7.18 Air Pressure Channels and Transducer Location 220
7.19 Conveying Characteristics - Cement 221
7.20 Conveying Characteristics - Wheat 222
7.21 Conveying Characteristics of Sand 223
7.22 Transducer Air Pressures 227
7.23 Bend Air Pressure 228
7.24 Data Channel Details 232
7.25 Pipeline Details 232
7.26 L o w Velocity Conveying Rig - Wheat 233
8.1 Effects of Different Lenses on Particle Size Distribution 238
8.2 Compressibility of Materials 243
8.3 Density Parameters 248
8.4 Wall Friction Tests of Fly Ash 258
8.5 Wall Friction Angles 259
8.6 Deaeration Factor 263
8.7 Collapse Air Velocity and Dense Phase Parameters 263
8.8 Permeability Factor 265
8.9 Ranking of Fly Ash Properties Based O n Bench Tests 271
8.10 Recommended Powder Property Bench Tests for Assessment of
Pneumatic Conveying Suitability 274
8.11 Factors Influencing the M e a n Interparticle Spacing 281
8.12 Pressure Differential for Friction Loop 287
8.13 Air Velocity, Slip Velocity and Froude Number 294
8.14 Plug Velocity and Length 301
A.l Friction Factor 335
A.2 Bend Loss Coefficient for 90 Degrees Bends 337
C. 1 Typical Calibration Values 359
C.2 Calibration Results 360
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
In the last century, fans were used as primemovers to convey light powders and
dusts through pipes. The application of pneumatic conveying, on a large scale,
commenced in early as 1890. The necessary machines and controls were perfected in
several developmental stages in the process industries with automated installations. With
the development of fans, roots type blowers and rotary feed valves, pneumatic conveying
technology has developed quickly. B y the end of the first war, a device called the Fuller-
Kinyon p u m p had been invented making it possible to convey materials like cement and
fly ash at higher concentrations than that possible using simple fan technology. This
was the birth of modern dense phase conveying.
Recently, there has been an increasing interest in dense phase and super dense
phase pneumatic conveying. The latter is defined as the conveying of powders by air or
gas along a pipe which is more or lessfilledwith powders at one or more cross-sections.
The successful development of commercial conveying systems, during the 1960's like
the simple pressure pulse phase and bypass systems and the need to feed particles such as
coal or cracking catalyst into fiuidized beds, with the m i n i m u m amount of air, created
increased interest in dense phase systems.
Conveying
SEPARATION
Piping
Cyclone
JJ Bends
Bag Filter
Cleaning;
^Diverter
Mechanical
Reverse Jet
-JT- Coupling
Prime Mover
\r Venturi
Fan
CY Rotary Valve
<3>
Compressor
Blower
/I/I/I/I
Scre
*
Reciprocating
Screw Blow Tank
Storage
Hopper C o a r s e and
Fine
Particles
Prime Mover
Acceleration
O ^^^T^rr^f « r Z o n e j . 1.1.'j.i.».!. i.i.i
end F l o v
O Feeding Zone
C o n v e q i n q P r e s s u r e Loss.
B e n d Acceleration
Particle- Zone
./ Y | Vail Interaction
Particle- Particle
> Interaction
Variables
"ohesive,Humidity, Electro-
Air/Solids Seperation
static,Pipe R o u g h n e s s
/fl*
Stepped Pipe
\Q7 To S l o v Conveying
Velocity
Discharge
Hoppei ear and
jjmyy-y-y-'-y-yy-'Mm
Degradation
O t II I I » I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I L I I ifc i i r r -
Table 1.1: Data for pneumatic conveying systems for a pipe diameter of 100 m m .
Typical flow patterns in a horizontal pipe are shown in Figure 1.4. Dilute phase
conveying is a fully suspended flow generated by large volumes of gas at high velocities.
The flow pattern in dense phase flow can vary from an unstable flow to a stable flow
depending on gas velocity, powder characteristics, flow rate, pipe roughness and
diameter. Flow patterns for dense phase conveying vary from conditions in which the
solids completely pack sections of the pipe and move as a continuous plug to conditions
where the solids on the bottom of the pipe move as a series of dunes with a dilute phase
layer of solids flowing above the dunes.
At high solid loading ratio conveying occurs as plugs of coarse powder with high
pressure gradient but low velocities. Obviously, the specific energy consumption required
for dense phase flow will be low, if fine powders are conveyed which are fiuidizable.
In dense phase flow proper, the material fills completely the pipeline cross
section. A reduction of the gas velocity less than a critical value to keep the particles in
suspension results in a non uniform distribution of powders over the conveying pipeline
cross section. This critical velocity is termed as the saltation velocity for horizontal
conveying and choking velocity for vertical conveying.
5
Loading of solids
U.-W)
'30
Dilute-phase conveying
1 10 100 m / s
Gas velocity w —
Figure 1.3: Phase Diagram for Pneumatic Conveying of Solids [ Bohnet, 1985].
»______
^^i'^-Ai^iSirtr»^rtiiS«w*
\__£k&sm&ik
Gas bypass systems are employed for impermeable products, which tend to form
solid plugs when conveyed at low velocities. W h e n a plug forms in the conveying line,
the gas bypasses and reenters where the resistance of the plug is less than in the bypass
line. A long plug of material is thus divided into shorter plugs and material transport is
thus reestablished. In general, dense phase pneumatic conveying systems are categorized
into four types. These being:
1.4.1 CONTROLLED PLUG FORMATION:
The natural plug formation of coarse-grained powders is induced by generating
plugs into the conveying pipe, e.g. this natural plug formation process occurs when
conveying Wheat, Rice, Millet, etc.
1.4.2 CONTROLLED PLUG BREAK-UP;
This method consists of localizing plugs in their initial stages and breaking them
up before a critical length is exceeded. A disadvantage of this system is the possibility of
powder penetrating into the internal or external by-pass lines.
1.4.3 SUSPENSION METHOD;
Such systems exploit the high gas retention capacity of some powders. The gas
and solids are mixed at regular intervals to restore fluidization of the slow moving
powder.
1.4.4 C O M B I N A T I O N S :
Other systems combine the latter two methods. All practical systems can be
categorized into one of the four groups mentioned above. Harder et al. (1988a) provides
an excellent summary of dense phase pneumatic conveying system classification as
presented in Figure 1.6. Without the knowledge of the powder behaviour, it is not
possible to design dense phase conveying systems for reliable operation. The usual feeder
for dense phase conveying systems is the pressure vessel or blow tank. These feeders
are capable of achieving any required conveying pressure without uncontrolled gas losses
or leakage.
All conveying requirements may not be solved using dense phase conveying
systems and for this reason dilute phase conveying systems still have their field of
application. These fields include for example, conveying systems with frequently
changing solids or very cohesive powders, where high velocities are necessary to
overcome the interparticle forces.
Dense phase conveying methods
I
£
Dense phase conveying Dense phase conwying
conventional with stabilization
tf
I
Solids with high gas Solids with tow gas
permeability / permeability /
low gas holding high gas holding
capacity capacity
J
S£<r
S.5CT
Uncontrolled slug
degradation* suspen=
sion effect
System Gattys
is*&3t£'
Fluidschub
e.t.c.
y^
1.5.2 DISADVANTAGES:
Unfortunately, pneumatic conveying systems incur the following disadvantages:
[1] High operating pressure;
[2] High energy consumption;
[3] Possibility of complete pipeline blockage;
[4] Difficult to predict the nature of the flow;
[5] W e a r and abrasion of system components;
[6] Conveying distance is presently limited to a few kilometers;
[7] Cost of transportation increases with the addition of bends;
[8] The allowable powder mass flow rate decreases with increasing conveying
length.
1.5.4 DISADVANTAGES;
In c o m m o n with all pneumatic systems, dense phase conveying incurs the
following disadvantages:
[1] The problem of feeding large quantities of solids from an atmospheric
environment to a high pressure pipeline generally means that rotary valves are
not suitable.
[2] In general, single blowtanks are used to feed the solids which necessitates batch
m o d e operation.
[3] Not all powders which can be pneumatically conveyed are conveyed satisfactorily
in dense phase.
Hence, there is a clear trend, within the pneumatic conveying industry, towards
dense phase and low velocity conveying. This trend is consistent with the distinct
advantages of these systems. However, use of dilute phase system will be continued for
the reasons discussed earlier.
Due to the above features, pneumatic conveying is one of the fastest developing
methods for the transportation of bulk solids. This method is proving to be cheaper,
easier and more convenient than m a n y other more conventional methods of transporting
bulk solids including belt conveyors and mechanical conveyors. Air is relatively cheap
and easy to obtain in large quantities. Furthermore, the escape of air contaminated with
dust particles usually causes only minimal environmental damage.
As can be seen the large number of powder variables causes pneumatic conveying
to be an extremely complex phenomenon. T o partially overcome this complexity
improved knowledge of the interaction between powder properties and conveying
characteristics is sought. T o this end, the effects of a number of powder properties on
pneumatic conveying characteristics were selected for further examination. Actual details
of this examination are summarized in the following section.
Particular effort will be devoted to the latter since pneumatic conveying is not
fully understood in regard to the conveyability of a powder on the basis of properties
determined from bench tests. In regard to bench test development, this work studies in
detail the cohesive arch behaviour, measurement of tensile stress, fluidization and
deaeration properties, wall friction of aerated powders, surface characteristics, bulk
density, solid density, flow properties, particle size analysis and powder coefficient of
restitution. The properties so measured are then correlated with pneumatic powder flow
behaviour in dilute phase, dense phase and super dense phase flow systems.
11
Secondly, the internal friction angle, shearing cohesiveness and tensile strength of
powders are significant parameters during dense phase and super dense phase conveying.
Notably, in these modes, the creation and breakage of plugs depends on powder
cohesiveness. In fact, m a n y problems, associated with powder handling, originate from
the influence of the cohesive forces on the flow behaviour of powders.
To assess the effect of cohesion, the arching dimension and hence cohesive
strength were evaluated in a purpose built Cohesive Arch Tester for various powders.
The cohesive strength so measured was then compared to that measured using the Jenike
Direct Shear Tester. T o further elucidate powder cohesive properties, the tensile strength
was evaluated for various powders. This powder property was measured using an Ajax
Tensile Tester at different consolidation levels.
Fifthly, bulk density, permeability and solid density bear an important influence
on the flow behaviour in pneumatic conveying systems. These important parameters
were determined using a Jenike Compressibility Tester, Jenike Permeability Tester and
Beckman Pycnometer, respectively.
Powder properties determined from bench tests provide convenient and rapid
assessment of a powder's flowability. This assessment is useful for ranking of different
powders and identification of the optimum m o d e of pneumatic conveying. A n e w phase
diagram is proposed incorporating powder properties such as cohesion, deaeration,
permeability and mechanical interlocking to indicate pneumatic conveying flow
behaviour.
In the latter phases of the performance tests, the effect of bend geometry on the
flow characteristics was examined. In particular, two different bends were used namely,
long radius and vortice elbow. This examination was followed by the development of a
fibre optic probe to measure powder velocity. Subsequent testing, using this velocity
probe was conducted at different air flow rates.
CHAPTER 2
BLOW TANKS, DENSE PHASE FLOW
AND WALL FRICTION
2.1 BLOWTANK:
2.1.1 INTRODUCTION:
A blow tank is essentially a pressure vessel configured with powder inlet and
discharge ports and valves, a pressurization port and a vent port, refer Figure 2.1. The
basic operating cycle of a blow tank comprises filling, pressurizing and conveying.
During filling, the powder inlet valve is open and the discharge valve closed. In this
phase, powder feeds into the blow tank (usually by gravity from a feed hopper). W h e n
the blow tank is full, the inlet valve is closed allowing pressurization. Once pressurized
to the required system pressure, the discharge valve is opened to supply powder to the
conveying pipeline.
Blow tanks may also incorporate fluidization, conveying and secondary air flow
systems. There are two types of blow tanks, the top discharge and the bottom discharge
also k n o w n as the Fluxo and Cera type, respectively. Blow tanks are pressure vessels
which have to be designed in accordance with the pressure vessel code according to A S
1210 in Australia. Because they work under internal pressure, they require a certificate of
fitness at regular intervals to ensure safe operation. A summary of blow tank
characteristics and operation, as found in the literature, is presented in Table 2.1.
2.1.2 ADVANTAGES:
The advantages of blow tank feeders include:
[1] High solids to gas ratios;
[2] Small pipelines;
[3] Small dust filtration systems;
[4] N o moving parts;
[5] M i n i m u m powder degradation and segregation;
[6] Simple control of flowrate;
[7] Higher conveying capacities;
[8] Long conveying distance possible;
[9] M i n i m u m bend and pipeline wear;
[10] Can convey hot powders;
[11] N o difficulty in feeding against adverse pressure gradient.
14
From
Level indicator
compressed air
supply
Blow tank
Conveying
ine
2.1.3 LIMITATIONS:
The limitations or disadvantages of blow tanks include,
[1] System conveying rate is limited by blow tank size;
[2] They operate in batch mode in most situations;
[3] M i n i m u m product cooling (low gas to solid ratio);
[4] They are of high pressure design;
[5] D u e to the use of high pressure, the conveying velocity increases with
distance; down the pipeline due to expansion of the compressed conveying gas.
Since the blow tank discharges product to the conveying line in batches, two blow
tanks m a y be used to operate in sequence, so that one is being recharged, while the other
is discharging.
15
1982 Hitt Applied the time derivative of the ideal gas law to the blow
tank discharge flow to calculate solids loading ratio, to
predict pressurization transient and conveying characteristics.
1985 McLean Analyzed blow tank design using the principles of gravity
flow bins taking into account the fluid pressure gradient.
16
1988b Harder Described criteria for blow tank design, various possible
etal. arrangements and alternative feeders for dense and dilute
phase conveying.
Hopper
S/enV line
Pressure
balance Conveying
and vent" line
/.ir supply
2.1.6 CAPACITY:
The approximate capacity of a blow tank system can be calculated from the
equation (Kraus, 1983),
8.156 x IO-4 ph V
Pb
C= 1 (2.1)
2.1.9 VENTING:
Proper venting is important for smooth blow tank operation. If the blow tank is
not vented, a large adverse pressure gradient occurs, which prevents further material flow
into the blow tank. The existence of this adverse pressure gradient severely retards infill
flow rates of both cohesive and low density powders.
A common aeration device is the plenum chamber through which air can
and supports a permeable or porous membrane (Figure 2.4). The plenum chamber is
bolted to the bottom of the hopper of the blow tank.
19
u.
Ms = 0.988 ps 7T ( D - 1.9 d )25 g?5 -1 (2.2)
The important parameters are the capacity to be conveyed, the distance over which
the powder will be conveyed and the number of bends involved. Since bends create large
pressure drops, it is highly desirable to minimize their number. Furthermore, the
required velocity must be determined. The solids mass flow rate should be continuous to
minimize energy consumption.
fluctuations occur due to the existence of dunes and slugs. Dense phase conveying can
used for powder and granular materials, but blockages may occur. Hence, the
conveying velocity is an important consideration.
the pressure drop is equal to the summation of the pressure drop of the individual plugs
in the conveying pipeline. A s long as the plugs are stable and do not join together and
block the pipe, discrete plug flow conveying is very efficient. This system can be used
for fine cohesive powders.
Due to high pressure losses in discrete dense phase powder plugs, air expands
significantly along the pipe and the conveying velocity increases. A s a result of this
increase in air velocity along the pipe, tensile forces are produced in the powder plugs,
which tends to tear them apart. T o prevent disintegration of the discrete powder plugs, a
valve or orifice must be located at the end of the conveying pipeline to provide a system
back pressure.
Air boosters positioned along the conveying pipeline sense the pressure at each
stage and adjust the pipeline pressure to convey granular materials smoothly and prevent
high back pressures. For very cohesive powders, a booster line m a y be added to pulse
phase system for continuous plug flow. Details of dense phase flow and super dense
flow systems is presented by Klinthworth et al. (1985). A literature survey summary
relating to dense phase flow is presented in Table 2.2.
1981 Chan et al. Considered one dimensional plug flow. Examined stability
criteria by considering the axial interparticle stresses within
single plugs and the effect of wall friction.
1982 Hitt et al. Studied two models of slugging, shearing type and full bore
flow in a horizontal pipe and compared predictions with
experiments.
1983 Tsuji Reported that the pressure drop across a moving plug was
less than across a packed bed of the same particles. It was
noted that turbulence and vibration prevented wedging of
the conveyed powders.
1987 Zheng Reported the relationship between pressure drop and plug
length to be an approximate linear relationship.
1988 Aziz et al. Indicated that the pressure drop variation is linear with plug
length. Found particle size distribution and cohesion govern
plug formation and stability. Proposed a pressure drop
model for plug flow and found wall shear stress was
important for controlling the flow in horizontal and inclined
pipes.
For super dense phase conveying, air permeability, air retention capability,
particle size distribution, density, wall friction, internal friction and product adhesion are
important powder considerations. Super dense phase pneumatic conveying exhibits
greater stability at high solids loading compared to that w h e n conducted at low solids
loading. However, occasionally powder plugs consolidate to form immovable plugs.
25
The need to prevent formation of plugs is particularly relevant for low air retentive
cohesive powders. Conveying of such powders, with limited overall pressure drops, is
possible by keeping the plug length short. It should be noted that the wall friction is also
reduced by preventing unlimited plug formation.
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2.5 W A L L FR1CTTON:
2.5.1 INTRODUCTION:
The wall friction is an important design parameter in pneumatic conveying. In
solids handling, it is usual to assume that the shearing of granular material along a surface
is similar to the solid body friction along a surface. Hence, it is usual to apply Amonton-
Coulomb's law. In investigations, concerning the frictional forces between a granular
material and a surface, most researchers assume that the friction force to be of the same
form as solid body friction and apply the Coulomb friction law to describe the same.
However, other researchers [Platonov et al. (1969)] consider the resistance to slip as a
combination of an adhesive force, which is independent of the normal pressure and a
shearing force proportional to the normal pressure. Wherein the characteristics of both
friction components would be dependent solely on the materials interacting at the surface.
For smooth elastic spheres, the magnitude of the contact surface area A at the wall
can be obtained from the Hertz equation,
( 1 2 , 2 V1
?* — 1-V- 1 - V2 (2.5)
V — cTi + Tr
z_ J
For rough particles, the real area of contact increases at least linearly with the
applied normal force. The problem of computing the actual magnitude of the contact area
is complicated and requires details of the surface topography. For instance, the frictional
force for rough particles is directly proportional to load.
Many studies have been done to evaluate the wall friction of powders under de-
aerated conditions, but very little research has been undertaken to evaluate the frictional
coefficient variations under aerated conditions. T h e friction angles determined in shear
cell tests appropriate to hopper design [ Arnold et al. (1980) ] are not directly applicable
for powders pneumatically conveyed. A literature survey s u m m a r y relating to wall
friction of powders is depicted in Table 2.4.
2.5.3 ANALYSIS:
Considering the fact that frictional resistance of the container walls offer support
to the material in the vertical direction (Figure 2.5) and assuming equilibrium of an
elemental strip of thickness dz; Figure 2.7, the following equation was derived for the
pressure drop variation,
P =J5_
(2.7) l - e x p [ - ^ —
z
4pk
dz'
T
Figure 2.5: Column of Material. Figure 2.6: Pressure Distribution.
Column of
Material
Piston
V
Figure 2.7: Force Analysis of a Column of Bulk Material.
1958 Barth Reported the value of the coefficient of friction for cokes,
coal and for crushed Wheat based on experiments in
vertical pipes.
1966 Roberts Studied the forced flow of Millet in a 3.66 m . long and 44.5
m m . diameter perspex tube fitted with a perforated piston
and piston rod to force columns of material upwards
(Figure 2.8). Resistance strain gauges were used to
measure the conveying force. The upward movement of the
piston was effected by mechanical means. His results for
different column lengths are shown in Figure 2.9.
1978 Rademacher Observed that during the flow of coarse granular materials
along a surface essentially translational particle motion
occurs. H e reported that the dead load method for
measuring friction coefficients between a bulk solid and a
surface, suggested by Brubaker et al. (1965) and Platonov
et al. (1969), does not simulate the actual phenomenon
correctly. Such methods almost eliminate the rotational
m o v e m e n t of granules. H e observed such granular materials
microscopically and concluded that this process would
result in a flattened particle surface. Hence, the results
under dead load conditions can't be considered as a true
representation of the actual friction coefficient.
1983 Thompson Measured the wall friction coefficient of Wheat using the
etal. test rig shown in Figure 2.11. In their testrig,a flexible
pressure diaphragm near the walls was used to exert a
k n o w n force on the grain mass to simulate the pressure;
which occur in a grain bin. T o determine the friction
coefficient for a given pressure, the force required to pull a
metal blade through the grain mass was measured. They
found that the coefficient of wall friction for W h e a t on Steel
varies with moisture content, overburden pressure and
sliding velocity. For an increase of moisture content of
Wheat from 8 to 2 0 % , the coefficient of friction increased.
33
1988 Morikawa Reported that the aerated coefficient of wall friction was
independent of solid loading and Froude number defined by
pipe diameter and m e a n particle velocity for Lupin, C o m ,
Wheat, Polystyrene pellets, Steel balls, Glass beads in steel
pipes 5, 10 and 20 cm. inside diameter.
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CHAPTER 3
PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEM
The additional pressure drop arises because energy is transferred from the ai
the particles. Firstly, to overcome the inertia and to accelerate the particles and secondly,
to compensate for energy losses occurring when particles collide with the wall or with
each other. Since the drag force on the particles is a function of their relative velocity in
the air stream, the rate of transfer of energy will be a maximum, when the particles have
to be accelerated from rest and will decrease, as the velocity of the particles increases.
The viscous forces perform friction work against the walls and in the formati
of a continuous velocity field in the flow, absorbs the flow's mechanical energy. The
motion of the fluid is therefore accompanied by dissipation of energy. Energy obtained
from the flow must be used to overcome those forces, which tend to force the solids to
the boundaries of the system. Such forces m a y include electrostatic attraction,
hydrodynamic wall interaction forces, gravity forces, etc.. If the suspension is flowing
vertically, the fluid drag on each particle must be greater than the force of gravity.
When a fluid flow acts upon a particle lying on the bottom of a pipe, three t
of particle motion are possible depending on its particle size and the mean flow speed.
38
These three types are rolling or sliding motion, separation from the flow suspension with
repeated m o v e m e n t in jumps or steady motion in the suspended state. These types of
motion characterize the mechanism of suspension and transfer of the particles. A n
excellent discussion of the flow type and phenomena in lean phase systems is presented
bySmoldyrev (1980).
The slip velocity is caused by velocity losses due to collisions of the particles with
the wall and sliding friction between the wall and particles at the points of contact.
Interaction of the translational movement of the fluid and the rotational movement of the
particle generate a M a g n u s force. The strength and the direction of this M a g n u s force is
determined by the conditions prevailing at the point of contact and can be given by:
The strength of the Magnus force may be important in regard to the angle of
reflection and the shape of the particle trajectory.
A sufficiently robust and accurate model to calculate the pipeline pressure loss for
dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems is presented in Appendix A for completeness.
39
3.2 INSTABILITY:
Flow instability in dense phase flow investigations were conducted by Myler et.
al. (1986). In this investigation the stability of pneumatic conveying systems in terms of
flow behaviour, choking and saltation and a linear solution to the unsteady force balance,
was examined. Subsequent observations and experimental data revealed that a wide range
of instabilities are possible in a pneumatic conveying system. For instance, as the gas
velocity decreases, the balance of forces occurs by a decrease in voidage. At a certain
instant, the drag force is insufficient to balance the force of gravity, friction and pressure
and instability occurs termed choking in vertical systems and saltation in horizontal
systems. Jones et al. (1978) compared various correlations for determining the saltation
velocity. They suggested the Rizk correlation defined thus,
The stability of a pneumatic conveying system can be described by the use of the
basic dynamic equations of theflow.The velocities of the gas and solid can be expressed
as a steady state component plus a fluctuation from that steady state that is,
U p - Up. + Op (3-3)
U g - U g . + Ug (3.4)
where U p = Particle velocity,
U g = Superficial gas velocity,
Up- = Steady state particle velocity,
U g s - Steady state gas velocity,
Up = Particle velocity fluctuation,
u g = Gas velocity fluctuation.
In terms of flow fluctuations, if the fluctuating terms decay, then the flow is said
to be stable, whereas, if thefluctuatingterms grow the flow is said to be unstable.
1965 Julian et al. Suggested that for dilute phase conveying, the presence
of solids is reflected by modification of the local turbulence
in the gas phase. This effect causes an increase in turbulent
fluctuations, mixing length and eddy viscosity and frictional
pressure drop.
1980 Molerus Derived the energy conservation law for particle motion in
pipeline. Dimensionless equations for the additional
pressure drop in the conveying of coarse and fine powders
are derived from the energy loss between the fluid and
particle. Contributions of particle / wall friction of sliding
particles and losses due to particle / wall and / or particle /
particle collisions are included in the total pressure drop
equation.
1984 Shen et al. Modelled the particle collisions of rough, inelastic discs
by considering the geometry of particle trajectories before
and after collision, and computing statistical averages. A
strong dependence on volume fraction was found.
1985 Tsuji et al. Proposed a model for abnormal bouncing and found that the
particle flow predicted by his simulation agreed with
measurements regarding particle distribution, pressure drop
and particle velocities including angular velocities. Studied
also the effects of particle size, pipe diameter, particle
density, etc.
The particle velocity is governed by many factors such as air velocity, solid / air
ratio and type of solids. T h e distribution of the solids is not uniform and is changed by
the flow pattern. T h e complexity of this flow is highlighted by the particle-particle,
particle-gas and particle-wall interactions present. These individual interactions are
difficult to separate experimentally. Furthermore, knowledge of the particle velocity is an
important parameter for estimating energy requirements and frictional losses in pneumatic
conveying systems.
The method used by the author is likewise based on the correlation technique.
T h e fibre optic probe consists of a pair of bundles each consisting of small polymer
fibres. Within each bundle, three fibres are used to illuminate the flow stream and a
fourthfibreto detect the light signals reflected by the travelling particles. T h e detected
light signals are then cross-correlated to find the transit time (t m ) between the two
43
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Photographic Two photographs superimposed on same Local solids velocity Required special Jotaki etal. (1971)
Stroboscopic Method photographic negative, velocity calculated can be obtained. viewing window, Jodlowski (1976)
from the displacement of the particle in the average solid velocity
negative, stroboscope used as a light can't be determined.
source, interval being determined by a
multivibrator.
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by frame against a metered scale. can't be used for Jodlowski (1976),
small particles owin^ Jotakiet al. (1971),
to rapid dispersion Tokar etal. (1983)
of coloured particles.
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closed, particles removed and weighed. Capes et al. (1973),
Velocity determinedfrommass flow rate Ostrovskii et al. (1976)
of solids, weight of solids and test section
length.
44
Laser Doppler Particle intercepted by a laser beam Can be used for wide Required special Riethmuller etal. (1973),
Velocimetry (LDV) with a shift in a frequency which is then range of velocities, viewing window, Birchenough et al. (1976),
related to particle velocity. calibration not expensive. Scott (1978), Lee et al.
required, accurate (1978, 1982), Tsuji et al.
results for dilute (1982), Davies (1984).
phase flow.
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s
source. A microwave signal directed into effective for dilute viewing window, Howard (1976)
theflowstream from a horn antenna, phase flow. difficulty in Stuchly etal. (1977)
particle velocity obtained from doppler calibration.
frequency shift of transmitted and reflected
signal.
46
detecting points and thus solids velocity can be calculated using the following
relationship.
Vs= (3 5)
h '
where L = the distance between detecting points and t m the transit time.
The size of the probe must be sufficiently small to detect the reflected light signals
from the individual particles. More complete details of the fibre optic probe used in this
investigation are presented in Chapter 6.
The advantages and disadvantages of the fibre optic probe technique will now be
briefly discussed.
3.5.4.1 ADVANTAGES:
The advantages of the fibre optic probe include:
1. It can be used for both dilute and dense phase flows;
2. L o w cost instrumentation;
3. The probe is external, readily moved to a desired position and does not induce
flow disturbances;
4. The strength of the reflected light signals can be calibrated to solids
concentration.
3.5.4.2 DISADVANTAGES:
The disadvantages of thefibreoptic probe include:
1. Limited application depending on concentration;
2. Not applicable for measuring particle velocity at the top of pipes due to the
low concentration in this location;
3. Only surface particle velocity is measured;
4. Not applicable forflowswhere in a stationary layer forms on the inside of the
pipe.
are very similar. Under ideal conditions they are identical and shifted by the transit time
t m of the solids from thefirstsensor to the downstream sensor.
The transit time (tm) can be found by computing the cross-correlation function
over a time period T. The cross-correlation function is defined by,
R x y (0 = Y £ X (t - x) Y(t) dt (3.6)
It has been proved [Beck et al. (1968)] that the value of the cross-correlation
function reaches a m a x i m u m , when the delay time (T) equals the transit time (tm). Hence,
the solids velocity can be easily calculated by using eqn. (3.5).
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49
CHAPTER 4
COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION,
BENDS AND WEAR
When the impact produces a permanent deformation, this relation can be replaced
by a coefficient of restitution, e, for the process. This coefficient describes the degree of
plasticity of the collision. Theory and experimental data indicate that a definite value for
the coefficient of restitution can't be assigned to the impact of bodies unless their size,
material and impact velocity are specified initially.
E = -|mi(yJ-vf) + ^(cD?-cn|) ^
For completely elastic collisions (e=l) there is no kinetic energy loss, whereas for
completely inelastic impact (e=0) there is appreciable loss of kinetic energy. Hence, the
values of e=l arid e = 0 denote the idealized concept of perfectly elastic and plastic
impact, respectively.
Neglecting the air drag on a falling particle, the coefficient of restitution is simpl
the square root of the ratio of rebound height to initial height.
Rebound
e=
si- h.
initial
(4.3)
Because of the scatter in the height after impact due to the irregular shape of
particles, e-values must be averaged to obtain a representative value of the coefficient of
restitution. A literature survey s u m m a r y declaring coefficient of restitution investigations
is presented in Table 4.1.
1957 Adam Quartz and Lime Studied particle trajectories with pipe
materials namely Glass, Rubber and
Lead by use of high speed motion
pictures. Figure 4.2 depicts the
observed particle trajectories showing
the impact and rebound angles.
1961 Macre et al. Steel, Glass, Studied the effect of the coefficient
Poly styrene, of restitution for various materials as
Phosphor a function of height, refer Figure
Bronze 4.3.
/
1987 Devas within Sand Used a sand-shot blasting machine
etal. ( < 400 n m ) impact on a mild steel
plate, velocity 68 - 92 m / s., impact
angles 30° and 40°.
54
0-95
e
0-9
Temperature (°c)
[ Tillet, (1954) ].
100 m m
Materials:
Fbrticle /Pipewal
Quartz /Glass
Lime A3 lass
Lime /Rubber
Quartz/Lead
8 0 6
0-5
12 18 2-, 30 36
Height of drop, (inches)
-P- i
Figure 4.4: Test Rig for Particle / Wall Collision [ Brauer, (1980) ].
56
1.0
0.8
i
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? 0.6
,4*
.U
QJ
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<J
C
.g
a?
0 IS 30 iS 60 75 90
impac zngte a, ["}
[ Brauer, (1980)].
4.2 BENDS:
4.2.1 INTRODUCTION:
Bend geometry has a strong influence on the performance of a pneumatic
conveying system. Space limitations usually make the use of bends essential in
pneumatic conveying. The usual method of calculating energy losses in bends for single
phaseflowis to obtain a factor by which the diameter of the pipe is multiplied to obtain
an equivalent length of straight pipe. Due to convenience, this method has been
extrapolated to two phase flow.
To reduce the extent of erosion in bends various wear prevention techniques are
employed. C o m m o n wear prevention techniques include bend lining materials, bends
with drop out boxes, etc.. Lining materials used to date include various refractory
materials, ceramics and epoxy resin mixed with high abrasionfillers.Various bend
geometries and types commonly used in pneumatic conveying systems are shown in
Figure 4.6.
-1.96
f2R B
where, a = 0.95 + 17.2 (4.5)
ID
R e = Reynolds number,
pf = density of gas, and
Vf = gas velocity.
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59
Wear Backed
Long Radius Bend
^
Short Radius Bend
Impact Bend
Blinded Tee
Vortice Elbow
For fine particles, Muley et al. (1982) developed an experimental correlation as,
A P
bends 1_,7f2RBy0-64
— —_i3S7[—) (4.7)
r
^ st. pipe >
Mason et al. (1973) data on the flow of fine particles 15, 40 and 70 micron in
diameter through long radius bends having a diameter ratio D B / D of 20 found that
existing bend pressure drop correlations overestimate the pressure drop.
Scott (1977) suggested a simple approach to evaluate the overall system pressure
by treating the flow as fully accelerated flow and then to add an appropriate additional
pressure drop for each bend. This extra pressure drop arises from the need to reaccelerate
the solid particles after they have been slowed d o w n by the bend.
Alternatively, to estimate the bend pressure drop the concept of an equivalent pipe
length, using factors derived from experimental work can be used. In this procedure the
pressure drop is expressed as,
(48
Apt>= 2 >
where p s = density of the gas / solids suspension,
k b = a coefficient,
Vf = gas velocity.
4 1.50
8 0.75
12 0.50
61
From the Table 4.3, it can be seen that, in general, the sharper the bend radius,
the higher the pressure loss. Unfortunately, the information presented in Table 4.3 is
particular to a specific experimental set up and hence application of the bend pressure
factor presented to other application situations is limited.
4.3 W E A R A N D ABRASION:
It is generally considered that wear in pneumatic conveying systems is largely
dependent on material, hardness, particle size and concentration. Furthermore, wear of
pneumatic conveying lines is aggravated by the following factors:
1. High abrasiveness of conveying material;
2. Inadequate selection of conveying equipment;
3. Poor pipeline design;
4. Excessive conveying velocity and
5. Inadequate pipeline installation.
4.4 ATTRITION:
Particle attrition generally arises from mechanical forces, thermal forces, chemical
stress or pressure changes between the inside and outside of particles. The attrition is
caused by collisions between particles and collisions between particles and the pipe
walls. A s the particle velocity increases, the degree of fragmentation of the particles also
increases. Attrition is manifested through particle size reduction and particle shape
deformation (Bridgewater, 1987).
First order kinetic formulations for this phenomenon have been reported in the
literature. The rate of loss of material in a certain size interval is proportional to the
amount of material in that size-interval. However, this is not generally true. G w y n
(1969) suggested a time dependent formulation for attrition to be,
W = ktm (4-n)
where W = the weightfractionattrited,
t = the time,
k = a constant and is a function of the initial particle size, and
m = an exponent.
63
H e found the value of m to be about 0.46 for the catalyst particles used in his
experimental investigation. Variables affecting particle attrition, different methods of
assessment for particle attrition and types of attrition tests are shown in Tables 4.5, 4.6
and 4.7 respectively (Bemrose et al., 1987).
Size Time
Shape Velocity
Surface Pressure
Porosity Shear
Hardness Temperature
Cracks Micro structure
4.5 PIPING:
The correct installation of piping is most important and where possible
misalignment should be avoided. Furthermore, the pipe should be free from blemishes
and be undented. Obviously, any irregularity in the piping will promote wear in that
particular area.
In dilute phase systems and dense phase systems it is normal to use standard
medium gauge or steam piping. The c o m m o n methods for connecting these pipes include
welding, slip-on couplings and screwed flanges. Compression-type sleeve coupling
allow easy rotation to equalize wear. They are often butt-welded. However, although
convenient welded pipe joints are undesirable, especially if maintenance woi*. is
required on a particular section of pipe. Typical details of surface roughness and piping
materials are presented in Table 4.8 and Table 4.9, respectively.
Concrete 0.3-3
Cast Iron 0.26
Galvanized Iron 0.15
Commercial Steel 0.045
Wrought Iron 0.045
Drawn Tubing 0.0015
66
PIPING M A T E R I A L CHARACTERISTICS A N D
APPLICATIONS
Spun sand cast chrome iron alloy Used for ash handling
Silicon carbide ceramics lined These pipes are suitable for fine, extremely
abrasive particles, however these pipes are
expensive.
Shot blasted Aluminium Used in the plastic industry for good wear
characteristics and ehmination of electrostatic
charges due to high conductivity. Light
weight.
CHAPTER 5
POWDER PROPERTIES
5.1 INTRODUCTION;
T h e following properties should be considered to ascertain or predict the flow of
powders in pneumatic conveying systems:
Obviously, these properties interact with each other in a very complex manner to
generate actual powder pneumatic conveying flow characteristics. Unfortunately, the full
description and analysis of the forestated powder properties is beyond the scope of this
work. In view of this difficulty, brief details of the salient powder properties effecting
pneumatic conveying flow characteristics is n o w presented. M o r e complete details of the
powder properties and their assessment is presented in Appendix 'B'.
Particle Properties
Surface - Distributions
Contact N o . Distribution
70
1 oc (N cn >-0
CQ CQ
i p-lB CQ CQ
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5.
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.S e- -ir-rl
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H §
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u -a
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C-r
1.
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Cr c/5
o l-H r (U u
r-S S3, g e
Om CM o OH
PH
X US ! fix *>
w § V. 5P r
Q 3 rr §
Sr,
a U '3
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1/3 TZT
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<+-i J-5
CQ
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ln -oa
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.a i R -S
B
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B
.2 %
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71
Depends on particle size, shape and effect of
consolidation.
.—i
i—1
i
CQ
Compressi- Describes the variation of bulk density Indicates indirectly particle size distribution, powder
bility with consolidation. packing, particle hardness, surface area.
pd
CO
ti
IT}
1
orientation of the particle matter. fluid flows.
Difficult to measure.
PQ
"ft
T—1
Intraparticle porosity describes the void Influence the moisture adsorption characteristics, the
i
PL,
space within individual particles, whereas relative density of particles and flow behaviour.
interparticle porosity describes the void
space between particles.
i—i
CQ
B
"fr
OH
•
Refers to the arrangement of particles Influences the particle density, interparticle porosity and
(JO
within the powder. permeabihty.
1
CQ
Interparticle Caused by molecular, capillary, electrical Determines a powder's cohesive properties, extent of
Forces and coulomb forces. Difficult to isolate. adhesion of particles on the pipe walls and
agglomeration characteristics.
72
Angle of Describes the angle of incUnation of the Used to indicate the flowabiUty of a powder. Varies with Table 5.4 B.17
Repose powder free surface when poured onto the particle size, shape, degree of segregation and and 5.6 (a.l)
aflatsurface. aeration,moisture content, cohesion, intemal friction and
compaction.
CO
CQ
H
i-H
1—1
oo
ett
Tensile Is the minimum force required to separate Used to measure the degree of cohesion and
Strength a powder bed and is a fundamental failure agglomeration of powders.
property.
CQ
/ - r \
Internal and Internal friction determines the shear Friction angles are important in the design of powder Chapter
WaU Friction resistancewithin powder beds, whereas storage,handUng and transportation equipment Depends 2.5
waU friction determines the shear on particle size, tensile strength, cohesion, shape, surface
resistance between the powder bed and properties and bulk density.
the container waUs.
p
<—1
Xi
CQ
P
Determines type of system, feeder type and dimensions
CM
U
>i-H
g
r-;
o
which particles of a powder are held and need for discharge aids in bins and hopper.
together. Paramount in regard toflowabiUtyof a powder.
i—i
CQ
'
p
Used for measuring surface area of the powder. Strongly
Om
Describes the extent of fluid flow through
£
•a
a powder bed. influenced by porosity of the powder & particle size
distribution.
73
74
ON rH
1—1
tN
PQ CQ
u
r-i
Os
wn </"i
rH p
x> rQ
c. C-
H H
>>
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-B
rO
CM
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•B 9„
«-N S-P
P
o
r H
33 a" V
rB P
S3
bfl
*- <_. B
trO -B .3
1 8
Powders c be classified accon
behaviour to free-flowing and
I to
B
•rH
g >^
•B P 1
o
e
TJ
p
rB
3 •-* •+-1
43 D
CX
O p
CM
C_
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P CM .S .3
n of a settl
d like mas
CM
3
ca
-r
6
P .3
w.
B
2 3 o -8 *->
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S aed rp-T
H
§ Q
M
-r
bo
g 3
*->
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•a
l B ^ "8 1
i. fe 5-
Sr ^ 3 CM P 'S
•S € "2
S "a9 8
P
B
1 I
1E P
l"
75
1960 Zenz et al. Determined angle ofreposeof a wide range of different materials.
1967 Bruff et al. Used a conical funnel of ^0 cm. long to measure the poured angle
ofreposeof anthracite in various gas media. Observed that in
hydrogen, (low viscosity) the angle of repose was highest and
equal to 31°, in carbon dioxide (medium viscosity) the angle was
smaller, while in air (high viscosity) the angle was lowest. This
suggests that at higher gas viscosity, anthracite has a tendency to
spread, whereas at low gas viscosity, it settles rapidly.
1974 Fryman Measured the poured angle ofreposefor potash peUets and
suggested to increase the angle by preventing rolling of the
particles in the top layer and use of a light spray of water to the
surface.
1982 Tuzun Observed drained angle of repose for glass ballotini inflatbottom
etal. bin in the range of 35°- 45°. Suggested that for simplified bin
design the angle of internal friction bereplacedby the drained
angle of repose to evaluate the hopper half angle.
1984 Cheremi- Reported that for monosized particles or particles with a narrow
sinoff size distribution, the drained and poured angles are approximately
etal. the same, whereas, for powders with a wide size distribution, the
drained angle is higher than the poured angle.
1985 Augwood Observed the effect of aeration and deaeration on the angle of
repose. Reported that deaerated powders exhibit angles of repose
higher than aerated powders.
1986 Kraus Reported that the angle of repose is used for the design of bins
and hoppers and to select the type of flow inducers in a
pneumatic conveying system.
1990 Geldart Developed a tester to measure the poured angle of repose of soda
ash to assessflowabiUty.Evaluated the effect of size and size
distribution on angle of repose.
79
1963 Jenike et al. Extended the arch analysis to include the variation of
thickness of the arch.
1974 Ecknoff Compared the m i n i m u m outlet slot width and the minimum
etal. hopper wall slope for mass flow predicted by the Jenike
method to that observed in a silo with symmetrical wedge-
shaped hopper. Found that the Jenike method overdesigned
80
the critical hopper slope by 8-10° and the slot width from
0-100% depending on the extent of extrapolation of the
flow function.
1966 Walker Derived a force balance of the weight of material in the arch
relative to the shear stress in the material at its periphery.
1984 Geldart et al. Suggested that a smaU change in particle size and other
parameters which affect interparticle forces can transform a
81
1984 Piepers et al. Measured the cohesion constant of the powder using a
tilting bed technique, theresultsfrom whichrevealedthat
the cohesion constant increases with increasing pressure
and dependence of pressure was observed with the
increasing bed expansion, adsorption of gas to the soUd
and the increasing elasticity modulus.
1985 Scott et al. Studied the effect of moisture, clay content and chemical
composition on cohesive critical arch dimensions of a
steaming coal.
1987 Luqing et al. Analyzed the pressure drop in horizontal plug pneumatic
conveying for both cohesive and non-cohesive powders.
1970 Rumpf Suggested a model for tensile strength of soUds arising out
of the forces acting between individual particles in terms of
mean bonding force at contact points, void fraction and
particle diameter.
1973 Kocova et Conducted tensile and shear tests on narrow size fractions
al. of powders and mixtures of different size fractions.
83
1978 Eckhoff et Combined tensile strength data of powders and failure loci
al. from Jenike Shear Tester Cell tests. Reported that tensile
strength results are not sufficiently accurate and
considerable over-designresultswith the Jenike theory in
regard to arching.
1983 Chen Investigated the tensile strength of both single powders and
etal. binary mixtures. Developed equations whichrelatetenstte
strength, particle size parameters and the composition of
binary mixtures.
1988 Nikolakakis Studied the effect of particle shape and size on the powder
etal. tensile strength and proposed correlations of tensUe strength
in terms of particle shape, particle size and packing
fraction.
85
»
87
1980 Abrahamsen Used the coUapse rate technique to predict the average
etal. dense phase properties in bubbling beds of fine powders.
They also observed the effect of fines ( < 45 p.m), bed
height, distributor detaUs on fluidization characteristics.
They observed that the average dense phase voidage of
Group A powder increases as the particle density and mean
particle size decreases. Likewise the voidage increases as
thefractionoffines< 45 p>m, gas viscosity (temperature)
and gas density (pressure) increases.
1984 Piepers Reported deaeration tests in which they calculated the height
etal. of the dense phase, the dense phase gas velocity and the
bubble hold up. In their tests, the powder bed was fluidized
89
1985 Tardos et al. Observed that the pressure profiles remain approximately
the same shape throughout the deaeration process and
indicate a decreasing pressure gradient with depth below
the top surface. A typicalfilUng-deaerationcurve for the
pressure variation at the base of the hopper versus time is
shown in Figure 5.7, for a m a x i m u mfillingheight of 15
cm.. ThefiUingcurve is not smooth because inflowing
powder impacts on existing settled powder. Also, some
deaeration takes place during thefiUingphase. This non
uniform characteristic m a y also be due to sUp stick w a U
friction characteristics.
Experimental results
\Y\W\
30 Experimental
\ \ \ \ \
15 Experimental
' / / /
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
% Moisture content
l.D.F coal
Predicted from
36
34
32
o Jenike theory and
Jenike shear celt
Experimental
resuLts
©
30
30" No
solution
~" 26
2 24
t
v
l~
•o 2 0
cn
c 18 \\\\f A
t 16 30 Experimental
S
14
3 12
Z. 10
/////
' >15 Experimental
° 8
6 // / 7 / /
4
2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
•/. Moisture content
IDF coal
Key
Group C properties
reported
a Baerns
v Brekken et aJ
c de Jong et al
Group A properties
reported
& Baerns
a Davies et a!
a Rietema
B de Jong et ai
D Godarti et ai
« Oltrogge
* Kehoe
» de Groot
» This wcrk
Group 8 properties
reported
* de Grooi
• This work
oroep D properties
reported
x. Mathur
P»wd*r
Sinttf«d
plastic bos*
Snt*r*4
-f aji pad
(a) Before shutting of the air supply (b) After shutting of air supply
D •i~- t - i — r 1- 1 T T T 1 1 1 1 1
M
5 ASSUMED PROFILE
E f\ -o- MEASURED PROFILE -
*4 •
a.
O
?4 \V
1 <5
Q 3
ill 11
1
1
EC 1
1
r . 2
1 \
UJ p
GC
"1 1
t
• s — • 1. , — . - • — i 1 1 • 1 H T - T T T V O —r-l
l-fl-'l 1 • 1
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
TIME, sec
Hindered settling
stoge; slope-U c
I ing bed<K
iSSetU
l<0 H-U
He
H.
t-0 tc
t<0 -lc
CHAPTER 6
TEST EQUIPMENT AND
PROCEDURES
The blowtank has a butterfly-type discharge valve mounted at the bottom of the
vessel whic^ is supported by four shear-beam-type load cells to measure the si <ply
solids mass flow rate (Plate 6.2). In addition, the receiving hopper, which is mounted
directly above the blow tank is supported by tension load cells to monitor the rate of
solids discharging from the end of the pipeline (Plate 6.3).
The air supply consists of an Atlas Copco Model GA308 rotary screw
compressor, an S M C Model L D P - 1 5 0 S refrigerated air dryer and two air receivers
totalling 7.8 m 3 volumetric capacity. The capacity of the compressor is 3.1 N m 3 min' 1
(free air delivery) with a m a x i m u m pressure head of 800 kPa. Orifice plates with D and
D / 2 tappings (designed according to B.S. 1042 : Part 1 : 1964) measure air flow rates
during the conveying cycles.
Fluidising
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Display unit: The display unit is housed in a self contained instrument case, which
requires a standard 240 V A.C. mains supply. The facia panel incorporates a power
supply switch and indicator, a 0 - 1 0 0 % analogue meter, a response switch, a range
selector switch, two B N C sockets and a 3.5 m m jack socket (Plate 6.5).
The T.200 transducers were separated by a distance of 70 mm, about three meters
downstream from the blow tank discharge valve and a H P 3 7 2 1 A cross-correlator is used
to cross-correlate the transducer outputs. The product of the selected time scale and the
horizontal displacement from the y-axis to the most dominant peak of the correlogram is
the transit time (t^ of the flow between the transducers. Since, the distance L between
the transducers is k n o w n the solids velocity is given by,
_. L 70 x 10~3 _! .
Vs= — = ms (6.1;
Details of the probe configured in the actual rig are shown in Plates 6.6 and 6.7.
The light source used was a Tungsten Quartz Halogen 12 V , 100 W L a m p with a
operating temperature range between-30 degree Celsius to +85 degree Celsius. A lens
was used to concentrate the light. The optical fibres are 2.25 m m . in overall diameter and
1 m m . core diameter. The numerical aperture ( N A ) is 0.47 for normal use and for low
attenuation, 150 d B / k m max.(600 n m ) .
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6.3 P O W D E R CONCENTRATION:
This was measured by using a T.300 Tealgate series transducer connected to a
display unit. There are three basic components in the system namely the sensor, the
transducer proper and the display unit.
6.3.1 Sensor: T h e sensor is a leakagefieldtype device, which forms part of the pipe
wall. A small section of the pipe wall is insulated from the main body of the pipe, thereby
creating capacitance between the insulated ring and the remainder of the pipe, the sensor
forms a complete circumferential section of the pipe.
6.3.2 Transducer: The principle used is to measure the capacitance of the sensor with
the material being monitored as the dielectric. The sensor is one arm of a bridge network
112
and the amount of imbalance created by the presence of material is measured. If the
relative dielectric permeability of the material is known, the capacitance measured is
related to the solids concentration of the material. Figure 6.8 depicts a block schematic
of the T.300 transducer.
6.3.3 Display unit: It is housed in a self contained 30 x 42 H P module, which will
fit into a standard 19" sub-rack. It requires a 240 volt A.C. mains input. The facia panel
incorporates a flat analogue meter, three flow level indicators and two ten turn vernier
controls. The meter gives a continuous indication of the solids concentration on a 0-
1 0 0 % scale. A chart recorder can be connected to measure the variation in solids
concentration.
The layout of the front panel is shown in Figure 6.9. Particular details are
declared in Figure 6.10 revealing the T.300 transducer board. The display meter was
calibrated to a chartrecorderto obtain steady state readings. Details of the recorder set up
are revealed in Plate 6.8.
All the important conveying parameters such as blow tank top air pressure,
pipeline air pressure, supply / delivery mass of solids and supply air mass flow rate are
recorded withrespectto cycletimeusing the Data Acquisition System. Typical transducer
input channels, recorded with respect to cycle time, included blow tank air pressure;
pipeline air pressure; upstream pipeline and differential air pressures and the mass of
material entering thereceivinghopper and / or leaving the blow tank.
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6.5.2 CALIBRATIONi
Transducer calibration and T.300 system calibration should be done at the
beginning of each experimental session, refer Plate 6.1.
Transducer calibration:
1. Set the H P 85B in calibration m o d e and zero the H P 3054A Data Acquisition
System (DAS). Material should be in the hopper ( check meter reading A ) .
2. Open blow tank discharge valve (Switch B ) and close the hopper inlet valve
(Switch C ) .
3. Connect the pressure meter to the pipeline.
4. Pressurize the blow tank and the pipeline to 100-200 kPa (Switch D and air
regulator E).
5. W h e n the pressure reading is steady, read the pressure meter. This pressure is the
m a x i m u m pipeline pressure.
6. Depressurize the blow tank by opening the blow tank vent valve and read the
pressure meter. This pressure is the minimum pipeline pressure.
6. Enter the above selected m a x i m u m and minimum pressure into the H P 85B and
run the D A S . Get the print out of the calibration values from the H P 85B.
5.4 OPERATION:
(a) Feed material into the blow tank:
Close the blow tank discharge valve and open the hopper inlet valve.
Open the blow tank inlet valve (Switch C ) and allow material to flow into the
blow tank. W h e n the material stops flowing i.e. meter reading A steady, lift the
hopper (Switch G ) and vibrate (Switch H ) for about 30 seconds to allow the
remaining material to fall into the blow tank. Using the switch (G), put the hopper
down.
(b) Pressurize the blow tank:
Using switch (D), pressurize the blow tank.
Adjust the blow tank pressure to a required value by using the air regulators
(Switch E ) for topringand probe air system.
(c) Set the D A S to run:
Follow the instructions appearing on the H P 85B screen and enter all required
values and data required by the D A S .
Just before commencement of material conveying, start the data logging process.
Also start a stop watch to record the experimental time.
(d) Start conveying:
Open the conveying air valve (F) slowly and steadily.
Open the blow tank discharge valve to convey material.
Take correlogram readings and T.300 display meter readings.
(e) Correlogram measurement:
Just after the conveying cycle starts, take correlogram measurements from the H P
3721A correlator every 15 seconds timed with a stopwatch.
T o get the correlogram into the display screen, press the m n button on the
correlator. Select a suitable time scale from the correlator and measure the
119
The rig consists of a 100 mm inner bore perspex tube fixed to a vertical square
section steelframe.The perspex tube, in which the 99.7 m m diameter piston arrangement
travels is mounted vertically during operation. T o facilitate the distribution of air over the
top of the piston, concentric grooves are used. Pressurized air supplied to the piston,
flows into the tube by permeating through a V y o n -D plate fitted to the top of the piston.
The piston m a y be used to convey the column of material along the pipe test section. The
movement of the piston and material column along the tube is effected by a screw-bar,
powered by a variable speed D C motor, which m n s through a ballscrew nut. The motor is
supported on a guide roller mechanism, which allows vertical movement. This
arrangement causes linear motion of the piston whenever the reversible motor is actuated.
Rotational movement of the piston is prevented by a guide bar, which runs through a
linear bearing for the full length of the screw bar. The m a x i m u m linear speed attained by
the piston is 35.2 c m / min.
Two foam rubber piston rings are used to prevent powder loss down the side of
the piston, restrict the downward flow of air as well as to provide a smooth surface for
the piston travel. Initially, these foam rings were adequate w h e n testing granular
materials. However, w h e n testing fine materials, the foam rubber piston rings were
replaced by Teflonringsto minimize leakage of the material through the piston rings.
The whole arrangement of the tube, piston, screw bar and motor is pivoted about a
horizontal axis through the main frame. This pivot allows the tube to be rotated in a
vertical plane parallel to the main frame. This rotational arrangement assists the loading
and unloading of materials into the tube. A locating pin at the bottom end of the frame
and a bracket fitted to the ground locks the whole arrangement in the vertical position
during testing. T o minimize the electrostatic charge, a wire was wrapped around the
perspex tube.
To facilitate the measurement of the load acting on the piston, a load cell is
mounted between the piston and the back up plate fixed to the end of a screw bar. The
output from the load cell is connected to a chart recorder via a control unit. A platform is
fixed to the vertical frame so that loading and unloading of the material and calibration of
121
A - PERSPEX T U B E
B - D.C. MOTOR
C - CONTROL UNIT
D - CHART RECORDER
122
the load cell can be effected. The air supply is connected through a pressureregulatorand
a rotameter to the distributor/piston by means of aflexibleplastic tube.
6.6.2 OPERATION:
First the load cell was calibrated using known weights and recording the chart
recorder readings. The piston was then returned to the lowest position in the tube and the
force required to convey the piston alone in the tube recorded. The test material was then
loaded into the perspex tube. The column length of the material was recorded before
observing the force necessary to convey the column upwards with the motor actuated.
The observations are recorded during the piston movement over a selected test section of
the tube. The piston was then returned to its original position by reversing the motor.
Before commencing the next test, a selected air flow was supplied to the piston. The
supply air pressure and air flow rate were recorded before observing the upward
conveying force, when the motor was actuated. This procedure was repeated for selected
supply air pressures. The expansion of the powder bed was noted by measuring the
expanded heights for each supply pressure.
The actual test impact surface is changed by fixing disks of the test surface
material to the backing plate. In this test series, various granular material were caused to
impact selected rotating surfaces at preselected tilt angles and rotational speeds. The
rebound height of the material stream was recorded using video equipment and the results
analyzed by slow motion of the video cassette (Plate 6.11).
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for user interactive single measurements. W h e n changes to the optical system have been
made, it is necessary to check and adjust the optical alignment. This is achieved by
pressing the key "a" (for alignment). Access to the disc transfer system is effected by
pressing the key "d" (for disc). This allows the storage of data on the disc for later recall
and re-analysis. Access to the package M A S T E R - S I Z E R is possible by pressing the key
"m" to use the full range of M A S T E R - S I Z E R options.
Use of the Jenike Direct Shear Tester, is that of producing instantaneous yield loci
in order to determine the instantaneous flow function. The yield loci are determined for
different consolidation loads (usually 3 loci). Jenike Direct Shear testing was conducted
in accordance with the procedure declared in the text by Arnold et al. (1980).
6.11.1 T E N S I L E TESTER-
The tensile tester used was manufactured by Ajax Equipment (Bolton) Co. Ltd.,
England and is k n o w n as the Ajax-W.S.L. Tensile Tester. It consists of a split cylindrical
cell with one half fixed and attached to the main body of the machine, whilst the other
half is mounted on a pivoting block supported by low friction radial bearings. The
pivoting block is balanced by means of two opposing springs that are tensioned by
screwed spindles. The front spindle has a counter attached that is set to zero and the rear
spindle is adjusted until the two halves of the cell just touch, thus being the position of
null-balance (Plate 6.16).
6.11.2 OPERATION:
Choose two springs from the selection given and attach to the underside of the
tester. Adjust the front hand wheel until the counter is showing '000'. Turn the rear
wheel until the pivoted cell half just parts. Screw the clamping screw onto the top of the
tester to hold the cell firmly together.
Place the top ring over the cell. Powder is then placed in the cell until the level
reaches approximately halfway up the topring.Place the compaction plunger on the ring
and apply four to five twists of about 30° each. Once the powder has been compacted,
the plunger and compaction ring are removed, with the excess powder being scraped off
level with the top of the cell. The sample is n o w ready to test.
The clamping screw is unlocked and a load applied to the pivoting block by means
of turning the screwed spindle which extends a spring attached to the block. Once the
shearing action hasfinished,indicated by a split forming in the prepared cell, the figure is
read from the counter on the spindle and the tensile stress is found by referring this
reading to the calibration graph supplied with the machine.
Three different test series were conducted. Firstly, a test series was conducted
immediately after sample preparation, a second series of testing was conducted
incorporating 15 minutes deaeration time. In thefinaltest series, the tester cell was filled
using a screen vibrator. O n completion of testing, the powder sample tested is weighed.
This mass was then divided by the volume of the cell to obtain the sample bulk density.
For this determination a mass balance accurate to the nearest O.lg was used.
132
'•N.
The silo was filled up by using a hand pouring or mechanical feed techniques.
Initial experiments were performed by hand pouring the powder, but later the silo was
filled up by raining the powder through a 3 m m . or 4 m m . aperture sieves to intersect the
flow stream to ensure uniform powder distribution and consolidation stresses. This
procedure was also adopted by Novosad et al. (1985). In the latter part of the testing,
powder was hand poured onto a conveyor belt discharging into the arch tester (Plate
6.17). Using this technique, thefillingtime was selected to be about 5 minutes.
A set deaeration time is allowed before opening the outlet. The recorded
deaeration time includes the time for filling and the deaerationtimenecessary to dissipate
the entrapped air. Thefillingtime was varied between 0 and 28 minutes, followed by a
deaeration time proper, which varied between 0 and 62 minutes. Eckhoff et al. (1974)
also allowed a deaeration time of 30 minutes.
The drained angle of repose made by the remaining powder in the silo with the
horizontal was also measured. After discharge, the powder was collected in a receiving
binfittedbelow the tester. O n complete discharge of the gravity activated material, the
drained angle ofrepose,the angles formed between the four flow channels boundary silo
wall interface and the horizontal were measured.
The experimental time was recorded with a stop watch. The pressure transducer
outputs were calibrated by use of a pressurized tank. Controlledfillingwas effected by
directing the discharge from an elevated belt conveyor into the cylinder. In each test, the
conveyor was loaded with a k n o w n mass of powder (Plate 6.17). For all deaeration
experiments, the chartrecorderspeed was 6 cm. / min. The length of deaeration cylinder
was 94 cm. In all tests, the approximate filling time was noted.
Initially, in trial runs filling was effected slowly by pouring material on the
conveyor belt. For example for fly ash 'E' with a filling time of 6 minutes, no
observation for deaeration interstitial pressures were possible using a slow filling
procedure. W h e n fastfilled,pressure peaks of magnitude between 5 kPa to 20 kPa were
observed.
- the rotameter operating pressure is measured using a Eicon Instruments S R I 200 kPa
(Max. 350 kPa) pressure gauge;
- the air isregulatedusing two flow control valves in parallel, viz; a 6 m m Parker and 13
mm Flutec valve;
- two Rosemount Model 1151 D P differential pressure transmitters (0 to 152 m m H 2 0
and 0 to 762 m m H 2 0 ) for direct measurement of the pressure drop across the bed via
Goretex™ protected pressure tappings;
A n illustration of the test facility is presented in Plate 6.18.
For each value of Qf, the corresponding value of mf was calculated using the
operating conditions of the rotameter. The superficial velocity of air, V f (cm s _1 ), leaving
the bed of material was also determined. The variation of the average air pressure
gradient, A p b / H b ( m m H 2 0 cm" 1 ), with respect to V f was plotted for each sample and
the resulting fluidization curve plotted.
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CHAPTER 7
RESULTS
In this chapter, the observations and results obtained from the bench tests
conducted on the various powders tested and the observed flow characteristics in actual
pneumatic conveyingrigsare discussed. In summary, the bench tests included;
The results and observations from this test work now follow:
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Plate 7.6: S E M Photograph of Light Soda Ash (X = 780).
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7.11 porosity, corners formed cemented. At encies in blow
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7.12 Polyvinyl Macroscopic Uneven, Very rough Rounding of A fractured, rough Individual No, hard Static electricity
7.13 chloride indentations irregular, and uneven edges and fused subparticle particles incompressible iffects conveying,
C»vc) visible undulations, surface at comers agglomerate particles tendency to plug,
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7.16 Tallawarra rough from grinding varying in but definite
surface at operation size edges suggest
154
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7.19 lar uneven structure extreme characteristics,
7.20 surface degradation very abrasive
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sintered different sized surrounded by dislodge from submicron
surface, small particles smaller the large loading (HI
particles particle surface downstream
during dust collection
pneumatic facilities. This
conveying fly ash fluidizes
& conveys weU
7.23 Liddell fly 2-22 nm Low permea- Spherical Some No edges or Partial agglome- Micron and Significant Unsteady
7.24 ash smaller in bility, signi- particles, particles comers ration of small & submicron due to conveying
155
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FEEDER
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INCIDENT PRRTICLES
R E B O U N D PRRTICLES
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LL D
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O ANGLE OF IMPACT, DEGRESS
Figure 7.2: Coefficient of Restitution of Wheat, Millet and Bean (Co-rotation).
160
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t
Q COAL M.S.
to • COAL S.S.
LU D SINTER S.S.
Ul
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o
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ANGLE OF IMPACT, DEGREES
Figure 7.3: Coefficient of Restitution of Coal, Sinter and Sodium Ferrite (Co-rotation).
z
O
LEGEND
Ul
oc • WHEAT M.S.
u. • MILLET M.S.
oUJ • COAL M.S.
u
LL
U-
Ul
O
O
T • r
0 10 20
ANGLE OF IMPACT, DEGREES
Figure 7.4: Coefficient of Restitution of Wheat, Millet and Coal (Counter-rotation).
161
7.3 P A R T I C L E S I Z E ANAI.VSF.fi;
The particle size analyses of the various powders and granular materials tested are
declared in Tables 7.3 to 7.7. This information is presented graphically in Figures 7.5 to
7.10.
T A B L E 7.3 P A R T I C L E SIZE A N A L Y S E S
T A B L E 7.4 SIZE A N A L Y S I S O F S A N D
mm fraction, g
1
Surface to volume mean diameter = = 2.0 m m
weight fraction
mean diameter
TABLE 7.6 SIZE ANALYSIS OF B R O W N RICE (II)
1
Surface to volume mean diameter = = 2.42 m m
weight fraction
mean diameter
1
Surface to volume mean diameter = = 2.49 m m
weight fraction
mean diameter
1
Ul LEGEND
N FLY ASH
eo
-B- 'A'
DC
Ul
-D- 'C
o
••- -D'
Z
3
as
Figure 7.5: Particle Size Distribution versus % Undersize of Fly Ash 'A', 'B',
'D'.
ui
N LEGEND
<7i FLY ASH
cc -O- '£<
ui
Q •+• V
HB- 'G'
z -••CEMENT
3
Figure 7.6: Particle Size Distribution versus % Undersize of Fly Ash 'E, 'F, 'G' and
Cement.
165
> •
o
ui
3
O
Ul
CC
Figure 7.7: Variation of Frequency versus Particle Size of Fly Ash 'A', 'B*
LEGEND
> •
ui FLY ASH
o -a- 'D'
z •+- 'E'
Ul
3
o
Ul
DC
Figure 7.8: Variation of Frequency versus Particle Size of Fly Ash 'D* and 'E'.
166
LEGEND
>-
o FLY ASH
z -a- 'F
Ul •o-'G-
3
O
>-
o
LEGEND
z
Ul •o-CEMENT
3 -#- PVC
a -B- SAND
ui
DC
LL
10' 10'
PARTICLE SIZE (um)
Figure 7.10: Variation of Frequency versus Particle Size of
Cement, PVC Powder and Sand.
7.4 B U L K DENSITY
The observed powder bulk density and loose poured bulk density propert
summarized in Table 7.8 and 7.9, respectively.
167
Bulk Poured
Bulk Poured
Density, B.D. Density, B.D.
Table 7.11 summarize the observed critical arch dimensions as measured in the
Arch Tester. In addition, this Table represent a comparison of the predicted arclf
dimension assuming rough wall boundaries apply in the Jenike (1970) and Walker (1966)
analysis, refer Section B.17 (b). In this latter evaluation, the assumed powder flow
function information is presented in Table 7.13 and graphically in Figure 7.24.
Figures 7.13 to 7.15 represent the variation of arch length versus deaeration time
with different relative humidity for fly ash 'A', 'C and Cement, respectively. Figures
7.16 and 7.17 reveal the variation of arch length versus deaeration time for Cement and
fly ash, respectively. Figure 7.18 depicts the variation of bed height versus arch length
for Cement, whereas, Figure 7.19 represents the variation of mean particle size versus
arch length for the different powders tested in the Arch Tester.
169
Furthermore, the observed drained angle of repose at the four flow channel
boundaries are presented in Table 7.11. Figure 7.20 represents the variation of drained
angle of repose with bed height for Cement, whereas variation of drained angle of repose
versus deaeration time for fly ash and Cement are depicted in Figures 7.21 and 7.22,
respectively. Figure 7.23 represents the variation of mean particle size versus drained
angle of repose for the different powders tested.
DUST COUER
CHAIN P E R S P E K SILO
DRIUE
ROTATING HANDLE
SCALE
DUST COVER
PERSPEX SILO
POWDER
SLIDE GATES
DRAINED ANGLE
OF REPOSE
a
f-
r**
Q
a O
B rj
-J
Q >- D, B
co
O
C/3
g
2 O NO ON NO ^O
a Oi
^H
CS
ON
NO ^H cs
HH
CO
NO
cs
ON
NO
NO NO
I—1
CO
NO
NO NO
r*
NO
I—I
cs -< t—1
cs '—' cs I—1 1—« P-H l-H
z
<: z
B
X O Q
c/3
<C Z O -J
>« rU -J
J B B < CO 00 r* cs CS
Cs.
t-
U c/j B CD in r*
CO
o
00
in o
in
ON
ON
CO
o
8 8 NO
m 8 s CS
Tt
H Or W
Z
r^o
z o
W
ri w 05
1—1
u B # in in in in Tt Tt Tt NO NO
in
NO
Or r- r- r-- r~ r~ r~ r-r in m m
u
H
-TJ
fc-
O oo io o 00 m o m 00 in o o o in o o o
o
u
a
ce.: Q E r-
Tt
NO
CO
in
cs
t~-
-t
NO
CO m CO r--
cs ~* Tt
NO
CO
in in m
cs cs cs
CO
—,
>n in in
cs cs cs
UJ o E
u.
O
PD §
C/3 o r- O m in o o o o o o
W 00 00 o
oo 00 r- 00 ON ON 00 00 00 00
u
J J CN
z a
Z o
T3
< ^ P-H
o
00
o
00
o o o o o o o o o o
i-r r-- 00 00 00 ON 00 ON 00 00 00
Q
u
z ca
<
^_ o o m m o o o in o o o o o o
< NO oo 00 00 r- r- 00 oo 00 oo r- 00 00 I--
OS H
Q Z CS
60
Q 1>
Z
o
g T3
o
r-
o o
r- 00
o
00 o
00
o
00
o
00
o
00
o
00
O
ON
o o
r-
o
00
o
r—
P—-1
<
1
H
s B O CS NO NO oo 00 Tt cs Tt NO oo Tt oo o o oo o
m Tt m -t cs Tt CO CO cs Tf Tt 00 Tt Tt in
Z SS z P s
u
w
-J
5! 3
w m m in Tt
B r5 Tt
O
ON
NO
CO cs cs co
U e
p—1
in
as c 3
<
<
Q
1S O
B
1
P
rJ
W
O rC ~
H E
-1
09 3!
z
<
1
z
H 2
u
r>
H Ea £ >
172
NO S-J NO « \o vo S JS « NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
Cr- Pr- f- t^ t~- P^ ^ Pr- ^
r~ 2 <"- p~ p~ r» _]
r-t
2
i-H i—H
O NO o I-H NO NO NO CO O O O O in m
Pr- t^ P-" Pr- NO V^ NO NO NO
r- NO r-- r-- NO NO NO r-» >n in
in o in m in in O O O in in in in in in in in in
NO cs NO NO NO NO CO co in NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
HH CS HH HH HH HH (S| cs cs
O O O o o O o in in o o O O O O O
00 00 oo oo oo r-r oo oo 00 ON 00 Pr 00 00 P- SO
O O O O O O O O o in O CO O S O
00 oo oo 00 00 00 00 ON ON 00 p- oo oo r--
O O O O O O O O O O in o o O O
ON OO 00 ON NO ON ON ON ON 00 P~ 00 O0 00 ON
O O O m O O O O NO O O O O O O
00 00 00 oo r- r^ oo ON 00 P^ oo pr. 00 oo 00
cs oo cs Tt Tt O O O O O O CS 00 00 Tt NO NO cs NO
TT Tt m HH CN co Tt r-r CO Tt ON NO CS CS CO Tf Tt cs cs
O >n oo O O O Tt Tt O O O NO NO Tt HH ON in o
CO CO CO O ^H rs in in NO CS H. CJ\ Tt —1 CS Tt NO Pr CS Tf
O 00 O O in o Tt co r-r in cs O ON
HH cs f- ON in O — CS Tf NO — cs
o o in NO co r~ NO r- in «-i
i—1 HH i—1 r—c i-H H ^1
cs cs cs
<
g
<
s £ X
173
in cs in >n 00 O P- O
OO 00 00 00 P~ ON 00 00
r-- o co co r-t Tt ^H vo
00 00 OO 00 P-- Pr- 00 00
in in
in m Os ON ON ON in P--' in oo NO co Tt P- P- Pr-
in in in in in in in p~ in p- in in in NO NO NO
m o in in in in o oo
in in in in co in in co
f
O O O O m O O O
in Pr- Pr (— pr- ON oo r~-
o o o o o o o o
in NO P- P~ 00 ON Tt 00
o o o o O O O O
NO P^ Pr" P- in ON Tf 00
o o o o O O O O
in r-- NO NO VO 00 00 pr-
NO O cs cs cs 00 Tf Tt Tf 00 -t Tt NO 00 O NO o
CO Tt cs co co cs cs cs co cs co co co in Pr- P~ P-
P-
Tt
CO
NO
o o o r~. r-_ co cs O
^ <-J HH cs co co
oo
m
in o S S °
CO CS O r^ >n r-.
"" S r-l -— I-, -"* °° -** r~- °° CS r-t r-t
r—1
P- y
174
o o --> rQ cs o o NO CS pr- CO
OO 00 vo ~ P- ON ON NO r-r Tt NO
in
ON NO 00 cs O 00 00 CS Tt r-l 00
00 00 Tl" ON CO CO CO in pr- in NO
in in
NO NO 00 00 CO NO NO
NO NO P- Pr- t~- P~ Pr- |-~ P- in in
00 00 o O o o o O o o m
CO CO O ON vo
cs m in — CO o cs
O O o o o o o o o o o
pr- ON 00 oo ON ON oo r-- in p- r-
o o o o o o
O O o o
ON P-- r-- ON
o —' in oo NO NO NO
ON H-
o o o o o o O O o in o
ON p- P- NO ON ON NO NO 00 in r-~
o o o o O O O O Q in O
oo oo NO 00 ON ON NO Tt NO NO r-
oo cs 00 NO vo O 00 3 -> oo NO oo co CN NO
r- oo CO Tt cir ;_; r-- oo oo co co co in in co
•a -a
•c "C
in o O Pr- O O O Tt in o O in o
CS NO CN CN Tt m
H m
Tt rl CS Tf VO H-l CO
° 5 in
--I
o
CN
^ ^ ^ ' iS a- oo
°^ H-
cs m
co «n
^ £
•n vo CO O Tt in P- oo in rZ J
cs — m ^ -H -H CN
B 2
Q oi
Q w P-
175
LEGEND
RELATIVE HUMIDTY
H 55%
• 59%
i ' r
20 40 60
Deaeration time, minutes
Figure 7.13: Arch Length versus Deaeration Time for Fly Ash 'A'.
FLY A ? H '<•?'
LEGEND
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
B 67%
• 73%
-, i 1 • I
20 40 60
Deaeration time, minutes
Figure 7.14: Arch Length versus Deaeration Time for Fly Ash 'C.
176
/u -
0
60-
•
• LEGEND
50- B B
D • • REL HUM.
•a 56%
40 - e B • B • 61%
• B 66%
a • 70%
30- <r
• •
a
1 i 1
2\J - T 1 •
20 40 60 80
Deaeration time, min.
LEGEND
B Cement
• Fly ash *A'
B B'
7.16: Arch Length versus Deaeration Time for Cement, Fly Ash 'A' and 'B'.
LEGEND
Fly ash
B 'C
e 'D'
B 'E'
• F
- i — i — i — | — i -
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Deaeration time, mins.
Figure 7.17: Arch Length versus Deaeration Time for Fly Ash
*B\ 'C, T>\ 'E' and 'F.
CEMENT
ou -
B
B
50-
B • LEGEND
B EXP.
•
B 1
40-
• 2
B
B 3
•
30-
B
i • 1 *
100 200 300 400 500
Bed height, mm.
120
E
E
o>
c
©
X
<
Figure 7.19: Arch Length versus Particle Size Variation for the Powders Tested.
B4 -
B B
82-
? • Q
LEGEND
•a REL HUM
80- B
H 75%
i • • 74%
o 78- • • 66%
Q.
s
r-
76-
o
EI Q
e
cn T l i 1
74 i
c 100 200 300 400 500
a
c Bed height, mm.
Figure 7.20: Variation of Drained Angle of Repose with Bed Height for Cement
179
100
8
&
LEGEND
S? FLY ASH
TJ
80- B 'B'
8 • B
• 'C
o B 'D'
Q. 70-
B B B • 'E'
&
o B V
-2 60-
cn
B
c 50
• "•——i > r- —1 1
20 40 60 80
Deaeration time, mins.
Figure 7.21: Variation of Drained Angle of Repose versus Deaeration Time for
Fly Ash Tested.
e
LEGEND
t? REL. HUM.
•o 90- • a 56%
8" o
• 61%
o B 66%
a • D BB • 70%
£ 80- a B 74%
r— DO • • a 75%
O B 1 • El •
c
• «
# D DD
8
c B
5a 70- i • l • l
0 20 40 60 80
Deaeration time, mins.
Figure 7.22: Variation of Drained Angle of Repose versus Deaeration Time for Cement
CO 100
0
e
-.
cn
e
TJ
o
»
o
Q.
0
O)
c
a
CO
e
100
Mean particle size, microns
Figure 7.23: Variation of Drained Angle of Repose versus Mean Particle Size.
7.7 F L O W FIJNCTTON:
The observed powder flow functions are summarized in Table 7.12.
Alternatively, these flow functions are plotted in Figure 7.24.
a
a.
LEGEND
n
cn El CEMENT
a • FLY ASH 'A'
T>
B •B'
• •C'
>N B •D'
TJ • •E'
C A 'F
c
o
o
c 2 4 6 8
z>
Major consolidating stress, kPa
7.8 T E N S U E STRENGTH-
clamping screw
/
S= -T—V\±—
^JVV7/-.--V-V-\/V2. /•• $S-J\r„%^j. -L
•%-»•
^pivot point
pivoting block
The details and operating procedure for this tester are described in Section 6.11
and Appendix B.2.4. A schematic of this tester is presented in Figure 7.25.
The observed tensile stress versus consolidation stress for the powders tested are
depicted in Figures 7.26 and 7.27. T h e tt nsiL tests of the same powders when tested
with a deaeration time of about 15 minutes are shown in Figures 7.28 and 7.29. The
observed voidage variation versus tensile strength of the various fly ash tested are shown
in Figures 7.30,7.31,7.33 and 7.34, whereas, the observed bulk density variation are
shown in Figures 7.32 and 7.35. The observed tensile stress versus consolidation stress
and voidage for light soda ash, dense soda ash, P V C powder and castor sugar are
depicted in Figures 7.36 and 7.37, respectively.
T o observe the effect of the filling procedure on the measured tensile stress versus
consolidation stress, two different procedures were used. In particular, in one
experiment, a screen vibrator was used and in another experiment spoon filling of the cell
was used. In each experiment an approximate deaeration time of 15 minutes was allowed.
The comparison of filling procedure for fly ash 'J' is depicted in Figure 7.38, whereas,
tensile stress versus consolidation stress for fly ash 'H, T and 'J' are shown in Figures
7.39 and 7.40, respectively.
183
(B LEGEND
O.
FLY ASH
B TV
Si • 'B'
B 'C
c
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Consolidation Stress, kPa
Figure 7.26: Tensile Stress versus Consolidation Stress for Fly Ash 'A', 'B'
and C.
CO LEGEND
a FLY ASH
w§
a •D'
? • 'E'
to B •F
"35
c
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Consolidation Stress, kPa
Figure 7.27: Tensile Stress versus Consolidation Stress for Fly Ash 'D, 'E
and 'F.
184
(B
a LEGEND
FLY ASH
B 'A'
CO • 'B'
B 'C
20 40 60 80 100 120
Consolidation Stress, kPa
Figure 7.28: Tensile Stress versus Consolidation Stress for Fly Ash 'A', 'B' and
'C with 15 minutes Deaeration.
a LEGEND
o. FLY ASH
-t
j£ a 'D'
S> • 'E"
c
B F
£ 1-
55
CO
c
e
r
T ' I
20 40 60 80 100 120
Consolidation Stress, kPa
Figure 7.29: Tensile Stress versus Consolidation Stress for Fly ash 'D', 'E' and
'F with 15 minutes Deaeration.
185
a
OL LEGEND
FLY ASH
• .A.
e 'B'
0
B •<_'
"35
c
Voidage
Figure 7.30: Tensile Stress versus Voidage for Fly Ash 'A', *B' and 'C.
CB LEGEND
a.
FLY ASH
• 'D'
• 'E"
B T
c
0.7
Figure 7.31: Tensile Stress versus Voidage for Fly Ash 'D, *F and 'F.
186
\£V '
u e
100 - LEGEND
B fl 0 • DI FLY ASH
8. 80- B 'A'
B B » » D • 'B'
60- B
•
•c
B • 0 • D B •D'
B •E"
c 40-
D •F
e B B e •a B
20-
B B D •
• 1 • i 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Bulk Density kg/m3
Figure 7.32: Tensile Stress versus Bulk Density for the Fly Ash Tested.
LEGEND
2. FLY ASH
-C
B TV
• 'B"
• B 'C
tt
c
tt
Figure 7.33: Tensile Stress versus Voidage for Fly Ash 'A', 'B' and 'C with
15 minutes Deaeration.
1
CB
Q. LEGEND
FLY ASH
B 'D'
CO • "E"
•
•35
B *F
c
tt
0.8
Figure 7.34: Tensile Stress versus V o i d a g e for Fly A s h 'D', 'E' and 'F with 15
minutes Deaeration.
LEGEND
CB 3- B FLY ASH
• a 'A'
• I B B o • 'B'
a
2- e •• B 'C
co •n • 'D'
B 'E'
c 03 D 'F'
tt
Figure 7.35: Tensile Stress versus B u l k Density for Fly A s h Tested with 15
minutes Deaeration.
188
OL
LEGEND
BLIGHT SODA ASH
2- •DENSE SODA ASr
B PVCPOWDER
c • CASTOR SUGAR
20 40 60 80 100
Consolidation Stress, kPa
Figure 7.36: Tensile Stress versus Consolidation Stress for Light Soda Ash,
Dense Soda Ash, PVC Powder and Castor Sugar.
CB LEGEND
CL
e •
SODA ASH
• B a LIGHT
! 2- •DENSE
55 e B PVC
tt
tt B POWDER
c
•
Figurte 7.37: Tensile Stress versus Voidage for Light Soda Ash, Dense Soda Ash
and PVC Powder.
189
CL LEGEND
FLY ASH 'J'
B NODEAERA.
55 • SCREEN VIBR.
o B SPOON
«
c
tt
»-
-i 1 1 1 1 | 1 — r
20 40 60 80 100 120
Consolidation Stress, kPa
Figure 7.38: Tensile Strength versus Consolidation Stress for Fly Ash 'J'.
LEGEND
FLY ASH
B 'H'
s • T
55 B 'J'
on
c
e
20 40 60 80 100
Consolidation Stress, kPa
Figure 7.39: Tensile Strength versus Consolidation Stress for Fly Ash
'H, T and T.
190
CEMENT
2.4
a 2.2-
a.
-- 2.0-
CO
n 1.8-
c
1.6H—.—i—r -J i 1 1 i r-
0 20 40 60 80 100
Consolidation Strees, kPa
It should be noted that the observed tensile strength variations are plotted using a
standard Macintosh computer software package with the observations correlated to
exponential regression curve fits. The values of the empirical constants, so evaluated and
slope of the tensile strength curve are presented in Table 7.13.
7.9 W A L L FRTCTTON-
PRESSURE GAUGE
PRESSURE REGULATOR
X
\
ROTAMETER
^PERSPEX DISTRIBUTOR
i EK
• i *. i
LOAD CELL
i
SCREW BAR!
y
CONTROL;
UNIT :
CONTROL UNIT WITH
FORWARD/REVERSE
CHART
SWITCH/ I
RECORDER
DC MOTOR
The details and operating procedure for this rig are described in Chapter 6.6. A
schematic of this rig is presented in Figure 6.39. The observed wall friction force versus
piston aeration air pressure for different column lengths are depicted in Figures 7.42 to
7.48, whereas variation of column length and frictional force at different aeration air
pressure are depicted in Figures 7.49 to 7.54.
Average shear stress which is the ratio of the frictional force to the contact area
versus aeration pressure are depicted in Figures 7.55 to 7.60. Using the analysis
presented in Section 2.5, the evaluated wall friction factor u k versus piston aeration air
pressure for different column lengths are depicted in Figures 7.61, 7.62, 7.63, 7.64 and
7.65 for B r o w n Rice, White Rice, Rice Flakes, Millet and Wheat, respectively.
BROWN RICE
CD LEGEND
o COLUMN HEIGHT
o • 80 mm.
LL • 120 mm.
CO
C o 160 mm.
o « 200 mm.
r—
T 1 1 1 r
100 200 300 400
Air Pressure, kPa
Figure 7.42: Frictional Force versus Aeration Air Pressure for Brown Rice.
WHITE RICE
LEGEND
COLUMN HEIGHT
u • 80 mm
• 120 mm
a 160 mm
CO
• 200 mm
c
o
o
LL
Figure 7.43: Frictional Force versus Aeration Air Pressure for White Rice.
RICE FLAKES
LEGEND
COLUMN HEIGHT
B 80 mm.
• 120 mm.
B 160 mm.
• 200 mm.
-r
100 200 300 400
Air Pressure, kPa
Figure 7.44: Frictional Force versus Aeration Air Pressure for Rice Flakes.
MILLET
LEGEND
COLUMN HEIGHT
B 80 mm.
e 120 mm.
a 160 mm.
• 200 mm.
Figure 7.45: Frictional Force versus Aeration Air Pressure for Millet
194
LEGEND
COLUMN HEIGHT
B 80 mm.
• 120 mm.
B 160 mm.
• 200 mm.
Figure 7.46: Frictional Force versus Aeration Air Pressure for Wheat.
SAND
300
LEGEND
200- COLUMN HEIGHT
B 80 m m
• 125 m m
B 165 m m
100-
T
100 200 300
Air Pressure, kPa
Figure 7.47: Frictional Force versus Aeration Air Pressure for Sand.
195
LEGEND
o
COLUMN HEIGHT
B 55 mm
CO • 80 mm
c
o
u
Figure 7.48: Frictional Force versus Aeration Air Pressure for Shirley Phosphate.
BROWN RICE
LEGEND
AERATION
0)
o PRESSURE
B o
o
LL • 113
CO B 197
C
• 281
o kPa
o
'Z
LL
• i i
Figure 7.49: Frictional Force versus Column Length for Brown Ric
WHITE RICE
-H. -
I LEGEND
AERATION
•
PRESSURE
30- B o
B
• 71
B B 113
• 197
B 281
20-
e n 366
§ kPa
10- • i i i i i i
Figure 7.50: Frictional Force versus Column Length for White Rice.
RICE FLAKES
4U -
LEGEND
B AERATION
30-
o PRESSURE
B B 0
o • 113
20- e
D
B • B 197
• 323
n
i kPa
10-
0- —7—1- 1 • i • • •— T — | — 1 1
Figure 7.51: Frictional Force versus Column Length for Rice Flakes.
MILLET
LEGEND
AERATION
PRESSURE
B 0
• 113
B 197
• 323
B 408
kPa
• • •
WHEAT
LEGEND
AERATION
PRESSURE
B 0
• 70
B 113
• 197
B 281
B
kPa
. -
i | i i i
T • I ' I • I r
60 100 120 140 160 180
Column Length, m m .
BROWN RICE
n -in -
CB
Q.
._- ii
(0 LEGEND
OT • O •
LU 0.45- COLUMN HEIGHT
•
OC il • B 80 mm.
tr i' B • « 120 mm.
<
LU a B B B B 160 mm.
X 0.40 - • B P 200 mm.
•
CO B • •
LU • O
B
(3
< B B B
OC
LU 0.35-f T T
>
<
100 200 300 400
Air Pressure, kPa
Figure 7.55: Shear Stress versus Air Pressure for Brown Rice.
199
WHITE RICE
CO u.o-
OL
• • •
CO
(A 07- B
LEGEND
CD
r .
1f COLUMN HEIGHT
B
tin B 80 mm.
P B B • 120 mm.
CO 0.6- B B
0)
1i
9 • P B 160 mm.
JZ
B B •
B B B B B • 200 mm.
(0 B
<> • • • •
a> 0.5- • • • •
at
to
w
0) 0.4- —r
>
< 100 200 300 400
Air Pressure, kPa
Figure 7.56: Shear Stress versus Air Pressure for White Rice.
RICE FLAKES
CO U.b-; >
a. 1 > 5 B B
-C i
o • ft Q
<n B P LEGEND
B B G Q
</> 1 B
0 0.4- • B COLUMN HEIGHT
•
</5 B B 80 mm.
• m
• P B • 120 mm.
CO B B 160 mm.
0)
JC • 200 mm.
Ui 0.3 J
Q> • •
at
co
_.
0) l r
> 0.2- T 1"
< 100 200 300 400
Air Pressure, kPa
Figure 7.57: Shear Stress versus Air Pressure for Rice Flakes.
200
co I
a.
-C
1.0-
CO LEGEND
n 0.8- B COLUMN HEIGHT
CD B B B 80 mm.
i-
B B • 120 mm.
55 0.6-
CO B B 160 mm.
o B
0.4- ; :
: • • 200 mm.
£ • Q B
B H • • •
CO
0) 0.2-
B B 1 • i i»
B
cs
CO 0.0- -" 1 i — r r r 1
i_
0) 100 200 300 400 500
> Air Pressure, kPa
<
SANP
CO 10
D. B
-e
co 8-
co a LEGEND
0) • • • COLUMN HEIGHT
tm
<0 6-
B a B B 80 mm.
CO • 125 mm.
o
x: B
a 165 mm.
Ui
0
at 2-\
CO
-.
0 0 1 • 1
> 100 200 300
< Air Pressure, kPa
SHIRLEY PHOSPHATE
CO
CL
-C
CO
0
4- LEGEND
B COLUMN HEIGHT
CO
B 55 mm.
V
3- • 80 mm.
JC
CO • B . • •
0>
O)
2-
CO
tm
0
> — I *- T
100 200 300 400
Air Pressure, kPa
Figure 7.60: Shear Stress versus Air Pressure for Shirley Phosphate.
B R O W N RICE
0.08-
1 LEGEND
0.06-
COLUMN HEIGHT
i1
B 80 mm
mm 0.04-
• 120 mm
B 8 B
•
e a B 160 mm
l 8 • • • 200 mm
0.02- • •
• •
B B
0.00-1 Tr"— 1 i
100 200 300 400
Air Pressure, kPa
Figure 7.61: Aeration Air Pressure versus Wall Friction Factor \ik for Brown Rice.
202
U.f-
B LEGEND
0.3- COLUMN HEIGHT
I B B
B B a B 80 mm.
-C • 120 mm.
a 160 mm.
0.2- • 200 mm.
• P • #
• •
9 •
B 8 8 8
0.1 - 5100
9
—r
200 — i
300 * > -
B
'f — •
400 500
Air Pressure, kPa
Figure 7.62: Aeration Air Pressure versus Wall Friction Factor uk for White Rice.
RICE FLAKES
LEGEND
COLUMN LENGTH
B 80 mm.
• 120 mm.
It, B 160 mm.
O 200 mm.
200 400
Air Pressure, kPa
Figure 7.63: Aeration Air Pressure versus Wall Friction Factor uk for Rice Flakes.
203
0.5
0.4- LEGEND
B B COLUMN LENGTH
0.3- B 80 mm.
mm • 120 mm.
0.2 B 160 mm.
• 200 mm.
0.1 -
P
0.0 I P
B
100
•
•
200 300 400
Air Pressure, kPa
Figure 7.64: Aeration Air Pressure versus Wall Friction Factor |ik for Millet.
WHEAT
LEGEND
COLUMN HEIGHT
B 80 mm.
• 120 mm.
B 160 mm.
O 200 mm.
Figure 7.65: Aeration Air Pressure versus Wall Friction Factor u\k for Wheat
7.10 DEAERATTONr
SCALE
DEEAERATION
T
CHART
CYLINDER RECORDER
Z E R O CONDITIONING UNIT
STAND
P R E S S U R E T R A N S D U C E R (IMPERMEABLE BASE)
The details and operating procedure for this test and test rig are described in
Chapter 6.13. Figure 7.65 depicts a typical pressure variations during filling of fly ash
'A', 'F and 'G' for a permeable base. The subsequent respective, deaeration
characteristics of the powders tested in Figure 7.67 are depicted in Figure 7.68, when
tested with a permeable base, whereas Figure 7.67 depicts the combined filling and
deaeration pressure variations.
PERMEABLE BASE
ou -
a B
40- a
B LEGEND
• B FLY ASH
30-
B 'A'
D B
•
• F
20- B 'G'
B
D
10-
B
B
0- B J_ —r- 1
10 20 30
Filling Time, sec.
PERMEABLE BASE
LEGEND
FLY ASH
-B- TV
•P- F
•a- 'G'
T
100 200
Deaeration Time, sec.
Figure 7.68: Deaeration Time of Fly Ash 'A', 'F and 'G'; Permeable Base.
PERMEABLE BASF
CO LEGEND
0.
FLY ASH
0 -a- 'A'
m. -p- F
3
CO -a- 'G
CO
a>
T
100 200
Deaeration Time, sec.
Figure 7.69: Deaeration Behaviour of Fly Ash 'A', 'F and 'G'; Permeable Base.
IMPERMEABLE BASE
DV -
B F
40 - B
co LEGEND
0. D
• D FLY ASH
30-
B TV
D B
3
•
• F
CO 20-
(0 B 'G'
0 •
•
t
10-
•
B
D n
1 • i •
10 20 30
Filling Time, sec.
co
a. FLY ASH
-B- •A'
3 -•- F
CO
(0 * •G'
0
-i | i 1 1 | i—i r-
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Deaeration Time, sec.
co
a
-C
3
CO
CO
0
T
100 200
Deaeration Time, sec.
40- wr\.
CO
Q.
LEGEND
30- FLY ASH
0 -B- 'A'
m.
3 *T \|ID -»- F
CO
20- •»• 'G'
w
km
0.
0
10-
IB ^^^><^^ k " , *SL_
0 -1
r • , - i |
C» 100 20 0
PERMEABLE BASE
E LEGEND
E FLY ASH
JZ -a- 'A'
OJ
0
•P- 'F
-B-'G'
z
TJ
0
OQ
Figure 7.74: Deaeration of Fly Ash 'A', 'F and 'G'; Permeable Base.
E
E
x
o
z
TJ
0
OQ
IMPERMEABLE BASE
E LEGEND
E FLY ASH
-B- 'A'
"0 -«- 'GV
X ••- 'G2'
TJ
0
m
Figure 7.76: Deaeration of Fly Ash *A' and 'G'; Impermeable Base.
210
--t— ••-.
—[— . .... .
'. J
' L"
1
i i
' !. !
mU
m\ :i
V
1 V [
J N
,
j .
V •«. "
• i
sV j]
t1f
;
,i- •->
£:
£-- , i
t
1
1
1
.r=f— 4
•
1
/ , —--
• • - • *
*~_,_» :--i ^ 1 - — 1 t~-\ 1 -1. -- < r- "1 . —-*.» ~-1f — f --
1 1 -— — -_ ... .
t
i I 1
1 _j. _l
— 1 — . t j
— i —
•
( ' 1 ( 1
Figure 7.77: A FiUing-deaeration Graph for Fly Ash 'A'; Impermeable base.
Fly ash deaeration behaviour with time are correlated with exponential regres
curve fits (y = a* 1 0 * ) . The time constants, exponents a, b and regression coefficients
are presented in Table 7.14.
COEFFICIENTS Seconds
.102mm 1.0.
Transmitter, Pyrex Tube
©0
Perspex
Flange
Air
102mm 1.0.
Supply
Steel Pipe Gas Distributor
Plenum Assembly
Chamber
Pressure Irri
Meter — H U J
The details and operating procedure for this rig are described in Chapter
6.14. A schematic of this rig is presented in Figure 7.78. The location of the fly
ash tested when plotted on the Geldart diagram are as shown in Figure 7.79.
60
50 -
40 -
30 -
20-
10-
0 -T-""?
2 4 6
Superficial Velocity, cm/sec.
E
o
o
CM
z
E
E
c
0
TJ
CO
o
3
.)
<A
0
2 4 6
SUPERFICIAL VELOCITY, CM/S.
8- ^ • — M - M M
6-
4-
r
2-
J
•* • .
u
) 1 2
(
Superficial Velocity, cm/s.
SANP
600
500 -?
400-
300
500- LEGEND
EXP. NO.
490- B 1
• 2
B 3
480- • 4
B 5
470
460 —I 1 \ 1 1—
20 40 60 80
DEAERATION TIME, SECS.
510-IT
500- LEGEND
EXP. NO.
B 1
490- • 2
B 3
• 4
480-
470
20 40 60 80
DEAERATION TIME, SECS.
JJ -o-
0.4 m.
1.41 m.
3
--c*
1.41 m.
-ilo- 1 11
o-
0.4 m .
A schematic of this test rig is depicted in Figure 7.89. This rig incorporates seven
air pressure tapping locations. Six of these pressure tappings were used in the friction
loop as shown in Figure 7.89. In these tapping locations, pressure transducers were
installed with the transducer output recorded using a Data Acquisition System.
The pressure tapping details are shown in Figure 7.90, whereas the Data
Acquisition Channels details are summarized in Table 7.15. The transducer locations,
measured from the blow tank, are declared in Table 7.16.
The materials tested in the friction loop were cement and W h e a t The flow
properties of these materials are declared in Table 7.17.
218
Pressure
Transducer
Quick-Connect
Coupling
1/4" BSPT
Thread
Retaining
Screw
O-Ring
Porex
Disc
1/4" BSP
Socket
52mm I.D.
Pipeline
Figure 7.90: Exploded View of a Typical Pipeline Air Pressure Tapping Location.
TABLE 7.15 - AIR PRESSURE CHANNELS
Channel N a m e of channels
number
0 Blow tank pressure
1 First pipeline pressure
2 First friction loop pressure
3 Secondfrictionloop pressure
4 Thirdfrictionloop pressure
5 Fourth friction loop pressure
6 Fifth friction loop pressure
7 Air supply pressure (orifice plate)
8 Differential pressure
9 Silo load cells
10 Blow tank load cells
11 Sixthfrictionloop pressure
Transducer Downstream
location, m .
First transducer 0.15 m .
Firstfrictionloop transducer 4.68 m .
Secondfrictionloop transducer 6.06 m .
Third friction loop transducer 7.45 m .
Fourth friction loop transducer 10.17 m .
Fifth friction loop transducer 11.55 m.
Sixth friction loop transducer 12.94 m.
kg/m3
Cement 3100 950 30
Wheat 1380 864 313
220
A summary of the test results are summarized in Tables 7.19 and 7.20. In this test
series, the particle velocity was measured by using a Tealgate T.200 series transducer in
combination with a Hewlett Packard Correlator, refer Chapter 6.2.
For the next test series, the air pressure channels and transducer locations details
are shown in Table 7.18, whereas Tables 7.21 and 7.22 summarize the results of
conveying characteristics of sand. The flow properties of sand are declared in Sections
7.3 to 7.5.
For experiment No. 1 to 49, the Tealgate T.200 series transducer was used in
combination with a Hewlett Packard Correlator, whereas for experiment N o . 50 to 82, a
purpose built fibre optic velocity probe w a s used, refer Section 6.2.2. The variation of
transducer air pressure for sand versus distance from blow tank are shown in Figures
7.91 to 7.98.
T A B L E 7.18 - AIR P R E S S U R E C H A N N E L S A N D T R A N S D U C E R
LOCATIONS
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42. 86 80 95 55 48 45 40 - -
43. 76 82 48 44 42 38 25 29
44. 102 98 110 70 60 55 50 . -
45. 85 81 110 70 60 55 48 32 28
46. 113 70 62 60 55 42 40
47. 84 82 90 50 42 40 35 28 26
49. 90 82 50 1
45 40 34 28
50. 130 126 120 112 i 75 68 62 48 42
51. 90 85 50 ! 45 40 34 26
52. 155 148 140 133 90 80 70 50 40
53. 152 148 138 I 87 ! 80 70 55 50
57. 100 98 91 90 56 53 50 36 33
73. 100 97 89 87 56 52 48 36 33
74. 130 122 113 111 70 66 62 48 44
75. 115 112 105 103 63 60 55 42 38
76. 132 129 120 118 75 70 65 52 44
77. 132 128 120 117 75 70 65 52 44
78. 123 120 110 106 66 60 55 46 40
79. 115 111 106 105 ! 65 i 60 56 44 40
80. 70 68.6 64 61 40 37 34 _ _
81. 92 86.6 80 78 50 46 44 34 28
82. 105 98.3 90 88 56 54 50 38 32
PARTICLE CONCENTRATION:
This was calculated by using eqn. (C.5), refer Appendix C with the evaluated
values declared in Table 7.21. Also, a typical solids concentration variation during
experiments obtainedfromthe Tealgate T.300 concentration sensor are depicted in
Appendix C.
BENDS:
The pressure drop obtained using two different bends, namely long radius and
vortice elbow are shown in Table 7.23. As evident in Table 7.22, air pressure channels
No. 11 and No. 12 for experiments 24 to 82 are for vortice elbow bend.
120-.
a
M 100 LEGEND
Exp. No.
0
0 80-
60-
f B 21
• 24
a 29
0
O
J
40
a
•o
n 20
—r-
c 10
a
20 30
Distance from blow tank, m.
I-
Figure 7.91: Transducer Air Pressure versus Distance from Blow Tank.
a 140
a.
mm
120
3 LEGEND
0 100-
3
Exp. No.
0
0
B 35
80-
• 40
• 74
60-
* B B
o 40 P
3 P
TJ 5 I
M 20 —r~
C
0 10
10 20 30
a
Distance from blow tank, m.
Figure 7.92: Transducer Air Pressure versus Distance from Blow Tank.
0 uu -
Q.
-c
1
3 80- 1 P
0 • LEGEND
]
0 1 Exp. No.
0 r
B 28
60-
• 41
a B 47
B •
O 40-
O I I Q
D
3 B
•o E
0 B B
1
c 1
0 10 20 30
Distance from blow tank, m.
Figure 7.95: Transducer Air Pressure versus Distance from Blow Tank.
0
CL
100
-C
3 LEGEND
at
0 Exp. No.
0
B 42
• 72
B 82
o
o
3
•o
0
C
0
Distance from blow tank, m.
Figure 7.96: Transducer Air Pressure versus Distance from Blow Tank.
LEGEND
Exp. No.
h 1
B
e
B
26
46
79
-1—
10 20 30
Distance from blow tank, m.
Figure 7.93: Transducer Air Pressure versus Distance from Blow Tank.
\&J -
100 -1 B
LEGEND
• i u
80- Exp. No.
B 71
B e 73
60- B 81
40-
'' - 8
B 41
El B
i • i
C 10 20 30
Distance from blow tank, m.
Figure 7.94: Transducer Air Pressure versus Distance from Blow Tank.
232
CHANNEL N A M E OF CHANNELS
NOS.
0 Blow tank top air pressure
1 First pipeline air pressure
2 Second pipeline air pressure
7 Orifice plate upstream static pressure
8 Differential pressure !
9 Blow tank load cell
10 Silo load cell
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235
CHAPTER 8
DISCUSSION
It should be noted that both Bean and Millet seeds are spherical granular particulates.
It was found that Millet has a lower coefficient of restitution compared to that for both the
spherical Beans and Wheat. This trend was attributed to the smaller particle size of Millet. In
this series of tests, the coefficient of restitution was measured with the disc tilted in the
direction of rotation.
In Figure 7.3, which depicts the variation of coefficient of restitution tilted in the
flow direction, the observed range was 0.44 to 0.65. For coal, the coefficient of restitution is
higher, when impacting on Mild steel (Initial drop height = 10.6 cm.) compared to that
when impacting on Stainless Steel. For Sinter and Sodium Ferrite, the observed coefficient
of restitution ranged from 0.52 to 0.58.
236
In Figure 7.4, the coefficient of restitution was measured with the impact disc tilted
against the direction of rotation. In this configuration, the coefficient of restitution ranged
between 0.56 to 0.69. A n examination of this Figure clearly reveals that Millet has a lower
coefficient of restitution compared to that observed for Wheat and Coal.
The coefficient of restitution for Coke impacting on Stainless Steel was found to be
0.54, Sugar on Mild Steel 0.53 and plastic balls on Mild Steel 0.71 which is relatively high
compared to the other materials tested. The latter coefficient of restitution was the highest
observed coefficient of restitution.
It was found that the coefficient of restitution was lower on Stainless Steel compared
to that for Mild Steel. T h e latter suggests that for a given system a lower pressure drop will
result when using Stainless Steel pipe compared to that for a Mild Steel pipe. However, this
operation advantage must be compared with the additional capital cost associated with the use
of Stainless Steel pipes. Obviously, for food standard systems the use of Stainless Steel
pipework is mandatory.
The use of Stainless Steel may also be warranted for materials exhibiting high
coefficients of restitution and hence high system pressure drops w h e n conveying in dilute
phase in Mild'Steel pipe systems. In these situations, the lower wall friction characteristics of
Stainless Steel m a y also be an advanatage.
As stated, the aforesaid pressure difference will be more significant for dilute phase
systems. This implies, in turn, that knowledge of the coefficient of restitution is more
important in dilute phase systems, in regard to explaining unusual flow behaviour, high
system pressure drops or in systems operating at low flow rate.
o
ti
VI
ft
u
L
3
(0
ti
u
ft I I—I I I—I—I I I I I I—I I I—I I I—I-
o- 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
(0
Mean Particle Size d50. "im
Figure 8.1: Variation of Specific Surface versus M e a n Particle Size for the Fly Ash
Tested.
The particle size analysis of Sand, Brown Rice and White Rice, as declared in
Tables 7.4 to 7.7, reveal that these materials are granular materials somewhat coarser than
fly ash samples and cement powders.
Figures 7.5 and 7.6 which compare the particle size distributions of all materials
tested, indicate that all fly ash tested possess particle size distributions with similar slope
over the d6o- d 4 0 range with fly ash 'E' displaying a slightly steeper slope. This
tendency suggests that the formation process of the various fly ash powders tested were
similar.
The above trends are reinforced in Figures 7.7 to 7.10, which depict the log
normal distribution plotted as a relative percentage frequency distribution using a
logarithmic scale for particle size of the powders tested.
238
Figure 8.2 shows the variation of mean particle size versus characteristic
dimensions for the fly ash with different measurement runs. Figure 8.3 shows the
variation of average characteristic dimensions of each fly ash versus mean particle size.
From both Figures, it is revealed that fly ash 'E' and 'C have the lowest characteristic
dimensions of the fly ash samples tested.
239
100
'D' T* >B> >A'
G 'G* D
80
'D' ID
.2 8 'A' B D(v,0.9)
** =i • D(4,3)
•2 . 60 H
L. e • D(3,2)
ft e • D(v,0.1)
* * i ^
'E'
ti w • D(v,0.5)
*• _- 40
L * w V
*G
ua I! D
O «w t - •"—r
20 H4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Mean Size, d50, |im
Figure 8.2: Variation of Mean Particle Size versus Characteristic Dimensions of Fly
Ash.
OM ~
•
•a*
•D'
60 - •
T' LEGEND
>r* H 'B* 'A'
*- _± • D(v,0.9)
L e • 0(4,3)
40 -
ft e •c n D(3,2)
'E'
•* '^
• •
o D(v,0.1)
o w • • • D(v,0.5)
?0 - • •
*"- ? ••• •
rr S • • •
u a 1 D o
O
o- T"»T "•!'—!— 0
I ' ' i i r-T- i i i i i l ' '
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Mean Size, d50, |im
Figures 8.4 and 8.5 reveal the variation of m e a n size versus % < 5.8 u m and
particle size distribution span, respectively for all measurement runs. The particle size
distribution span measures the spread between the 10% and 90% points of the cumulative
undersize distribution, scaled in terms of the 50% point and defined as the ratio of
D(v,0.9) - D (v,0.1)/D(v,0.5) pm. Figure 8.6 reveals the variation of mean particle size
versus average % < 5.8 pm and particle size distribution span. It is revealed from these
Figures that fly ash _* has the highest % < 5.8 pm as compared to other fly ash,
whereas fly ash 'D' has the highest particle size distribution span.
240
60
50 -
09
10 30 -
v
tf 20 - B' -A'
10 -
—i I i I i I i I i I » l •
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
D(v,0.5), |im
Figure 8.4: Variation of Mean Size versus % < 5.8 pm for Fly Ash Tested.
5 -
a.
(0 4 -
3 -
- I — • 1 1 1 • I • 1 — • -
8 10 12 14 16 18
D(v,0.5), pm
Figure 8.5: Variation of M e a n Size versus Particle Size Distribution for Fly Ash Tested.
241
60
50 - -6
40 - 'E' e LEGEND
CO -5 «
IO <3 % < 5.8ipm
Ok
v Vt • PSD.span
30 H M 8
tf
20 H -3
The above Figures confirm clearly identifiable property differences between the
powders tested. In some cases differences in the numerical values for the properties
approaching an order of magnitude were apparent. These differences are mainly due to
differences in the particle size distributions and are strongly dependent on mean particle
size.
Such high numerical values for the coefficient b suggest that these powders are
highly compressible. In comparison, low values of b were observed for materials such
as Wheat, Rice and Millet. This clearly indicates that these materials are relatively
incompressible. All fly ash and cement have a higher value of b compared to other
granular materials. Unfortunately, Figure 8.9 which reveals the variation of b versus
mean particle size dso, reveals no apparent trend.
242
1300
1600
1400 LEGEND
FLY ASH
B E
1200- • F
n G
• CEMENT
1000-
800
0 10 20
Major Consolidation Stress (kPa)
u.ui -
ft 'B'
0.06 - •F'
e 'E' •
"C" • CEMENT
ti
'G'
•
VI
'D1
0.05 -
Yl •
ft
L •A'
a
E U.\J*V 1
e 10 20
u Mean particle size, microns
Figure 8.9: Compressibility Coefficient Variation versus Mean Particle Size.
The compressibility, as the difference between the packed bulk density and the
loose poured bulk density, divided by the packed bulk density times 100, are shown in
Table 8.2. It can be seen that compressibility values of Sand, P V C powder, Brown Rice,
White Rice varies in between 5 to 15 percent and having free flow powder
characteristicks. For cement,flyash 'A' and fly ash 'F the compressibility values range
from 24 to 28 percentage, whereas forflyash 'B\ fly ash 'D\ fly ash 'E' the range is
from 34 to 37 and for fly ash 'C it has a value of 45.
244
From Table 7.9, it is evident that the ratio of packed to loose poured bulk density is
highest for fly ash 'C compared to the other fly ash tested. The loose poured bulk density of
the powders tested is the average of three observations. This value is closely followed by
that for fly ash 'E', 'D', 'B', 'A', cement, fly ash 'F, Wheat, B r o w n Rice, White Rice,
P V C powder and Sand, in that order. This ratio is a good indication of cohesion and
fluidization characteristics, with a higher value indicating greater cohesiveness and hence
decreasing flowability. In particular, Geldart et al. (1984) reported the ratio of tapped and
aerated bulk density is less than 1.25 for group A , from 1.25 to 1.4 for group A C and greater
than 1.4 for group C powders. The ratio of the packed and loose poured bulk density is also
known as the Hausner ratio.
Figure 8.10 which depicts the variation of the Hausner ratio (ratio of packed to loose
poured bulk density) with dso, indicates this ratio increases with decreasing particle size. A
closer examination of this Figure suggests that the Hausner ratio is relatively high for fly ash
'C. This high numerical value is consistent with the higher cohesiveness exhibited by this fly
ash. The same also suggests that fly ash 'C will display greater tendencies for flow
fluctuations and flow difficulties from blow tank especially in dense phase systems. The
exponential trend correlation for this Figure is y = 2.2877 x"0-173 where x = dso-
Figure 8.11 shows the variation of mean particle size versus all Hausner ratio data
obtained from experiments with 1 % error bars. Figure 8.12 shows the variation of Hausner
ratio versus particle size span for the fly ash tested, whereas Figure 8.13 shows the variation
of Hausner ratio versus average particle size distribution span. It is revealed from Figure 8.13
that fly ash 'C has the highest Hausner ratio with least span, whereas fly ash 'D' has
highest particle size span and an intermediate Hausner ratio.
M
o
5 >.
o "n
*- c
o
o
• - - _ *
o —
a 3
a. .a
O 3
~ 2
a a
K Mean particle size, microns
Figure 8.10: The Ratio of Packed to Loose Poured Bulk Density versus
Particle Size for the Fly Ash and Cement Tested.
1.9
1.8- 9
o 'E'
«
r->
(0 1-7 H •c
OC •D' •B'
1.6
co i
« 1-5"
X
1.4 H
1.3 - 1 — i — | — i-+
! — i — r — i — i — • — i •—
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Mean Particle Size, microns
6- •
'D'
5- 'E1
CO
'A' ,B. •
a
4- B •
oo
3- B
2- • 1 -
• i • i —* — 1 ' 1
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
H. R.
Figure 8.12: Variation of the Hausner Ratio versus Particle Size Span.
i.a -
•c
1.8- B
1.7-
'E'
1.6- B 'D'
'B' EI
1.5- •
1.4- TV
'F
•
B
i 1
1 .o "1 ' 1 •
' 1 1
2 3 4 5 6 7
PSD, Span
From Table 7.10, it is evident that the solid density observed for the materials
tested ranged from 1147 to 2735 kg/m3. This range is described more fully in Table 8.3
which depicts the density and density related values for the powders tested.
From bulk and particle densities, the voidage e can be calculated. Apparent
specific volume V s is the bulk volume of powder of unit weight, which is the inverse of
bulk density. Bulkiness is the bulk volume of powders, which is the inverse of packing
density. Greater bulkiness reveals lessflowability,whereas less bulkiness require less
storage. Voidratiois the ratio of the void volume to the net volume of powders.
The equations for the above parameters are shown at the top of the following
Table 8.3. This Table reveals that significant variations occur between the numerical
values of density and density related values for apparently similar powders. These
significant numerical differences, for the various parameters, reflect complex differences
in powder packing arrangement and particle shape. The same m a y also indicate test
deviations.
Fly ash 'E' having greatest bulkiness (2.604), exhibits less flowability, whereas
Wheat with lowest bulkiness (1.59) requires less free volume. Furthermore, it is revealed
from Table 8.3 that fly ash 'E' has the highest voidage and the lowest packing density,
whereas Wheat has the lowest voidage and the highest packing density.
It is observed that fly ash 'G' and cement revealed greatest variation from the
observed trend as voidage is strongly effected by particle size distribution and packing
mechanisms.
248
Fly ash 'A' 1032 0.515 0.485 9.689 x IO"4 2.062 1.062
Fly ash 'B* 1134 0.545 0.455 8.818 x IO"4 2.198 1.198
Fly ash C 944 0.57 0.43 10.593 x IO"4 2.326 1.325
Fly ash 'D' 1088 0.585 0.415 9.191 x 10-4 2.41 1.409
Fly ash *E' 975 0.616 0.384 10.256 x IO"4 2.604 1.604
Fly ash T 1275 0.497 0.503 7.843 x IO"4 1.988 0.988
Fly ash 'G' 1294 0.459 0.541 7.843 x IO"4 1.988 0.988
Cement 1312 0.577 0.423 7.621 x IO"4 2.364 1.364
Sand 1502 0.451 0.549 6.657 x IO"4 1.821 0.821
P V C powder 649 0.529 0.471 15.408 x IO"4 2.123 1.123
Sodium Ferrite 1512 0.411 0.589 6.613 x IO"4 1.698 0.698
Wheat 868 0.371 0.629 11.52x IO"4 1.59 0.59
White Rice 865 0.415 0.585 11.56x IO"4 1.709 0.709
Brown Rice 825 0.478 0.522 12.121 x IO'4 1.916 0.916
Sugar 883 0.411 0.589 11.325x10-4 1.698 0.698
u.i -
\ E'
0.6- 'C* 'D* CEfvENT
ffi B ,B. Q
cn
r-T^El
co
o
0.5- -F Q 'A'
>
'G' B
0.4-
10 20
Mean particle size, microns
Figure 8.14: Voidage versus Mean Particle Size for the Fly Ash and Cement Tested.
249
From the results, it was revealed that, in general the Jenike and Walker methods give
arch lengths m u c h higher than those observed in the experiments. But for fly ash 'C and
'E', the difference between the experimental arch lengths and that predicted from the Jenike
and Walker methods were m u c h less.
The Arch Tester may give the lower bound on the critical arch opening, whereas the
Jenike method the upper bound. T h e overdesign of over 1 0 0 % associated with Jenike's
method m a y be useful to account for initial filling conditions and other factors like increase in
moisture content. The correct determination of the flow function from shear strength
measurement with the Jenike shear cell m a y be an important factor generating this
overdesign.
The arch length for fly ash 'A' was tested on two days having different relative
humidity, namely 5 5 % and 5 9 % , refer Figure 7.13. A n examination of this Figure reveals
that the arch length increased significantly with increasing relative humidity and the arch
length increased as the deaeration time including filling was increased. This observation is
consistent with that of Molerus et al. (1982).
Further evidence for the increase in cohesive arch length with increasing relative
humidity was clearly apparent from the arch tests conducted on fly ash 'C and cement, refer
Figure 7.14 and 7.15, respectively. This m a y be due to capillary condensation of water in the
void between two particles resulting in a component additional to the van der Waals attraction
(Visser, 1989). Thus, the environmental relative humidity strongly influences cohesive arch
length and hence cohesive properties of powders during transport.
250
From the Table 7.11, it is evident that for fly ash, cement and Sodium Ferrite, the
arch length increased with increasing deaeration time. It was observed that fly ash 'F
becomes cohesive after considerable deaeration. In fact, the cohesive arch formed was so
strong that no flow occurred and extended some 30 m m high across the outlet. Since, fly
ash 'E' exhibited the smallest m e a n particle size, the observed trend in the arch length
suggested that as the m e a n particle size decreases, the cohesive arch length increases.
Fly ash 'E' and 'C have higher arch length than other fly ash and cement, refer
Figures 7.16 and 7.17. Figure 7.19 depicts the variation of mean particle size versus arch
length for theflyash tested. This Figure reveals that as the mean particle size dso decreases,
the arch length increases. This trend is consistent with that observed by Borg (1982).
The relatively large cohesion force observed for fly ash 'E' deviates from the
cohesive strength trend predicted by Molerus et al. (1982). This deviation highlights that the
particle size distribution and packing in addition to the m e a n particle size significantly
controls a powder's cohesion. Hence, fly ash 'E' with the smallest particle size and largest
% -10 p m material displays the highest cohesion of the powders tested.
Fly ash 'B' was found to be relatively free flowing compared to the other fly ash. In
comparison, fly ash 'C was very cohesive. In fact, the powder tends to form vertical flow
channels after long deaeration times. Furthermore, this powder tended to form arch across
the tester outlet. In particular after considerable deaeration, measurement of the cohesive arch
length was impossible due to the occurrence of cohesive arch.
In addition, testing with the Arch Tester indicated that the arch length was dependent
on the depth of material in the tester. This trend is evident in Figure 7.18 as observed for
cement.
Unfortunately, results from the cohesive arch tester proved to be highly sensitive to
test conditions including ambient relative humidity,fillingprocedure and extent of deaeration.
Hence, at best the Arch Tester should only be used for indicating the cohesiveness of various
powders or to indicate the relative differences in cohesiveness between seemingly similar
powders.
251
A further interesting trend is evident in Figure 7.23 which depicts the variation of
particle size versus drained angle of repose for the powders tested. This Figure reveals that
the drained angle of repose increases as the m e a n particle size dso decreases. This is
consistent with the trend reported by B r o w n (1961).
-00-i
90- B 'E' ,
°S
^—'•'""ETC -
C TO
n •r
80- ^*^*^
• BT^^^
£ o.
a «> 70 - B B 'B*
CEMENT
60 H i 1 • i « I • I • I '—
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
Ratio of packed to loose
poured bulk density
An increasing trend is evident from Figure 8.15, which reveals the variation of
drained angle of repose versus ratio of packed to loose poured bulk density of powders
tested. This trend is consistent with that observed by Grey et al. (1968).
It was observed that the drained angle of repose increased with deaeration time. For
fly ash 'D', the average front angle of repose was 65°, back angle of repose was 75° for 20
minutes filling and deaeration time, whereas for 27 minutes filling and deaeration time, the
average front angle of repose was 70° and back angle of repose w a s 85°. In this case, filling
was conducted by mechanical means.
252
A s noted from Figure 7.21 generally, the drained angle of repose increased with
increasing deaeration time. Furthermore, the experimental work also suggested in a
qualitative matter, that the drained angle of repose increases with increasing powder
cohesion. This trend is consistent with the trend predicted by Molerus et al. (1982). Hence, a
small change in fine particle content results in measurable change in cohesiveness. In
particular, fly ash 'E' was found to be the most cohesive of the powders tested. For this
powder, of m e a n particle size 5.4 p m , the angle of repose for all flow channel boundaries
was 90°. Particularly, in one test a drained angle of repose of 110° was noted. Testing was
conducted on two days at relative humidity of 7 3 % and 7 8 % , respectively. For all
observations, recorded angles of repose in excess of 90° were noted. After significant
deaeration, determination of drained angle of repose was not possible due to the tendency of
the powder to arch.
One powder, cement, however deviated from the general strength versus particle size
trend. It is considered that the hygroscopic nature of cement caused this powder to display
higher drained angle of repose compared to the observed general trend. This tendency to
absorb moisture, obviously, increased the powder's cohesiveness. This, in turn, suggests
that the drained angle of repose displayed by hygroscopic materials is dependent on test
relative humidity. Therefore, for hygroscopic powders the relative humidity must be
controlled and specified and be representative of actual plant conditions. This clearly suggests
that cement must be pneumatically conveyed with dry air.
Although variations with drained angle of repose were noted for the various powders,
no consistent trend was observed. For this reason, the angle of repose at best is a crude
simple indicator of a powder's cohesiveness.
and cement to be least cohesive of the powders tested. The other fly ash exhibited
intermediate cohesive strength as revealed in Figure 7.25 and Table 7.12.
The trend between effective angle of friction 6 observed from the Arch Tester and 8
from shear tester is good, as shown in Fig. 8.16. However, the trend between internal angle
of friction 0 observed from Arch Tester and (J) from the shear tester is not as consistent, refer
Fig. 8.17. This is expected because the actual powder yield locus must take into account the
cohesion C of the powder.
100 -•
E 90-
_>
E
Q)
S* 80-
LU
E
2 70-
60 -
30 40 50 60
From Shear Tester
Figure 8.16: Variation of Effective Angle of Friction from Experiment and Shear Tester
254
c
tt
E
"
u
a.
xE
LU
o
i i i i i i i i i i i
28 30 32 34 36 38 40
From Shear Tester
Figure 8.17: Variation of Internal Angle of Friction from Experiment and Shear Tester
120
100 -
E
E
cn
c
tt
u
<
Figure 8.18: Flowability Index of Fly A s h and Cement versus Arch Length.
255
The observed voidage variation versus tensile strength of the various fly ash tested are
shown in Figures 7.30 and 7.31 for instantaneous conditions and Figures 7.34 and 7.35 for
a deaeration time of about 15 minutes. A n examination of these figures clearly highlight that
the tensile strength decreases as the voidage increases. Here, fly ash 'E' and 'C of smaller
mean particle size, display high voidage, yet fly ash 'E' exhibits the highest tensile strength.
The observed tensile strength versus bulk density variations for the fly ash tested are
depicted in Figure 7.32 and Figure 7.33 for instantaneous conditions and w h e n subject to a
deaeration time of 15 minutes, respectively. A s a comparison, the observed tensile strength
versus consolidation for light soda ash, dense soda ash, P V C powder and castor sugar are
depicted in Figure 7.36, whereas the voidage variations are depicted in Figure 7.37. It
should be noted that the relatively high tensile strength of castor sugar evident in these
Figures was due to the presence of absorbed moisture. Furthermore, P V C powder exhibited
minimal strength with dense soda ash and light soda ash displaying intermediate tensile
strengths.
The effect of the filling procedure on the measured tensile strength is revealed in
Figure 7.37. In particular, both a screen vibrator and spoon cell filling procedure was used.
From an examination of Figure 7.38, it is apparent that at high consolidation, the observed
tensile strength is the same for each filling procedure. Whereas, at low consolidation the
observed tensile strength is relatively sensitive to the filling procedure used. The tensile
strength is small at lower consolidation as the particles are not closely packed consistent with
their low bulk density. Furthermore, at low consolidation the screen filled values are higher
than the spooned values. This observation confirms that of Y o k o y a m a et al. (1982) w h o
likewise have shown the importance of filling procedure on the tensile strength observations.
256
O n identifying the suitability of the screen vibrator procedure, fly ash 'H', T
and 'J' were tested using thisfillprocedure incorporating the necessary consolidation and
twists. These small samples of fly ash were received from Queensland Electricity
Commission. The results are depicted in Figure 7.39. From an examination of this
Figure, it is evident thatflyash T exhibits the highest tensile strength and fly ash 'H
has the lowest.
The range of consolidation stresses for tensile strength test was 11.31 kPa to
107.647 kPa, whereas the tensile strength measured range was 0.672 kPa to 4.56 kPa.
The highest tensile strength of 4.56 kPa was measured with fly ash 'H\ Moreover, the
range of voidage was 0.0483 with P V C powder to 0.72 with fly ash 'E\ Also, the bulk
density ranged between 1311 kg/m 3 for P V C powder to 733 kg/m 3 for fly ash *E\
The adhesion forces forflyash for instantaneous conditions and with 15 minutes
deaeration are determined from R u m p f s (1970) equation which can be revealed in
Figures 8.19 and 8.20. Adhesion force increases with consolidation force which is in
agreement with thefindingsof Tsubaki et al. (1984). It is also revealed that fly ash 'E'
has the lowest adhesion force. Unfortunately in both Figures 8.19 and 8.20 extrapolation
to zero consolidation force is difficult. From Figure 8.20, it is revealed that with fly ash
'B' and 'D' at higher consolidation adhesion force decreased.
Oi
6 BUU ~
LEGENC)
600 - FLY ASH
A
o • B
L D C
400 -
e D
• — E
tt D F
200 -
•a •
—• —m- -m- _ •
<
0 - -r——f I— , — - V — r — " I ' 1 1 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Consolidation, N
Figure 8.19: Variation of Adhesion Force versus Consolidation for Fly Ash.
257
o.
I
o LEGEND
FLY ASH
—B— A
—*— B
tt
u —n— D
—P— E
- —•— F
o
CO
tt
X
•a
< 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Consolidation Force, N
Figure 8.20: Variation of Adhesion Force versus Consolidation for
Fly Ash with Deaeration
The foregoing examination suggests that the tensile tester provides the most evident
distinction between various yet seemingly similar powders. Hence, in view of the convenient
use and clearly evident ranking of powder properties, this test should provide useful
information regarding rapid assessment of a powder's cohesiveness.
Furthermore, for Millet and Rice Flakes, at high air pressure, a rapid decrease in
frictional force w a s noted, whereas, for B r o w n Rice, White Rice and W h e a t a small
decrease in the frictional force occurred. This suggests that super dense phase flow or plug
flow will exhibit relatively low wall friction retardation effects. This reconfirms the
favourable flow characteristics of this flow mode.
258
It w a s revealed that under the same conditions of air pressure and column height,
White Rice has higher frictional force as compared to B r o w n Rice, refer Figures 7.42 and
Fig. 7.43. It should be noted that the frictional force for W h e a t is slightly higher-than that
observed for Millet. This m a y be due to a particle shape difference between the two grains, in
particular the Millet is spherical whereas W h e a t is m o r e angular. Also, at higher air
pressures the frictional force decreased for Millet, whereas for W h e a t a slight decrease was
observed. This further confirms the favourable spherical particle shape of Millet
For sand, an opposite trend was observed. In particular at higher air pressure, the
frictional force increased. This increase m a y be due to particular powder characteristics
notably particle abrasiveness and angularitiy and testrigor procedure shortcomings.
The subsequent Figures 7.49 to 7.54 depict the variation of frictional force versus
column length for the materials tested, whereas, Figures 7.55 to 7.60 depict the average
shear stress versus aeration pressure. O n the other hand, Figures 7.61 to 7.65 depict the
evaluated wallfrictionfactor uk for the respective materials tested. These figures reveal the
value of p k decreases generally with both increasing air pressure and column height. It is
interesting to note that this value is higher for Millet and B r o w n Rice as compared to that for
Wheat and White Rice, respectively.
W h e n performing wall friction tests using fine materials, the following results are
observed (Table 8.4). Furthermore, it w a s noted that fly ash 'A' and 'D' tended to form
plugs at air pressure of 1 and 13.78 kPa, respectively.
110 355.286 80 -
259
Wall friction angles of fly ash using Stainless Steel as a wall surface were
evaluated using the Jenike Direct Shear Tester (Table 8.5). The details of the tester and
operating procedure are provided by Arnold et al. (1980). The observed wall yield loci
using this test procdeure offlyash are shown in Figure 8.21. A n examination of this
Figure suggests that the wall yield loci are generally convex from above. A similar trend
has been reported for cohesive powders by Roberts et al. (1984).
GL LEGEND
-i
FLY ASH
Vt
VI —B 'A'
4
k. » 'D'
*r
—• "F
(0
L
*
-fi
CO
0 10 20 30
Normal Stress, kPa
Figure 8.21: Wall Yield Loci for Fly Ash 'A', 'F and 'D' on Stainless Steel.
provide a crude assessment of the extent of wall friction between a powder plug and a
cylindrical wall surface.
In view of these problems, it was considered that the familiar Jenike Direct Shear
Tester provides the best and most useful indication of a powder's wallfrictioncharacteristics,
refer Table 8.5. This latter tester obviously does not provide any indication of a powder's
plug formation tendencies.
The rig, does however, provide useful observations of plug formation of powders
and frictional forces of granular materials. The results obtained indicate the necessary
frictional force required to convey a plug of granular material in super dense phase pneumatic
conveying. This information ranges for different granular materials and column height,
which indirectly indicate pressure drop in low velocity conveying.
8.10 DEAERATION:
Pressure variations during filling and deaeration for fly ash 'A', 'F and 'G', for a
permeable base are shown in Figures 7.67 to 7.69. A n examination of Figures 7.68 and 7.69
suggest that fly ash 'A' has the most air retentive characteristics of the powders tested. In
comparison, the filling and deaeration pressure variations of the powders tested with the
impermeable base are depicted in Figures 7.70 to 7.72. From Figures 7.69 and 7.73, it is
observed that with fly ash, the m a x i m u m interstitial pressures ranged from 20 to 23 kPa for
the permeable base and from 42 to 44 kPa for the impermeable base.
The decay of the deaeration graph is more rapid, included intermittent bed dropping
and greater oscillations during filling when using a deaeration tester with an impermeable
base as compared to that when using a permeable base. Moreover, the peak of filling and
deaeration transition is sharp with an impermeable base, whereas it is smooth and non
distinct with a permeable base. This suggests that it is best to determine the deaeration
characteristics of powders using an impermeble base.
Figures 7.71 and 7.73 reconfirm that fly ash 'A' exhibits the strongest long term ai
retention characteristics. O n the other hand, fly ash 'F and 'G' display relatively rapid
deaeration. Figure 7.72 reveals the deaeration pressure variation for fly ash 'C. From Table
7.14, it can be seen that the exponent obtained from the exponential curve fitting of data
points is lowest for fly ash 'G' under conditions of both permeable and impermeable bases.
261
Also, the deaeration time constant is highest for fly ash A', intermediate for fly ash 'G' and
lowest for fly ash 'F w h e n tested using permeable and impermeable bases.
In regard to powder deaeration, the time constant obtained from decay curve of
interstitial pressure or bed height versus time indicates whether a powder is air retentive or
will rapidly deaerate. In particular, powders exhibiting large numerical values for the time
constant retain air for a significant time. These powders with slow deaeration rate retains
interstitial air maintaining separation of the powder plug. This allows easy conveying in
pipelines without interparticle interlockings. In comparison, powders with small numerical
values for the time constant deaerate rapidly.
Figure 8.22 reveals the variation of deaeration time constant versus mean particle size
of fly ash tested in a deaeration tester for impermeable and permeable bases. It reveals that the
deaeration time constant increases with m e a n particle size. Figure 8.23 reveals the variation
of deaeration time constant versus particle size span for impermeable and permeable bases.
It reveals that fly ash 'G' and 'F have higher particle size distribution span as compared to
fly ash 'A'.
o
jz tt LEGEND
B PERMEABLE
O *-
• IMPERMEABLE
a a
l_ «H BASE
a c
e o
a a
13 14 15 16 17
D(v,0.5), p m
Figure 8.22: Variation of Deaeration T i m e Constant versus M e a n Particle
Size for Impermeable and Permeable Bases.
Figures 7.74,7.75 and 7.76 depict the bed height variation versus deaeration time for
fly ash tested under conditions of both permeable and impermeable bases. Initially, the bed
262
level falls rapidly as the bubbles leave the bed. Then the bed level falls slowly at a constant
rate. This characteristic is consistent with that of cohesive powders [ Geldart et al. (1984)].
Figure 7.77 reveals a typical filling-deaeration graph for fly ash 'A' with an
impermeable base. T h e filling pressure trace is not smooth suggesting the filling process
takes place in a series of steps. This observed trend is consistent with that observed by
Tardos et al. (1985).
100n
80-
tt
E w
— o •
1- tt 60 - LEGEND
C •
• PERMEABLE
0 «-r
tr- C • IMPERMEABLE
-. *H 40 -
0) 0) . BASE
CO c
tt o •
Q O 20-
0 -
3 4 5 6
Particle Size Distribution Span, p m
Figure 8.23: Variation of Deaeration Time Constant versus Particle Size Distribution
Span for Impermeable and Permeable Bases.
The deaeration parameters evaluated from a plot of bed height versus time include the
intercept U_, k n o w n as the dense phase bed height and the dense phase deaeration time. The
former corresponds to the y intercept obtained by drawing a tangent to the deaeration graph,
whereas the latter is the x axis intercept of the same tangent line. Bubble hold up, which is
defined as thefractionbubble volume / bed volume, m a y be evaluated from the ratio of the
difference in actual bed height and dense phase bed height to the actual bed height.
Deaeration parameters including deaeration factor, collapse rate air velocity, dense
phase voidage, dense phase bed height, dense phase deaeration time and bubble hold up for
the fly ash tested are declared in Tables 8.6 and 8.7. Variation of dense phase voidage
versus particle density is revealed in Figure 8.24. It is noted that the dense phase voidage is
higher w h e n using a permeable base compared to that observed w h e n using an impermeable
263
base. Moreover, the dense phase deaeration time and bubble hold up for fly ash 'E' with
permeable base are the lowest.
u.ou -
El
«
0.59 -
cn
a
o •
0.58- LEGEND
>
co B PERMEABLE
a 0.57- • IMPERMEABLE
x
BASE
0. •
tt 0.56-
CO
- •
tt
0.55-1 i 1 r- 1 1 1 r
a 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2600
Particle Density, kg/m3
Material Collapse air Dense Phase Dense Phase Dense Phase Bubble
Deaeration Hold up
velocity, c m /s voic age Bed Ht. m m . time, sec.
Base P.B. LB. P.B. LB. P.B. LB. P.B. LB. P.B. LB.
Fly ash 'A' 0.086 0.09 0.595 0.582 80 83 350 250 0.05 0.02
264
Fly ash'G' 0.055 0.07 0.564 0.554 71 71 350 346 0.04 0.03
During fluidization testing of fly ash 'A', a plug of 170 mm.; fly ash 'E' a plug of
175 m m formed due to the presence of strong interparticle forces and small mass of
particles. The high initial pressure gradient influidizationm a y be due to the presence of
segregated fines at the top of column. In particular, the behaviour offlyash 'A' and *E'
was typical of that for Group C powders which exhibit cohesive tendencies. With
increased air flow, the air opens the channels that extend from the air distributor to the
surface. If channels are not formed, the whole bed will lift as a plug.
Figures 7.83, 7.84 and 7.85 depict the fluidization characteristics of Alumina,
Sand and P V C powder, respectively. These powders are free flowing as compared to fly
ash, hence they can fluidize easily. The minimumfluidizationvelocity for Sand, Alumina
and P V C powders are 5, 1.22 and 1.37 cm/sec, respectively.
Figures 7.86 to 7.88 represent the deaeration behaviour of fly ash in the
fluidization rig. S o m eflyash were tested a number of times for successive deaeration and
refluidization. It can be seen that in all experiments by repeating the deaeration on the
same sample the bed height variation decreased and the powder exhibits decreasing air
retentive properties. This trend confirms the existence offinesentrainment in the
fluidization air emitting the bed and the tendency for thefinesto segregate at the top of the
column.
The implication of this finding is that the fluidization testing should be rapidly
conducted on a single undisturbed sample. Moreover, if the particle bed consists of a
wide particle sizerange,fluidizationtesting m a y not be practical or m a y be prone to error.
265
550
E 500 LEGEND
E
FLY ASH
X a 'A'
450 -
g • 'C
LU n 'E'
X
Q 400 -
LU
m
350
40 60 80
DEAERATION TIME, Sees.
Figure 8.25 depicts the deaeration behaviour of fly ash 'A', C and 'E' observed in
the fluidization rig. It is clearly evident that fly ash 'E' and 'C have deaerated slowly due to
their small particle size as compared to fly ash 'A. The exponential trend correlations for this
Figure are y = 543.91 x"8-443, 516.53 x"1-546 and 514.79 x'1-365 for the fly ash 'A', 'C* and
'E' respectively. This Figure also reveals that fly ash 'E' has deaerated slightly slower than
fly ash 'C.
The following Table 8.8 depicts the permeability factor obtained from the fluidization
tests. Based on the Mainwaring et al. (1987) classification, all powders can be conveyed in
either dense phase moving bed type flow or can't be conveyed in dense phase at all, whereas
the same classification system suggests that fly ash 'E' can be conveyed in plug type mode of
dense phase conveying.
Figure 8.26 shows the variation of permeability factor versus mean particle size
for fly ash 'A', *C and 'E' tested in the fluidizationrig.It reveals that fly ash 'C and
'E' have higher permeability factors compared to fly ash 'A'.
Vt
• 3 - tr
-
_a 'E'
-%
CM
E 2 -
L
e
'C
1 -
'A'
Dl
E
L n - 1 1 1 1 i I • • 1 • • 1 • • | i i | — i — i — |
tt
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Q.
D(v,0.5), p m
Figure 8.26: Variation of Permeability Factor versus M e a n Size for Fly Ash Tested.
Jones et al. (1989) revealed that the powders having high values of permeability
factor will exhibit poor air retention characteristics. This trend was observed with fly ash
'E\
Similar problems also occur with cohesive powders or powders with wide
particle size consists during quantification of deaeration characteristics. Notably
channelling of cohesive powder beds causes such powder beds to collapse at extremely
high rates, whereas the loss of fines and ultrafine particles from some powder beds
causes an incorrect assessment of the deaeration constant.
267
With these difficulties aside thefluidizationand deaeration characteristics. of
powders are vital parameters for classifying the flow characteristics of powders especially
in regard to dense phase pneumatic conveying. This classification has been successfully
effected by Mainwaring et al. (1987).
8.12: PERMEABILITY:
The permeability of theflyashes were determined using a Jenike Permeability
Tester as described in Chapter 6.8. T h e results are shown in Figure 8.27 as follows. It
reveals thatflyash ' C and 'B' exhibits the highest and lowest permeability coefficient,
respectively of theflyashes tested.
£
LEGEND
FLY ASH
vt • -A-
• 'B'
D 'C
P 'D'
E • 'F
-
tt
CL
Figure 8.28 reveals the variation of permeability coefficient versus mean particle
size for the fly ashes tested. Figure 8.29 reveals the variation of permeability coefficient
versus pressure gradient evaluated from fluidizationrigfor the fly ashes tested. It reveals
that the pressure gradient for fly ash 'E' and ' C are lower than fly ash 'A'. Figure 8.30
reveals the variation of both the permeability coefficient a and compressibility coefficient
b versus the m e a n particle size for theflyashes tested.
268
10'
1 'A'
10 -4 •j B
•c
10 1 D
1 IO-6 1
o 10 -7 ^1 'D'
o •
10 •1
•F'
10 -9 • •E' 'B'
B El
10 10 ' 1 ' 1 • 1 1 i —\ r•
8 10 12 14 16 18
D(v,0.5), p m
Figure 8.28: Variation of Permeability Coefficient versus M e a n Particle Size
for Fly Ash Tested.
r- 10
-3
(0
c 10 -4 El 'A'
E 10' • 'C
o
u
10 -6
— 10 -7 ;i
o 10"8 \
u
E 10 "9 •
a • 'E'
Q. 10 10
1000 2000
dp/dl, mbar/m
10 -J
1 "
a
'B'
.1 - 'F'
• •
w
• • • i • i • i • i • — \ — • — i — i — |
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
D(v,0.5), Lim
Figure 8.30: Variation of Permeability Coefficient a and Compressibility
Coefficient b versus M e a n Particle Size for Fly Ash Tested.
The arch length and drained angle of repose ranking is determined from
observations with m a x i m u m deaeration time. Unfortunately, clear ranking of the cohesive
powders using these bench tests is difficult. However, relative comparison of
cohesiveness can be m a d e for seemingly similar powders. It is revealed from the table
thatflyash 'E' and 'C have higher arch lengths and drained angle of repose as compared
with other fly ash. Fly ash 'D' and 'B' have high ranks for drained angle of repose as
compared with arch length. Likewise, fly ash 'F' has higher rank for arch length in
comparision with the drained angle of repose.
Ranking from tensile strength and slope indicate that fly ash 'C\ 'A' and 'D' have
the same rank in terms of both parameters. Fly ash 'F' has lowest rank in tensile
strength, but exhibits the highest flow function slope. Fly ash 'E' has highest rank of
tensile strength, but third rank of slope.
Ranking from flow function and slope indicate that fly ash 'E' has the highest
rank. Ranking from deaeration tests influidizationcolumn is not easy as similar
deaeration behaviour was observed forflyash 'E' and 'C\ However, from the results of
the purpose built deaeration tester, clear ranking was possible forflyash 'A', 'F and
'G'.
270
Clear ranking is possible with the Jenike Direct Shear Tester. Clear ranking was
not evident from the permeability tests since during testing of cohesive fly ash 'E' plugs
formed.
In regard to a particular material this Table suggest that mean particle size is an
accuratefirstbasis indicator for ranking. Other characteristic dimension numbers derived
from particle size distribution also give clear ranking.
Out of eighteen columns of the table, twelve columns indicate highest rank of fly
ash 'E', followed by fly ash 'C indicated by six columns. Similarly, lowest rank of fly
ash 'A' is indicated by six columns out of thirteen columns.
Simple bench top tests like mean particle size, bulk density, Hausner ratio and
tensile strength are easy to perform and clear ranking of similar powders can be
evaluated, whereas rough andfirstindications of cohesion can be evaluated from the
bench top tests such as arch length and the drained angle of repose. Wall friction
properties can be evaluated from aerated piston tester or shear cell. Deaeration behaviour
m a y be evaluated fromfluidizationcolumn or purpose built tester.
Actual pneumatic conveying flow characteristics of the fly ashes have shown
good dense phase conveyability [ Arnold et al. (1986) ]. Allflyash have more irregular
flow characteristics and higher pressure drop, tendency to block and fluctuation in
pressure drop except fly ash 'F.
•rH
/—s
T3
2 c "HH w y <
3 3
' i
i
•8 "3
5
3 w y < i
E3 N
ca
ii
C
S. o
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•4-*-
< fa P 1
• •
H
H 73 o •r-
< P 1 i i
_ * •
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-"I
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w Q y ffl fa <
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< X X -o
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CQ T3 oo
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w Q fa u « <
W
l-H
H N
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C-5 C-H CO
H
OO H
Oi fr
• i-H
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C-H
rO w < fa u « Q
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< fr
• HH
T3 C/5
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fa p fa w « y <
fa
OJ
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r-r
00 Q
u w Q « < fa
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l-H
fa 3 CQ
z
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C/3
ffl fa y p <
C
« O
y < p ffl
Q CL
••
•X-
ON
00* o i-H
w Q u fa ffl <
fa Ic
ii
3i
p
rj
CQ 6 o
S, ffl p y
<
w ?< <
H E0) •CO5 a
bf) D. -^ y w < p ffl
C CO CO
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ii
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H
-cs 0)
t-J
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m
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c «+H
< o p.
HC t-0
Cr
B
w y p <
1 rJ •5 fa ffl
272
Location of aeration points is important. Obviously, unstable flow and blockages
are relavent w h e n transporting powders with considerable cohesion. For such cohesive
powders, pneumatic conveying is possible by applying vibration or using by pass, pulse
dense phase and controlled slug techniques. Thus, cohesive powders can be maintained
in a fluidized state, offsetting to some extent, the deaeration of the powder. If aeration can
be effected, difficulties associated with pneumatic conveying of cohesive powders can be
reduced.
At present, flow assessment of powders is evaluated from pilot scale plant tests.
From these tests, pressure drop, air flow rate, solids flow rate and particle velocity are
obtained. However, information m a y be obtained from bench tests regarding selection of
conveying phase and system components. The powder property evaluation from bench
tests is very important to identify adverse flow behaviour before running a full scale plant
in view of a possible failure. Emphasis should be placed on powder properties from
bench top tests and correlations to determine conveyability in dilute, dense and super
dense phase pneumatic conveying. In view of the significance of the powder properties
examined the important powder property bench tests and their ranking to assess
pneumatic conveying suitability are shown in Table 8.10, whereas factors affecting
powder flow characteristics are shown in Figure 8.31.
gravity assist
smooth surface
air retentive
characteristics
low compressibility
constant permeability
m o n o sized particles
spherical
POSITIV E EFFECTS
CONSOLIDATION PERMEABILITY
N E G A T V E EFFECTS
rougli surface
pressure gradient
cohesiveness
wall friction
acceleration
force
gravity
high compressibility
sensitive permeability
degradation
wide particle size
distribution
Toxicity
Contamination Tolerance
Radioactivity
W e a r Considerations
Hardness M o h s Hardness Scale Vickers Micro Hardness Scale
Abrasiveness
Dustiness (Dust collector Pilot Tests Particle Size Analysis
sizing)
Particle Shape (for W e a r Optical Scanning Electron Microscope
and Mechanical Inter- (SEM)
locking considerations)
Tendency for Mechanical Visual SEM
interlocking
Tendency for Degradation Pilot Tests Pilot Tests and SEM
Tendency for Segregation Pilot Tests Particle Size Analysis
Tendency for Agglomerate Pilot Tests Pilot Tests
Removal from Dust Wall Friction Test
Filter Media
I*
Mechanical
Interlocking t
N o Flow or
Unstable
Reliable
Plug Flow
Dilute Phase
Conveying
Reliable Moving
Bed Flow
Deaeration Permeability
A n examination of this Figure suggests that for fine low permeability materials,
cohesion, deaeration and permeability should receive primary attention. If the extent of
deaeration decreases, the powder can be easily m o v e d in the form of a moving bed flow.
Unfortunately for extremely fine low permeability powders, as shown in the phase
diagram, excessive cohesive forces exceed the otherwise slow deaeration and low
permeability. Powders in this zone can only be conveyed by dilute phase conveying if at
all.
Cohesion
Mechanical
i Interlocking
1
Large particles
Deaeration strong mechanical
interlocking
Permeability
low. However, if sufficient air flow can percolate the bed, bed expansion of the air inside
the voids will keep the powder bed in tension and hence counteract the effect of cohesion.
In view of the above trends, the following can be declared.
(i) H i g h permeability;
Powders with high permeability are conveyed easily but rapidly deaerate. For
these powders, considerable powder expansion due to air expansion, percolation of air
into the powder plug act to reduce the frictional forces and prevent formation of immobile
powder slugs. However, formation of immobile slugs is promoted by the decrease in the
mean particle separation due to wall friction and the pressure driving force. This suggests
that coarse particles can be conveyed in slug m o d e and super dense phase pneumatic
conveying provided the wall friction is minimal.
(ii) E x t r e m e permeability:
For very coarse particles, insufficient motive forces are generated by the fluid
drag effect relative to weight and frictional forces. Hence, these materials are difficult to
convey. For these very coarse particles, blockages due to mechanical interlocking is very
common.
(iii) L o w permeability:
Coarse powders with low permeability are difficult to convey using slug m o d e
conveying. However, fine low permeability powders exhibiting low deaeration rate can
be easily conveyed using fluidized moving bed technique. Furthermore, increasing fine
decreases permeability and increase cohesion. The low air permeability demands that
short lengths be used. Insufficient air flow and air expansion keep the powder bed from
compacting during dense phase fluidized bed conveying. In general,finepowders with
low permeability will exhibit high cohesion. Hence, such powders m a y be more difficult
to convey. Figure 8.34 shows the variation of the reciprocal of cohesion and
permeability with particle size.
(iv) Constant permeability:
If a powder exhibits constant permeability, no blockages are expected since the
mean particle separation will increase during conveying.
279
1/Cohesion
and
Permeability
Particle size, d
8.14.2.2 Deaeration:
With cohesive powders the deaeration rate is fast initially then exponential,
whereas for free flowing powders deaeration rate is fast. However, with less cohesive
powders, deaeration rate is slow and linear generally. Such powders will be easy to
convey in the form of a moving bed. O n the other hand, the effect of cohesion is to cause
strongly cohesive powders to deaerate rapidly due to the formation of capillaries and
cracks within the bed. For these cohesive powders with high de-aeration rate a by-pass
system is used for conveying.
Reciprocal of
Cohesion Uariation
Resulting Optimal
Trend
1/Cohesion — I / d2
and
Deaeration
Particle size, d
Figure 8.35 shows the variation of reciprocal of cohesion and deaeration versus
particle size, whereas the variation of reciprocal of arch length and Hausner ratio with
particle size of theflyashes tested are depicted in Figure 8.36.
0.03
e
-
0.02 - tl
o
L
< X
w
Vl 0.01 - e
* o
e VI
*
u -fi
0.00 e
8 10 12 14 u
Particle Size, p m
Figure 8.36: Variation of Reciprocal of Arch Length and Hausner
Ratio with Particle Size of Fly A s h Tested.
8.14.2.3 M e c h a n i c a l Interlocking:
Noting that the air pressure gradient and air flow drag provide the motive forces
in pneumatic conveying. This suggests that for extremely permeable powders mechanical
interlocking, refer Figure 8.37 becomes the predominant factor causing slug formation or
the occurrence of a pipe blockage. For these powders any factor which causes the
interparticle spacing to decrease m a y result in a pipe blockage or require the use of a slug
creation or slug length control techniques to maintain flow. Factors which m a y cause the
interparticle spacing to decrease include wall friction, pipe irregularities, bends, etc. The
parameters controlling the m e a n interparticle spacing are summarized in Table 8.11.
Figure 8.38 shows the variation of permeability versus the expected extent of
mechanical interlocking. In particular, this Figure reveals that large particles exhibiting
high permeability have a strong tendency for mechanical interlocking and hence are
difficult to convey in pneumatic conveying.
281
O 0 Q QZ5.0 MECHANICAL
INTERLOCKING
00(7 0
Figure 8.37: Mechanical Interlocking.
Increasing Decreasing
L o w cohesion Strong cohesion
Gas expansion Long slug length
Gas viscosity High bulk density
Fluid turbulence Wall friction
High permeability L o w permeability
Smooth surfaces Rough surfaces
Uniform particle size Wide particle size
L o w consolidation High consolidation
Insensitive properties Sensitive properties
Mechanical
Interlocking
Resulting
Optimal Trend
Mechanical
Interlocking
Permeability
Figure 8.38: Schematic Representation of the Variation of Permeability versus
Mechanical interlocking
282
8.14.3 I N F L U E N C E S O N COHESION-
The following powder properties, which influence cohesion/ flowability, are
briefly described as follows:.
1 • Moisture Content: A slight increase of moisture to a dry powder can transform it
into a cohesive powder e.g. the addition of as little as 0.6 % moisture to dry sand will
change freeflowingdry sand into a cohesive material.
2. Hygroscopicity: Powders having a hygroscopic nature tend to be very cohesive
especially if they absorb moisture from the conveying air. Hence, hygroscopic powders
are difficult to convey pneumatically. To prevent this absorption, it is recommended that
dry conveying air and a closed system should be used.
3. Agglomeration: Agglomeration of particles results in larger particles, changes in
shape and porosity.
4. Thermoplastics: Powders which are thermoplastics may be extremely cohesive
during flow due to the softening effects associated with thermal, friction or impact
stresses during flow.
recommended. However, in a large scale deaeration test, visual bed height measurement
may be possible.
8.15.3 Fluidization:
For cohesive Group C powders, fluidization is difficult. During testing,
channelling, slugging and lifting as a plug occur. For fluidization testing of cohesive
powders, it is suggested that the column be closed with a sealed porous end creating
high resistance to prevent fine and submicron particles leaving the bed. For extremely
cohesive powders fluidization testing of powders is not practical nor meaningful.
8.15.4 C o h e s i o n :
S o m e low permeability powders m a y rapidly deaerate due to cohesion. The
measurement of the permeability of such powders is difficult to measure due to strong
cohesive forces. Such powders m a y locate in zone T in the phase diagram (Figure
8.39). But they are expected to be located in moving bed flow zone as shown '2' in the
diagram.
8.15.5 Permeability:
T w o main problems associated with the conduction of the Jenike Permeability
Test result from the effect of cohesion. In particular, strongly cohesive powders will
form a plug and extrude from the tester on application of the pressure differential.
Whereas powders with low cohesion m a y exhibit segregation effects at low
consolidation. This segregation m a y result in fines leaving the powder bed. One
alternative procedure, to partially overcome' these problems, is to evaluate a powder's
285
nominal permeability from the fluidization column. Unfortunately, such a evaluation does
not provide knowledge of the permeability variation with consolidation.
Air expansion along the pipeline causes an increase of superficial air velocity
which results in m o r e energy consumption and wear of system components. For short
pipelines with low pressure drops, air can be considered as an incompressible fluid but
for long pipelines due to air expansion and increase of superficial velocity, it is c o m m o n
to design the pipeline with increasing pipeline diameters to control velocity near the end
of pipeline.
286
The pressure differentials of a friction loop for cement and Wheat conveying
upwards are shown in Table 8.12. Furthermore, in this series of experiments, air pressure
fluctuating and unsteady flow were observed.
Typical variations of the particle velocity during a conveying cycle for cement and
Wheat are graphically revealed in Figures 8.40 to 8.42. It is revealed from these Figures that
288
particle velocity variations are periodic cyclic oscillations. Particle velocity variation during
the conveying cycle is an indirect indication of the extent of steady state flow.
The variation of volumetric air flow rate with time for cement is shown in Figure
8.43. Figure 8.44 shows the variation of solids flow rate versus air mass flow rate for
cement and Wheat. T h e solids flow rate increases with increasing air flow rate. It can be
revealed that cement can be conveyed with less air mass flow rate as compared with Wheat.
The solids mass flow rate and mass flow ratio variations for cement and Wheat are
shown in Figure 8.44. In particular, the air mass flow rate for cement and Wheat was in the
range of 0.011 - 0.63 and 0.05 -0.0635 kg/sec, respectively. It can be seen that cement for
the flow conditions observed has higher mass flow ratio as compared to that for Wheat.
u
<_
u
0
>
CO
O-
Time, Sec.
Figure 8.40: Variation of Particle Velocity with Time for Cement.
Time, Sec.
LEGEND
Exp. No.
- a — 21
-P 22
-B— 23
-p 25
Time, Sec.
400
gure 8.43: Variation of Volumetric Air Flow Rate with Time for Cement.
-
3U
•
•
40 i •
LEGEND
• P Material
•
30 - P • Wheat
• Cement
B _ _
•
20- ••QD
•
• • l i • I • • 1 1 i i | i i
'l
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Solids Mass Flow Rate, kg/sec
Figure 8.44: Variation of Mass Flow Ratio with Solids Mass Flow Rate
for Cement and Wheat.
291
CO
CC
LEGEND
EI Cement
5
o • Wheat
(0
32
o
w
-i 1 r-
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Air Mass Flow Rate, kg/s
Figure 8.45: Variation of Solids Flow Rate versus Air Mass Flow Rate.
Tables 7.21 and 7.22, refer Chapter 7 summarize the conveying characteristics of
sand. A t higher air flow rates, as can be seen from experiments 25 to 29, 34, 35, 41, 46, 47
powder velocity increases and with m e d i u m air flow rate such as in experiments 3 0 to 33,45,
79 and low air flow rate, experiments 43, 44, 51, 52, 71, 80, 81, lower particle velocity w a s
observerd. '
The variation of particle velocity obtained experimentally and predicted for low,
m e d i u m and high air flow rate is depicted in Figure 8.46. T h e predicted velocity w a s
calculated from the equation s h o w n in Appendix C. F r o m an examination of Figure 8.46, it
is apparent that the actual observed particle velocity deviated increasingly from the predicted
velocity with increasing air flow rate.
Figure 8.47 reveals the particle velocity variations with time during experiments 54,
53 and 7 7 at an initial blow tank pressures of 180, 175 and 175 kPa, respectively, whereas
Figure 8.48 reveals the particle velocity variation with time during experiments 74,75 and 7 6
at the initial blow tank pressure of 150 kPa.
292
The air mass flow rate as per valve setting for both Figures were 0.09, 0.085 and
0.0635 kg/sec, respectively. A higher particle velocity with increased air mass flow
trend is generally evident from Figures 8.47 and 8.48 even though the Figures indica
considerable scatter.
o
0) 30
(0
LEGEND
u 20 - AIR FLOW
o
> • HIGH
• MEDIUM
CO
T3 a L£W
o 10 -
CO
•o
5 10 15
Experimental Solids Velocity, m/sec.
u
9)
0) LEGEND
Exp. No.
-v— 54
O -•— 53
O
ti -fl— 77
>
o
(0
Q.
<-U -
o
-2
LEGEND
E
EXP. No.
Ss
mm
• B •
B 74
o 10- • B D
• 75
o • B • • • B 76 '
"3 B • B D B B
>
73
"«H
a
Q.
i | i i i i | i
C) 50 100 150
Time, Sec.
Transducer air pressure variation versus distance from blow tank are shown in
Figures 7.91 to 7.96. Details of transducer distances from blow tank are shown in Table
7.18. Figure 7.91 and 7.92 depict the variation of air pressure with initial blow tank pressure
of 150 kPa, whereas Figure 7.93 depicts with 175 kPa of high air flow rate. Figures 7.94,
7.95 and 7.96 depict the variation of air pressure at the initial blow tank pressure of 125 kPa
with low, high and m e d i u m air flow rate, respectively.
Table 8.13 presents the calculated values of superficial air velocity, actual air
velocity, voidage, slip velocity and Froude number derived from Table 7.21. Also, the
friction factor, calculated using the K o n n o et al. (1969) correlation, is included to indicate the
considerable range of test conditions.
To understand the variation of flow parameters with voidage during flow various
phase diagrams were prepared. In particular, Figure 8.49 depicts the variation of slip velocity
versus ( 1 - voidage ) for three different but almost constant solids mass flow rates. With
low solids mass flowrate,it is revealed that slip velocity decreases with (1 - voidage),
whereas with a high solids flow rate slip velocity increases. This trend is similar to that
reported by Klinzing et al. (1986).
294
T A B L E 8.13: AIR VELOCITY, SLIP VELOCITY AND FROUDE
NUMBER
Material: Sand
Furthermore, Figures 8.50 and 8.51 reveal the variation of superficial air velocity
versus (1- voidage) and mass flow ratio, respectively. The scatter in the results depicted
in Figures 8.50 to 8.51 appears to depend on many parameters including particle
diameter, density, shape, air velocity, particle-wall interactions, pipe diameter, etc..
Figure 8.52 shows the variation of pipeline pressure drop versus air mass flow ra
initial blow tank pressures of 125, 150 and 175 kPa, respectively. Pipeline pressure drop
was evaluated by taking first pipeline air pressure differential alone, which can be
approximated as the experimental pipeline pressure drop [ Arnold et al., (1986)]. This series
of experiments indicated that with increasing initial blow tank pressure, an increase of
pipeline pressure drop results. However, no clear trend was evident.
Figure 8.53 shows the variation of mass flow ratio versus initial blow tank press
of 120-125 and 170-175 kPa. It is suggested, from the limited observations, that the mass
flow ratio increases with an increase in initial blow tank pressure.
29
-HJ -
nn LEGEND
SOLIDS MASS
30-
FLOWRATE
B 0.857 - 0.886
•
• • 0.957 - 0.984
• ""- 1.214-1.234
20- •
kg/sec
•
10 i • 1 I i i 1 i • i • i
DU ~
LEGEND
SOLIDS MASS
40 - DB
FLOWRATE
B 0.857-0.886
• 0.957-0.984
• B 1.214-1.234
30- kg/sec
•
B
•
Q
Figure 8.50: Variation of Air Superficial Velocity versus (1 - Voidage) for Sand.
1
u
ti
in
LEGEND
SOLIDS MASS
u FLOWRATE
o •0.857-0.886
ii
> -•—0.957-0.984
-fl—1.214 - 1.234
kg/sec
ra
o
0)
Q.
cn
Mass Flow Ratio
Figure 8.51: Variation of Superficial Air Velocity versus Mass Flow Ratio for
Sand.
(0
a 140
-C
a. LEGEND
o 120 -
Initial Blow
Tank Pressure
-
to
B 125
(0 100 - • 150
ai
fl 175
0) kPa
"3
a.
ca
H- 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12
o
Air Mass Flow Rate, kg/sec.
ure8 52: Variation of Pipeline Pressure Drop versus Air Mass Flow Rate for Sand.
298
26-
24-
0 • LEGEND
r H
22- •
• Initial Blow
CaC . * Tank Pressure
3 20-
0 . B B 120-125
LU 18- B • 170-175
n , kPa
co 16-
S
14-
12- ->—r
110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Initial Blow Tank Pressure, kPa
Figure 8.53: Variation of Mass Flow Ratio versus Initial Blow Tank Pressure for
Sand.
8.18.2 CONCENTRATION:
From the concentration variation observed in experiments 24 and 26, the
concentration peaks were higher for experiment 26 as compared to 24 due to the higher initial
blow tank pressure and air mass flow rate. For experiments 28, 29 and 30, it was observed
that the powder concentration was highest for experiment 30. Here, the blow tank pressure
was 150 kPa and air flow rate 39.94 m3/hour.
299
In experiment 32, the blow tank pressure was 130 kPa, average air flow rate was
34.8 m3/hour. For this experiment, the concentration was observed to exhibit very uneven
peaks which, in turn, indicates the flow to be unsteady. For experiment 33, the blow tank
pressure was 140 kPa and average air flow rate 37.6 m 3 /hour. In this case, higher
concentration peaks were observed.
In experiment 42, the concentration was higher compared to that in experiment 41.
This higher concentration m a y be due to the higher solid to air mass flow ratio of 17.9 as
compared to* 11.8 with experiment 41. In experiment 48, high concentration and unsteady
flow was observed compared to that for experiment 47. The initial blow tank pressure was
the same in both experiments. These trends are probably due to the reduced air flow rate.
Figure 8.54 reveals the variation of solid to air ratio versus initial blow tank pre
whereas Figure 8.55 reveals the variation of mass flow rate of solids versus initial blow tank
pressure for Wheat. In particular, the observed range was from 120-200 and 200 - 300 kPa
under both low and high pressure conditions. It is evident from Figure 8.54 that at the higher
initial blow tank pressure i.e. 200 - 300 kPa, the solid-air ratio was less than that observed
when the initial blow tank pressure range was 120 - 300 kPa. Unfortunately, no clear trend
300
was evident for the variation in mass flow rate of solids versus with initial blow tank
pressure, refer Figure 8.55.
ou - B
LEGEND
40- • INITIAL B L O W
cc B TANK PRESSURE
30- B 120-200
< • • 200-300
• kPa
o •
20-
cn B
H • • •
10 - —,— ,. r ,,. 1
Figure 8.54: Solid-Air Ratio Variation with Initial Blow Tank Pressure for Wheat.
cfl LEGEND
O INITIAL B L O W
TANK PRESSURE
B 120-200
m* • 200-300
co kPa
0C
o
c/>
its
CO
100 200 300 400
Initial Blow Tank Pressure, kPa
Figure 8.55: Mass Flow Rate of Solids with Initial Blow Tank Pressure for Wheat.
Furthermore, from Table 7.26, it is revealed a reduced solids mass flow rate was
observed at the higher set pressure for experiments 5 and 8. These experiments were
performed at constant blow tank pressure (220 kPa) but with set pressures of 300 and 450
kPa, respectively This indicates that higher set pressure results in a reduced solids flow rate.
301
It should be noted that the set pressure provides the necessary aeration of material in pipeline
to be conveyed at low velocity.
Further information concerning the flow behaviour was gained by visual obser
of the plug flow behaviour. This observation was made using the sight glass located along
the low velocity conveying rig. This also facilitated measurement of the time taken for each
plug to pass through the sight glass. The observations are tabulated in Table 8.14. From
Table 8.14, it is evident that the plug velocity during low velocity conveying ranged between
0.66 - 1.02 m / sec. This velocity range is much lower than the observed dilute phase
conveying range of 7 -19 m/sec, refer Table 7.21.
These observations are consistent with the fact that Wheat locates in Group B of the
Dixon diagram and it is a good candidate for low velocity dense phase conveying with strong
axisymmetric plugs. In this super dense phase conveying, Wheat was transported at
extremely high levels of volumetric concentration which are not possible in conventional
pneumatic conveying systems. In this mode, air pushes the plugs and percolates through
them. Also, towards the end of the conveying cycle high velocity purging was not present. It
is interesting to note that the conveying cycle is able to be stopped and restarted at any time.
This can be achieved due to the low velocities that are used during the conveying cycle and
the high permeability of the slug consist.
302
Figure 8.56 shows the variation of solids mass flow rate versus air mass flow rate for
two different test series (A and B) with two pipeline lengths, namely 97 and 51.3 m,
respectively, whereas Figure 8.57 shows the variation of average blowtank pressure ve
air mass flow rate. Full test details are presented in Table 7.25. In particular, a hi
solids mass flow rate and a lower average blowtank pressure were observed with the sma
pipeline length test series.
*H
CO LEGEND
CC
Test Series
5
o 3- B A
lo- • B
co
co
co 2-
S
CO
•v
o 1
CO 0.01 0.02 0.03
Air Mass Flow Rate, kg/sec.
Figure 8.56: Solids Mass Flow Rate versus Air Mass Flow for Wheat.
ra
a 300
-i
—
-
CO
CO LEGEND
Test Series
-t
B A
c 200 -
ca • B
3
o
CO
©
cn
a 100
»- 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
0)
> mf, kg/s
<
Figure 8.57: Average Blow Tank Pressure versus Air Mass Flow Rate for Wheat.
303
Figure 8.58 shows the variation of pipeline pressure drop versus air mass flow rate
for solids mass flow rate in the range 0.47 - 0.69 and 0.9 - 1.01 kg / sec. Here, the pipeline
pressure drop w a s approximated by taking air pressure measurements near the blow tank
outlet. Unfortunately, no clear trend was evident in this Figure.
CO 300
O.
LEGEND
a.
Solids Mass
o
Flow Rate
200 - B 0.471 - 0.692
CO
co • 0.902-1.014
cu kg/sec.
0)
c
0)
a.
100
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Air Mass Flow Rate, kg/sec.
Figure 8.58: Pipeline Pressure Drop versus Air M a s s Flow Rate for Wheat.
304
CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSIONS
[1] Scanning Electron Microscope observations are a very useful tool for revealing
vital information concerning powder properties particularly size, distribution, surface
characteristics, surface roughness, shape, porosity, pore shape, ease of degradation, the
presence of sharp or cutting edges promoting erosion, presence offineor ultra fine
particles,fineparticle agglomerates, effective transport volume of particles, etc. Hence,
information from Electron Microscope provides a good insight into and understanding of
powder flow characteristics during pneumatic conveying. A s this information provides
fundamental details of powder properties, it is recommended that w h e n additional
knowledge of powder pneumatic conveying flow behaviour is required, the powder
should be examined under a Scanning Electron Microscope.
[3] The mean particle size and deaeration time are very important parameters
influencing the magnitude of the drained angle of repose. In general, for the powders
tested the drained angle of repose increased as the powder m e a n particle size decreased.
Also, the drained angle of repose increased as the deaeration and fill time increased.
Furthermore, the angle of repose exhibited by hygroscopic powders is sensitive to the
test ambient relative humidity conditions. In particular, the drained angle of repose
increases as the test environment relative humidity increases.
305
[4] For hygroscopic powders, pneumatic conveying should be effected by using dry
conveying air or gas.
[5] Usually, powders displaying high cohesive strength exhibit flow problems. On the
other hand, powders displaying minimal cohesive strength present few difficulties. Powders
which are cohesive also display a tendency to form ratholes in blow tanks during discharge.
Cohesive powders m a y stick in discharge hoppers, feeders and conveying pipelines.
Strongly cohesive powders usually exhibit plug behaviour during pneumatic conveying.
[6] For cohesive powders, the deaeration rate is fast initially and exponential. Deaeratio
behaviour indicates the air retentive properties of powder wjuch indicates the ease or
otherwise of pneumatic conveying by slug or plug flow. Generally, powders with long
deaeration times are good candidates for moving bed flow pneumatic conveying.
[7] In general, on the basis of powder properties determined from bench tests, the
flowability of powders in pneumatic conveying systems can be predicted as follows:
high cohesion, rough particle surface, wall friction, increasing particle density,
increasing particle size, high coefficients of restitution, high drained angle of repose are
material parameters which act as flow resistances in pneumatic conveying.
slow deaeration, smooth particle surface, low packed bulk density are material
parameters which promote flow in moving bed flow.
[8] For powders exhibiting intermediate and extreme values of cohesion, wall friction,
particle size, particle density and permeability; prime mover, blow tank, aeration device/s
(primary, secondary and tertiary (along pipe)), air addition location and method (e.g.
annular), pipe details (number of bends, bend radii, steps, divergence, joints, etc.) and
discharge arrangement characteristics are paramount in determining pneumatic conveying
characteristics.
[9] Pneumatic conveying of powders is complex due to the interaction of a vast number
of individual powder properties. Assessment of pneumatic conveying characteristics can be
306
effected by performing pilot scale tests on pneumatic conveying rigs with the
observations and results suitably scaled up for actual plant conditions. However, for
dense phase and super dense phase pneumatic conveying emphasis should be placed on
powder properties determined from bench tests. These tests should include the specified
tests listed in Table 8.10. This Table also indicates the order of priority for conduction of
the test based on findings from this investigation. This ranking is given with the aim to
determine and identify as accurately and quickly as possible whether a given material will
be suitable for conveying or not. If conveyable, the tests should also be used as a guide
to select the most suitable m o d e of conveying. The implications of the test results are also
declared in Figure 9.1.
[1] The ratio of packed to loose poured bulk density or Hausner ratio is an relatively
simple bench test to compare cohesion of seemingly similar powders. The
compressibility offinermaterials can be distinquished easily from packed bulk density
test.
[3] Generally, the Jenike and Walker methods provide arch length higher than from
the Cohesive Arch Tester experiments.
[5] The Tensile Tester also conveniently reveals the ranking of powders in regard to
cohesion compared to that measured using the Direct Shear Tester. The latter requires
considerable experience to operate. T o attain uniform porosity with m i n i m u m operator
care,fillingof the tensile tester with a screen vibrator is recommended.
[6] For extremely cohesive powders, it is difficult to test the drained angle of repose.
This suggests that the drained angle of repose is an useful yet crude indicator of the
307
M e a n Particle Size
M e a n Particle Density
I
Estimate of Particle Shape
Moisture Content
I Intermediate High
Low
*,
308
Improued Knowledge of Particle Size Distribution
Fluidization
Select m o d e These tests are
I
of conueying Deaeration not meaningful
according to I for powders with
Permeability
Mainwaring
I intermediate
and Jones Slugging
and high extents
Phase Diagram
I Plug Wall Friction of cohesion
r
Elastic Properties
Extreme Particle Shape Equiualent to
Fluffy, Flaky and Stringy increasing
Particle Shape cohesion and
Extreme Particle Density wall friction
Swelling Tendency
Extreme LLVall Friction
[7J In view of the observed rapid gain in strength of fine powders with deaeration
time, m i n i m u m deaeration times should be effected in pneumatic conveying systems to
minimize powder strength. Hence, short cycle times are advantageous in pneumatic
conveying systems handling fine cohesive powders.
[83 It is recommended that the mechanized fill method be used for assessing
deaeration characteristics of powders having segregation tendencies. Thefillrateshould
be as fast as possible and the actual rate should be determined by a trial and error
procedure.
[9] Deaeration cylinders with permeable bases should not be used for assessing
deaeration characteristics since a more complex deaeration pressure variation results.
This variation is difficult to describe empirically.
[ 10] In this investigation, various fly ash of small particle size classified as Group C
powders in Geldart's classification, were found to exhibit poor fluidization
characteristics, whereas, Sand, Alumina and P V C powder were fluidized easily. D u e to
cohesive effects, no clear m i n i m u m fluidization velocity were observed for the fly ash
samples tested.
[11] The determination of the fluidization properties of powders with a wide particle
size consist is difficult to test due to segregation effects. Elutriation offinesfrom the bed
and stratification of different particle size fractions result in changing powder
characterisitcs.
[12] The Jenike Direct Shear Tester can be used to evaluate both the powders internal
and wall friction characteristics, whereas the wall frictionrigindicates a powder's plug
formation tendencies and plug wall friction characteristics for both aerated and deaerated
conditions.
[13] In general, the frictional force in the wall friction rig increases with increasing
column height, whereas the wall friction parameter pk decreases with both increasing air
pressure and column height.
310
[14] The developed fibre optic probe was found to be accurate and convenient for
measuring the powder velocity in actual lean phase pneumatic conveying systems.
However, it is only suitable for granular materials or powders which do not coat the
probe view ports. Obviously, the necessity of the view ports severely restricts the use of
this device. However, this m a y not be a significant disadvantatge as an increasing
number of pneumatic conveying systems are being installed with sight glass sections for
operational control.
[16] A higher particle velocity is evident with increased mass flow rate as observed
with pneumatic conveying of sand.
[17] During the experimental phase, higher pressure drops were observed in the
vortice elbow bend compared to that in long radius bends, w h e n conveying sand at
solids loading upto 30.
[18] In low velocity conveying of Wheat, an increase in air supply pressure and blow
tank pressure results in more tonnage of material conveyed.
[19] The proposed phase diagram of powder properties is a very important tool to
evaluate and predict the general material flow behaviour in dense phase and super dense
phase pneumatic conveying. B y assessing important powder properties like cohesion,
deaeration, permeability, mechanical interlocking and particle size, flow behaviour of
powders in pneumatic conveying can be predicted. This information is summarized in
Figure 9.1. However, there are limitations in general application of this phase diagram as
not all the powder properties affecting the flow behaviour are included.
[20] Powder properties evaluation from bench tests which are both simple and
convenient indicate fundamental and individual powder properties and allow ranking of
the same. In particular, the properties presented in Table 8.10 should be considered fully
before a system design is contemplated.
[21] Various bench tests provide qualitative and quantitative evaluation of powder
cohesiveness. Depending upon the requirements, selection of suitable bench tests should
311
be made. Qualitative tests are simple and convenient but for accurate measurement,
quantitative bench tests should be used. After conducting a series of bench tests for
different similar powders, mean ranking of cohesiveness should be made to indicate the
relative cohesion. Hence, for ranking of powders, a compromise should be m a d e
between convenient qualitative and accurate quantitative bench tests selection. This
compromise is summarized in Table 8.10.
[22] The various powder properties determined from bench tests provide convenient
and rapid assessment of a powder's flowability, refer Figure 9.1 and Table 8.10. This
assessment is particularly useful forrapidrelative flowability evaluation and ranking of
different powders. The powder properties determined from bench tests yield useful
information in regard to pneumatic conveying flow behaviour of powders in general, and
for the prediction and design of practical pneumatic conveying systems in particular.
[1] The Arch Tester should be modified by the installation of pressure tappings on
both sides 50 m m above the bottom. These pressure tappings should be of similar design
to those used on the deaeration cylinder with V y o n D low resistance plugs to prevent
powder ingress into the same. These pressure tappings should, in turn, be connected to
pressure transducers to measure interstitial air pressure during filling and deaeration of
the powder before the conduction of arch measurements.
[2] The maximum outlet opening dimension of the Arch Tester should be increased
as the present 100 m m severely restricts the assessment of powder cohesiveness. In
particular with very cohesive fly ash 'E' of arch length more than 100 m m , actual
measurement was not possible with this Tester.
[6] Cohesion and Tensile strength tests should be performed under controlled
atmosphere conditions wherein temperature and relative humidity can be varied as these
powder properties are strongly affected by moisture content and to a lesser extent by
temperature.
[7] Cohesion and Tensile strength tests should be performed at high pressure to
evaluate the effect of air pressure on cohesion. This high pressure testing should aim to
evaluate conditions in actual pneumatic conveying systems.
[9] Cohesion and Tensile strength tests should be performed by using other Cohesion
and Tensile testers including the Ajax Cohesion Tester.
[10] The unconfined yield strength should be evaluated by performing tests on the
annular shear tester to cover large shear displacements. This tester has a constant area of
shear and flow properties can be evaluated after repeated failure of the same sample. The
observations so obtained should be compared to those assessed using the Jenike Direct
Shear Tester.
[12] The present wall friction rig should be modified to measure wall friction for
slugging materials by observing the characteristics of the slug motion. The actual slug
motion could be observed by sonic, optic, laser or electrical techniques. The pressure
necessary to achieve constant velocity for slug movement should also be obtained from
experiments. This pressure drop will be useful for evaluating the pressure drop in dense
phase pneumatic conveying systems.
313
[13] The wall friction rig should be replaced by a ring torque measuring apparatus
wherein the ring is immersed at the top of a suitably fluidized powder bed. Also, the
effect of different shaped rings on the frictional force and torque should be observed.
[ 14] Wall friction tests should be performed on other wall materials including Mild
Steel, Polished Stainless Steel by the replacement of the existing Perspex tube with tube
constructed of the relevant material.
[15] Deaeration tests should be conducted using Group A powders and compared with
that of Group C powder deaeration behaviour for differing bed heights to evaluate the
effect of both consolidation and cohesion.
[16] Deaeration tests should be conducted using a video camera to observe accurate
bed height and other dense phase parameters. With a larger size of deaeration column,
rapid bed height observations would be possible without loss of accuracy.
[18] To consider the effect of particle size distribution in a Geldart's diagram, the
mean particle size should be replaced by the material characteristic dimension such as
particle size distribution span.
[20] The fibre optic probe developed for velocity measurement in this work should be
utilized to measure powder concentration in combination with the Hewlett Packard
Correlator and Spectrum Analyzer as well as to study the flow patterns in pneumatic
conveying of powders.
[21] The fibre optic probe should be utilized to measure the rebound particle motion on
the coefficient of restitutionrig.In this work, the rebound particle motion w a s measured
by use of video equipment.
314
[22] The fibre optic probe should be located on various positions of sight glass for
velocity measurement such as in vertical and inclined directions on horizontal pipeline,
on vertical pipeline and after bends. Furthermore, it should be located after the
accleration zone immediately downstream of each system discontinuity.
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329
PUBLICATIONS
APPENDIX 'A'
PRESSURE DROP
A model to calculate the pipeline pressure loss for a pneumatic conveying system
including the solids friction component as proposed by Weber (1982) and Chambers
(1986) for circular pipes is presented below for completeness.
4gd(pbd-pf)
v
b~ = (A.2)
3CDpf
The drag coefficient C o has been shown to correlate with the Reynolds number.
In flow situations involving gas solids flow it is usual to adopt the following definition
for the Reynolds number,
R e ^ - - - ^ (A.3)
331
The Darcy-Weisback equation predicts the pipeline pressure loss due to air
friction to be,
2
PfVf
LXf
A
Pf= 2D (A 9)
'
where Xf = friction factor due to air only,
Vf = the gas velocity
or
A p f = 500[(1012 + 0.004567 m/"85 L D " 5 ) 0 5 - 101 ] Pa (A.10)
Voo (m/s)
t 5 6 7 10 *- IC4
d(pm)
Figure A.2: Settling Velocity in still air of Spherical Particles with Diameter d
Voo (m/s)
d (pm)
Figure A.l: Settling Velocity in still air of Spherical Particles with Diameter d
334
A number of research workers have analyzed the friction factor and reported
correlations for the same in the literature, a small number of which are presented in Table
2fspp(l-e)v
Stemerding (1962) pw W T P 0.003
D
2fsPp(l-£)vg
Reddy and Pei (1969) 0.046vp - 1
D
sPp p
Capes and Nakamura (1973) ^ 0.046vp-1.22
2fsPp(l-e)vg
Konno and Saito (1969)
D 0.028(gD)°-5vD-l
2fsPp(l-e)vg -.-0.979
Yang(vertical)(1978) 0.0315
D
2fsPp(l-e)vp2
Yang(horizontal) (1978) 0.0293
D
p p 55.5Dt'l.i
Mathur and Klinzing (1981) -
D .0.64 pJ3.26
J4). 2 6 .C0.91
g H Pp
-0.1
2fsPp(l-e)v2 -T, 0.25nV
m. - . . - U . - T - "1,-. r
-
Stegmaiker (dense) (1978)
D 2.1p Fr Frs
s
UJ
-1-1.28
2fsPpa-e)vg 1.05 Vf-vp
Muley, Mathur and Klinzing 0.0172(l-e)
D 05
L(gD)
(1982)
Wherein the particle velocity vs can also be calculated from the voidage e an
solids mass flow rate m s using the following equation,
mc
v.= ,_ ,' .
' s ~(1-e) p s A
(A.17)
Obviously, the superficial velocity Vf can be calculated from the system supp
flowmeter reading and the knowledge of the diameter of pneumatic conveying test rig.
From the superficial velocity V f and the voidage e, the actual air velocity can be
calculated, viz.
vf = V f / e (A-18)
For 90° bends in circular pipes the following bend coefficients apply as a function
ofRg/D.
TABLE A.2: BEND LOSS COEFFICIENT FOR 90° BENDS
2 1.5
4 0.75
6 or more 0.5
Frictional pressure drop due to solids in dense phase conveying can be given as
(Wen et al. 1959),
B.l INTRODUCTION:
The purpose of this appendix is to present important aspects of powder properties
which were m a d e during the literature survey for this investigation to which reference
was made. Inclusion of this information is considered appropriate to ensure the reader is
familiar with the numerous powder properties which characterize powder and to highlight
the complexity of powder properties and behaviour. Obviously, for brevity reasons not
all powder properties are discussed in this Appendix. Likewise space restriction prevents
discussion and mention of all terms used to describe powders. For a more complete
discussion the reader should consult the nomograph by Svarovsky (1987).
B.3 ABRASIVENESS:
In the design of pneumatic conveying system equipment to protect against wear, it
is important to have knowledge of a material's abrasiveness. Coke and foundary sand
will wear hoppers and pneumatic conveying systems. In dry wear situations, hardened
steels, wear-resistant liners and high-density plastics should be considered for contact
materials.
339
B.4 ELASTICITY:
Particle elasticity has an important role in pneumatic conveying. Elasticity
influences the rate of loss of kinetic energy during the interparticle collisions occurring
during flow and has some control on the duration of any particular collision.
Electrostatic effects have been reviewed by Boothroyd (1971) and Soo (1971).
The use of dense phase conveying reduce the problems created by static electricity due to
lower conveying velocities and greatly reduced tendency of particle collisions as
suggested from the work conducted by Lippert (1966). The significance of electrostatic
charging is further supported by observations m a d e by Clark (1952) that the pressure
drop increased, in some cases was up to 10 times, whenever powders were conveyed for
long periods.
B.6 EXPLQSIQN^CJIARAmTiRISTlCSi
W h e n conveying combustible materials the combinations of high concentrations of
solids in air mixtures in bins and pneumatic conveying systems and ideal ignition sources
giveriseto frequent dangerous dust fires and dust explosions, if proper precautions are
not taken. Pneumatic conveying systems generally operate with a solid to mass ratio
considerably above the upper explosible limits and if the conveying velocity is kept as
high as possible, then the time of exposure of the dust particles to an ignition spark is
minimal. There are a variety of preventive measures for dilute phase pneumatic
conveying.
- avoiding dangerous material concentration
- avoiding ignition sources
- avoiding oxygen concentrations that render ignition possible
- by using special construction and protective barriers.
B.7 PARTJCJJEJSIZE_ANA_Jl^I^
A simple technique to determine the particle size analysis is to sieve the sample
powder into different fractions and weight average the results according to the sieve
openings. The distribution of particles over varying size ranges can be presented on a
340
mass or number basis. In particular, a sieve analysis presents the particle size information
on a mass basis, whereas, optical sizing is on a number basis.
B.8 SUREACE^AREA^i
O n e further important characteristics of the fine powders is the specific surface
area. This is a measure of the fineness and porosity of the powder. The specific surface
area increases with decreasing particle size.
The specific surface can be converted into an equivalent mean spherical diameter
XgV using the equation,
XsV = 6/S v , (B.l)
where S v = volume specific surface.
The size of a particle relates to its surface area. The interrelationship of particl
size, surface area and porosity will determine the flow characteristic of a powder. In
general, a powder with large particle size and small surface area will be free flowing,
whereas a powder with small size and large surface area will be cohesive. Fine particles
with high porosity will also tend to be more floodable. Furthermore, a powder with large
surface area will display increased hygroscopicity, electrostatic activity, agglomeration,
solubility, deformability and reactivity.
341
B.9 PARTICLE nFMSITY-
This is the true density of a single particle. It is the density of a particle including
the pores or voids within the individual solids. It is defined as the weight of the particle
divided by the volume occupied by the entire particle. In general, dense particles do not
cohere to other particles and tend to be more free flowing than less dense particles. In
the design of pneumatic conveying system, this powder property controls, to a
significant extent, the conveying air pressure and volumetric requirements. In the design
of low velocity dense phase systems, particle density is an important parameter.
It is important to recognize that bulk density does not have a unique value for a
particular bulk material, but will vary with the condition of the material. For example a
material that has just been pneumatically conveyed m a y be aerated and have a
considerably lower bulk density than when allowed to de-aerate.
Ravenet (1983) stated three different bulk density values should be determined
experimentally to characterize powders. These are apparent density (without compression
or compaction), density under compression and density under compaction. For granular
products, the variation between apparent density and density under compaction is
between 9 and 21 per cent, while for cohesive powders, the difference is greater,
varying from between 22 and 87 per cent.
342
Seville (1987) has indicated that the Hausner ratio is an indirect measure of
interparticle forces. Harnby et al. (1987) also reported the variation of the Hausner ratio
with relative humidity for Ballotini. In particular, an increase of the Hausner ratio was
evident with a decrease in particle size and an increase in relative humidity.
B.ll COMPRESSIBTI.TTY-
Compressibility is a simple way of measuring indirectly the following
characteristics of flow:
- bulk density,
- uniformity in size and shape, %
- hardness,
- surface area,
- relative moisture content, and
- cohesiveness.
The use of microscope techniques to observe particle surfaces and shape provides
a powerful tool in modern particle technology studies. Use of microscopic techniques has
344
Electron Microscopes take one of two forms; scanning (SEM) and transmission
( T E M ) . In respect to application to powder technology, the advantages of the Electron
Scanning Microscope are:
- direct examination;
- a large depth of focus (about 300 times that of an optical microscope) at resolutions of
15-20 n m as compared to 0.3-0.5 n m for the Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM);
- a higher range of magnification, 20 x to 100000 x is possible;
- minimal or no sample preparation, except for coating of nonmetallic specimens;
- a low specimen current;
- easy to operate;
- faster and more three dimensional details than T E M ; and
- samples as large 25 m m x 25 m m can be observed.
The only drawback to the wider application of SEM techniques is the need to
vapor-deposit a thin layer of metallic coating to prevent charging of the specimen.
Usually this metallic coating is gold.
B.14.1 POROSITY-
Porosity or voidage is defined as the volume of the voids within the powder bed.
The void volume includes the pores if particles are porous. It can be measured indirectly
from particle and bulk densities.
B.14.2 PACKING;
The packing of solids in a material determines its porosity, permeability and the
bulk density. Moreover, the extent of packing and porosity is partly dependent on the
shape, size and size distribution of the particles. If the surface of the particles is rough,
then the interparticle friction may be greater and so prevent a denser packing condition.
The critical values of void ratio are dependent on particle geometry and the
interparticle friction angle. A powder bed or aggregate formed from equal spheres
exhibiting higher interparticle friction angle will have a critical voidratiohigher than
aggregates formed from the same mono size spheres exhibiting lower interparticle
friction angle. W h e n attractive forces exist between the spheres closer packing, higher
number of contacts and a lower voidratioresults. Whereas, when repulsive forces exist
more separated packing, reduced number of contacts and higher voidratioresults. In
general, powders having a wide particle size distribution exhibit closer packing and lower
porosity [Wood, (1986)].
B.15.2 PERMEAMETRY:
Permeametry is generally suitable for powders of average particle size between
0.2 and 50 microns but it can be also used with coarse particles, say upto 1000 microns
in size using a suitably scaled up test equipment. At low gas flow rates, therateof gas
346
flow through a packed bed increases linearly with applied pressure drop. Bed
permeability or the permeability factor is the gas flow rate (m3/s) per unit pressure drop
(N/m 2 ), per unit cross sectional area of the bed (m 2 ) times the bed depth (m), giving the
final units for this factor in m4/N.s. This factor also depends on the gas viscosity.
agglomerate. The greater the contact potential difference, the greater are the electrical
adhesion forces. The contact potential difference depends on the amount of charge on the
particle's surfaces and the supporting surface.
These angles are functions of the size distribution, shape, surface properties of the
powders, bulk density, normal compressive stress. Knowledge of these friction angles
are important in the design of powders storage, handling and transportation equipment.
The angle of internal friction determines the stress distribution within a bed of
powder undergoing strain. Whereas, the angle of wall friction describes the stress
condition acting between the material bed and the walls of the container.
Since, the temperature and humidity can change the surface and frictional
properties of a material, atmospheric conditions will also affect the flow properties of a
bulk solid.
To determine the coefficient of the wall friction, pw, the base of the cell is
effectively lined with the wall material to be tested. The resulting yield locus is k n o w n as
the wall yield locus. T h e slope of the wall yield locus determines the coefficient of wall
friction,
p w = tan <|>w, (B.4)
where <J>W -= the angle of wall friction.
The accuracy of the measurements depend largely on the creation and maintenance
of a well defined failure plane within the cell. Modifications of the conventional shear
testers are the biaxial and triaxial testers.
Evaluation of results from wall friction tests is simple. The shear force necessary
to m o v e the loaded cell is plotted against the applied normal load (note that both the axes
349
should have the same scale) and, where appropriate, a straight line is drawn through the
plot. The angle subtended by this line with the x-axis is the angle of wall friction.
Sometimes, there is a strong cohesion between the powder and the wall and this leads to
the above plot showing an intercept.
(a.l) ANGLE QF REPOSE;
The angle of repose is that formed, when a sample of the powder is poured onto a
flat surface. It is used sometimes to indicate the type of metering and feeding devices for
bins or hoppers. Furthermore, the internal angle of friction can be approximated by the
angle of repose. This is a reasonable assumption only when the cohesive strength of the
powder is low.
Two methods for measuring this angle exist, namely discharging from a f
bottom container or forming a heap on a horizontal surface. In first method, the angle of
repose is the angle formed between the surface of the powder remaining in the container
and the bottom wall. In the second method, the half angle of a heap formed on a flat
surface, measured at the top is taken as the angle of repose. As the measurements are
done at rest, these angles provide an indication of the static value of the internal angle of
friction of the powder.
(a.2) A N G L E O F SLIDE:
The angle of slide on a plate provides a convenient assessment of the angle of wall
friction.This convenience results from the fact that the tangent of the angle of slide
approximates the coefficient of friction of the product on the plate.
(a.3) C A S C A D I N G A N G L E :
The cascading angle represents the flowing state of powder rather than the
assembly at rest. It is defined as the angle formed by the inclined surface of a flowing
powder inside a horizontal rotating cylinder, and the horizontal. This angle is affected by
moisture content, particle size, shape and roughness (Yamashiro et al., 1982) and also
dependent on wall friction (Briscoe et al., 1985).
(b) COHESION:
Cohesion is a fundamental property and hence is evaluated directly as a powder
flow property. The presence of cohesion in a powder causes the powder to stick together
to form a powder mass. Obviously, the higher the apparent surface cohesion of a
powder, the less the flowability and vice versa.
intercept is a measure of the shear stress at zero normal stress. This cohesion results
from the interparticle forces discussed in Section B.6.
By using a flow - no flow concept, gravity flow channel outlets can be sized for
reliable flow. In this concept, the strength of the powder is compared with the stresses
causing the powder to flow. Flow will occur w h e n (Ti > CTC . That is the cohesive arch
across the outlet will fail since the stress CTi imposed by the hopper exceeds the
unconfined yield stress of the powder CTC. The critical value of CTi occurs at the
intersection point of the flowfactor and the powder flow function. That is for the flow to
be continuous.
351
A cohesive powder can support a static shear stress with no normal load applied.
For arching to be prevented and flow to be continuous, the strength of any arch must be
less than the forces tending to break it. In most situations, these forces only represent the
gravitational forces. However in some situations, there m a y be an additional force due to
a differential gas pressure across the arch.
In a free arch, both the shear and normal stresses in the plane tangential to the
arch must be zero, so that the stresses at any point on the surface of an arch must be
represented by a M o h r circle passing through the origin; this M o h r circle which touches
the material yield locus represent the stresses at a point in a powder on the verge of
failure. -
This limiting circle also defines the unconfined yield strength, CTC, of the powder
for a particular consolidation. This property is the yield strength that can be measured by
causing a radially unconfined cylindrical plug of preconsolidated powder to fail in axial
compression. T h e relation between the unconfined yield strength, the cohesion and
internal angle of friction, for a linear yield locus is approximately linear is,
c_oc(l-gin4>) (B?)
2 cos(t)
In the limiting case, the m a x i m u m shear strength possible is, 1/2 o c (B.8)
In this initial simple model, Jenike and Walker assume the point G(=l/2 CTC,)
which gives the most difficult and conservative case for maintaining flow.
Jenike's theory in combination with powder properties measured in the shear cell
predicts the arching dimension larger than the arching dimension found experimentally
as reported by Walker (1967). However, it is advisable to have a overdesign to be on the
safe side. In particular, Walker's equation for arching is,
CTC sin 2 (a + (j)) ( B9 )
R = —————^——
Pb
which considers the walls to be steep and smooth.
However, engineers who apply the Jenike method in practice consider the method
to be reliable and claim it is advisable to have a certain overdesign to be on the safe
side.The overdesign of 1 0 0 % is probably necessary to account for initial filling
conditions and other unaccounted factors (e.g. increase in moisture content, etc.).
Obviously more accurate outlet sizing can be determined using full scale experimental
facilities. Such testing would provide a lower bound to the expected critical outlet opening
dimension and the Jenike method the upper bound. T o approximate full scale
352
experimental facilities a novel arch tester was developed. Details of this arch tester is
outlined in Chapter 6. 12.
Using this tester, the unconfined powder yield strength was then evalu
knowledge of the observed opening span to effect flow, by use of the well known Jenike
critical outlet dimension equation (Jenike, 1970), viz.
H (a) CTi
BorD= (BI0)
"^i-
where H(a) = function of a
a = hopper half angle
CTi = major principal consolidating stress
Pb = bulk density
In this evaluation the channel boundaries were assumed to be rough.
where e = porosity
k = average coordination number
H = cohesive force at a contact point
dp = particle diameter
It was shown experimentally that this relationship holds for a large number of
powders tested. The value of the constant n varies between 1 and 2, being just over 1 for
free flowing powders and approaching 2 for cohesive powders. For a free flowing
powder, n = 1, T = C = 0 and the eqn.. (B.29) reduces to,
T= K
° (B.13)
where K = a value similar to the internal friction of the powde*
Nedderman (1978) has shown that the value of the constant n can not be larger
than two if Mohr's circle is to be tangential to the material yield locus.
Jimbo et al. (1984) confirmed experimentally by testing many powders that the
relationship between the tensile strength CTZ and the porosity e can be expressed by the
following equation over a wide range of porosity, except for agglomeration
phenomenon.
a z = kx exp ( ~ ^- J (B.14)
where ki and b are empirical constants.
The expression relating the tensile strength CTZ, and pre-compression stress p can
be written as:
CTz = k 2 p m (B.15)
where k2 and m are empirical constants.
They also found that the porosity e can be correlated to the pre-compressive stress
p by the following equation.
p = k3exp(-~) (B.16)
Moreover, Jimbo et al. (1984) found that the behaviour of powders can be
approximated, in the porosity range of about 0.4 ~ 0.9 by the expression,
(-i-~-)=10exp(-4.5e) (B.17)
354
T o overcome the limitations of the W.S.L. tester, notably the narrow limit of the
range of porosity of the powder bed, Jimbo et al. (1984) developed modified testers in
which both sides of the split cell are mounted on ball bearings incorporating a pushing
mechanism to reduce friction in the bearings. *
The tensile tester provides values of the powder's uniaxial tensile strength, in
comparison to that predicted from the Jenike's method which gives powder behaviour
when subject to a biaxial stress state.
C.19 FLUIDIZATTON:
Fluidization is the transformation of a static bed of particles into a liquid like mass
system induced by the flow of a gas or liquid. In most fluidization systems, the
fluidizing agent is air or a gas. In essence, particulate masses m a y range in characteristics
from static beds, through fluidized beds, through, in turn, fast fluidized to dilute
suspended particulate streams as those occurring in dilute pneumatic conveying.
Thus, a free flowing powder is fluidized without any difficulty, whilst the
fluidization of cohesive powders is normally difficult and can require the modification of
either the flow properties of the powder or of the fluidization equipment. Further
classification of powders are:
1 free-flowing 6 fluidizable, high air retention
355
The inter-particle forces that cause poor fluidization characteristics are small
particle sizes, strong electrostatic charges or the presence of moisture in the bed. Hence,
in regard to fluidization, the most important powder properties and their effects are n o w
listed.
Particle size: thefinerthe particles the stronger the interaction between the fluidizing
gas and the particles.
Flowability: the more flowable a fine powder, the more fluid-like and hence the more
readily it can be fluidized.
Hardness: controlsrateof system wear, m i n i m u m effect with respect to fluidization.
Hygroscopicity: moisture works against fluidization.
Dispersibility: the less cohesion, the more readily fluidized the powder
Compressibility: the less the compressibility of a fine powder, the more fluidizable
the powder.
Size distribution: the wider the distribution, the less definite the fluidization and
greater tendency to segregate in the bed.
Particle shape: the more spherical the particle, the easier the fluidization. Irregular
shaped particles tend to interlock and hence tend to be difficult to fluidize.
C o h e s i o n a n d particle friction: the stronger these forces, the more difficult the
fluidization.
Geldart (1973) suggested that powder particle size and density be used as a
criteria to classify various powders into four groups having different gas-fluidization
behaviour.
Group A powders are slightly cohesive and exhibit large bed expansion after
m i n i m u m fluidization and before the c o m m e n c e m e n t of bubbling. Group B powders
bubble at m i n i m u m fluidization velocity with small bed expansion. Group C powders
are cohesive and difficult to fluidize, whereas Group D powders can form stable spouted
beds if the gas is admitted through a centrally positioned hole.
for a considerable time, decaying pressure at the base of the bed very slowly. In view of
this correlation, the deaeration rate is important in characterizing powders.
B.20 SLUGGING:
Dixon (1979) proposed slugging diagram (Figure B.l) based on Geldart's
fluidization diagram to predict the behaviour of powders in dense phase systems.
\
•
V
K\-
v\
\
\ V\
s,\ \
\
' (?) D
*
\ <°>
NO \ ^WEAK \ STROI IG
* SLl GC IN 3 \SYM MET lie 1*> AXISY MME1 RIC
/ JLUG5 ^ SLUG!
•
_ *•
v',
— 5—-J
- /
w "'.
'.-
;
/>-,
•>
s
->. \
\
\
20 50
Fg JI ( 3 - 4 INCHPIPIr SL JG< !>IN G D>» G H A W
100 600
\
1000
N
M E A N PARTICLE SIZE d (pml
In Figure B.l, Group A powders are the best candidates for dense phase
conveying. They are not natural sluggers but can be made to slug by using slug forming
techniques. Group B powders give problems if high solid gas loadings are used.
Group C powders are less suitable for dense phase conveying, whereas Group D
powders are good candidates which have natural slugging behaviour.
Flatt (1980) reported a graph for selection of dense phase systems whether by
pass or pulse phase systems taking into account the particle size distribution, whereas
Klintworth et. al. (1985) revealed particle size variation against mean particle size
indicating four classification zones for selecting discontinuous phase systems.
B.21 DEAERATION:
A n important property of fine powders is their ability to retain air within the voids.
W h e n powders are filled into containers, a large volume of air is entrapped within the
voids. O n settling, this air slowly dissipates and the level of powder drops, until it comes
to a s o m e steady state level. After which time consolidation at almost constant voidage
commences.
Deaeration can be defined by noting the change in bed height with time after
aeration ceases or by noting the change in pressure differential across a unit of height of
powder with time. In regard to the observation of bed height, this apparently simple task
often proves difficult for m a n y powders, as some powders tend to coat the interior of the
testrigwith fine particles. ,
All powders that have been fluidized will deaerate over a certain period of time
during which their bulk density increases. The rate of deaeration process is important in
regard suitability for dense phase conveying. In practical filling operations, deaeration
takes place during the filling process.
The deaeration process forms the initial stage in time consolidation. Hence, to
prevent time consolidation, it is necessary to prevent the initial de-aeration. This can be
effected by passing air through an air distributor at the bottom of the bin. A t the same
time, the formation of consolidation zones within the bed can be prevented. T h e
existence of these zones causes channelling, ii the powder is allowed to consolidate and
the air is introduced before powder filling commences. The powder contains zones of
higher bulk density and w h e n air is passed, these zones will tend to separate causing the
fluid flow to channel through the less dense zones in the bed. T h e rate of diffusion
depends on the interparticle forces, size, shape and packing properties of the powder.
The quantity of air dissipated from the bed during deaeration is equivalent to the
volumetric change of the void during densification. Under most circumstances, the
voidage distribution settles d o w n rapidly to steady state level, since most of the air is
dissipated while the permeability is still large. Thereafter, the deaeration is relatively
slow. Here, the displaced fluid caused by the change in bulk density percolates slowly
through the compacted bed.
F r o m these tests a value of k' was derived. Powders with k' > 100 cm/s are
unsuitable for aerated discharge, while powders which are aeratable i.e. deaerate slowly
have values of k' < 30 cm/s. This factor provides a measure of the tendency of the
particles to form agglomerates in the bed by interparticle attraction and which have a
structure different from the rest of the bed.
By use of a pressure transducer and recorder device, the time variation of column
base pressure can be observed and recorded. The relationship between the pressure drop
per unit length and time is of the form
Af = t . Ap/L , (B.20)
where A p = pressure drop per unit length L of the bed
t = time in seconds
A f = a constant defined as the deaeration factor with units of mbar.s/m
Mainwaring et al. (1987) proposed the permeability and air retention are two
important parameters in regard to feasibility of a powder in dense phase pneumatic
conveying. They developed the plot of the permeability factor, pf, versus quasi-steady
pressure drop per unit length corresponding to the fluidized condition, (Ap /L) c T h e
results for a number of powders tested by them indicate that powders exhibiting high
values of permeability factor generally convey in a plug type m o d e of dense phase
conveying, while powders exhibiting low permeability were conveyed in either a dense
phase moving bed type flow or could not be conveyed in dense phase at all.
This approach of utilizing the permeability and deaeration factors of the powder to
be conveyed ensures that the influence of the size distribution rather than a mean particle
size is used to categorize a powder for its likely conveying characteristics.
359
APPENDIX 'C
When conducting experiments on both the Sturtevant rig and low velocity rig, the
pressure transducers were calibrated before commencing each experimental run. Typical
values from the calibration are as follows, refer Table C l .
(A) (B)
Sturtevant Rig L o w Velocity Rig *
Channel No. Calibration Values Channel No. Calibration Values
0 0.223 0 0.510
1 0.251 1 0.287
2 0.354 2 0.204
3 0.293 3 0.117
4 0.298 4 0.48
5 0.309 5 -
6 0.293 6 -
7 0.228 7 0.486
8 0.009 8 0.009
9 7.809 9 182.0
10 95.61 10 356.1
11 0.299
12 0.330
13 0.305
14 0.311
15 0.139
This was calibrated by loading the piston with different weights and observing the
corresponding chart recorder readings. A typical calibration plot is presented in Figure
Cl.
360
8-j — .
-35 -/.
UJ J3
o-l . , • , ,
0 100 200 300
NUMBER OF DIVISIONS - m m
To measure the air pressure in the wall friction rig, a pressure gauge No. P /
2125 - 466 of capacity 0 - 700 kPa x 254 m m . diameter was used. Before commencing
the experiments, it was calibrated by a static pressurized tank system, the results of which
are stated below, refer Table C.2.
60 57.2 59.9
110 106.1 109.9
160 156.4 159.9
210 206.7 209.9
260 254.9 259.8
310 305.2 309.8
360 356.9 359.7
410 405.1 409.8
510 504.4 509.6
610 604.9 609.6
660 654.6 659.5
361
C.4 CALIBRATION OF THE DEAERATION RIG PRESSURE
TRANSDUCERS:
The calibration of the pressure transducers used in the deaeration rig to record the
interstitial air pressure, was effected using the Sturtevant blow tank as a pressurization
tank. A typical calibration recording is presented in Figure C.2.
C- = ^ (CD
Ms
Vs - — (C3)
KS
Mf
Vf = - 1 (c.4)
Pf
Therefore, the powder concentration,
Ms
Ps
r ( -.
s CC5J
Ms Mf
P7 P7
Simplifying eqn. (C5) gives,
1
c = (C6)
* 1—wt:
+
M p s f
where pf = air density = Patal + p f / R T
where P atm and pf are equal to the atmospheric pressure and the operating air pressure at
the point closest to the measuring instruments, respectively.
R = gas constant (for air, R=0.287 kJ/kg/K)
Ms
Cs (C 7)
" V^ ~ Ps V, A '
where V s = volume of powder
V t = volume of powder and air
It follows that the powder velocity can be calculated from a rearrangement of
equ. (C.7), viz.
Ms
(C.S)
V = —
s
PsACs
ut«M tthV^^9'*npmiM%f^%pp%mptmmm9W9'Pmumm»mpmt»»M»vt>mi*im99paimtPP»»imamnmmtt3nii
-3-t
c-i
3? 1 at m wm
Figure C.4 : Concentration Graph.