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British Rule and
Its Impact on India
| Editor–in–Chief |
Dr. Dnyaneshwar Suryawanshi
Principal, VWS College, Dhule. (M.S.)
| Editors |
Prof. Rajvirendrasing Gavit
Dr. Sunil Amrutkar
Prof. Satish Nikam
Postgraduate Department of History,
VWS College, Dhule. (M.S.)
Atharva Publications
Atharva Publications
British Rule and Its Impact on India

© Reserved
ISBN : 978-93-87129-...........
Book No. : ..........
Publisher & Printer: Mr. Yuvraj Mali
Dhule : 17, Devidas Colony, Varkhedi Road,

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Disclaimer: The authors are solely, responsible for the contents of the papers compiled
in this volume. The Editors or Publishers do not take responsibility for the same in any
manner. Errors if any are purely unintentional and readers are requested to
communicate such error to the Editors or Publishers to avoid discrepanices in future.
2 | Atharva Publications
Acknowledgement
The present edited book is the result of sincere and studied

efforts of its authors who have given their valuable study and
research material. It is immense praiseworthy for us for their
contribution which they made available in spite of having their
busy schedule. The Book coming into existence would have totally
impossible without the financial assistance from Indian Council
for Historical Research, New Delhi. So we cordially and sincerely
thank to all contributors for this golden opportunity.
We are very thankful to Dr. Dilip Patil, Chairman, Shri. Yuvraj
Karankal, Secretary, Shri Akshay Chhajed Vice-Chairman, of
Governing Council of V.W.S. and all the Hon. Members of G.C.
V.W.S. and Hon. Principal Dr. Dnyaneshwar Suryawanshi. They
have given their precious support and encouragement for such a
noble thing. We are also very thankful to our all Vice Principals
Mr. V.K. Pawar, Dr. Shubhada Thakare and Mr. M.B.Patil and
our all faculty members. We are also very grateful to Atharv
Publications for publishing this book in time.
Asst. Prof. Satish Nikam

Member, Editorial Board
British Rule and Its Impact on India | 3

Preface
India is one of the developing countries in the 21st century in

Asia and Africa continents. The most significant developments in
Modern Indian history was the western invasion in the 18th century
in which the Dutch, British and French invaders played a
significantly notable role. Among all these invaders, the British
rule emerged as the sole victor in the game of spreading imperialism
in the Indian subcontinent.
The Britishers expanded their imperialism in India by bringing
the changes and transformations suitable for their rule. They
extended their rule in India with the economic exploitations,
diplomatic conquests, brilliant leaderships and military powers.
Their power occupied Indian social, economic, political, educational
and cultural fields in which they remained unconquered by India
and glimpses of their impressions have been seen even in the 21st
century. Their impressions and influences are still playing the
decisive roles in the present scenario. So it was very necessary to
munch on their impacts on Indian subcontinent by the intellectual
research potentialities through the academicians. The speculations
and intellectual discussions came into existence with the help of
the research contributors and financial assistance by ICHR, New
Delhi.
The chapters in this edited book have immensely munched
on decisive impacts on India through the socio-economic, political
and educational policies of the British Rule. The chapters have
thrown light on the pre and post-British rule India. The socio-
economic, educational, political policies and strategies of Britishers
have been interpreted by the contributors in the thoroughgoing
fashion. The chapters on the entrepreneurship, press, tribals,
villages etc delineate the visionary commands of the rule because
their innovations still are unchallenged in India. The chapters written
by Dr. Sandesh Wagh, Dr. Rita Bhambi, Dr. Shep have mentioned
different interpretations which will augment the knowledgeable
Information to readers. The book will be very helpful for the
students and readers to decipher the British rule with the different

interpretations, perspectives and new approaches. Therefore, it
gives us an immense pleasure to hand over the book to the students
and readers.
I received immense help and encouragements from our
Principal Dr. D. S. Suryawanshi for the timely completion of this
book. I am thankful to him and all my friends for valuable
suggestions and encouragements. I would like to express my
sincere thanks to the Atharva Publications, Jalgaon for publishing
the book in short time.
Asst. Prof. Rajvirendrasing Gavit

Member, Editorial Board
Index
1. The British Rule and Its Impact On India ................ 9

- Dr. Sandesh Wagh
2. Educational Policies in India under the .................. 16
British Rule
- Dr. Shep B.K.
3. Jagannath Shankarshet : First Native ..................... 20
Promoter of Railways in India
- Dr. Rita Bhambi
4. The Impact of British Rule on Indian Villages ....... 36
- Prof. Dr. (Major) Keshav Narayan Patil
5. The British Rule Impact on Tribal Community ......... 46
of Khandesh Region
- Asst. Prof. Rajvirendrasing R. Gavit
6. Impact of The British Rule : Communalism........... 51
and Partition of India
- Pardeshi Enayat Ranjeet
7. Health Services during British Rule in India ......... 58
- Dr. Shubhada Thakare
8. British Rule and Education of Indian Women ........ 64
- Prof. Smt. Rekha C. Deokar
9. British Rule and Social Changes ............................. 68
- Satish Nikam
10. Arrival of British and Cultural Changes in India ... 72
- Prof. U. Y. Gangurde
11. The Cultivators Whipcord : The Indicator ............. 76
of the Dual Economic Drain of the Farmers
- Dr. Ajaykumar Pralhad Lokhande
12. The British Rule and Indian Education System ........ 84
- Mr. Madhukar R. Wankhede

13. British Rule and Indian Press .................................. 89
- Dr. Raghunath D. Shelake
14. British Rule and Indian Nationalism ....................... 97
- Dr. Nalini Avinash Waghmare
15. Impact of British Rule on Indian Archeology ....... 104
and Heritage Conservation
- Miss Khandelwal Ishwari Prakash
16. British Rule and Development of .......................... 120
Entrepreneurship
- Mr. Sharad K. Shirule
17. Impact of British Rule on English Language ....... 127
Teaching in India
- Prof. Sidhartha B. Sawant
18. The British Rule and Its Impact on Indian Skill...... 133
- Sonali Nimba Wagh
19. Court System During British Rule in India .......... 136
- Dr Sandesh D. Shegaonkar
20. Advent of Educational Institutions in ................... 141
19th Century Bombay : Impact of British Rule
- Dr Ravinder Kaur Cheema
21. British Rule and Indain Society ............................. 153
- Mr. Mahendra Satyavijay Wagh
The British Rule and Its Impact on India
- Dr. Sandesh Wagh
History of the British Raj

The history of the British Raj refers to the period of British
rule on the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The system
of governance was instituted in 1858 when the rule of the East
India Company was transferred to the Crown in the person of Queen
Victoria (who in 1876 was proclaimed Empress of India). It lasted
until 1947, when the British provinces of India were partitioned into
two sovereign dominion states: the Dominion of India and the
Dominion of Pakistan, leaving the princely states to choose between
them.The two new dominions later became the Republic of India
and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (the eastern half of which, still
later, became the People's Republic of Bangladesh).1
British Rule and Indian Renaissance
A brief analysis of the conditions of the period before Indian
Renaissance reveals the fact that it was passing through a socio-
cultural and philosophical crisis of grave consequence, especially
with the western invasion. Under the western influence, the young
generation questioned all traditional beliefs, conducts and character,
and glorified everything western. Bigotry, intolerance, mass
ignorance and communal rivalry shattered the entire structure of
the country, as a result, mutual hatred and discontent sustained in
the social life of the individual.In the beginning, the British
Government was very cautious not to upset the social traditions
of India.They adopted the policy of non-interference in social
affairs, simultaneously the Christian missionaries propagated their
religion against the Hindu religious spirit and social order of the
society. They not only criticized and defamed Hinduism, but also
tried to convert people in large number into their fold by various
means. Religious reformation became necessary at this time
because the social and cultural development of the individual was
mainly based on the religious principles.2

British Rule and Indian Society
When the British came to India, they brought new ideas such
as liberty, equality, freedom and human rights from the
Renaissance, the Reformation Movement and the various
revolutions that took place in Europe. These ideas appealed to
some sections of our society and led to several reform movements
in different parts of the country. At the forefront of these
movements were visionary Indians such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy,
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Aruna Asaf Ali and Pandita Ramabai.
These movements looked for social unity and strived towards
liberty, equality and fraternity. Many legal measures were
introduced to improve the status of women.3
British Rule and Indian Economy
The first stage was: Mercantile development (1757-1813) - The
East India Company began to use its political power to monopolize
the trade in India. It dictated the terms of trade in its dealings with
the traders and merchants of Bengal. The Company imposed
inflated prices of goods leading to adventurous capitalism whereby
the wealth was created by the political clout of the British traders.
The revenue collected from Bengal was used to finance exports
to England.
Second phase was: Industrial phase (1813-1858) - With
development of British industries, India was exploited by its colonial
masters as a market for British goods. With coming of the act of
1813, only one way trade was allowed by the British, as a result
of which, the Indian markets was flooded with cheap, machine-
made imports from newly industrialized Britain. This led to loss of
Indian market and foreign market for traders of the country.Now,
Indians were forced to export their raw materials to Britain and
import the finished goods. They imposed heavy imports duty on
the Indian products exported to England in order to discourage
them in the British market.
Third phase was: Financial phase (1860 onwards) - After the
British consolidated their position in India they converted India
into a market for British manufacturers while still being a supplier
of foodstuffs and raw materials. In the second half of the 19th
century, modern machine based industry started coming up in India.
With the Introduction of Railways in 1853, and Post and Telegraph
being introduced in year 1853 as well. There was a rush of foreign
investment in India mainly lured by high profits and availability of
cheap labour, raw materials. The Banking System was introduced
in form of Avadh Commercial Bank in year 1881.Home grown
Industries came into existence in form of Tata Iron and Steel in
1907. Socially, this led to the rise of an industrial capitalist class
and a working class became important feature of this phase.4
Transport and Communication
The vast network of railways that you witness today was
pioneered during the latter half of the 19th century. This opened
avenue for British bankers and investors to invest surplus wealth
and material in the construction of railways. Railways benefited
the British capitalists in two important ways. First, it made trading
in commodities much easier and profitable by connecting the
internal markets with the ports. Secondly, the rail engines, coaches
and the capital input for building of rail lines came from Britain.
Although the railways were set up for the advantage of British
trade, they also played an important role in the national awakening
of the country. Though the British had never anticipated, the
extensive transport network and improved education brought
people and ideas closer. During British rule, India took ideas of
liberty, equality, human rights, science and technology from the
West. This accelerated the process of modernization.5
British Rule and Political Developments in India
No doubt, India achieved her political unification under the
British rule.Prior to the rule of the British, India was divided into a
number of states and there was no unity among the rulers of
different states. The rulers always fought against one another in
order to establish their power. They lacked political unity which
was the chief reason of their defeat against the British.The British
conquered all these states one after another and established an
empire in India. The British had introduced a uniform system of
administration throughout the country.
The credit of origin of administrative machinery also goes to
the British rule. The post mutiny period witnessed the growth and
development of this administrative system. TheIndian Civil Service,
the Indian Police Service, the Indian Audit and Account Service,
the Indian Medical Service, the Indian Education Service, the

Revenue and Judicial Service created an administrative machinery
that not only shouldered the responsibility of the work of
Government on a large scale but also dealt with the famine, plague,
means of transport and communication, agricultural projects
etc.The Legislative Council was set up in 1853 and later enlarged
in 1861 to induct some nominated members. With the Morley
Minto reforms the provincial legislative councils began to reflect
popular opinion. The principle of direct election for democracy
was introduced in the Montague Chelmsford Act, The Government
of India Act of 1935 made Provinces autonomous. Besides this,
the local-self Government of Lord Ripon provided training for
democratic and self-governing institutions in higher level.6
British Rule and Indian Art, Literature and Culture
The establishment of the British Empire in the 18th century
laid the foundation for modern India’s contact with the West.
Westernization paved the way for a radical change of artistic taste,
and a style emerged that represented the adjustment of traditional
artists to new fashions and demands.The fusion of Indian traditions
with European style at this time became evident in architectural
styles; as with the Mughals, architecture under European colonial
rule became an emblem of power designed to endorse the
occupying power.As a whole, the European advent was marked
by a relative insensitivity to native art traditions; former Indian
patrons of art became less wealthy and influential, and Western
art became more ubiquitous as the British Empire established
schools of art in major cities, such as the Bombay Art Society in
1888.
While the 18th century saw moderate British manifestations
of Indian art, monuments, literature, and culture, the attitude in
the mid-19th century shifted to one of disregard for Indian art. To
propagate Western values in art education along with the colonial
agenda, the British established art schools in Calcutta and Madras
in 1854 and in Bombay in 1857. After 1857, John Griffith and
John Lockwood Kipling came out to India together and headed
the Sir JJ School of Art. Griffith was considered one of the finest
Victorian painters to come to India, and Kipling went on to head
the Mayo School of Arts in 1878.
The spread of English language as the most redefining
expression of the mass natives, was a key guiding factor and
impetus to have had exercised a tremendous British influence on
contemporary Indian literature, both in regional as well as in
English. English language and with it, the spread of penning in
Indian English literature had become the first ever forceful potential
phase, from whence was begun the genre of British influence on
contemporary Indian literature. English language thus had made
its passage into India with the British Empire's educational policy
for the native 'colonized' Indians and soon found a secured home
here. With the English connection, European culture/literature
scouted its way into India too and the Indian literary geniuses had
responded immediately and effectively.
British Rule and Indian Education
The British were instrumental in introducing Western culture,
education and scientific techniques. Western influence became
effective in India mainly through the British who were the pioneers
of a new technological and industrial civilization.After
independence, India becomes a nation state and it was intended
that English would gradually be phased out as the language of
administration.At first Hindi, the most widely spoken language,
seemed the obvious choice, but following violent protests in 1963
in the state of Tamil Nadu against the imposition of Hindi as a
national language, opinion has remained divided. So, although
English is not an indigenous language, it remains as an ‘Associate
language’ in India, alongside Hindi, the official language of the
Union of India, and 18 national languages, such as Bengali, Gujarati,
Urdu, that have special status in certain individual status.7
British Rule and Linguistic Impact
After independence, India became a nation state and it was
intended that English would gradually be phased out as the language
of administration. At first Hindi, the most widely spoken language,
seemed the obvious choice, but following violent protests in 1963
in the state of Tamil Nadu against the imposition of Hindi as a
national language, opinion has remained divided. In a country with
over 900 million people and more than a thousand languages, it is
difficult to choose a single national language, as mother tongue
speakers of that language would automatically enjoy greater social
status and have easier access to positions of a power and

influence. Even Gandhi, a proponent of a native variety as a national
language, accepted that his message was most widely understood
if expressed in English. So, although English is not an indigenous
language, it remains as an ‘Associate language’ in India, alongside
Hindi, the official language of the Union of India, and 18 national
languages, such as Bengali, Gujrati, Urdu, that have special status
in certain individual status.
British Rule and The Indian Press
During the rule of the British East India Company, the Anglo-
Indians and Europeans began to publish newspapers and
journals.Hicky began to publish a weekly by name The Bengal
Gazette in 1780 and did not hesitate to criticize the actions of the
then Governor General Warren Hastings.Hicky is justifiably
considered as the pioneer in the history of journalism in India.
During the regimes of Cornwallis and Wellesley, the editor of Indian
World, Duanna and Charles Maclean, the editor of The Bengal
Gazette also attacked the policies and were deported to England.In
1818, J.S. Buckingham started the Calcutta Journal and also
attacked the policies of the British officials and he too was deported
to England. The British introduced the licensing system to publish
papers. During 1860, The Bengalee and The Amrita Bazar Patrika
were started in ‘Bengalee language’.
British Rule and Science and Technology in India
The institutionalization of modern or Western science in India
began with the establishment of the Great Surveys – the Geological,
the Botanical and the Trigonometric – under the inspired impetus
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal inaugurated in 1784. This was
followed by the establishment of universities in the port towns of
Bombay, Calcutta and Madras in 1857. This period saw the
consolidation of the British rule in India, especially with the failure
of the First Indian War of Independence of 1857. The British rule
in our country was primarily based on their improved mode of
production – improved technology, organizational abilities, etc.,
and it was important for the colonial government to maintain their
superiority, if they were to continue to be the rulers.As India was
a large country to be governed, the British realized that it was
important to have a cadre of well-trained Indians in all areas
including science and technology.8
References
1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_British_Raj
2 Vaijayanti Arun Belsare, Indian renaissance a fresh study, Thesis
submitted to Pune University, November 1997.
3 http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/society/indian-society/impact-
of-british-on-indian-society-and-culture/47607
4 https://exampariksha.com/economic-impact-of-british-rule-in-
india-history-study-material-notes/
5 http://nptel.ac.in/courses/109103024/pdf/module5/SM%20Lec%
2025.pdf
6 http://www.historydiscussion.net/british-india/social-and-
economic-impact-of-british-rule-in-india/1595
7 https://www.scribd.com/doc/144830095/The-Impact-of-English-
on-Indian-Culture
8 https://prezi.com/nmibixwvg0b3/the-impact-of-british-rule-on-
indias-education-system/

Educational Policies in India under the British Rule
- Dr. Shep B. K.
Abstract
Colonial education has been controversial and widely
divergent interpretations have been offered from contrasting
ideological perspectives. British imperial education policy was
highly contended during the colonial era and remains a contentious
issue amongst many contemporary historians and a critical review
of the historiography of the subject is long overdue. British colonial
education policy starts in India in 1813, the intention being to
promote both Oriental culture and Western science. But a former
Director of Public Instruction, writing in the 1920s, claimed that
education had done far less for Indian culture than for the material
and political progress of India.
More recent academic writing about the history of education
in British India has been both intermittent and of mixed quality. To
date, much of the criticism of British policy appears to have been
motivated more by emotion rather than by detailed scholarly
analysis and this account argues that more ‘plodding’ in archives
is urgently needed at the present time to substantiate, refine or
refute the claims of India’s educational historians. This is the first
part of a two-part article, the second of which will deal with Africa
and the rest of the colonial Empire.
The British were more successful in the introduction of
modern education; of course the spread of modern education
was not solely the work of the government: the Christian
missionaries and a large number of enlightened Indians also
played an important part. Missionaries and their supporters and
many humanitarians soon began to exert pressure on the
Company to encourage and promote modern secular westernized
education in India.
Key words - Colonial education, historiography, science, British
India, government.
Introduction
India has the second largest education system in the world.
The Indian education system has gone through many phases.
Great effort has been put to shape up the present scenario of
education system. The journey from Gurukuls to IITs had many
ups and downs. But each phase has its own pros and cons. The
aim of this research is to study ancient as well as present
education system in India. The various phases through which
education system has gone through have been studied in detail.
An attempt has been made to compare the education scenario
in old and modern India. The pre British and post British
education system has been reviewed to know the intentions of
the British behind making changes in the Indian Education
System. The positive and negative aspects of each phase have
been framed out during this research.
Indian Education system after British Government
After arrival of East India Company in India, They started
changing the Indian Education system gradually and one day we
were there with a completely new process of educating people.
They transformed the whole system to encapsulate European
attitude in Indian children. They emphasized on use of English in
education rather than our own native languages. They started
textbook culture in India. The motive of introducing textbooks
was to stop children from producing new knowledge and made
them think that they were mere consumers of the knowledge which
the textbook writer wants to convey to them.
The second and the most dangerous impact of introduction
of text books was the degradation of respect of teachers in Indian
society. The teachers lost the right of deciding what to teach and
how to teach. They had to just follow the matter given in textbooks.
The second concept introduced by the British in Indian Education
was that of the examinations. It was a plan of British to have a
centralized control of Indian Education System through the
introduction of examination system. So the students were limited
to learn only those things which were supposed to be covered in
the examination and rest of the things were left. In this way the
area of knowledge became very narrow. Examination system gave
rise to a serious implication known as cramming in students.

The students started memorizing things whether understood
or not so that they could clear the exam. Indian students were not
very good at English those days. So they just started memorizing
the concepts in English rather than learning by heart. The textbooks
contained more text on European history as compared to Indian
history. The students started getting influenced by the western
culture. Then a tendency to adopt western culture grew up among
Indian children. The purpose of examination system was to refrain
people from getting higher education. The fear of failure in
examination made a lot of children to quit studies. The British
Government was afraid that if there were more educated people
in India the chances of revolution become brighter.
The intention behind the changes made by British
Government in education system of India can be made clear by
Lord Macaulay’s Address to the British Parliament 2nd February
1835. In his address, he said that “I have travelled across the
length and breadth of India and I have not seen one person who
is a beggar, who is a thief. Such wealth I have seen in this country,
such high moral values, people of such caliber, that I do not
think we would ever conquer this country, unless we break the
very backbone of this nation, which is her spiritual and cultural
heritage, and therefore.
I propose that we replace her old and ancient education
system, her culture, for if the Indians think that all that is foreign
and English is good and greater than their own, they will lose their
self esteem, their native culture and they will become what we
want them, a truly dominated nation. ”
Conclusion
After going through various phases of education system it
has been concluded that the education system in ancient times
was not supported by large sum of money, infrastructure and
advanced technology still they were managing to run such a
systematic education system. But the dominance of caste system
in imparting education was the only problem at that time. After
the arrival of British in India, they started changing the education
system for their personal benefit and not for the benefit of people.
Now days Government is spending a lot of money on education
but the money is not utilized properly. So, steps should be taken to
tackle corruption and other issues so that the funds can be utilized
properly.
References
1. Bose, A. B. (2003). The state of children in India. Manohar Publisher
& Distributor: New Delhi. Chaudhary, S. (2008, Jan 28). Lord
Macaula'ys Quote on India . Retrieved from http://
sundayposts.blogspot.in/2008/01/lord-macaulays-quote-on-
india.html
2. Chaturvedi, V., & Ginsburg, M. (1988). Teachers and the ideology
of professionalism in India. Comparative Education Review, 32(4)
3. Joseph, E. (1971). Decolonization of educational culture: The case
of India. Comparative Education Review
4. Glassner, W. (1984). Self-importance boosts learning. The School
Administrator 45: 16– 18.
5. Kumar, K. (1988). Origins of India’s “textbook culture.” . Education
Review, 32(4)

Jagannath Shankarshet : First Native Promoter of
Railways in India
- Dr. Rita Bhambi
Jagannath Shankarshet is popularly known as Nana

Shankarshet in Maharashtra. Nana had actively participated in all
events of social, economic, educational or political change in the
city of Mumbai during the 19th century. Today, Mumbai is
considered as the financial capital of India. Some of the decisions,
which proved to be the foundation for achieving this distinction,
were taken during Nana’s life time because of his efforts and
exertions. The first railway line in India-Mumbai to Kalyan was
built and the first train from CST to Thanna ran in the year 1853
by T he Great Indian Peninsula Railway (GIPR). Nana
Shankarshet was the Native Director of this Railway Company.
While in the matter of road transport France occupied the
first place, in the matter of rail transport England has been the
pioneer country both as regards construction and operation. The
industrial and commercial revolutions that took place in England
towards the end of the 18th Century were the forerunners of
almost everything modern that we find around us today. The
development of railway transport was also in reality a phase of
these Revolutions. Stockton and Darlington was to be the first
public railway on which steam locomotives were used. Just as
the opening of the Stockton and Darlington railways (25th Sept,
1825) had marked the beginning of the steam railway age with its
cheap freight costs, so the inauguration of services on the Liverpool
and Manchester (15th Sept, 1830) marked the beginning of
passenger-carrying railways in which speed rather than
convenience or cheapness was the attraction.
The inauguration the Liverpool and Manchester railway
caused a great sensation everywhere. In Bombay, it was
welcomedin the elite and intellectual circles with great rejoicing.
Jagannath Shankarshet emerging as the leader was reading about
this new mode of transport through newspapers. He was of the
opinion similar transport was required for India.
Though the idea of this mode of transport had not percolated
down to the masses, Nana was discussing about it seriously with
his native and European circles. The condition of transport was
very bad till the middle of the 19th century. The transport was
carried on with the help of pack animal, palanquin, bullock cart,
and small river-craft. According to Sir D.E.Wacha, “Carriages
and Palanquins were the main mode of conveyance in the Fort
area for Indian and European solicitors, barristers, doctors and
merchants. The Palaki was a cherished institution for several
decades.
Early efforts to construct railways in India may be traced to
1831-32 in the Presidency of Madras, when a railway line was
contemplated between Madras and Bangalore. Report from the
Select Committee on the Affairs of the East India Company, Part
Two, deals with an abortive project of railroad construction in the
Presidency of Madras. Although Madras was the first of the three
Presidencies to put forward railroad proposals in India, railways
were established here much later than Bombay and Calcutta, and
nearly a quarter of a century elapsed between 1831 and 1856
when the first section of line was opened in Madras.
On September 22, 1842, a British civil engineer, Charles
Blacker Vignoles, submitted a report to the East India Company
on the possibility of constructing a viable railway system in India.
He stated that, India is, without exception, the most favourable
country for the introduction of railways…and that the average
expense of a railway will not at the outside, exceed one-third, and
probably not one-fourth of the amount that has been required for
the same purpose. This was on the eve of the period of “railway
mania”, and naturally such a vast country like India, with her
resources and wealth, attracted the notice of many enterprising
Englishmen. But the idea of railways in India first occurred to
George T. Clark, the Chief Engineer of Bombay Government, to
connect Bombay with Thana, Kalyan and with Thal Ghat and
Bhore Ghat inclines.
The geographical situation of Bombay with its natural
harbours made it an obvious point to entry to India, though the
activities of the East India Company and the British interests were

centered in Calcutta. By 1830 the mails and a vast corpus of
documents were carried by ships of the East India Company by
the sea route, through the Suez Canal from Bombay to London.
But this service was slow and unreliable. When the famous
Peninsular Steam Navigation Company added ‘Oriental’ to its
name in 1840 and became the famous ‘P. & O’., the East India
Company offered them a bonus for five years, if a service was
introduced between Suez, Madras and Calcutta, leaving the East
India Company with a monopoly to Bombay. Thus the P.& O.
undertook with such success, that mail carried by their ships round
the south of India reached Calcutta more quickly than material
carried by the armed vessels of the East India Company, and
subsequent land transport from Bombay.
Jagannath Shankarshet was fully aware of this prevailing
situation in the country. At the same time, he was gauging the
process of the railway works in England from the news reports
he was perusing regularly. He was so much fascinated with it
that he conceived the idea of iron road for India and decided to
work for it by all means. As the days passed, he had made up his
mind that the country would benefit immensely with this mode of
transport. He was fully convinced that for the commercial
development of the country was urgent need for the transformation
of the transport system. He succeeded in convincing his elderly
friend Jamsetji Jeejeebhoy who always reposed full trust in him.
He consulted Sir Thomas Erskine Perry, who had already
witnessed the results of the rail lines in the England prior to his
arrival in Bombay in early1840s and who always sympathized
with the Indians in their efforts for developments in various fields.
There was unanimity among themselves on the presenting issue
of not only quicker and easier travel but also for the swift transport
of the mail, long distance passengers and traders as well as for
the industrial growth. The British authorities looked at the idea of
the new transport for the quicker army movements and the rapid
lifting of the cotton from the interior to the port town. Now by
1843, the idea of iron road spread in the elite circles there were
discussions among the editors. British traders and gentry and
forward looking personalities like Jagannath Shankarshet. The
common people looked at the very idea as a wild dream. How
could a huge carriage carrying 100 of passengers on two rails,
they queried.
Of course, to launch this new huge venture was not at all an
easy task. At that time they were dependent on the British expertise
from England, wealthy businessman; leading financers who had
the vague idea were not ready to risk their investments and were
not Directors were not enthusiastic to introduce railways in India.
But for Jagannath Shankarshet, the main supporter of the idea
the company was not a deterrent. By now he was used to the
Luke warms attitude of the company authorities towards any new
project in India. Being a personality with intellectual honesty and
high idealism tinged with boundless enthusiasm and energy, Nana
decided not to look back.
The great railway revolution which had engulfed the Indian
sub-continent can be traced to the ‘Rail-Mania’ of 1843-44. The
efforts of John Chapman in England and the enthusiasm and the
zeal of the residents of Bombay played a significant role in this.
The efforts of the Bombay community cannot be sidelined. They
were equally eager to get together in unison to improve the
transport facilities of Western India by introducing a systematic
railroad system. Their enthusiasm was so great that the Leader
reported; “The raving of the ancient Abderites about love was
only a feeble type of mania which now possesses the Bombayans
on the subject of railways. They write, speak, and think about
nothing but railway…”
Bombay Great Eastern Railway
The enthusiasm for railways from all quarters within a short
period of time led to the formation of the Bombay Great Eastern
Railway. A meeting was held in Bombay on 13th July 1844 to
consider the expediency of forming construction a railway line
from Bombay to Thal and Bhore Ghat roads. The objects of the
meeting had been stated by the Chairman of the Committee,
Erskine Perry, and the prospectus of the undertaking were read
and discussed. Four major resolutions were passed. According to
the 2nd resolution a company was to be formed for the purpose
of carrying into effect the objects mentioned in the prospectus.
The 4th resolution stated that a committee was to be formed to
carry out the resolutions. Taking into consideration the advantages

of rail communication in India, the enterprising merchants and
government officials of Bombay formed themselves into a
Provisional Committee of the Bombay Great Eastern Railway.
The members were: Sir Bartle Frere, Private Secretary to the
Governor, J. P. Willoughby, Chief Secretary of the Government
and acting member of the Governor’s Council, Erskine Perry,
Judge of Supreme Court, Lt. Col. P. M. Melville, Secretary of the
Military and Naval Departments of the Government, Sir R. Oliver,
Superintendent of the Indian Navy, H. H. Glass, Collector of
Custom and Presidency Opium agent.
Associated with these luminaries were nine other government
officials, three British merchants and Bankers, and three leading
Indian merchants of Bombay, Nana Jagannath Shankar Sheth,
Cowasjee Maneckjee and Framjee Cowasjee. Completing the
Provisional Committee and acting as its engineer was George T.
Clark. He was called upon to prepare a detailed report on the
traffic, circumstances and method of carrying the project into
execution.
Soon afterwards the Bombay Great Eastern Railway, the
precursor of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, prepared plans
for constructing a railway line from Bombay to the Deccan. George
Clark who is referred to in the records as Civil Engineer prepared
the specific plan for laying railway track, from ‘Coorla to Thana’.
Laying tracks across the Sion Marsh appeared to be difficult.
Frank J. Clark stated about the proposal, “The permanent way
was to consist of wrought iron rails, weighing sixty five lbs. per
yard, laid upon stone bricks 2ft.×2ft.×1ft. carrying cast iron chains.
The line across the Sion Marsh was to be floated upon large hurdles
formed of mangrove bushes, (following the examples set by
George Stephenson in the case of Chat Moss, on the line from
Liverpool to Manchester) alternate layers of hurdles and mud
being used to form the embankment”
The members of the Provisional Committee gathered on July
13, 1844 at the Town Hall and adopted a predrafted prospectus.
This was communicated to the Governor-in-Council of Bombay,
Sir George Arthur, informing him about the detailed plans of the
proposed railway line.
The proposal was well received by Sir George Arthur, the
Governor of Bombay and who observed that this undertaking is
of “the utmost interest and importance whether in commercial or
political point of view”. He proposed to appoint a Committee “to
receive, test and submit to the Government the proof which the
promoters of the Railway state they had prepared to offer.”
Setback for Local Promoters
The Bombay Great Eastern Railway was formed on July 16,
1844. Just three days after its formation a Government Committee
consisting of, Secretary to the Government in the Territorial
Department, N. Escombe, Secretary to the Government in the
General Department, Major N. Jacob, Agent for the manufacture
of gun powder, Captain H.B. Turner, Mint Engineer was appointed
on July 19, 1844. The Committee was instructed to submit the
amount and value of the traffic, the expenses of making, working
and maintaining the way, and the net receipts to be derived from
the undertaking. But the report of the Government Committee
dampened the enthusiasm of the railway promoters.
The Committee did not commit itself to giving any support
and aid to the Railway. But the Governor announced that he would
recommend to the Government of India and East India Company.
He further forwarded the Company’s appeal for aid to Calcutta
for the Governor General Harding’s consideration with the backing
of the Bombay Government. The Government Committee Report
was published in a Supplement to the Government Gazette on
18th January, 1845.
Formation of Inland Railway Association
Ignoring the criticism and determined to prove their point,
the promoters of the Bombay Great Eastern Railway announced
in a letter dated May 9, 1845 that the original Railway Company
was being dissolved to create a more substantial enterprise called
the ‘Inland Railway Association of Bombay’. Its primary object
was to collect information on the applicability of railway to western
India, to determine the most eligible line for a Railway line from
Bombay. It then formed a committee which include members
Government officials from the old Provisional Committee, headed
by J.P.Willoughby, Col. P.M.Melvil, Col. Jervis and H.H.Glass.
The new members were Bomanjee Hormusji and Dadabhoy
Pestoji along with Nana.

The Inland Railway Association, to cover all grounds now
insisted on extensive and accurate surveys. The Association asked
for the services of military engineers to participate in the survey
and help estimate costs of the railway. The expenses of the surveys
were to be divided between the Government and the Association.
The Governor Sir George Arthur was confident “that a
remunerative railway might be constructed and maintained along
the lines proposed”, if the changes suggested by the Government
Railway Committee were adopted. Reasserting his confidence in
the ultimate success of railways, he promised to assign to the
survey work to a military engineer, who would be joined by a civil
engineer nominated by the railway company, provided the Military
Board had an officer available for the task. Sir George Arthur’s
memorandum was conveyed to the Inland Railway Association,
in which it was clearly advised that a government official would
be instructed to provide the Association every assistance in the
collection of relevant information. At the same time the Governor’s
full statement along with a copy of the Association’s appeal for
support, was dispatched to Calcutta for the approval of the
Governor General.
The response from Calcutta to this was rapid. This was
because the Governor General had received from London the
Court of Director’s letter of May 7, 1845 in which the policy was
laid down in some detail regarding the construction of railway in
India. It stated the requirements i.e. the detailed plan and estimates
for examination to the Government and the terms of agreement
of the proposed company were to be submitted. Government
would facilitate the surveys and other operations of the Company,
as well as purchase of land and promote the success of the
undertaking. Acting on the instruction of the East India Company,
the Governor General deemed it inadvisable for the railway surveys
and investigations to be made, “except through the agency of the
best European professional talent and a comprehensive practical
experience of those modes of conveyance.” The study of the
applicability of railways in India was to be undertaken by the
engineer appointed by the Court of Directors who would soon
arrive in Calcutta.
Foundation of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway
While the railway enthusiasts were trying to stand strong in
India, fresh initiatives were being taken by John Chapman in
England to promote investment in the Indian Railways with
adequate Government support. In the view of Daniel Thorner,
‘This remarkable individual, a Baptist deacon, with a pronounced
interest in engineering and matters mechanical was the foremost
pioneer of railways in Western India.’ He had written a number
of articles for several newspapers and was actively involved in
the management of a number of specialist trade publications, such
as the Railway Times, The Shareholders Advocate, etc. In 1842,
he was asked to investigate the state of Indian trade by George
Thompson, a British Member of Parliament. His pain taking
research and an understanding of the Indian trade conditions
culminated in the publication of his book The Cotton and
Commerce of India in 1851. In his own words, however, ‘In 1842
and 1843 when my solitary efforts commenced the greatest
difficulty was to meet the incredibility and even ridicule with which
my statements and suggestions were almost everywhere
received.’ Even though his initial efforts did not get an enthusiastic
response, he did not give up his endeavour, and began to muster
support for the promotion of rail roads in India from the commercial
houses.
The Great Indian Railway
Citing the advantages of a proper transport system in the
Deccan, Chapman described the route which would be taken by
the proposed line. He wrote on September 12, 1844, “It is proposed
to construct a main line of transit across the peninsula of India
with branch roads at proper distances from each other”. The main
line was to start from Bombay all the way across India to Coringa,
a port at the mouth of Godavari River. From this main line, branches
would extend both north and south, tapping the great cotton centers
of Ahmednagar, Amraoti (Oomrawuttee), and Nagpur and
important commercial centers such as Poona, Satara, Bijapur,
Aurangabad and Hyderabad. He further mentioned that system
of railroads would prove to be a safe and profitable investment
for Europeans capital, while it would greatly benefit the people of
India.

The total length would be 1,300 miles and the cost would be
only £5,000 per mile. From the above it is clear that network of a
detailed document was prepared which dealt with all aspects of
the proposed line – its routes, areas which it was to traverse, and
its construction, cost per mile, etc. He further went on to compare
the cost of laying the track per mile, with that of other countries.33
Chapman opined that taking into consideration the cheapness

of land and labour. In India £ 5,000 per mile or 500 miles for 2 ½
millions did not seem to be extravagance.
The lengthy document was sent to the East India Company in
the name of Great Indian Railway, the precursor of the Great Indian
Peninsula Railway. The application for the introduction of railways
in India was forwarded on October 8, 1844. This was two months
before Stephenson’s first formal letter on behalf of the E.I.R to the
East India Company. On 8th November 1844, Messrs Borret and
White, the eminent solicitors of Whitehall also applied to the Court
of Directors of the East India Company for their co-operation and
assistance, and laid before them the “important subject of the
construction of Railways in India by private capital and enterprise”.
They proposed to select a committee of Management, “to whom
the control of the deposits and the directions of the concern shall be
confided… take steps for sending out one or two engineers and
other competent parties, to survey the line, and make all the
preliminary enquiries and then return to England and report to the
Committee”. Unfortunately, the East India Company did not show
immediate interest to the project.
The Great Indian Peninsula Railway Company
Although the East India Company gave little notice to this
proposal, John Chapman’s energetic activities attracted attention
in the cities of London & Liverpool. John Stuart Wortley, M.P and
heir of Lord Wharncliffe ,then President of the council was highly
impressed by Chapman proposaland agreed to become the
Chairman of the Great Indian Railway which in March,1845, was
renamed the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, familiarly known as
GIPR. The East India Company, seeing the rise of popular tide
of railway promotion among the masses, made an attempt in the
same direction, as seen in their letter of May 7, 1845, “In
consequence of applications from private companies for our co-
operation in-forming rail roads on an extensive scale in different
parts of India, we have been led to take into consideration the
general principles by which our proceedings on this most important
subject ought to be regulated”.
In the same letter, the Court of Directors of the East India
Company called the attention of the Governor-General of India to
the following peculiar difficulties:
1. Periodical rains and inundations.
2. The continued action of violent winds, and influence of vertical
sun.
3. The ravages of insects and vermin.
4. Destructive growth of spontaneous vegetation of under wood
upon earth and brick work.
5. The un-enclosed and un-protected tracts of country through
which rail roads would pass.
6. The difficulty and expense of securing the services of
competent and trustworthy of engineers.
Though skeptical of the success of rail roads in India, unsure
of a good remuneration, aware of a number of climatic and
geographical difficulties to be faced in construction and
maintenance and the absence of good railway engineers in India,
the Directors assured the promoters of all possible help, after
they had submitted the detailed plans and estimates for Government
scrutiny.
A Provisional Committee
The GIPR viewed the East India Company’s Railway
Dispatch of May 7, 1845, as a signal to go ahead, the private
companies formed themselves into joint - stock companies. The
Great India Peninsula Railway had the first recorded meeting of
the Provisional Committee with John Stuart Wortley as the
Chairman and eight other founding members, on May 10, 1845 at

35, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London. A prospectus was prepared to
be submitted to the Board of Control for its approval. It was also
resolved that it should be advertised without any delay in English
newspaper viz The Times, The Morning Chronicle, The Morning
Herald and The Morning Post.
This meeting heralded the ‘Dawn of Railway Era’ in India
and laid the foundation of the one of the largest railway companies
in India. The GIPR had a Board of Directors which gave it both
strength and responsibility. Eight of these Directors had served in
various distinguished capacities in the East India Company in India.
Robert Stephenson, son of George Stephenson, Accepted
the GIPR’s offer to become the first consulting Engineer. For its
bankers the GIPR had the powerful firm of Denison, Heywood,
Kennards and Company, then one of the most active sponsors of
domestic British railway projects. The Board of the East Indian
Railway (E.I.R) had more impressive list of the members of the
famous East India mercantile houses, i.e. Sir George Larpent,
Chairman, Cockerell and Co., Barett D. Colvin, Deputy Chairman,
Crawford, colvin and Co., Robert Gurmey Barclay, Barclay,
Brothers and Co., Alexander Beattie, Beattie and Co., C.D. Bruce,
Fletcher, Alexander and Co., John Campbell, Deputy Chairman
of the Peninsular and Oriental Co., Thomas L. Kelsall, Kelsall
and Co., William Scott, Scott , Bell and Co., but GIPR’s connection
with British banking and railway magnets were far stronger than
those of the E.I.R’s. John Chapman, its greatest promoter became
the company’s manager.
Merger of GIPR and Inland Railway Association
In the meeting held on 9th June 1845 the Provisional
Committee of the GIPR Company in London passed six
resolutions. As per this resolution it approved the idea of forming
a large and influential Provisional Committee in Bombay. This
was formed in Bombay in July, 1845 to give “character and credit”
to the undertaking in India.
John Chapman found that the Inland Railway Association’s
project and objectives were in no way different from those of
GIPR. So his next step was to transform the Inland Association
into the local Bombay group of the GIPR. Even the Inland Railway
Association was convinced that its main purpose had already been
answered by the formation of the GIPR Company. It handed over
all its papers to the Bombay Provisional Committee of the
Company. Chapman with great skill and diplomacy effected its
merger with the GIPR and Bombay Provisional Committee. The
merger was simultaneously announced in Bombay and London in
the first week of November 1845.
The scheme took a concrete shape when a company was
formed in England under the name of the Great Indian Peninsula
Railway Company,(to give the legal status) incorporated by an
Act of Parliament in August 1849. The GIPR entered into a
contract with the East India Company on August 17, 1849 , when
it was decided to raise a capital of £500,000 for the project, and
things began to move. The construction of the line was started on
October 31, 1850, when the Chief Justice of Bombay performed
the ceremony of turning the first sod near Sion in the presence of
prominent citizens. M/S. Faviell and Fowler, a British firm of
contractors who had been assigned the job, put 10,000 men on the
project.
India’s first locomotive railway engine, built by Vulcan
Foundry in England which arrived in Bombay, was named
“Falkland” after Lord Falkland, the Governor. When it started
operating, huge crowds gathered to see the daily shunting. The
project progressed fast and six months before the formal
inauguration, a test run with the GIPR Directors and their friends
as passengers was made between Bombay and Thana on
November 18,1852. However, the actual inauguration of this
railway took place on 16th April, 1853.
For the first twelve years since 1853 GIPR worked under
the supervision of the local Board of Directors. This was the period
when Jagannath Shankarshet was very much active. It was this
period , the work of gigantic nature was finished with great skill in
Bhore Ghat and Thull Ghat by its engineers under the guidance of
the Board. Nana took keen interest in these works in spite of his
full engrossment in so many other activities. He saw the rapid
rise of Railways during his tenure director of Board.
As the foremost founder of the Indian Railways and the first
Native Director of the Board, he had a special and unique dignity
in the railway set up during his life time. Today after 163 years,

India has climbed of success to such a step of unique distinction
that it has attained the status of being the largest network in Asia
and second largest on the globe under a single authority.
References
1 Purnell’s, Pictorial Encyclopedia of Trains and Railways, ed. Alan
Williams, Purnell Publishers, London, 1978, p.6.
2 Sir D.E. Wacha, Shells from the Sands of Bombay, being my
Recollections and Reminiscences, Indian Newspaper Co. Ltd.,
Bombay 1920, p.118.
3 N. B. Mehta, Indian Railways; Rates and Regulations, S. King and
Sons, London 1927, p 14.
4 Report from the Select Committee on the Affairs of the East India
Company III, Part II, National Archives of India (henceforth as
NAI), New Delhi, pp 671-675. This is the first available published
in 1831-32 about railway construction in India. During this period,
railway construction in England entered the second phase on a
large scale. A Select Committee was appointed by the House of
Commons to inquire into the state of affairs of the East
5 N. B. Mehta, Indian Railways; Rates and Regulations, S. King and
Sons, London 1927, p 14.
6 India Company and trade between Great Britain, The East Indies
and China, and to report to both the Houses of Parliament by
January 27, 1932. The Select Committee submitted the report on
August, 16, 1832 in the House of Commons.
7 Daniel Thorner, Investment in Empire-British Railway and Steam
Shipping Enterprise in India 1825-1849,University of Pennsylvania
Press, Philedelphia,1950, p 64.
8 N.L.Bhatnagar, Transport in India and Abroad, Jai Parkash Nath &
Co., Meerut, 1956, p 128.
9 N.B. Mehta, Indian Railways : Rates and Regulations, P.S. King
and son Ltd., London, 1927, p 15.
10 The Gazetteer of Bombay City and Island, vol.1, The Government
Photozinco Press, Pune, 1977, p 342.
11 If Egypt is the gift of Nile, Bombay is the gift of its harbour. Bombay
harbour is situated between the long arm of the east of the island
and the mainland. It is about 6 miles across at its widest part, and
is 7 fathoms deep at the entrance, and 9 at anchor. The English
were the first to recognize its importance.
12 Carter H.J., Geological Papers on Western India, Bombay, 1857, p
122.
13 O. S. Nock, Railways of Asia and Far East, Allied pub, Bangalore,
1980, p 8.
14 Daniel Thorner, op cit, p 23.
15 P.P. Shirodkar, Hon. Jagannath ShankarshetProphet of India’s
Resurgence and Maker of Modern Bombay, Pradnya-Darshan
Prakashan, Goa-India, 2005, p. 641.
16 Term Rail-Mania was used in England for the period between 1840-
1846. Joseph P. Griffiths mentioned that, during this period, ‘the
railways sprang up like mushrooms in the night and between 1840-
1846, the whole country went railway mad.’ Joseph P. Griffiths,
transport the magic carpet of Industry, George Philip and Sons,
London,1919, pp 75-76.
17 Chapman Collection, No.57: The Leader, September 20, 1845, Indian
Office Library & Railway, London. Quoted in Aruna Awasthi,
History & Development of Railways in India, p 35.
18 Public Works Department (henceforth known as PWD
PWD.Railway 1845, vol.I.Compilation no. 12, Letter dated July 13th
1844 to Secretary the Government of in General Department, MSA
(Mharashtra State Archives), p 146.
19 This account of the railway is taken from a monograph by Mr.
Frank J. Clark, entitled, The Great Indian Peninsula Railway under
the Original Company’s Administration-A Retrospect, and printed
for private circulation in 1900,Quoted in S. N. Sharma, History of
the Great Indian Peninsula Railway (1853-1869), Central Railway,
Bombay 1985. p 1.
20 The Gazetteer of Bombay City and Island, vol.1, The Government
Photozinco Press, Pune, 1977, p 342.
21 PWD Railways 1844 ,vol.1, compilation no.728, Letter to Secretary
of Government in General Department, dated July 13, 1844, MSA,
pp1-4.
22 PWD Railway 1844 vol.1Compilation no.728, Minutes by Governor
Arthur July 16, 1844, MSA, pp 9-12.
23 Ibid, Letter no.2256 0f 1844 dated July 19th 1844, MSA, pp 15-16.
24 PWD Railway 1844 vol.1Compilation no.728, Letter no 2257of1844
dated July19th, 1844, MSA, pp 19-21.
25 Ibid, Report of the Government Committee, 9th November 1844,
MSA, p 55.
26 Thorner, op-cit., p103.;PWD Railway 1845, vol.1, Compilation no.12,
Government of Bombay to Railway Provisional committee, March,
1, 1845, MSA.
27 ‘Bombay Great Eastern Railway’ Printed note in PWD Railway
1845, vol.1, Compilation no.12, MSA. P.290.Report of the
Government Committee of October 25, 1844 and G.T.Clark’s
Observations published in the Bombay Gazette of January, 18,
1845.
28 PWD Railway 1845, vol.1, Compilation no.12, Letter from Inland
Association, dated May 9, 1845, MSA, pp 282-287.

29 PWD Railway 1845, vol.1, Compilation no.12, Letter from Inland
Railway Association to Government of Bombay dated May 9, 1845,
MSA, pp 294-295.
30 PWD Railway 1845, vol.1, Compilation no.12, Letter no.1709 of
1845Government of Bombay to Inland Railway Association dated
June 9, 1845, MSA, pp 318-322.
31 PWD Railway 1845, vol.1, Compilation no.12, Letter from the Court
of Directors to the Government of India no. 11of1845, dated May
7, 1845, MSA, pp. 352-357.
32 PWD Railway 1845, vol .I, Compilation no.12,Letter no. 1710 of
1845, Government of Bombay to Inland Railway Association June
9th, 1845,MSA,pp324-327:Letter no. 3207 of 1845, Government of
India to the Government of Bombay, August 9th ,1845 MSA, pp.
.364-365.
33 Daniel Thorner, op cit, p 108.
34 John Chapman, The Cotton and Commerce of India, London 1851,
p 185.
35 The chief commercial house i.e. association of Bombay was the
Chamber of Commerce, which was established on December 22,
1836, under the auspices of Sir Robert Grant, then Governor of
Bombay. The European mercantile firms which were in existence
and lent their support were Messrs, Skinner and Co., William Nicol
and Co., Duncun Gill and Co., Leckie and Co.,Ritchie, Steuart and
Co. etc.It showed its concern for development of railways and growth
of Bombay. Its Indian members were Framji Banaji and Jameshetji
Jijibhai established the Bombay Times in 1838.Gazetteer of Bombay
City and Island, vol.1, p 455 and K.K.Chaudhri, Maharashtra State
Gazetteer, Government of Maharashtra, Bombay, 1987, p 93.
36 PWD Railway 1845, vol.1, Compilation no.12, Chapman’s Letter
dated September 12, 1844, MSA, p 426. (For more details see
Appendix A-1)
37 PWD Railway 1845, vol.1, Compilation no.12, MEMORANDA,
MSA, pp.428-429.
The length of the whole system is as follow:
Main Line..................................................................................736 miles.
Branches:
From Ahmednuggar to frontiers of Candeish...........................80
From the line at a point b/w Poonah and Ahmednuggar
To Sholapur...................................................................................120
From the Jn. Of the Manjera and the Godavery to
Nagpoor, with branch to Ommrawutty.......................................255
From southward to eastward Eilgundel to
Secunderabad (for Hyderabad)....................................................82
Total 1,273
Or say 1.300 miles.
Cost
1,3oomiles of railway at 3.000 per mile £ 3,900,000
Extra expenses on Ghats 500,000
Engines, Carriages, Stations etc. 600,000
38 Chapman Collection No.9, Deccan Transit, June, 1844, Para,
6.quoted in History and Development of Railways, p 40.
39 Thorner, op cit, pp 109-110.
40 PWD Railways 1845, vol.1, Compilation no.12, Letter to East India
House dated 8th November, 1844, MSA, pp 426-427.
41 Investment in Empire: British Railway and Steam Shipping
Enterprise in India 1825-1849, Phladelphia, 1950, p 109.
42 PWD Railways 1845, Vol.1, Compilation no.12, East Indian
Dispatch, May 7, 1845, para1.MSA,p 352,
43 PWD Railways 1845, vol.1, Compilation no.12, para3.MSA, pp353-
354.
44 Bell Horace, Railway Policy in India, Rivington, Percival and
Company, London 1894, p 3.
45 PWD Railways 1845, vol.1, Compilation no.12 , Copy Dispatch of
Court of Directors of the East India Company to Governor-General
of India,No.2471 of 1845,MSA,pp 360-361.
46 PWD Railways 1845, vol.1, Compilation no.12, Minutes of Directors,
May 1845, MSA, pp 424-425 (Appendix A-2).
47 PWD Railways 1845, vol.1, Compilation no.12, GIPR, MSA, p 424.
48 PWD Railways1845, vol.1,Compilation no.12, A Resolution of the
Directors, MSA, pp 294-297.
49 PWD Railways 1845, vol.1, Compilation no.12, GIPR, MSA,, p 424.
50 PWD Railways 1845, vol. 1, compilation no.12, GIPR Resolution
no. 4, dated, June, 9, 1845, MSA, pp 245-246.
51 PWD Railways 1845, vol. 1, compilation no.12, Letter to the
Government, dated November, 5, 1845, MSA, pp 416-420.
52 PWD Railways 1850, vol. 2, Compilation no. 26, An Act to
incorporate the Great India Peninsula Railway Company, August
1, 1849, MSA, pp 101-110.
53 PWD Railways 1848, vol.1, Compilation no. 711, A Copy of the
Deed of the Contract signed between East India Company and
GIPR Company, MSA, pp 179-180.
54 PWD Railways 1848, vol.1, Compilation no.11, Contract b/w East
India Company and Great Indian Peninsula Railway Company,
MSA, pp 179-197.See also Johnson J, op cit, p10.

The Impact of British Rule on Indian Villages
- Prof. Dr. (Major) Keshav Narayan Patil
Abstract
The British rule had pronounced and profound impact on
India. There was hardly any section of society or corner of county
which could escape the long arms of British colonialism. India
being a country with predominance of agriculture, any impact of
government on the people turned out to be essentially the impact
of government on the village. With the initiation of British rule, the
new land tenures, new land ownership concepts, tenancy changes
and heavier state demand for land revenue triggered of far-reaching
changes in rural economy and social relationship. Early British
administrators of the East India Company considered India as a
vast estate and acted on the principle that the company was entitled
to the entire economic rent. Moreover, the impact of other
administrative measures like railways, law and order machinery
and judiciary was also felt in the remote villages of India. Though,
the railways served to integrate India and brought the national
consciousness, however, they actively served as the agent of
colonialism to drain off the valuable resources from rural regions
of India. A major impact of these British policies was the expression
of intense poverty and frequent famines. These again found their
most dire reflections in rural India. The tragedy also found
manifestations in the stagnation and deterioration of agriculture
and the transformation of India into an agricultural colony of
Britain.
Keywords - Colonialism; Famine; Land Revenue Settlements;
Moneylender; Poverty; Rural Indebtedness
Objectives of the Study
As the changing life in Indian Village marked best the impact
of the British administration on the Indian people, this study has
been made to characterize the Indian villages in British period. It
narrates how the establishment of British rule altered the basic
land relationships in the villages which were governed by traditional
customs and usage. It logically interprets how the British tampered
the basic stability of the villages through the introduction of the
concept of mortgage, sale and transferability of land.
Methodology
An elaborative research methodology was used to investigate
and interpret the impact of British rule on Indian villages from the
second half of eighteenth century. The researcher has relied both
on primary sources as well as secondary sources for collection of
data. Primary data has been gathered from archival records;
whereas secondary data is based on analysis and discussions.
I. Introduction
The British regime had a pronounced and profound economic
impact on India. The economic policies followed by the British
led to the rapid transformation of India’s economy into a colonial
economy whose nature and structure was determined by the needs
of the British economy. In this reference, the British conquest of
India directly differed from all previous foreign conquests. The
previous conquerors had overthrown Indian political powers but
had made no basic changes in the county’s socio-economic
structure; they had gradually become a part of Indian life, political
as well as socio-economic. The peasants, the artisan and the trader
had continued to lead the same type of existence as before. Hence,
the change of rulers had merely meant change in the personnel of
administrative mechanism. But the British conquerors were
entirely different. They totally disrupted the traditional socio-
economic structure of the Indian villages.
With the advent of British rule in India, the political and
economic scenario underwent far-reaching changes. In order to
administer the country effectively, the colonial government did
not make any substantial changes in the village infrastructure, but
promoted the class of non-cultivating intermediaries. Up-to an
extent, the British inherited the institutional form of the agrarian
system from the Mughals . What they done actually, was the
superimposition of a new system over the existing pattern in tune
with British customs, laws and interest. The British fundamentally
altered the nature of property and land rights throughout the
country. Previously, the rights of land ownership were not

proprietary but overlapping. At that time, land was generally owned
by people belonging to high castes, while the low castes held
varying rights of occupancy and rights in sharing of crops, as
defined by traditional customs.
II. The Villages in Pre-British Period
Throughout the historical ages, Indian village remained a
unique and remarkable socio-economic organization. From time
immoral it has assumed a stable character of its own, with its
peculiar but distinct characteristics. Till the introduction of the
British rule, the village remained the basis of the rural society and
economy. Interrelating with economic sense, the village has been
termed the village community of its own sources and resources.
The villages enjoyed a self-contained and self-sufficing existence.
One of the remarkable historians, Elephant one had described
Indian villages as “Little republics, having nearly everything they
can want within themselves.” The activities of the villages were
regulated, as far as possible, a self-propelled and self-dependent
economic unit. Broadly speaking, the needs of the village
community were satisfied either within the village or by the
neighboring villages. The prime economic necessities were food
and clothing. The majority of members of the typical village
community were, therefore obvious, cultivators and weavers. The
additional needs, such as, farming implements and utensils, were
provided by the smith. The potter made pots, and the goldsmith,
ornaments. The simple needs of the villager could be met by these
craftsmen or tradesmen. The small trader supplied the other goods
which the village did not produce. Economic transactions within
the village were conducted in a lucid and logical manner.
Traditionally, the cultivator purchased his cloth, oil or pot by paying
in grain. Other professional groups of the society were also paid a
fixed annual share of grain. This procedure of mutual exchange
has been termed as barter system. It was only in the British era
that money began generally to replace the barter system. But in
the traditional village economy money served the purpose of wealth,
either in the shape of gold and silver.
In the terms of Economics, Barter system refers the act of
trading goods and services between two or more social groups or
parties without the use of money. It is a system of exchange by
which goods or services are directly exchanged for other goods
or services without using money as the medium of exchange.
Whatever any particular village community could not produce
it, the adjacent village or villages could supply and, thus, the villages
remained interdependent to met mutual needs. If the needs could
not be satisfied within the immediate vicinity, there was a periodical
or weekly market of various neighboring villages, where the
required commodities could be available? These markets were
arranged at regular intervals. Moreover, there was the annual fair
to which the inhabitants of a number of villages eagerly looked
forward to buy commodities of a specialized nature or technique.
III. Discussion
Under the regime of East India Company and later on of
Crown in India, the colonial rule left behind several everlasting
imprint in the socio-economic, political and cultural life of Indians.
Due to the process of colonialization, agriculture, trade, and industry
of India were ruined badly and India became a poor country as at
had never been. Similarly, the ruin of rural artisan and cottage
industries proceeded more rapidly once the railways were built in
the hinterlands of India.
The disintegration and degeneration of the village communities
in India started with the advent of British in India. The introduction
of new land laws and consequent infiltration of urban exploitative
elements, the opening of trade and breakdown of the village self-
sufficiency, and the centralization of revenue were the chief
characteristics of villages after the mid of eighteenth century.
During the British rule the revenue rate were high and in the land
settlements that were made between in the second half of 18th
century, lands were habitually sold by the English Company to the
new intermediaries because the old revenue farmers failed to meet
out the demand of land revenue. This transformation of land
brought into existence a new class of Zamindars. This class treated
land more as a channel for investment for their rent rather than as
a source of agricultural production. Furthermore, the agrarian
structure was supplemented by the novel experiments as and when
the English Company expanded her control in India.
Tax from the land remained a primary source of revenue for
the kings and emperors since time immemorial. Nevertheless, the

ownership pattern of land had witnessed changes over centuries.
In the pre-capitalist stage of Indian economy, the idea of absolute
ownership did not exist. All classes connected with land possessed
certain rights. Unlike, the ancient and medieval period, the British
imperial rule unleashed far-reaching changes in Indian agrarian
structure. New land tenures, new land ownership concepts,
tenancy changes and heavier demand for land revenue brought
havoc changes, both in rural economy and social web. From their
beginning, as political masters, the English Company relied on land
revenue as the principal source of income for the functioning of
state.
Broadly speaking, the English adopted three types of land
tenure, as the Zamindari tenure, the Ryotwari tenure and the
Mahalwari tenure. Zamindari settlement was made in Bengal,
Bihar, Orissa and Banaras. The Mahalwari tenure was introduced
in major portions of the U.P. and Punjab. The Ryotwari settlement
was made in major portions of Bombay and Madras presidencies,
in Assam and some other parts of British India. Whatever the
name of the system, it was the peasant cultivators who suffered
most (Baden-Powell, 1972; Chandra, 1966). They were forced to
pay very high rent and for all agricultural purposes they functioned
as tenant-at-will. They were compelled to pay many illegal dues
and were often required to perform forced labour.
By the end of the 19th century, the moneylender had become
a major curse of the countryside and an important cause of the
growing poverty of the rural people. In 1911 the total rural debt
was estimated at Rs. 300 crores. But 1937 it amounted to Rs.
1800 crores. The entire process became a vicious circle. The
pressure of taxation and growing poverty pushed the cultivators
into debt which in turn increased their poverty. In fact, the cultivators
often failed to understand that the moneylender was an inevitable
cog in the mechanism of imperialist exploitation and turned their
anger against him as he appeared to be the visible cause of their
impoverishment. For instance during the Revolt of 1857, wherever
the peasantry rose in revolt, quite often its first target of attack
was the moneylender and his account books. Such peasant
reactions soon became a frequent occurrence.
The new landlords, thus, constituted the new renter class
which claimed the large portion of the cultivation. The original
owners of land were being rapidly dispossessed of their rights
over land and were reduced to the position of tenants This revolution
in the property relations had far-reaching effect on the structure
of the agrarian society of the Indian villages. Afterwards, the village
community lost its authority and gradually disintegrated.
While this process of disintegration was going on the British
rule backed by a more powerful techno-economic power in the
wake of the industrial revolution7 delivered the deadly blow to the
Indian villages.
Moreover, the introduction of centralized administration, the
codified revenue arrangements and the extension of modern means
of communication broke the isolation and identity of the villages.
Local produce began to be exported and the imports found their
way in the countryside. High rents and increasing indebtedness
pushed the village in unprecedented poverty. The village migration
was further necessitated because of the destruction of village
handicrafts. The village economy became a part of the world
market linked with money transactions.
The impact of British rule, thus, led to the evolution of a new
structure of agrarian relations that was extremely regressive. The
new system did not at all permit the development of agriculture.
New social classes appeared at the top as well as at the bottom
of the social scale. There arose landlords, intermediaries, and
moneylenders at the top and tenants-at-will, share-croppers and
agricultural labourers at the bottom. The new pattern was neither
capitalism nor feudalism, nor was it a continuation of the old Mughal
arrangement. It was a new structure that colonialism evolved. It
was a semi-feudal and semi colonial in character.
The village based cotton-weaving and spinning cottage
industries were the worst hit. Silk and woolen textiles fared no
better and a similar fate overtook the iron, pottery, glass, paper,
metals, guns, shipping, oil-pressing, tanning industries, etc. This
collapse was caused largely by competition with the cheaper
imported machine-goods from Britain. The ruin of Indian industries,
particularly rural artisan industries, proceeded even more rapidly
once railways were built.8 The railways enable British
manufactures to reach and uproot the traditional industries in the

remotest villages of the country. As the American writer, D.H.
Buchanan has put it, “The armour of the isolated self-sufficient
village was pierced by the steel rail, and its life blood ebbed away.”
The loss of land and the over-crowding of land caused by
de-industrialization and lack of modern industry compelled the
landless peasants, ruined artisans and handicraftsmen to become
either tenants of the moneylenders and zamindars by paying rack-
rent or agricultural labourers at starvation wages. Thus, British
conquest led to increased dependence of the people on agriculture.
No figures for the earlier period are available but, according to
census Reports, between 1901 and 1941 alone the percentage of
population dependent on agriculture increased from 63.7 per cent
to 70 per cent. This increasing pressure on agriculture was one of
the major causes of the extreme poverty of India under the British
rule. Hence, the peasantry of Indian villages was crushed under
the triple burden of the Government, the zamindar or landlord,
and the moneylender. After these three had taken their share not
much was left for the cultivator and his family to subsist on. It has
been calculated that in 1950-51 land rent and money-lenders’
interest amounted to Rs. 1400 crores or roughly equal to one-
third of the total agricultural produce for the year. The result was
that the impoverishment of the peasantry continued as also an
increase in the incidence of famines. People died in millions
whenever droughts of floods caused failure of crops and produced
scarcity. In the very beginning of British rule in Bengal, the policy
of Clive and Warren Hastings (1775-82) of extracting the largest
possible land revenue had led to such devastation that even
Governor-General Cornwallis complained that, “One-third of
Bengal had been transformed into a jungle inhabited only by wild
beasts.”
Rural indebtedness was one of the serious problems faced
by the Indian villages during the British rule. There is a well-know
saying about rural indebtedness i.e., the Indian farmer is born in
debt, lives in debt and dies in debt. Before the Second World War,
it is estimated that rural debt ran to as much as 1800 crores of
rupees. The decay of traditional cottage industries made the ruined
handicraftsmen and artisans to crowd into agriculture. The gradual
destruction of rural crafts destroyed the union between agriculture
and domestic industry in the countryside and thereby made millions
of peasants rely overwhelmingly on cultivation. Millions of rural
artisans, who lost their traditional livelihood on this account, became
agricultural labourers on petty tenants holding small plots. They
also added to the pressure on land. The number of agricultural
labourers was very large and was rapidly growing. They lived a
life of abject poverty. They were treated as the most backward,
the most exploited and the most neglected class in the social
structure. Indeed, they formed the weakest link in the chain of
rural economy.
IV. Conclusion
The impact of government on the people meant essentially
the impact of government on the village. Accordingly, in pre-British
era, the village communities represented an economic stability
resting on a balanced system of agriculture, village industry and
local trade. The laws of demand and supply operated in a natural
manner and general happiness prevailed. However, the British
rule unleashed for-reaching changes on agricultural based Indian
village structure. Excessive land revenue demands proved counter-
productive. Agriculture began to languish, large areas went out of
cultivation and famines stared the people in the face. Right from
the beginning of their relationship with India, the British, who had
come as traders and had become rulers and administrators, had
influenced the economic and political systems of the country.
One result of the British rule was the sudden and quick
collapse of the rural cottage industries caused by the competition
with cheaper imported machine-made goods from Britain. The
building of railways and the oppression practiced by East India
Company together with the gradual disappearance of Indian rulers
and courts served to accentuate and accelerate the process. The
ruined artisans and craftsmen unable to find and alternative job
began to come to villages and crowded agriculture. This broke
the union of agriculture and self-sufficient rural economy. The
peasant was also progressively impoverished under the British
rule. The British policy of extracting the largest possible amount
of land revenue ruined the peasant’s condition. In the Zamindari
and Ryotwari settlement areas, the lost of peasants remained
unenviable. They were left at the mercies of the zamindars who

ransacked them, compelled them to pay illegal dues and to perform
forced labour. The high land revenue demand was accompanied
by rigidity in collection, rise of new landed gentry, and intrusion of
money lenders. All this resulted in the unprecedented poverty in
Indian villages throughout the British regime.
References
1. Arnold, D. (1991). Famine: Social Crisis and Historical Change
(New Perspectives on the Past). Wiley-Blackwell publication. 213-
19.
2. Arvind, N. D. (1982). Agrarian Movements in India: Studies on
20th Century Bihar. London: Routledge. 52.
3. Atal, Y. (1968). The Changing Frontiers of Caste. Delhi: National
Publishing House. 203-04.
4. Baden-Powell, B. H. (1894). A Short Account of the Land Revenue
and its Administration in British India; with a Sketch of La. Oxford:
Oxford Clarendon Press. 97.
5. Bagchi, A. K. (2000). Private Investment in India 1900-1939.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 285.
6. Banerjee, A. and L. Iyer (2005). History, Social Divisions and Public
Goods in Rural India. Switzerland: Journal of the European
Economic Association 3 (2-3). 639-47.
7. Bardhan, P. K. (1984). Land, Labour and Rural Poverty: Essays in
Development Economics. Delhi: Oxford University Press. 137-40.
8. Bearce, G. D. (1982). British Attitude towards India-1784-1858.
California: Greenwood Press. 206-11.
9. Beer, G. L. (1962). The Origins of the British Colonial System.
London: Kessinger Publishing. 194-98.
10. Bhatia, B. M. (1968). Famines in India, 1860-1965. New York: Asia
Publishing House. 93.
11. Blunt, E. A. H. (1931). The Caste System of North India. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, First Edition. 246-53.
12. Blyn, G. (1966). Agricultural Trends in India, 1891-1947: Output,
Availability, and Productivity. Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press. 117- 18.
13. Bose, S. (1993). Peasant Labour and Colonial Capital: Rural Bengal
Since 1770. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 203- 05.
14. Boserup, E. (1965). The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The
Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure. New
York: Aldine. 161.
15. Chandra, B. (1966). The Rise and Growth of Economic Nationalism
in India. New Delhi: People’s Publishing House. 326-32.
16. Chang, H. J. (2007). Institutional Change and Economic
Development. London: Anthem Press. 109-13.
17. Charlesworth, N. (1982), British Rule and the Indian Economy,
1800-1914. London: Macmillan. 24.
18. Chaudhuri, B. (2008). Peasant History of Late Pre-Colonial and
Colonial India. Delhi: Pearson Education India. 318-22.
19. Crook, N. (1933). India’s Industrial Cities: Essays in Economy and
Demograph. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 269-70.
20. Davis, K. (1951). The Population of India and Pakistan. Princeton:
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98.

The British Rule Impact on
Tribal Community of Khandesh Region
- Rajvirendrasing Rubji Gavit
Introduction
The tribals are important part of history because they have
prosperous cultural legacy. They have been living their lives with
cultural Integrity nurturing the specific characteristics of languages
and physical topicalities. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in 1952 had
addressed that the important and necessary way of living life is
the culture and way of living of tribal. “We can learn more things
through the tribal culture. The tribal people live there introvert
and peaceful life to maintain their culture integrity and internal life
values. It is wrong to consider their lives. As an alienation. Self
respect and faith are their inevitable qualities in their lives.” They
never compromise with their culture and values and it is the prime
to nurture their culture by living among themselves.
It is very difficult to decipher their love and faith about the
motherland. They are very akin nature and they always try to
protect the nature there difficulties. Their affection and love about
the nature always express through there singing, dancing and
traditional arts the handicrafts qualities war skills hunting skills
have been adopted instinctually.
During the colonial period, the condition in the lives of tribal
areas for the implementation of their trading colonial policies in
India. The tribal’s had not accepted this invasion and this initiated
armed revolt against the Britishers. Due to armed revolt they
permitted a traditional administration system. Along with this they
started to spread their love and affections towards the tribal. They
also increased their involvement for their religious purpose. So
the Christian priest also entered in to the tribal areas to spread
their religion among the tribal’s. The majority of the tribal started
to br converted in to Christianity. The Christian missionaries started
to destroy the socio economic, traditional and political system of
the tribal the fertile land of tribal was snatched by these new
migrants forcefully.
Objectives
1) To study a social life of the tribal in the Pre-independence
India.
2) To Study distinctiveness of the tribal.
3) To throw the light on the Resistance of tribal Early British
Policy.
The 19th century was a period of great significance in the
history of North Maharashtra. There was no single personality in
the area, who had influenced this period the people in general and
tribal in particular played an important role in regenerating the
feeling of togetherness among themselves.
In the beginning of the 19th century the area was not under
the one single authority. Though the greater part of the area was
under the nominal control of the Maratha, there were many
independent chieftains also, Pendhari and the Bhils were very
active against the authorities and indulged into plundering, looting
and gang robberies .after the downfall of the Maratha empire
East India Company went all out to bring the situation under the
control and the for the purpose appointed Briggs and Pottinger as
Collectors of khandesh and Ahmednagar districts respectively.
British authorities were eager to settle the country as fast as
possible and appointed the men of unusual character as Collectors
. But despite their best efforts the unfriendly attitude of the people
of the area could not be suppressed. All these people were very
much attached to their good old systems. Indian tribes have the
long cultural tradition. Their religion symbol, myth, totems are
different from the other religion. The Christian influenced the tribal
life with the massive concern programs; though the tribal attended
towards the Christianity they maintained their natural capabilities
so they are neither Hindu nor Christian. They basically as the
nomadic, nature worshipper, they created their natural symbols
and then into their socio-cultural lives. But it should be pointed out
that number of tribal attended towards the Christianity and covered
Christian tribal increase. The social administrative reforms by the
British government were considered as attacks over their social
systems and practices and hence the feeling of togetherness roused
in them. Thereafter the Britishers directly started to interfere in

to Socio-economical matter of the tribes. The transformation took
place during this period in to the lives of the tribal. The landlords,
moneylenders, Brokers, traders occupied their lives in the large
extent. Due to this tribal become affected by the indebtedness
and bankruptcy. They started to live as the labors of the farming.
they also were recognized as the farmers of the others land
consequently. The traditional lifestyle destroyed. There relation
with jungle and agriculture changed. The impact of cash crops of
the Britishers also destroyed the traditional agriculture system.
Their resources of bringing up were snatched. The Britishers later
on passed rules and laws of land and agriculture for the benefit of
their trade. This affected the lives of the Bhill Community, burn of
the British rule was also felt by these tribes. They hardly found
any difference between old and the new rule hence instead of
bowing before the Britishers they decided to fight against them.
They were led by 32 threatened the nearby villages.
It seems from the political department record that the Bhil
tried to show there resistance by attacking on British servants
and by plundering the posts. According to Shyam kayande the
author of ‘Popular Resistance to British Rule in North
Maharashtra’ they mentioned the Bhil chief attacked on kumaria
villages and took away cattle. Gunga Naik and Ramji were also
active near Chopda region Detachment marched to Saputara hills
to approached them and succeeded in killing Gunga Naik in one
of the operations. Kanhya Bhil and pendhari leader Shaikh Dulla
with considerable body of there adherents were also successfully
encountered by Major Bean Lt. Garden who assisted major Bean
captured 28 Bhils and made them prisoners. The gang of Bhil
was completely destroyed British losses being nil, meanwhile
maljarji Deshmukh attacked Surgana. Thalner pargana was also
plundered by the Bhils, Ramji Awchit and Shubhania the Bhil chiefs,
ravaged Nandurbar and Sultanpur district and Colonel Jordine was
forced to march against the chief. It seems from the deposition of
the Bhil women that Bhil used to live in poor condition and at
times even without salt. It is also observed that some Bhil women
were active in giving information and desposing the plunders of
the Bhil leaders widow of jamduba Sakaria of Ghodegaon village
employed 12 to 15 women to carry information and plunders to
different places.It means the women from tribal community also
fight against the Britishers. War of Rawalapani was great example
of tribal women contribution struggle against the British rule.
But British government on finding that the Bhills were out
from all directions robbing and pillaging with impute adopted the
policy of oppressions. Elphinstone, the commissioner in the Deccan
suggested that Bhils should be driven out in to the hills. Active
measured were taken to stop these irruption of the Bhils. Captain
Brigges hunted out several of the Bhil leaders. Troops were posted
along the passes to check their movement and to cut their supplies.
Captain Briggs soon realized that driving the Bhils into the hills
ment to encourage them to resort to plunder. He consulted the
Deccan Commissioners Elphinstone on this problem, who on his
recommendations adopted the policy of forbearance by providing
liberal provisions for pensions and allowances to the Bhil watchmen
who resumed there police duties which they used to discharge
previously. Elphistone wisely resorted to his policy and favored
the scheme of raising a Bhil corps. It had been a policy of
Elphinstone to use part of the people to keep the rest in order.
Mount Stuart Elphinstone, Governor of Bombay write in 1859.
To obtain the solidarity to the British empire in the North
Maharashtra he opted for a policy of conciliation Nadirsingh a
notorious Bhil chief was influenced through his associates and
brought under the British service.
The tribals were exploited severely economically in pre-
independence India especially under the British rule. Tremendous
upheavals took place in there socio- economic lives due to the
exploitative administration. They controlled tribal by making the
selfish laws. They exploited them with us the help of landlords,
moneylenders and these exploitative realities reported officers like
the Captain Outrams, J.Semington.
Conclusion
The British invaded the tribal region for strengthening their
administration control. They had not any interest in tribal
development but were interested to spread their influences in the
region. The tribal people realized this and protest against this
invasion.
Narration of the revolt in the 19th century proves that the

strong sense of freedom from the alien rule prevailed in the minds
of the people of North Maharashtra. The sense can be regarded
as primitives Nationalism.
Among the tribal people clan spirit came out the persistent
economic insecurity attracts on social pattern, felling of injustice
under the British rule. The attempt to disturb the self sufficient
village community, naturally people felt a threat to their heritage.
People of the same clan hence came together to secure their
interest, independence social economic and cultural life.
The destructions of rural and local economy self sufficiency
and the growth of internal trade crated condition for the rise of
unified Indian economy, in the khandesh region cotton was main
cash crop during the period of British rule later on some of the
well-known cotton industries emerged in khandesh region.
References
1. Kayande Shaym, Popular Resistance to British Rule in North
Maharashtra, Kasab Prakashan, Jalgaon, 1998
2. Sing S.R, India’s freedom struggle, Anamika prakashan,Noida,
Delhi, 1987
3. Saxsena Vinod kumar, Indian Reaction to British Policies, Sundeep
prakashan, Delhi,1978
4. Chandra Bipin, Indian Freedom Struggle, Penguin publication,
New Delhi, 2004
5. Simcox A.H.A memories of the Bhil Corps, Thakur and Thakur
Company, Bombay
6. Sinha K S, Tribal Situation in India, National publications, New
Delhi, 1996
7. Zha D.N, Ancient India, National book trust, Delhi, 2001
8. Madavi L.K, Tribal culture of India, Gondwana prakashan, Nagpur,
2001
Impact of The British Rule :
Communalism and Partition of India
- Pardeshi Enayat Ranjeet
Introduction
Many researchers have contributed to the study of British
policy towards communalism and its impact as partition of India.
But there is the requirement of more realistic approach to throw
light on relation of British policy with communalism. Studies will
be insufficient and less, if we cannot understand how British policy
used socio-cultural and political realities to strengthen their control
and rule over India. British policy of pacification of communal
forces is studied by many researchers and these researchers call
this policy ‘Divide and Rule’( Dr. Prasad, Rajendra: ‘India divided’,
2010,pg.109). But what were the helpful factors behind the success
of this policy in Indian society and politics, how British officers
implemented this policy and some groups of Indian upper caste-
class elites supported this policy of British rule, are the questions
which still at the point of research in academics.
‘Divide and Rule’ policy got success due to communal hatred
among Indian masses. Communal hatred was enriched by British
policy with the help of competitor Hindu-Muslim upper caste-
class elites. These Hindu-Muslim upper caste-class elites were
competitors of each-other for share and control over power,
politics, economy and representation in government bodies,
assemblies. This competition-factor was used wisely with the help
of communalism by British rule. Highest point of that communal
polarization was the partition of India. Though the partition was
claimed as religious separatism by some researchers, but its basic
reasons were rooted in economic, political and caste-patriarchal
hegemony of upper caste-class elites and in competition between
those elites too. This paper highlights interlinking between British
policy of pacification of communal forces and politics of communal
forces to strengthen elite leadership, control over masses by support
of British rulers, British policies.

Key words - ‘British Rule’, ‘Communalism’, ‘Caste-Class-Gender
oriented methodology’
Research Methodology
Caste-Class-Gender oriented research –methodology is
applied for the research on British policy’s impact as communalism
and partition of India. The application of caste-class-gender
oriented analysis to the research, facts is important factor in this
paper. Along with that, historical sociology, study of political
economy is applied in this paper.
Hypothesis
1. Appeasement policy towards communal forces by British
rule is the important reason for partition of India.
2. Competition between Hindu-Muslim upper caste-class elites
used communalism as a weapon for polarization and these
elites became successful to get political power.
3. This competition factor between Hindu-Muslim upper caste-
class elites was used by British rule and policy of ‘Divide
and Rule’ got success in the form of communal tension and
partition of India.
Aims of Research-paper
1. To throw light on caste-class competitive aspects of Indian
elite politics with relation to British rule’s policy of communal
pacification.
2. To highlight significant role of political and economic
competition between Hindu, Muslim, Sikkh elites in partition
of India,
3. To show how legacy of British rule’s policy of ‘Divide and
Rule’ got success with the help of Indian upper caste-class
elites from Hindu, Muslims and Sikkhs.
British rule and Communalism
The struggle in medieval history of India was the struggle
for political power. Competitors were elites and rulers from Hindu,
Muslim communities. That struggle was not religious at all. But it
was for political power. In British rule, these upper caste-class
elites from both communities used weapon of communalism with
the help and interests of British rule to divert demands of lower
caste-class masses who demanded equal status, representation
and humanitarian way of life. British rule wisely used policy of
‘Divide and Rule’ for strengthening of British rule with the support
of communal tension among Indian masses. Political power-
struggle, competition for representation in assemblies and
administration led the way for communalism used by Hindu-
Muslim-Sikkh upper caste-class elites. The narrow social support
of Muslim capitalist class and distant relations of Muslim community
from British administrators in first phase of development of
communalism, were strengthened Muslim caste system. Hence,
helpful background for Muslim communalism was created easily
by Muslim upper caste-class elites in Muslim community. At the
next stage, Muslim elites needed the support of British rulers and
Muslim League was formed in 1906.(Pardeshi: ‘Jativyavastha,
jamatwad ani muslim samaj: 2001, pg.12). Dr.Raosaheb Kasbe
argues that ‘ Indian National Congress, in the leadership of Gandhi,
demanded limited representation for marginalized peasants and in
reaction, communal organizations among Hindus were alerted for
intrests of elites in Hindus’ ( Kasbe, Raosaheb: ‘Hindu-Muslim
prashna ani Savarkarancha Hindurashtrawad’: 1994,pg. 481,482).
Sharad Patil argues that ‘The nature of majority of social
reforms in Hindus was a sort of approval for the cultural political
hegemony of upper caste-class Hindu elites. The leadership of
Indian National Movement was also in hands of Hindu upper caste-
class elites. Hence, Muslim upper caste-class elites took distance
from Gandhi and tried socio-political reform movements within
Muslims. But, Muslim reform movements were also in hands of
Muslim upper caste-class elites and these movements got
communalized, anti-women at next stage.’(Patil, Sharad: ‘2nd
Editorial in Satyashodhak Marxwadi’: March,1987, pg. 14).
The increasing communal gap and increasing competition
between Hindu-Muslim upper caste-class elites led to the ‘Theory
of Two Nations’. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the creator of this
theory. According to this theory- ‘Hindus and Muslims do not
have common intrests. In fact, there was contradictions of intrests
between Hindus and Muslims. In India, only British rulers can
protect intrests of Muslims. Hence, Muslims must be loyal towards
government and should oppose Congress. Due to contradictory
intrests, Hindus and Muslims are two separate nations. India is
not a nation and Congress is a Hindu organization. Motives of

Congress are anti-Muslim. Congress is trying to equalize by-born
‘lower’ and ‘higher’. Muslims should oppose the demand of
Congress of democratic elections as Muslims would not defend
their intrests in democratic elections due to minority. Muslims must
demand reservation in government services, legislature and
representation of Muslims must be not less than Hindus in
legislative assemblies.’(Chandra, Bipan: Bharat ka swatantrata
sangharsh’: 2011.pg.401).
Communal politics of Muslim upper caste-class elites with
the help of British rule
Bipan Chandra argues that: ‘Communal groups among
Muslims supported British government during Swadeshi movement
in Bengal in 1905-1906. These communal groups criticized Muslim
followers of Swadeshi movement as ‘sabotagers of Islam’. But
this policy of Muslim communal groups failed due to Muslim
intellectuals’ support to Congress. Then communal groups among
Muslims formed All India Muslim League. Founders of this
organization were land-lords, ex-administrators, elites, upper caste
fellows. Character of Muslim League was supportive to British
rule, communal. League supported partition of Bengal and
demanded separate electorates for Muslims. The aim of Muslim
league was to divert Muslim intellectuals from Congress. It was
anti-Congress and not anti-British rule’(Chandra,Bipan: Ibid: pg.
402).
Communal politics of Hindu upper caste-class elites in
support of British rule
According to Bipan Chandra, ‘Communalism among Hindus
was born similarly with communalism among Muslims. From the
decade of 1870, Hindu land-lords, elites were campaigning anti-
Muslim feelings. They accepted colonial definition of Indian history
and discussed about ‘exploitative medieval Muslim rule’. They
labeled British rule as ‘survivors of Hindus from Muslims’. They
communalized Hindi in United Province and Bihar as ‘Hindi of
Hindus’ and ‘Urdu of Muslims’. In 1890s, anti-beef movement
was only against Muslims. Though beef and cow-slaughter were
common in military camps of British rulers, communal groups
among Hindus did not oppose them. In 1896, communal groups
among Hindus started demanding reservation for Hindu seats in
legislature, administration.’(Chandra, Bipan:Ibid,pg. 402,403).
Above given explanation and details prove that the British
rule pacted with communal forces in upper caste-class elites to
strengthen their rule. Communal forces supported British rule for
the representation in government services, legislature.
Communalism: Last weapon of British rule
The use of communalism is discussed by Bipan Chandra as
follows: ‘After 1937, British rule had only weapon of communalism
to proceed their policy of ‘Divide and Rule’. British rulers decided
to use communalism. Whole state-power supported communalism
among Muslims. To dissolve demand of total independence, Muslim
League was appeased by British rule. League was granted power
of ‘VETO’ by British rule during political dialogues with Congress.
At the time of second worl-war, Hindu Mahasabha, communal
organizations among Muslims, Sikkhs proposed co-operation with
British rule. British government accepted their proposals. But
special treatment for Muslim league was done by them.’ (Chandra,
Bipan: Ibid,pg. 414,415).
Upper caste-class elites want to divert anger of depressed,
exploited lower caste-class masses. These masses were
demanding for equal share of political, economic power with
representation in assemblies, services. But communalism is used
by upper caste-class elites from Hindu-Muslim-Sikkh communities
to retain their control on politic and economy. Partition was division
of political and economic power between these elites.
Caste-Class-Gender aspects of partition and communal
politics
Jinnah cleared in an interview that ‘Congress is a party of
upper caste Hindus. Congress led India will be Hindu dominated
India. Hence, Congress and British rule must not impose any
constitution on Muslims’.(The Times Of India, Delhi, 2nd February,
1945,pg. 6).
Jinnah was labeling Congress as upper caste Hindu
organization. But at the same time, Jinnah and Muslim League
were also agents of Muslim upper caste-class elites. Muslim Julaha
(weavers) from Benaras opposed partition of India much before
Jinnah’s aggressive stand. Vice-president of Benaras city Muslim
league Khan Bahadur Mohammad Akram criticized Jinnah by

opposing partition and he considered partition as anti-Islamic.(The
Times Of India, Delhi, 18th April, 1940, pg.3).
Master Tara Singh, a Sikkh leader given a statement that: ‘I
believe in India’s constitutional making and unity of India. But if
Pakistan can get us in consideration, then independent nation will
be helpful for Sikkhs. There is no danger in talks with Jinnah for
separate Sikkh nation’.(The Times Of India, Delhi, 18th
April,1940,pg. 10).
Quotations given above are suggesting that Hindus, Muslims
or Sikkhs were not homogenous category. Upper caste-class
intrests were the reason behind partition. Demand of Pakistan
was based on fulfillment of intrests of Muslim upper caste-class
elites. Communalism was used as a weapon to safeguard intrests
of upper caste-class elites from Hindu, Muslim, Sikkh communities.
Sexual violence during process of partition increased tension
among Hindus, Muslims and Sikkhs as news and rumors of rape,
kidnap, molestation, forcible conversion of women by enemy
community were spread. This factor of sexual violence widened
scope of riots at huge level.
Interests of British rule in partition of India and
Communalism
Competition between upper caste-class elites of Hindu and
Muslim communities got the nature of communalism and India
partitioned. But seeds of this division were planted by British rulers.
Direct action day was called by Jinnah on 16th August, 1946 and
bloodshed increased on the level of sub-continent. (
Mahajan,Sucheta : ‘Bharat ka swatantrata sangharsh’: 2011, pg.
473). Partition was accepted by both elites as the power-division
as well as due to the day-to-day increasing horrible violence. Hindu
and Muslim elites wanted their own separate political systems as
they did not want the share of others in control over nation. This
contradiction of intrests of power, economy, politics partitioned
the India with support of British rule.British rule wisely used
contradiction of intrests of Hindu-Muslim upper caste-class elites
as British rulers knew about aspects of caste-class hegemony of
Indian society. Need of both Hindu and Muslim elites that lower
caste-class masses must not agitate against their supremacy within
religion, was considered by British rulers as the communalism
seemed helpful for elites and British rule too. Partition of India
and creation of Pakistan were much needed factors for England
for the purpose of economy, market of weapons, goods of its
nation’s profit. Long struggle between India and Pakistan created
chances for intervention as global police for Englan and western
powers to sell their arms in India and Pakistan with market for
goods produced by England with huge profit. Military base in
Pakistan were used against Soviet Russia by England as it wanted
to defuse Indo-Soviet friendship. So, partition factor is used as
buffer-state in cold war era also.
Conclusion
The partition was caused due to communal politics, which
was used by British rule with the help of Hindu-Muslim upper
caste-class elites to gain-maintain control over downtrodden-lower
caste-class masses. The impact of partition is still going on as
Kashmir issue became start and end-point of India’s foreign policy
as well as of Pakistan. Partition safeguarded intrests of upper
caste-class elites from both nations by using communalism.
References
1. Prasad, Rajendra: ‘India Divided’: Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2010
(Primary Source)
2. Pardeshi, Ranjeet: ‘Jativyawastha, Jamatwad ani Muslim Samaj’:
Krantijyoti Savitribai Phule Publications,Yeola(Nashik,) 2nd
Edition, 2nd February,2001.(Marathi)
3. Dr. Kasbe, Raosaheb: ‘Hindu-Muslim Prashna ani Savarkarancha
Hindurashtrawad’: Sugava Publications, Pune, 1st edition, 1994.
(Marathi).
4. Chandra, Bipan: ‘Bharat Ka Swatantrata Sangharsh’: Hindi
madhyam karyanway nideshalay, Delhi University, 35th Reprinted
Edition, July, 2011. (Hindi).
5. Mahajan, Sucheta: ‘Bharat Ka Swatantrata Sangharsh’: Hindi
madhyam karyanway nideshalay, Delhi University, 35th Reprinted
Edition, July, 2011. (Hindi).
6. Patil, Sharad: 2nd Editorial in magazine ‘Satyasodhak Marxwadi’:
March,1987 (Marathi).
7. The Times Of India (Delhi Edition) (Primary Source).

Health Services during British Rule in India
- Dr. Shubhada Thakare
Developments during British Rules

To gain full knowledge and appreciation of history of public
health administration in India, it is ncecessary to study the
administration under British rule. In the early days of British rule
attention was primarily focused on the unsatisfactory condition of
public health due to high mortality rate among British soldiers. After
the first battle for freedom in 1857 a Royal Commission was
appointed to investigate the reasons for this mortality. After
investigation the Commission made the recommendations. On its
recommendations three Commissioners were appointed in 1864,
one each in Bengal, Madras and Bombay. Contagious Disease
Act was passed by British Government in 1866 ( " An Act for
Prevention of Contagious Diseases at Certain Naval and Military
Stations"- 11 June, 1866) and was applied to Bombay Presidency
from 5th February 1868.1
In 1873, British Government also passed resolution that the
girls who were living in open prostitution were required to register
themselves under the contagious Disease Act. This resolution was
passed after the complaint of dancing girls of Belgaum made against
the Contagious Disease Act.2 In 1869 Sanitary Commissioner's
posts were created3. With the passing of local self-government
Act of 1885, local bodies were entrusted with the administration of
public health and the post of Director General of Indian Medical
Services was created in the same year mainly with the view to
promote hospital services.4
At the beginning of 20th Century, the health organisation at
the centre and in the provinces consisted of two main branches
which carried the following functions namely 1) Administration of
medical relief and maintenance of the associated institutions under
the direction of the Director General, Indian Medical Services at
the centre and Surgeon General or Inspector General of Civil Hospital
in the provinces. 2) Development of preventive health services under
the direction of Public Health Commissioner at the Centre and
Sanitation Commissioner in the provinces.
In addition to other duties, the Director General of Medical
Services was responsbile for the basic educational programme for
doctors, nurses, midwives and hospital technical personnel. The
Sanitation Commissioner was responsible for the training of Sanitary
Inspectors, Vaccinators, Health Visitors and Dais. The Red Cross
Society also had an active programme for training of Health Visitors
and midwives at the Red Cross Maternal and child Health Centres.5
The Indian Medical Research Fund Association was
established in the early period of 20th century to investigate the
causes of spread of plague, which had caused disaster throughout
the country, in 1896 epidemic. The new research laboratories and
training programmes were evolved during the next several years to
control the epidemic. For this purpose Central Research Laboratory
at Kasauli and Haffkin Institute at Bombay were established.
In 1912 provincial governments were authorised to appoint
Sanitary Commissioner with deputies to assist them. These posts
were subsequently converted into Directors and Deputy Directors
of Public Health. The post of Health officers for districts were
created in subsequent years. 6
Public Health Departments were first established in each of
the province in 1919. They were charged with the responsibilities
for the control of epidemics, sanitation and collection of vital statistics
data. The Municipalties were also given similar authorities
simultaneously.7
The Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine was established in
1920 to study tropical diseases and to train medical personnel. This
was famous school where medical personnel from all parts of the
world came for the study and research.
The British Parliament in 1921 transferred from the Central
Government to provincial government, certain administrative
branches such as those relating to health, education and development
of natural resources. The provincial governments had a large
measure of autonomy in these spheres. Indian ministers responsible
to the provincial legislature were placed incharge of these
programmes. Efforts to develop programme were handicapped by

the fact that the Administrative Council of Finance was responsible
to the Governor and not to the legislature.
During 1921-22 independent Public Health Departments in
the provinces were established. The title was changed from Sanitary
Commissioner to Public Health Commissioner.8 It became relatively
easy to get funds for hospitals and dispensaries in rural areas than
Public Health Schemes in urban areas. In this period prevention of
disease was given priority. For this work facilities were provided.
The provincial ministers were aware of the need and they set up
separate public health departments with a cadre consisting of Public
Health Officers and Sanitary Inspectors. The problems were so
wide spread and complex that they at first confined their efforts to
control the small-pox, cholera and plague.
In 1924, Rural Practitioner scheme was introduced in Madras
as a means of bringing medical care to the village. This scheme
provided a subsidy of Rs.50/- per month and Rs. 360/- per annum
to Doctors who would settle down in a village and treat patients
free of charge for three hours a day.9 The rest of the time was
devoted to private practice. It was a substitute for qualified Public
Health Officer and staff to control disease and promote health.
Though it is true that the British period is very significant in the field
of Public Health actitivities, there is on interesting example which
shows the limitations of British Administration in Indian society.
National Baby and Health Week and Exhibition was arranged by
the Governer of Bombay Presidency on Thursday, 13th March 1978.
For that exhibition some films relating to health of baby and mothers
were shown by National Film Board. 'If the only knew' was the
film on the subject of Birth Control and early marriage in India.
That film was rejected by National Film Censor Board from the
point of view of hammered morals and modesty of woman. Appeal
was made by Lady Wilson, the President of National Baby and
Health Week Committee, Bombay and finally it was approved by
Governor-in-Council. This example showed that the ideas of moral
and modesty are obstacle not only in present time but British
Government also had to face these obstacles.
In 1930, the All-India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health,
Calcutta was established with the aid of Rockfeller Foundation
Funds.10 This educational institution provided programmes of study
in public health administration, in material and child health,
tuberculosis, public health, nursing, sanitation, health education and
other public health activities. In the year 1932-1939 some more
health units were established to cater to the needs of rural people,
with assistance from the Rockfeller Foundation. The process of
decentralisation of health services started in 1919 was further
encouraged by the Government of India Act of 1935, according to
the provisions of which the subject of health became a state subject
with greater authority to states in this respect.
In 1937, a Central Advisory Board of Health was established.11
The Central Health Minister was designated as the Chairman. He
and State Health Minister were members of the Board.
Representatives of princely states, defence Member and Railway
Member were also nominated as members. The Director General
of Health and Public Health Commissioner were ex-officio members
of the Central Health Council which functioned as a policy making
and coordinating body for the development of Health services
throughout the country.
A systematic public health administration was introduced by
the British rule in India. British enacted a number of Acts in order
to develop the system. The following are some of the important
acts and committees which assisted in the development of health
administration in India in British period. A chronoligical statement is
given below :
9) Drug Act was enacted in 1940 by the central legislature. 12
Though the above steps were taken by British Administration
for the development of the health services for the Indian people,
the living conditions of the people and village sanitary conditions
were not so satisfactory to avoid the epidemics. During British period
village sanitary practices were faulty, and cholera and stomach
diseases were reported often because of unhealthy conditions and
bad sanitary practices. The poor condition of diet was also a reason.
In most places, contaminated drinking water was major reason of
disease. Many times people threw dead bodies into the river before
they had been fully consumed by fire.13
An important event took place in 1940 with the appointment
of 'Health Survey and Development Committees' known as 'Bhore
Committee' named after its chairman, Sir Joseph Bhore. This

committee submitted its report in 1946 and suggested a set up for
health administration in India both at centre and in the states. The
following recommendations were made by the Bhore Committee.
1) Medical and Public Health Services should be totally state
supported and health and medical personnel should be offered
better salaries.
2) Priority should be given to rural needs by providing Primary
Health Centres for each area consisting of ten to twenty
thousand population.
3) Curative and preventative services should be integrated giving
greater emphasis on preventive services.
4) Muncipal bodies should be vested with local health
responsibility. 14
The Bhore Committee report gave much importance to a
comprehensive scheme of health care on the basis of the ideology
of welfare state and suggested a new pattern of organisational and
procedural system of Public Health Administration in India. Even
after independence the system suggested by the Bhore Committee
was accepted which laid down the foundation of modern Public
Health Administrative in India on Western model.
It will not be incosistent if a brief account of the development
of the concept of Public Health Administration in Western countries
is given in this context.
The period of Renaissance of history marked by increasing
tendencies towards social concentration expanding trade and
population movement. The great pandemonium of middle ages
therefore must have caused considerable social and political
frustration which could lead only to attitude of fatalism and general
disregard for the welfare of individuals. The way of the life of
people has marked effect.
References
1. General Department, Vol. No. 3, 1863, British Govt. in India, P 54-
57.
2. General Department, Vol. 18, 1863, British Govt. in India, P 89.
3. Report of O. V. Hume, Secretary to British Govt. in India General
Department, Vol. No. 29.
4. General Department, Vol. No. 35, 1885, P.58.
5. M. J. A.R. Marriott British Govt. in India, P. 162.
6. Govt. of India Report of the Health Survey and Development
Committee, 1946, P. 128.
7. Ibid - P. 137.
8. British Govt. in India General Dept. Vol. 39, P. 30.
9. Govt. of India Ministry of Health Report, 1962.
10. Rao K. N., The National Health, 1966, P. 158.
11. Report of Health Survey and planning Committee, 1962. Op Cit.
12. Ibid.
13. Sharma S. K., Dynamics of Development, Vol. II, 1978, P. 375.
14. Report of Health Survey and Development Committe Op.Cit.

British Rule and Education of Indian Women
- Smt. Rekha C. Deokar
Abstract
The status of Indian women during British was largely product
of post Vedic influence. Extensive curtailment of free life prepared
the ground to build rigid chains for the subjection of women. The
code of Manu was frequently cited as a theoretical justification
for this subjection.A new society with new socio-economic and a
new democratic ideology were the need of time to aware women
of their pathetic condition. The beginning of the nineteenth century
resulted in organized efforts towards women’s emancipation in
general and education in particular.
Keywords - Subjection ofIndian women, British Rule, the policies
on education, women’s emancipation.
Introduction
A passing glance at the history of tradition- bound Indian
society will direct us to an unavoidable conclusion that the process
of transformation of Indian society into a modern society has been
very slow and it got impetus during the British period and the
pace of change was accelerated during the post-independence
period. In the course of many centuries, several hideous and
repulsive social customs, religious dogmas, practices and traditions
developed and most of these were responsible for creating
hindrances in the way of progress and prosperity of the nation.
Sanctity and holiness were attached to these social evils and any
reformer who showed an audacity to challenge them had to face
dreadful prospects of being ostracized. The reaction of
conservative people who wanted to maintain the status quo was
very sharp to any initiative for social reform. Innumerous evil
practices such as Sati, child marriage, female infanticide, polygamy
were prevailed. A vitally important fact that the condition of
widows was more pathetic.“ It is significant to note that in 1881,
of every 10,000 women 1791 were widows and in 1901 the number
rose to 1,847. Thus widowhood led to the final or the last stage in
the life of women.”1As in the case of Hindu women, rules derive
from two relevant sources. First, the male patriarchal dominance
promoting literature encouraged control and subordination of
women. While the second, folk and traditions,frequently formed
and propagated by women. These norms put emphasis on the
moralbehavior and responsibility of the women. It propagated
women as the bearer of children, mother; occupying ansignificant
position but wife under male control.
Though it was earlier, not the agenda of the British to
introduce education for the women but the deteriorating social
status of Indian women and the harsh criticism on the Empire
compelled to them to enforce women’s education.Infact, education
was one of the basic requirements to provide chances and facilities
to improve the fallen and worsen status of women. The British
promoted and rewarded literature that encouraged women’s
education. A Sanskrit College was started by Jonathan Duncan,
at Banaras in 1791. In 1813, by the Charter Act, the British
Parliament granted annual expenditure of one lakh rupees for
educating the Indians. Unfortunately, the money could not be used
over the conflict of Orient lists and Anglicizes syllabus. However,
Sir Charles Wood’s Dispatch on Education 1854 stressed on
Primary Schools in villages, High Schools in districts Vocational
Teachers’ Training and technical Schools and Colleges to be
started. The Dispatches specially stressed on the promotion of
Women’s education. The commission insisted that greater attention
to be paid to elementary education for females. It also added that
the standard of women education should not to be decline. The
Hunter Commission of 1882laid emphasis on female education
which was most inadequate. Equally important, the Saddler
University Commission of 1917, stressed the need of extending
the facilities for the female education, teachers’ training and
education of science and technology. The commission made a
resolution that a special board should be founded in order to
encourage the education of women. In Gujarat, the Gujarat
Vernacular Society was established in 1848 with the aim to spread
the importance of education and lessen the severity of illiteracy
among the women. The English social reformer Miss Mary

Carpenter started the Training College for women teachers. She
was immediate support to her proposal and the first teachers’
training college in 1870. “Not surprising, by 1882, there started
nearly 2600 primary schools, 81 secondary schools, 15 training
institutions and one college foe education of women and girls.”2
Women’s education for the social reformers was a crucial
channel through which social evils would be gradually eradicated.
These reformers argued that the socialization of girls helped to
increase the needs to be resourceful and self- sufficient, to get
prepared for the worst, to survive financially strained situations,
or simply to be more prolific. One of the prime reasons for
encouraging women’s education was that the educated men found
their illiterate wives unable to share any of their interest; they
needed wives as intelligent companions.
In spite of the forceful opposition of the patriarchal Indian
society , the politically conscious Indian reformers like raja Ram
Mohan Roy, Vishnu Shastri Pundit, JyotibaPhule, Mahadev
GovindRanade, G.K.Deodhar, BadruddinTayabji and Maharishi
Karve diverted their movements towards empowerment of Indian
women.Women who gained education on their own efforts were
PunditaRamabai, KashibaiKanitkar, Anandibai Joshi,
SavitribaiPhule. These women achieved social reform and acted
as a link between the outer world and the household. An
association founded by PunditaRamabaiSaraswati called Sharada
Sadan was regarded to be the pioneer effort of its kind. The first
girl to be enrolled was a daughter of a child widow. The name of
the girl was Sharda Garde and it is believe that the Sadan got its
name after her.3The perseverance and hard work and reverence
for learning become a source of inspiration for the women of 18th
century India. Anandibai completed her degree in medicine from
Philadelphia in 1884.An additional illustration to support the cause
of education is RamabaiRanade, who received her elementary
education at home. With her work and support of Sagunabai Deo
of Women’s Training College,Ramabai completed her education.
Conclusion
Genuinely, women exemplify the true parameter of a cultural
and spiritual level of any society. It is a recognized truth that the
reformers men and women protested against the obvious violations
and to some extent got succeeded in this battle. The educational
movements started had have a considerable effect on the mind
set of the Indian society. The nineteenth witnessed the colossal
social changes that occurred in the lives of the Indian women.
After Independence the planning commission extensively
recommended for women’s education. The Report of the
committee on the Education of Women 1959 highlighted the
problems of women education and wanted to link higher education
with professional and skilled based occupations. Across India, the
presence of women in higher education is of course not
satisfactory. To sum, in the changing scenario, today Indian women,
who is walking in the footprints of the great ladies of the past are
achieving acclamation and recognition.
References
1. Shrivastava Gauri- Women’s Higher Education in the 19th Century-
Concept Publishing Company- New Delhi-2000 Page-30
2. Agarwal.S.P. &J.C.Agarwal-ed - Women Education in India-
Concept Publishing Company- New Delhi-2000. Page – 21
3. Srivastava-Women’s Higher Education in 19th Century, Concept
Publishing Company. New Delhi.2000 Page -120

British Rule and Social Changes
- Satish Nikam
Britain is the top most example in all colonial powers, who had
great use of Industrializations and modernization for their objectives.
It was well known said that, the sun never sets on the Empire of the
Britishers. It means that the British Colonial power infiltrate in all
over in the East to West world. But that was not a miracle, because
the lots of hard work was behind it. The instincts of the Britishers
also very important thing for this. They had lots of qualities like
venture, renouncing, ambitions, perseverance, patience, gallantry
and last but not least astuteness. Astuteness of to make use of all
the conditions.
The British East India Company Started to engraft its roots in
India and got the permission to establish its trading in the regions of
Surat, Bombay and Madras by the successful diplomacy of Sir
Thomas Roe in 1615 in the court of Badshah Jahangir. The Britishers
spreaded their empire successfully though they had invades India
as the traders. The British traders or businessmen cunningly
increased their political influence in the large extent in compare to
other European traders. The victory in the war of plassey
commenced the British rule on the Indian politics directly. It was
the beginning of the new era for India in all manners and India
started to realise changes in both negative & positive ways.
Consequently Indian traditional economic system started to be
collapsed rapidly. The adverse impact to be seen on the agricultural
sector, because it were commercialized by the British Administrators,
The other trading sectors which was depended on the agriculture,
also started to be collapsed. Though the Indian land underwent the
adverse impacts on the Indian economy, agriculture, trading and
business, it opened the new way of the enlightment for the depressed,
oppressed classes and deprived of all by the Indian orthodox social
system. It also introduced the conflict between modern economic
colonialism and traditionalism in India. So the British power faced
armed revolts.
No doubt the British Colonial power was one of the absorption
power. British colonialism was the economical-colonialism. The
prime objective of colonialism was purely economical. They were
not interested to expand their geographical demarcation. Britishers
wanted to increased their market places all over the world.
Although British power took advantage of its political strength.
But it does not mean that we have lost everything. We could not
refuse some positive impact of British rule on India.
All sectors in India were came under the dominance of British
power. Nevertheless most positive influence was noticed in the social
system in India. Inequality, exploitation and suppression was the
main features of Indian society. Some of the group of peoples
particularly feudatory and Brahmins creates their monopoly on the
strength of social- religious rituals and custom. This dominant group
refuse even inherent rights to the most of the people on cast base.
British era break the confine social frame of India.
B. M. Bhatia mentioned citation of Rudolph and Rudolph in
his book that is 'British rule thus proved to be the catalytic agent for
the transition of India from tradition to modernity.' he stated the
prominent difference of British rulers and earlier Turk- Moguls ruler.
Instead of their adapting themselves to the customs, manners,
religion, culture, civilization and social institutions of India, they
attempted with a considerable degree of success, to pattern Indian
society along the Western social order.
The conflict between British and Indians was not only the
political conflict but it was also the conflict between two civilizations.
But the conflict between these two uneven cultures. British power
was the one of the modern power. They were well equipped with
all the means to make influence on their colonies. 'Here was an
encounter between two civilizations, with altogether different sets
of values-one materialistically acquisitive, scientifically and
technologically progressive and politically aggressive; the other
religion and cast based, non- materialistic, superstitious and custom
ridden in conduct.' So British culture competently made huge
elaboration in to the steady and rigid Indian society.
The process of changing India was started under the shelter
of churches. 'Christian mission helped in creating an atmosphere

for social reforms and suppression of inhuman practices'. Another
way which made positive public opinion for reformation in India
that was the education policy of British Rulers in India. The western
education opened the doors of information to the Indians. Education
was the carols of upper caste; particularly for Brahmins. But British
opened the door of education to all the people in India. Indians
were come to know some of modern values like Liberalism,
Individualism, Equality, Brotherhood, Liberty and Nationalism.
The father of Indian Renaissance, Raja Rammohan Roy was
the social offspring of western education. J. Kumar very rightly
said in his book that "Rammohan has been rightly described as a
living bridge between the old and new India. The 'first earnest minded
investigator in the science of comparative religion', He was also the
first great modern thinker of India." So we cannot disaffirm the
Rammohans ideology was prepossessed by Western Ideology.
Which he gained through the western education. Many of the history
writers stated that Britishers spreads education in India for just
creating devoted beurocrates for British rule. However we got
some positive outcome of their policy. At least British education
mobilized the Ideological process among the western educated
Indians.
"Notwithstanding a clear direction in the Charter Act of 1813
that part of the funds allotted for the encouragement of education
should be spend over the introduction and promotion of sciences
among the people." It's also true that Raja Rammohan Roy was a
supporter of Western education. ' Macaulay's famous minute of
1835... was the Magna Carta of English education in India. It was
accepted by the government..... and the door was flung open for all
for the coming in of a healthy western mind.' Thus we can say that
the British education policy is the prime thing that strike
comprehensively on rigid Indian society. Afterworths the changes,
transformations or modifications started in Indian society.
Britishers introduced three great agrarian measure system.
Reforms in revenue systems settles the chaos in the revenue system.
Another important thing was the first factory Act of 1881 which
pronounced the fix working hours for women and children was
passed. It also raised the minimum age for children from seven to
nine. And also gave a weekly holiday for workers. This reforms
was definately on the foundation of humanism.
Some of exclusive reforms for example - Lord William
Bentinck's abolition of Sati, Lord Ripons constitutional reforms,
Draught policies of British Rulers was very effective. So
consequently we can say that Britishers drained India economically
but India have gained socially much more.
The British rule contributed to bring the transformation into
the thinking process in India and somehow it was the beginning of
rationalism. The modern life values were also inculcated among
the newly educated youths through the English or western education.
The fields of education and knowledge open for all by the British
Rule through which the process of enlightment started in India. The
social and religious reformation movements sprouted out due to the
enlightment and rationalization through the public nature of English
Education. The awareness about the rights and privileges among
the shudra and ati-shudras also instigated to emerge reformation
movements. Rise of the labour class is also one of the phenomenon
change in Indian society as the result of colonial power. The modern
trends imbibed on the fields of Art, Culture and Literature. The
newspapers started to be used as the tool of public communication
and awareness. News paper played vital role in social and political
movements. British rule also brought the political awareness in India.
Thus the various political institutions and organizations established
in India. Britisher's policies played significant role in emergence of
Indian Nationalism.
References
1. Roberts P.E., History of British India Under the Company And the
Crown, Oxford University Press, London.
2. Bipin Chandra, History of Modern India, Orient Black Swan
Publication, New Delhi.
3. Kumar J., Company India, A Comprehensive History of India (1757-
1858), Janaki Prakashan, Patna.
4. Bhatia B. M., History and Social Development, Vol. I : Elites in
Modern India, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., Delhi.

Arrival of British and Cultural Changes in India
- Prof. U. Y. Gangurde
Introduction
The number of people who speak English has gradually
increased the entire world since the mid-16th century. According
to David Crystal (1988) the number of speakers during the reign
of Queen Elizabeth-I ranged between five and Seven millions while
in 1952 during the reign of Queen Elizabeth-II, the number reached
250 millions. This huge increase in the number of English Speakers
in the world is the result of expansion of English Language from
the British Isles to different areas and continents in the world.
The expansion of English has been labeled by linguist Robert
philipson as Linguistic imperialism”. According to philipsen
Linguistic imperialism is the ‘dominance asserted and retained by
the establishment continues reconstitution of structural and cultural
inequalities between English and other Languages” (1992) As a
result, English become the most dominant and most powerful
language in the world that motivated many linguists and language
researchers, as Braj Kachru (1983) to call it an ‘International
Language’ The ‘International Language’ has been used after
English become mother tongue and the second language spoken
by non-native English speakers from different areas in the world.
David crystal (1992) argies that more than two-thirds result of
British Colonial expansion during the last two centuries in North
America, The British colonial activity in addition for spreading the
English Language all over the globe, has resulted in the creation
of new Varities of English which were influenced by the aboriginal
Language of colonised counties.
History of Colonialism
Historian Jurgen Osterhammel defines the term ‘Colonialism’
as a relationship between an indigenous “majority and minority of
foreign invaders” (2005). In appliying this definition to the British
colonial activity, It will be clear that Britain, being the foreigner
invader, has been able to colonise different nations, cultures and
countries. After the establishment of the united kingdom between
the years 1603 and 1707 that led to the expansion of the English
language within the British Isles, The British Empire began to
expand to other geographic regions that are far from the united
kingdom. According to professor Rajshekhar (2012) there are
countries called ‘settler countries’ that were not fully settled, and
were politically administerd by Britain as Sri Lanka, India, South
Africa, Nigeria, Jamaica and other Landscapes.
Colonization In India And Cultural Change
Before the Britishers and English Language come to India
there has been number of imperialists who invaded India but British
Invasion has a greatest impact on Indian culture ‘Language is the
mediam of cultural invasion.’ English Language played crucial
role in influencing culture life of Indians. Kachru (1986-128-129)
has given Various reasons for which Languages used in a society.
They can be used to expand the Speech community, as a vehicle
of cultural and religious enlightment to deculturise people from
their own tradition to gain economic advantage, to control domains
of knowledge and information, and for deception. The ‘Vivilizing
process’ also belonged distancing from native cultures. The
colonizers wanted to introduce European Literature to the native,
at the same time remaining ignorant of their indigenous literature.
English Language And Cultural Imperial son
The most important reason for the Success of English is
according to kachru (1986-129-132), Naturally the historical role
of England as a colonial power. In India for example, the political
power naturally attributed power to the language of the Raj (called
the Linguistic elitism strategy) and it also become a symbol of
political power, English come to be the language of the legal system,
higher education and regional administrative network, Science and
technology. Trade and commerce- either because the indigenous
Language were not equipped for these roles and English provided
for a conveninent vocabulary, or because the use of English was
considered prestigious and powerful. English become gradually a
major tool for acquiring knowledge in the sciences and the
humanities. It has come to represent modernization and
development, and as a Link Language, it has acquired international

rules over the years.
At present, English dominates Funtional domains in the widest
possible register range, kachru has presented some parameters
of the power of English. Demographic and numer ical
unprecendented spread across cultures and languages: on
practically every continent Functional privides access to most
important scientific technological and cross-cultural one or more
of the following neutrality. Liberlism status and progressivism.
Accessibility provides intranational accessibility in the outer circle
and international mobility across regions.
Demand of English Education in India
A letter of Raja Ram Mohan Roy addressed to lord Amherest
(1773-1857) from the year 1823 is aften presented on evidence
of local demand for Egnlish, Roy embraced Europeon learning,
and in his opionion, English provided Indians with “ The key to all
knowledge.. all the realy useful knowledge- all the realy useful
knownledge which the world contains” (quoted Baily-1991-136).
In the letter, Roy expresses his opinion that the available funds
should be used for employing, European gentlemen of talent and
education to instruct the natives of India in Mathematics, Natural
philosophy, Chemistry and other science.
Indian culture was often considered somehow barbaric.
English was considered as a road to the light’ a tool of civilization.
The Europeon thought that they can bring emancipation to the
souls; they considered this as their duty. They Sincerely thought
they would contribute to the well being of native people in the
colonies, and their language was elvated into being almost divine.
Books written in English
India is third largest English books producing country after
the united states and united kingdom and the largest number of
books are published in English for wider access, creative writing
in English is considered an integral part of the literary traditions in
South Asia Indeed. According to the words of an Indian critic
Iyengar three decades ago there seems tobe an acceptance of
Indian English Literture as “one of the voices in which India English
Literature as” one of the voices in which India Speaks… It is a
new voince, no doubt but it is as much Indians us others” Sanyal
(1987) too claims that Indian writing represent and new form of
Indian culture. It has become assimilated and is today a dynamic
element of culture.
Influence of English on Indian Media & Communication
Indian print and electronic media are greatly influenced by
British English Language Later it becomes Indian English
Language and culture. There are thousands of Newspapers and
magazines published in English which often target the elite class
which cherishes the western taste. The new stories and
photographs of Hollywood actors and actresses often appear on
the front pages of Indian Newspapers. The electronic media has
brought western culture in every family. The Clothes and food
habits of large numbers of Indian are western.
Conclusion
The impact of western culture through English Language on
Indian Life is inevitable. Infact in the era of globization no society
can resist to the influence of alien cultures. That is, there will not
be a country with mono culture in a decade. Indian Culture has
also influenced the world culture. In other words there is rise of
global culture which has blurred the boundaries of tradition and
culture. And therefore the cultural Studies in the future need to be
pluralistic in approach.
References
1. Baily Richard W.1991, Images of English; A Cultural History of
Language, Cambridge CUP
2. Kacharu Braj B.1982 “English in South Asia” In Bailey & Gorlach
1,353,383
3. Kachru Braj B.1983- The Indianization of English, The English
Language of India Oxford CUP.
4. Pattanayak D.P.1990- Multilingualism in India (ed) clevedon:
multilingual matters Ltd.
5. Sanyal S.C.1987. English Language in India & Indo-Anglian prose
style London TEFL.
6. https://www.scribd.com>mobile>doc.

The Cultivators Whipcord : The Indicator of the
Dual Economic Drain of the Farmers
- Dr. Ajaykumar Pralhad Lokhande
Abstract
The constant flow of wealth from India to England for which
India did not get an adequate economic return became the chief
cause of growing poverty in India. DadabhaiNaoraoji traced the
economic drain in his speeches and writings. Phule, the
contemporary of Naoraoji had also exposed the economic
exploitation of the farmers and craftsmen. He highlighted the dual
exploitation and drain of the wealth of cultivators from the
government and the Brahmin priests in his writings like Cultivators
whipcord and Ishara. The present research paper displays the
development of drain theory proposed by DadabhaiNaoroji and
Simultaneous efforts of Phule to expose the exploitation of farmers
by the British government, high caste Indian officials and priests
in the name of religion.
The British rule considerably affected the political, socio and
economic structure of India. The various economic policies adopted
by them resulted in poverty and misery of the masses. The British
followed a policy of the extinction of the self-sufficient village
economy in India. The constant flow of wealth from India to
England for which India did not get an adequate economic return
became the chief cause of growing poverty in India. The earlier
leadership was keen on the growing economic problems of the
peasants under the British authority. The earlier Indainleaders were
ardent to show the economic exploitation of the cultivators and
workers due to the British imperialism. The social reformers. The
socio-religious reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy,
BalshastriJambhekar andGopalHariDeshmukh welcomed the
British rule because of their rule of law and administrative unity.
Yet they were not blind to its economic drain of the
wealth.JotiraoPhule had sensed the dual exploitation of the
peasants and workers. The British economic policies, the existing
socio-religious became the root cause of their exploitation under
colonial rule.
Early Moderate leaders’ attitude toward the policies of the
British government
Moderate leaders wished to influence the government and
the British public opinion to introduce the necessary reforms in
various fields of administration. They considered the coming of
the British as beneficial and providential. They openly praised the
social reforms initiated and supported by the British government.
The leaders who were not associated with the congress also
recognized the benefits of their rule. Dadabhai traced the
benevolent impact of the British rule- “The present advanced
humanitarian civilization of Britain could not but exercise its humane
influence to abolish the customs of sati and infanticide, earning
the everlasting blessings of the thousands who have been and will
be saved thereby. The introduction of English education, with its
great noble, elevating, and civilizing literature and advanced
science, will forever remain a monument of good work done in
India and a claim to gratitude upon the Indian people.”1
Dadabhai further goes on discussing the benefit of English
education to the natives in subsequent words- “This education
has taught the highest political ideal of British citizenship and raised
in the hearts of the educated Indians the hope and aspiration to be
able to raise their countrymen to the same ideal citizenship. Britain
may well claim credit for law and order, which, however, is as
much necessary for the existence of British rule in India as for
the good of the Indian people; for freedom of speech and press,
and for other benefits flowing therefrom.”2DadabhaiNauroji,
Anadmohan Bose and GopalkrishnaGokhale and many others
regarded the British rule as a blessing. Though they were loyal
and faithful to the British regime, they attacked the economic
exploitative measures and policies of the British government.
Economic exploitation shown through Drain Theory
DadabhaiNaoroji traced that India was getting poorer and
poorer every day because of low national income, the low import,
the low standard of living of people, and the low revenue returns
of the government. He was of the opinion that this existing poverty
was the direct result of the British rule in India. DadabhaiNaoroji

was neither an economist nor a hard-headed businessman, but
still he had an extraordinary sense of economic realism which
often eludes both a trained economist and a hard-headed
businessman.3In 1873, he gave evidence before the Select
Committee of Parliament appointed to enquire into the state of
Indian finances, and in 1876, he presented the revised draft of his
famous paper on the Poverty of India to the Bombay branch of
the East India Association in London. It was published in form of
book entitled ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’ in 1901.
Drain Theory propounded by DadabhaiNaoroji became the
economic basis of Indian nationalism. Dadabhai recited British
officers like Lord Cornwalis, J. S. Mill and many others in his
book at every step to convince the British rulers about exploitation
of India.He attributed the poverty of India to the heavy drain of
the resources of the country.According to him, the annual drain
of 3,000,000 on British India has amounted in thirty years, at 12
per cent, (the usual Indian rate) compound interest, to the enormous
sum of 723,900,000 sterling pound.4Dadabhai explained the rational
of drain in his book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.5
Phule’s exposure of economic drain
Phuleacknowledged the work of the British government of
introducing education to all castes which was monopoly of the
higher castes. He also praised their humanitarian work. However
the poor strata of the society like cultivators, landless labours and
craft worker were derived of their lawful income due to the nexus
between educated higher caste clerks in office and imperialistic
policy of the British administration. The benefit of the education
was taken by very few people as the government did not follow
programme of spread of education to the masses at massive level.
They relied on infiltration of the education theory which
consequently resulted in the education of the higher castes only
with very few exception of spread of education in lowers strata
including those of cultivators and craft workers.
Difference in Approaches between DadabhaiNaoroji and
Phule
While Dadabhai studied the earlier administrative recordsof
the British rule and sought the views of British authority, Phule
relied on observation. DadabhaiNaoroji studied the impact of drain
of the wealth due to the British policy on agriculture and industrial
policy. Dadabhai was highly educated person and had experience
of the government working whereas Phule had understanding of
the common people’s agonies. He witnessed the nexus of
capitalistic greed and traditionalist religious system. Phule’s
description evolve around the exploitation of the cultivators and
craftsmen due to the high revenue of the government, negligence
of the officers and the greed of the Brahmin priests.
Cultivators Whipcord
A Cultivators Whipcord exposed the economic exploitation
of the masses under the British rule. It mentions that the British
humanistic policies could not improve the condition of the masses
because of the lack of education to them. The peasants and
workers became victim of economic drain due to the colonial and
religious hegemonic practices of the British and the Brahmins
respectively. Phule’s writing in the cultivators whipcord was
completed on 18th July 1883. It could not be published immediately
after the writing. Before its actual publication,Phule organized
open reading of the book in Satyashodhakprogrammes in Junnar,
Pune, Vangani, Otur and many other places to enlighten the masses
about their duel exploitation at the hands of the British officers
and the Brahmin clerks in the office. Phule had sent one
handwritten copy to the governor general, Lord Dufferinas well.
The first two parts of this book were published in the
Deenbadhu periodical.6Narayan MeghajiLokhande, the then editor
of Deenbandhurefused to publish remaining parts of the book
because of its harsh criticism on the British government in regard
of negligence of the government towards the cultivators. Phule
was very much angry due to the refusal of Lokhandeof publishing
it. Lokhandethought that it would attract wrath of the British
government. Hence Phule criticized him as coward
editor.7Narayan Lokahnde refused to print the Cultivator ’s
whipcord because it was direct assault on the British government’s
economic policy toward the cultivators and the small scale industry
on native Indians. The direct assault on the British government
indicated exploitation of the cultivators and craftsmen in India.
Lokhande believed that the publication of this radical text might
invite wrath of the government.

Phule was neither thorough economist nor theorist. Yet his
native intellect and his wide observation made him aware about
the existing economic exploitation and drain of the wealth. Phule
felt that British rule had only worsened the problems of poverty
and increased indebtness among the cultivators. He criticized
the British economic policies and stated their effects on rural
society. Amongst the most important were the frequent and
excessive increases in land revenue demands, the depression of
Indian crafts and manufacturer, the import of British goods, and
enormous debt charged on Indian debt. All these actions of the
British government increased the pressure on the land under the
cultivation. 8
The exploitative elements of the British economic policies
and their impact on Indian agriculture and craft industry was
outlined.While tracing the root cause of the impoverishment of
the handicraft in India, Phule shares that all over India noblemen,
horse riders, soldiers, elephant riders, camel men and other craft
workers were in service of Indian rulers. Hence they did not
have much problem of paying land tax to the government as one
of the member war working with the government. The introduction
of the British government rule in India made these people jobless.
Hence they found it difficult to pay the higher land tax to the
government.
Phule had traced the double exploitation of the peasants in
his booklet cultivator’s whipcord. Firstly the money of the poor
cultivators was drained to the moneylenders and traditional
religious ceremonies. Secondly the British government carried
economic exploitation because of their greed and policy of
ignoring the cultivation. While exposing the miseries of the craft
workers, he states that the craftsmen from the England had
started selling their machine made goods at cheaper rate. Goods
like bread, biscuits, sweet pickle, small needles, knives, scissors,
sewing machines, stoves, coloures glassware and many other
finished goods flooded Indian market. Because of this
impoverishment many workers engaged themselves in cultivation
which was already troubled due to the British land revenue
system.9
The drain of the wealth of the poor farmers to the Brahmin
priest was also exposed by Phule. On occasion of many religious
rituals the poor farmers were expected to spend hard earned
money due to the pressure of tradition. On Saturday the wives of
the farmers used to spend for garland for god Maruti. When the
farmer’s wife become pregnant, the Brahmin exhort money to
prevent the influence of the evil spirit. On various occasions the
farmers were drained of the wealth with the calculation of the
priests on zodiac signs and imaginary planetary
combinations.10Apart from that at the time of marriage, building
new house, in the auspicious months of Ashadh, Shravanand various
times the Brahmin priests incurred money in the name of
traditionand religion.In the month of Pausha, on the Makarsankranti
the Brahmins read Sanskrit prediction and accept the gifts from
them. In the time of lunar and solar eclipses they accepted money
to prevent the future evils.11
JotiraoPhule put forward various suggestions to stop the
harassment of the peasants at the hands of the British officers
and the Brahmin priests in his writing-cultivators whipcord. The
government must build the small dams at various places. This
work will increase the yield from the cultivation. A help can be
taken from the army soldiers and the policemen for this work as
it will increase their immunity and it will prevent them from
diseases. The government should increase the lake with the
flowing rainy water. This will help farmers. Water from lake,
streams and the rivers must be made available at free of cost to
the farmers. The British government must impart the agricultural
knowledge and the information to the cultivators as it was done
in Europe. The prize must be given to the best farmers to boost
their moral.12
Phule’sapproach to the economic drain specified the
exploitation of peasants and workers by colonial rule and existing
socio-religious structure in country. He targeted British officers
and Indian clerks’ inhuman approach towards the cultivators and
the craft workers. He criticized the British imperialistic attitude
of exploiting the Indian peasants and craft workers for their own
industries. Simultaneously, he also raised his voice against the
economic exploitation and of the peasant at the hands and the
Brahmin priests on various occasions.

References
1. DadabhaiNaoroji, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, Swan
Sonnenschein and co., London, 1901, p. vi.
2. Ibid., p. vi.
3. In 1867, Dadabhai read a paper entitled England‘s Duties to India
before the East India Association, London. In this discourse he
posed a question, is British rule in India a benefit to India or
England? He provided the reply as well ?but now as the country
is being continually bled, its vitality and vigour must get low,
unless permanent improvement already made. DadabhaiNaoroji
raised the problem of Indian poverty and the drain of India‘s wealth
by the British and their intimate connection. He spent rest of his
life in the detailed examination of these problems.
4. Dadabhai,op. cit., p. 266.
5. The exports of produce belonging to the Native States, the exports
of produce belonging to the territories beyond the land frontiers,
the exports of the produce belonging to European or other foreign
planters or manufacturers, the profits of which are enjoyed in and
carried away out of the country by these foreigners, remittances
for " home charges," including interest on public debt held in
England, and loss in exchange, and excluding interest on debt
which is incurred for railways and other productive works,
remittances for interest on foreign debt incurred for railways and
other productive public works, private remittances of Europeans
and other foreigners to their own countries for their families, and
on account of their savings and profits.
6. Deenbandhu was the mouthpiece of Satyashodhak Samaj. The
newspaper was extremely important in order to understand the
SatyashodhakProgramme and its ideology. It was started on 1st
January 1877 by two brothers, KrishnraoPandurangBhalekar and
RamchandraroBhalekar in Pune. KrishnraoBhalekar was a close
associate of JotiraoPhule. Bhalekar brothers suffered losses in
Deenbandhu for three years, yet they tried to run it by borrowing
the money. It had been discontinued due to the financial crisis
when Narayan MeghajiLokhande and RamjiSantajiAvate took the
responsibility of publishing it from Bombay.
7. KrishnraoBhalekar and Narayan Lokhande both were
Satyashodhak follower. They had differences in opinion on few
points.Yet they took great efforts in the propagation of
satyashodhak ideology of Phule.
8. Rosalind O’Hanlon, Caste, Conflict And Ideology: Mahatma
JotiraoPhule And Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth Century
Western India, Cambridge University Press, London, 1985. p.
269.
9. Jotiraophule, ShetkaryachaAsud (in Marathi), translated as A
Cultivator’s Whipcord, Collected Works of Mahatma JotiraoPhule,
Vol. 3 by Asha Mundlay, Mahatma Phule Source Material
Publication Committee, Bombay, 2002, p. 53.
10. Ibid., p. 36.
11. Ibid., p. 44.
12. JotiraoPhule, ShetkaryachaAsud (Cultivators Whipcord), from
Mahatma PhuleSamagraWangmayaed. By Y. D. Phadke,
Maharashtra RajyaSanskritiAniSahityaMandal, Mumbai, 1991. P.
321-322.

The British Rule and Indian Education System
- Mr. Madhukar R. Wankhede
Introduction
Education is the significant tool for the development and
transformation of the individual, society and consequently the
nation. Education gives the ability and potentialities to transform
from the ignorant mind to the learned one. According to the
Dictionary of Education, education is “the aggregate of all the
processes by which a person develops abilities, attitudes and other
forms of behaviour of practical values in the society in which s/he
lives; the social process by which people are subjected to the
influence of selected and controlled environment (especially that
of the school), so that they may obtain social competence and
optimum individual development”. (edited by C.V. Good, 1973). It
should be available for all based on the equality and determined
by the laws. There should not be a cultural and religious politics
behind spreading the education because it creates the monopoly
of the handful of the social strata. This has been happened in
India for many centuries because it was politicized and made
available for the limited group of the society i.e. so-called upper
castes only. But the Indian education system revolutionalised
during Buddhism and British Rule. So this paper will throw light
on the Britishers’ endeavors to evolve the Indian education system.
Developed countries have been developed through education.
Currently education is the most important tool for human resource
development. If you want to develop national development, the
most important resource is the human resource than physical
resource. Unless the foundation of any building is strong, the
building cannot be strong, as the development of both the sides of
the man is required. Sientific, economic, religious, social,
professional, cultural developments are only possible through
education only. Education is a tool for social change. The
responsible citizens can be created through education. Education
helps to create a ‘future capable citizen’. Therefore, we should
consider the foundation of development is only the inclusive
education.
The history of Indian education is also a history of Indian
civilization. In the framework of the development and the changes
in the Indian society, the place of education and its role is also
significant because it is constantly evolving. After the public system
of education during Lokayat, we see Buddhist education
consistent with constant physical and social commitment. Women
and Shudras in Buddhism were also included in the mainstream
of education. But after the fall of the Buddhism, it was limited
only for the upper castes and it was determined by the Manusmriti.
According to Manu Smriti, one may not give advice to a Shudra,
nor (give him) the remains or of butter that has been offered. And
one may not teach him the law or enjoin upon him religious
observations and One should never recite (the Vedas) indistinctly
or in the presence of a Shudra”(50). And for Brahmins he (God)
ordered teaching, study, sacrifices and sacrificing (as priests) for
others, also giving and receiving gifts”(51). It means that the
education was restricted to upper castes only and the Shudras or
untouchables were deprived of it. But the British rule extended
the education for all and made it available across caste, religion
and gender etc
In the British period, the missionaries entered the education.
The important education document in this period included
Macaulay’s declaration in 1835, Wood’s declaration 1854, Hunter
Commission 1882. In this period, the purpose of education was
made by keeping in mind the interests of the State of British India.
Often people call it Macaulay’s education system. Lord
Macaulay was a member of the upper house of the British
Parliament (House of Lords). After the Revolution of 1857, when
the rule of India was taken away from the East India Company in
1860, under Queen Victoria, Macaulay was entrusted with
important work to suggest policies to strengthen British rule in
India. He traveled all over the country. He was surprised to see
that the sweeper, the Leatherman, the loomer, the farmer, the
trader (the Vaishya), the mantra reader, etc. were all lauding their
deeds with great reverence. All the society was tied to the door

of relations. Shudra was also a brother, uncle or grandfather of
anybody in society and Brahmin was also tied to similar relations.
Thus, the Indian society was tied in the form of unity between the
differences. There was a cordial relationship between the religious
communities at this time. It is a historical fact that both Hindus
and Muslims had opposed the British in the revolutions of 1857.
Macaulay felt that the British rule would not be strengthened till
the unity between the Hindus and Muslims would be broken.
Macaulay created the present system of education to destroy
the unity of Indian society and create hatred towards varnished
work. The goal of this education policy of the British was to break
the supremacy of Sanskrit, Persian and folk languages and establish
the dominance of English. Through this system, efforts have also
been made to create hatred towards hereditary acts and spread
mutual hate. Apart from this, Macaulay’s goal was to create an
attraction towards western civilization and the way of life. Christian
missionaries also played an important role in achieving these goals.
Christian missionaries first applied the education policy of
Macaulay.
Later on the various attempts were made to evolve the Indian
education system. For the first time, compulsory primary education
proposal was proposed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in March 1890.
The Hertog Committee in 1929 emphasized on qualitative
improvement by not emphasizing the numerical growth of
elementary schools. The main goal of basic education, imparted
by Gandhiji, was to make a self-sufficient ideal citizen by
developing all-round development of children through craft based
education. Macaulay suggested that it is possible to develop by
learning English.
In the pre-independence period (during British rule), some
commissions were appointed for primary education, secondary
and higher education.
1. “Charter Act: It came in 1813. This was a dispute over
Western Traditional Traditional Education.
2. Lord McAllen was announced in 1834. From this, Indian
education system has begun. Lord Bentinck approved the
same report.
3. 1854 Wood Khalita: In this report, Sir Charles recommended
the emphasis on western knowledge, and the universities of
Madras, Calcutta, Mumbai were established.
4. The Hunter Commission of 1882: Before Hunter Commission
Mahatma Phule expressed his displeasure. The Hunter
Commission presented by Lord Ripon. It focused on primary,
secondary, university education and women’s education.
5. 1902 Indian University Commission: Lord Curzon appointed
this commission for higher education. He enacted the Indian
University Law in 1904.
6. 1917 Saddler Commission: Sir Michael Sampler suggested
recommendations on how to develop various ways in
education.
7. Wardha Education Scheme 1937: The President of this
scheme was Dr. Zakir Hussain. Wardha Education Scheme
was founded by Mahatma Gandhi. These included free and
compulsory education for self-supporting education, student
union education, health education, handicraft education, ethical
education, mother language education and children from 7
to 14 years of age”. (https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki)
The various commissions during British rule suggested that
the education is an important for the development of the nation.
Through opinions and recommendations of these commissions,
the education started to be available for all. Due to the inclusive
approach, the Britishers gave India a new vision to be developed
after independence. The British rule provided different modern
views to the Indian society through education.
The British rule gave liberal ideology to the Indian education
system. They made it available to all without any discrimination.
They freed the education from the shackles of the brahmanic
monopolized system. Education became inclusive.
It provided the modern views to the Indian people. Before
the British rule, the Indian society and education system were
based on the orthodox codifications which kept Shudras and women
away from the mainstream and development. After the liberal
approach of the Brishers, the society started to root out the orthodox
and traditional views and it adopted the modernity.
Due to the English education, Indian people observed the
developed countries with their open eyes. They brought the equality

and fraternity in their behaviors in the society. The newly educated
people started the social reformation. They realized the orthodox
views spreaded by the Indian education system and devoted
themselves to transform these into the modern views which bring
the progressive vies and ideology. The British rule transformed
the Indian education with their progressive ideology and in the
21st century we are observing the glimpses of the education system
initiated by the British rule. The Indian education system in the
present need to be evolved and transformed with the need of the
future.
References
1. Good, C. V. and Winifred R. Merkel, ed. ‘Editor Dictionary of
Education’, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company,1959.
2. Aloysius, G. ed. No Freedom with Caste: The Menace of Hindu
Imperialism, Media House, Delhi, 2004, 86.
3. Burnell, A. C. The Ordinances of Manu: Translated from the
Sanskrit. Ed. Edward Washburn Hopkins. London: Trübner, 1891.
Print.
4. Ambedkar, B. R., Dalitanche Shikshan. Kshitij Publications, Nagpur,
2008.
5. http://mr.vikaspedia.in/education/childrens-corner/, Accessed on
31st Jan. 2018
6. https://www.google.co.in/search?ei=Y3GeWuTiH4PY0gTP16do&
q=??????+?????????+??????&oq=???????+???+???+??????+??????+
??????, Accessed on 31st Jan. 2018
7. https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki, Accessed on 31st Jan. 2018
British Rule and Indian Press
- Dr. Raghunath D. Shelake
Introduction
The political, social, economic and cultural mission carried
out by then newspapers. The progress in the printing art in Indian
in the begging period has also been mensioned there in. Printing
press existed then in a new places like Srirampur (Bangal), Surat
(Mumbai), Kotiam (Travankor), Bellari (Karnatak), Banglore
(Mysore) and Alahabd (United Provinces). It may be noted that
in those days the geographical units were different than those at
present. In India then newspapers were not failt as a necessity of
life, because there was a lack of the feeling of social life, because
there was a lack of the feeling of social life. The social life of
India began only when the British and established their full rule
which created some alterations due to the administration. The
Britishers had created many off opportunities for the local people.
After they established their soverign rule over the Indian people.
The means of communications such as the railways and road
transport were increased. The administrations showed the rule of
law and smooth control. It showed the way of remaining co-
operative, it also introduced a feeling of self-upliftment at all levels
of the people. The newspaper section developed because the
feeling of the social life was developed in the minds of the people.
James Augustus Hyky started on the 22nd of January 1780
a weekly named “Bengal Gazette” or “Calcutta General
Advertiser”. The first paper is known as “Hyky’s Gazette.” The
purpose of the Gazette has been explained.
“Although I have no perticular passion for printing of
newspapers, I have no prospensicy. I was not bred to slavish life
of hard work. Yet, I take a pleasure in enslaving body in order to
purchase freedom for mind and soul.”
The following sentences appeared on his Gazette. “A weekly
political paper open to all parties, but influenced by one.”

There after Peter Read and B. Mensik started “India
Gazette.” The year and month 1780 November. “Calcutta Gazette”
was started in 1784, “Bengal Journal” in February 1785. “Oriental
Magazine” was started in April 1785. It was also known as Calcutta
Amusement. It was in the from of monthly. “Calcutta Cronical”
was started in 1786.
Recherd Joston started “The Madras Courier” on the 12th
October 1785. “The weekly Madras Gazette” was started in
January 1795.
In Mumbai “Bombay Hearald” was started by Macleen in
the year 1789. Subsequently it was named as “Bombay Gazette”.
Lyuke Ash Borner started “Bombay Courier” in the year 1792.
Regulation for Publication of Newspapers
Lord Wellesley was appointed as the Governer General of
India in the year 1798. After his taking over, he made rules to
restrict newspapers. The voice-pr esident was to make
recommendations to the Board for adopting regulation for
publications of newspapers. The area was however limited to the
Presidencies. The rule were thus-
1st ) Every printer of a newspaper to print his name at the Bottom
of the paper.
nd
2 ) Every editor and proprietor of a paper to deliver in his name
and place of abode, to the secretary to the Government.
rd
3 ) No paper to be published on a Sunday.
4th ) No paper to be published at all until it shall have been
previously inspected by the secretary to the Government or
by a person authorised by him for that purpose.
5th ) The penalty for offending against any of the above regulation
to be immediate embarkation for Europe.”
The secretary was to Act as a censor rules were formulated
for the guidence of the secretary. They were as follows:-
1) To Prevent the publication of all observations on the state of
public credit, or the revenues of the finances of the company.
2) All observations respecting embarkation of Troops, stores,
or Specie or respecting any Naval or Military preparations
whatever.
3) All intelligence respecting the destination of any ships, or the
expectation of any, whether belonging to the company or to
individuals.
4) All observations with respect to the conduct of Government,
or any of its officer, civil or Military, Marine, commercial or
Judicial.
5) All private scandal or libels on individuals.
6) All statements with regard to the probability of war or peace
between the company and any of the Native powers.
7) All observations tending to convey information to an enemy
or to excite alarm or commotion within the Company’s
Territories.
8) The rupublication of such passages from the European
Newspapers as may tend to affect the influence and credit
of the British Power with the Native States.”
In Bengal province in those days many newspapers were
started, whereas some were in the offing. The names are thus-
“Friends of India”, Samachar Darpan, Samachar Chandrika
Digdarshan, Calcutta Journal, Samwad Kaumudi of Raja
Rammohan Roy and India Gazette.
In course of time by 1823 to 1835. There were other papers
like samwad Timir Nashak, Bangdoot, Bengal Hearld, Shastra
Prakash, Samwad Prabhakar, Samwad Sudhakar Samachar Sudha,
Rajendra Dnyanveshan, Nitya Prakash, Samwad Ratnakar,
Anuvedika, Samwad Pramukh samwad Sar Sangraha, Samwad
Saudemini, Satyawadi are some among the papers, Besides the
above were Amrit Bazar Patrika and in Urdu and Farsi there
were Miran-Ul-Akhabar, Jam-A-Jahannuma; some Hindi papers
in Nagari script had also been started. They were Udnad-Martand,
Samyadant-Martand, Bangait, Praja mitra, Samachar-
sudharashan.
Urdu Akhabar was in Delhi. Sayyad-Ul-Akhabar was in
Aligarh, Urdu-Gudi was in Calcutta. Jame-Ul-Akhabar was in
Madras Khadim-A-Hind was in Mumbai such papers were the
central places of newspapers.
The first newspaper in Hindi language was started at
Varanasi. The name was Banaras Akhabar. In Mumbai too Shri
Vyenktesh Samachar was the other one.
The following periodicals were started in Tamil sadu – Tamil
Magazine, Raj – Vritti – Bodhini, Din-varta-many, satyadoot,

vrittantini, sujan- Ranjini, Hitavadi, Ravi, Vivek-vardhini.
And in kerala Vidnyan Nikshe patra and Paschim Taraka
were started. Kannad Samachar, Subuddhi-Prakash Khadim-Ul-
Akhabar, Karnatika Prasarika, Suryodaya Prasarika, Vrittant-
Chintamani were the papers started in Karnataka.
In Punjab the newspapers were Kshinoor, Akhabar Shri
Darbar Sahib, Sookta-Sambodhini, Kavi-Chandrodaya, Vritta-
Patra, Shri Darbar Sahib.
Similarly in Gujrat Mumbaina Samachar Mumbai Vartman,
Mumbaina Harkan one Vartaman, Mumbaina Chabuk were the
papers.
The parsees too had their share in this field. They had started
Jame-Jamshed, Mumbai-Durbin, Samachar Darpan, Chitragyan
Darpan, Dadabhai Navaroji and his paper Rasta Guptar, Mumbai
Samachar. Kheda Vartaman was started in Kheda District and
Surat Mitra in Surat.
Darpan, Prabhakar, Dnyanoday, Dnyan Prakash also started
in that period.
Vrittavaibhav and Nyaysindhu were ther papers started at
Ahmednagar in Bombay presidency (Now in Maharashtra.)
Newspapers from Gwaliar and Indore States have also been
mensioned. T he paper s were Malwas Akhabar Purna
Chandrodaya, Vritta Prakash, Vritta Dhara, Vritta Lahari, Railway
Samachar, Satya-Prabodhini, Anand Lahari, etc.
Goa was under the Portugis rule. The paper there was
Gazette-de-Goa in Portuges. And in Marathi there were Anand
Lahari, Desh-Sudharnecchu, Journal Dash Novesh Cockishash.
In the area Kulaba, Ratnagiri and Raigad which covered the
Western sea cost. There were newspapers as follows :-
Satyasadan, Medietor, Sharabha, Sindhuyugma, Jaganmitra,
Vengurle Vritta, Lokmat, Vicharshil and Bakul.
Nashik Vritta, Nashik Samachar were the paper covering
Nashik and Dhule District. Where as in Khandesh there were
Khandesh Vaibhav, Aryawarta and Prabodh Chandrika.
Solapur District was ornamental with Kelp-taru-Anand Vritta
and Kalptaru.
Vidarbha and Nagpur area was then known as the Central
provinces. The papers there were central province news, Varhad
Samachar etc. Besides these, there was other papers as follows
:- Vaidarbha, Fanindrapur-Maniprakash, Vardha Lahari, Nagpur-
samachar, Nagpur and Berar Times etc. etc. Again in the Central
provinces there was a paper named subodh Sindhu and at Alichpur
there were Subodh Prakash and Promod Sindhu. They have been
mention in the Chapter Concerned.
In Belgaum the papers were Belgaum Samachar, Chikitsak
and Karnataka Mitra Dharwad Vritta was from Dharwad and
Sanmarg Darshak from Mudhol.
Induprakash, Native opinion and subodh Patrika were the
periodicals from Mumbai. The study of the papers in respect on
their role in the field has been detailed out in the chapter. Similarly
Arunodaya, Suryodaya, Hindu Punch and Kiran the papers from
Thane has been mensioned and their work in the field had been
analysed. In the same period Pune produced Dnyanchakshu,
Vidnaya Sudha, Jagathitecchu, Lok-Kalyanecchu Patra, Shivaji,
Dakshin Tara, Kashtvilasini and Pune Vaibhav. They have been
mensioned in the chapter.
There were some cartoon papers. They formed a category
in themselves. The papers were Indian panch panch, Awadh
Panch, Delhi Panch, Punjab Panch and Panchanand. Besides the
above there were Hindu Panch and Parsi Panch. In Mumbai,
such papers too formed a part of the development of newspapers
in India and the mension has been made in the Chapter.
The newspaper Deen Bandhu is said to be the paper of
Bahujan Samaj. A special mension has been in corporated in the
Chapter.
There was a gradual but stedy progress of the Indian
newspapers. The literates were awakening with the modern
method of educational system. The educated class became
concious of social responsibilities and was moving towards public
activities. The class got a new vision along with the new education.
This educated class saw the draw backs in the social life and
became concious of removing the draw backs.
Newspapers Policy of British
As per the newspapers Act of 1867 restrictions were imposed
on the papers and the press in addition to those imposed by the
Act of 1835. The object of this Act has been given in bellow:-

Act of 1867 - Act XI of 1835 which was enacted by sir charles
Metcalfe was replaced by Act XXV of 1867. The object of the
new Act was to regulate the printing presses and newspapers
and also to preserve copies of books printed in British India and
also the restriction on those books. The Act of 1867 is steel in
force althouth certain amendments were made in 1893 and 1940.
As per this Act it became essential for the press or publishers to
registrar the names of the papers or book, to provide copies of
Government for record to take oath before a majestrate about the
bonafides of the papers etc.
In fact this Act in itself did not amount to an encoachment
on the freedom of the press. The papers in English and in
Veracular languages had considerably increase in number by the
year 1870. The number went to 664 out of them 400 were in
vernacular language.
Metkalf’s Press Policy
Metkalf has been recorded in the annals of the history of
the field of newspapers as the freedom giver, whereas Lord
Litton is known to be the master of encroachment of the freedom
because of his aggressive and egostic policy. There broke a war
in Afganistan. His aggressive policy became transparent to the
world. The papers attached his foreign policy and also his rule.
To combat this criticism from the press. He created an Act named
veracular press Act. It was hurriedly get passed with the sanction
of the parliament in England. As per this Act the owner of the
paper was required to appear before the majistrate and pay or
present security. Besides the press owner was required to give
a garuntee that he would not write any matter which would create
displeasure against the Government. Otherwise he was required
to agree to pre-censorship of his paper. The picularity of this
Act was that it was to be appliel only to the papers in the
Vernacular languages. A majistrate could stop the printing of
any paper through this Act. In such case there was no provision
of appeal in a court of low.
There was a hue and cry against this oppressive Act amongst
the thinkers of India. The leaders and also the freedom of the
press. The Parliament in England too was approached with a
complaint against this Aggressive Act. It was started that the Act
was not impartial because it covered only the Varnacular papers
and not the English papers. It was stated that the political
awareness which has a healthy shope at present may turn in an
adverse way. The Government will not be able to understand the
pains and feeling of the public. Sir Firojshaha Mehata was the
leader to plead the view point of Indian citizens. But unfortunate
result was that the Government did not pay need to the feelings of
the Indians.
After a short while thereafter the aristrocratic Government
was defeated and a liberal Governments under the leadership of
Gladston took over. Litton had to resign and he was replaced by
Lord Rippen. He was a humanist. He replaced the Act introduced
by Litton. And in the year 1881 gave freedom to the Vernacular
Press in India as before. In Pune, the papers were Kesari, Maratha
Sudharak and Karamanuk.
Conclusion
The history of freedom of the press before India’s
independence show that the swing from freedom of the press to
control of the press depends largely on the personality and values
of the Governor Generals and the Viceroys in power at that time.
Whenever those in powers were liberal, there was a relaxation of
restrictions on the press and when those in power were
authoritarian, restrictions were imposed on freedom of the press.
Warren Hastings, Lord Wellesely, john Adam, Lord Amherst, Lord
Canning, Lord Lawerence, Lord Lytton, Lord Curzon, Lord Minto,
Lord Irwin and Lord Willington were Governor Generals and
Viceroys who were authoritarian and believed in controlling the
press. They took measures to curb the press. Lord Hasting, Lord
William Cavendish Bentink, Lord Metcalf, Lord Aukland and Lord
Ripon were Governor Generals and Viceroys who were liberal
and gave freedom to the press. During their regime, the Indian
press enjoyed freedom and could grow.
References
1) Margarita Berns, “The Indian Press”, George Allen and Unwin,
London, 1946.
2) Bengal Gazette, 29 January 1780.
3) Friend’s of India, vol.II, Culcutta Review, 1850.
4) Asiatic journal, August 1822.

5) Culcutta Journal, 31 January 1832.
6) Indian Press, “Punjabi Journalism Today and Yesterday”, August
1979.
7) “Source Material For A History Of The Freedom Movement In
India”, Govern ment of Maharashtra, Vol. II, Bombay, 1957.
8) Government Of Madhyapradesh, “The History Of Freedom
Movement In Madhya Pradesh, Nagour, 1956.
9) Kamal Sarkar, “100 Years Of Indian Cartoons”, 3/ Vol: 7 Vidur, No 1
February, 1978.
Marathi Books
1) Kanade, R. G., “Marathi Niyatkalikancha Itihas” 1832-1937,
Karnatak Publishing House, Mumbai, 1937.
2) Joshi , V. K., and Lele, R. K., “ Vruttapatrancha Itihas”, Khand 1,
Vasudev Vishnu Bhat, Mumbai, 1951.
3) Lele, R. K., “Marathi Vruttapatrancha Itihas”, Continental
Prakashan,Pune, 1984.
4) “kesari”, 3 January 1931.
5) Jawadekar, S. D., “Adhunik Bharat”, Sulabh Rashtriya Granth Mala,
Pune, 1953.
6) Tewalekar, Anandrao, “Kolhapurachi Vruttapatrasrushti”
Pudharikar G. G. Jadhav Gaurav Granth, Ed., S. S. Bhosale, Kolhapur,
1982.
7) Rawatekar, M. S., “Indurmadhil Niyatkalike”, Malvika Indur Sahitya
Sabha Hirak Mahotsav Smarnika, January, 1976.
8) Vedpratap, Vaidik, Ed. “Hindi Patrakarita: Vividh Ayam”, New Delhi,
1976.
British Rule and Indian Nationalism
- Dr. Nalini Avinash Waghmare
Introduction
Nationalism in India arose to meet the challenge of foreign
domination. The very existence of a foreign rule helped the
growth of a national sentiment among the people. There was
also a clash between the British interest in India and those of
the Indian people. The British had conquered India to promote
their own interest and they ruled over her primarily with that
object in view. With the passage of time there was a realization
in India and that realization brought bitterness against foreign
rule and that was responsible for the growth of the nationalist
movement to drive out the foreigners form the country. All classes
of people in India joined at one stage or the other the nationalist
movement. The intelligence in India, the peasants the artisans
and the workers all played their part in the freedom struggle.The
British came to India as traders and founded an empire in 1757
which ended in 1947..
The remarkable growth of nationalism in India under British
rule would not have been possible if her people had not long been
united by ties of culture and religion which endured in spite of the
numerous political turmoil’s with which the country was afflicted.
The Indian national movement was undoubtedly one of the
biggest mass movements modern society has ever seen. It was a
movement which galvanized millions of people of all classes and
ideologies into political action and brought to its knees a mighty
colonial empire.
The British conquest of India was different in character from
all the previous conquests of the country. In the past the change
of rulers implied merely a change of the dynasty that exercised
political authority over the people, but it did not affect the social
fabric, the productive organization, the property relations or the
system of administration. Under the British rule all this was altered,

and a socio-economic revolution was started which culminated in
the destruction of the old institutions and in the emergence of new
social classes and forces.
Causes of Indian Nationalism
The following were the significant reasons which contributed
to the rise of nationalism in India.
British Imperialism
The Nationalist Movement in India was the outcome of a
large number of factors and the most important among them was
British Imperialism. It was during the British rule that the whole
of India was conquered and brought under one Sovereign authority.
This domination by one country over the whole of India to think
and act as one nation. British Imperialism helped the process of
the unification of the country.
Political Unity
Before the establishment of the British Empire in India, there
were several small kingdoms in India which formed their policies
independently. But in the British regime a Uniform Economic and
Administrative System was established throughout the country.
One rule, one set of laws, administrative officers who were
transferred from one place to another all over India, etc.,
contributed to the concept of one citizenship and one national among
the Indians.
English Language
The English was made the medium of instruction in 1835.It
became the language of the educated people of India irrespective
of the differences of religion and region. With out the common
medium of the English language, it would have been out of the
question for the Madrasis, Bengalees, and the Punjabis to sit at
one table and discuss the common problems facing the country.
The educated Indians came in contact with the Western ideas
and culture through the medium of English language. The ideas of
liberty, equality, democracy, socialism etc., could infiltrate among
them because of the English language which was their medium.
Many Indians went abroad and came in direct contact with the
Western World. It was these English education Indians who led
the national movement and helped to develop and organize Indian
Nationalism.
Western Education and Literature
Indians studied English Literature very deeply which
broadened their outlook. Burke, Mill, Spencer, and Mazzini’s works
infused the spirit of independence into the people of India that the
began to aspire after their own independence. Under the British
regime people of India contact with foreign countries. Indian got
inspiration from the American War of independence and French
Revolution & Russian revolution. Thus, contact with foreign
countries inspired Indian Nationalism in several ways. Western
ideas of liberty, freedom, equality influenced the Indians.
Press and News Papers
The new awakening that followed the introduction of Western
education was widened by the printing press and newspaper. The
establishment of printing press helped in wide circulation of ideas.
By 1877, there were 644 newspapers in India, most of them
vernaculars. The Indian press and literature both English and
vernacular, also aroused national consciousness. Great was the
influence of newspapers like the Indian Mirror, the Bombay
Samachar, the Hindu patriot, the Amrita Bazar Patrika, the Hindu,
Kesari, Sulabh Samachar, Indu Prakash, Swadeshmithan, etc. on
the political life of the country. All these newspapers were mostly
anti – British and gave publicity of racial arrogance, economic
exploitation, personal misbehavior, etc., of the British towards
Indians. Undoubtedly, the Indian Press played a meritorious role
in not only creating a national awakening in the country but also
guiding the people of India throughout their struggle for
independence. It brought home to Indians that the main hurdle in
the way of Indians uplift was her slavery and that a political
organization was absolutely essential to check the misrule.
Development of the Means of Communications & Transports
The Vast Network of Communications and transportation,
built by the British, made it possible for Indians to come together
and communicate with one another and to discuss the deficiencies
and evils of British Rule. Railways, Telegraph, Wireless, Postal
Services Construction of roads and Canals facilitated
communication among the people. The frequent meetings of the
leaders among themselves and their personal contact with the
people in different parts of the country gave a moment to the

national movement.
Social and Religious Movements of the 19th Century
In the first decades of the 19th century, western impact had
started the process of self-criticism and reform of religion. The
religious and social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Keshab
Chandra Sen, Debendra Nath Tagore, Ishwar Chandra
Vidyasagar, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Ramakrishna
Parmahans, Vivekanand and others exercised a tremendous
influence on the people of India and they were responsible in
different ways in putting the people of India on the road to progress.
Among these, the names of the Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, the
Ramakrishna Mission and Theosophical Society made the people
aware of the reality and directed them not to follow Western
Civilization blindly. They revived the glory of ancient created faith
among the people in their religion and culture and thus, gave the
message of love to their motherland and to the people of India.
With self consciousness came the sense of self – respect, which,
in its train brought dissatisfaction against the British rule.Indians
began to realize the evils of their subjection. Freedom began to
be considered necessary even for the achievement of social and
religious reforms. These Movements Preached love for India,
Indians, Indian things.
Economic Exploitation
Britishers robbed the country which was known as the
Golden Bird Mercilessly and endeavored to make economically
crippled and financially bankrupt. They sent the raw material of
India to England at low prices and by selling their manufactured
goods on high rates in India, they exploited the people as well as
the country As a result, the Indian trade and industry were
intensified the problem of unemployment. Moreover, the English
government did not pay much attention to the advancement of
agriculture; hence the economic conditions of the country went
on worsening. The salaries for the Indians lower posts were so
low that the people of India felt dissatisfied, hence, discontented
merchants peasants and the educated unemployed all stood in
anger against the English governments. The public debt increased
tremendously. No proper use of the money was made while
constructing the railways. The cruelties inflicted by the English

also infused the spirit of nationalism into them and they supported
the National Movement. India, therefore, lost its economic
resources not only in the form of revenue, salary to the British
officers, investments etc, but mostly because of unfavourable
balance of trade which was primarily a creation of the British.
People all over India suffered financially mere subsistence level
and with no hope of any relief in future. It was found to react and
it was one of the most important causes of Indian nationalism.
Racial Impartiality
Before the outbreak of the revolution of 1857 the relations
between the English, arose and the Indians were not uncordial in
spite of the fact that the policies of the former were anti – Indians
but after the outbreak of this revolution, the tensions began to
memo and the Indians became militant. The English began to look
down on the people of India due to their feeling of superiority.
Their behaviour towards the Indians began to grow from bad to
worse. British had a very low opinion of the characters. After
1857, the mutiny provided an excuse to keep Indians out of higher
jobs. Hence it was but natural that feelings of hatred rose against
such a government. So the people of India decided to throw the
English out of India through the National Movement.
Influence of Historical Research
Many scholars, poets and religious reformers contributed
towards the progress of the National Movement. The study and
publication of the ancient Indian literature by Asiatic Society of
Bengal and scholars like Max Muller. Monier Williams Colebrooke,
M.G.Ranade, Har Prasad Sashtri, R. G.Bhandarkar, Rajendralal
Mitra etc. revealed to the people of India the majesty of the
Sanskrit language and also inculcated among them a feeling of
pride in their past and their faith in future. However, the learned
men & scholars made the people of India remember their glorious
past, and awakened them buy in the 19th century nationalism
emerged with renewed vigour, so the 19th century can be named
as the century of National awakening. It goes without saying that
the concepts of nationality and patriotism were known to the
Indians throughout their history. Ancient literature and religious
texts testify to a well defined image of Mother India and to a
closer consciousness of national solidarity. The ancient Indians

gave it the name of Bharatvarsha or simply Bharat.
Middle Class
The British conquest of India finally enveloped the entire
country the new social economy administrative system and modern
education spread all over India and gave rise to new social classes
on a National State.The role of the intelligentsia in the history of
modern Indian Nationalism was decisive. They integrated to a
great extent the Indian people into a modern nation and organized
various progressive socio – reform – and religio – reform
movements in the country.They were the pioneers, organizers and
leaders of all political national movements. They brought ideas of
nationalism and freedom to wider and wider sections of the Indian
people, through educational and propaganda work which involved
great self sacrifice & suffering.The fact the progressive
intelligentsia, which assimilated modern western democratic culture
and comprehended the complex problems of the incipient Indian
Nation, were the makers of modern India. The nationalist
movement led by these poets historians, scientists, sociologist,
philosophers, economist, etc.
Ilbert Bill
The controversy of Ilbert Bill also added to the development
of National Movement. During the regime of Lord Ripon in A.D.
1883, Lord Ilbert was the law member in India. By one his
proposals, he wanted to authorize the Indian Judges to settle the
case of the English.It was vehemently opposed by the English
hence the Bill could not be passed. The opposition to the Bill
antagonized the Indian Public opinion. It made the British policy
of racial discrimination very clear to them.The Indians realized
that they could not except any justice or fair play form the English
when their own interest were involved. The behaviour of the
English contributed to the rise of the spirit of nationalism and the
Indians decided to root out the English government. Thus the period
of Lord Lytton and Lord Ripon was the seed time of Indian
Nationalism which brought forth the Indian National Congress.
All India National Congress
The credit for starting the Indian National Congress is often
given to Mr. Allan Octavian Hume (A.O. Hume), who was a
retired civilian from Poona and who is called the “Father of the

Indian National Congress”. The Indian National Congress, the
premier Political organisation of the Indian people, held its first
session in Bombay in 1885. It was attended by almost all
outstanding leaders of Indian Nationalism. Its aim was to represent
all Indians, without any distinction of caste community, colour or
sex. It claims to represent all Indian interest and classes.
Conclusion
History of the national movement causes of its origin, its
growth, and its influence on the politics of the country. The main
landmark in the history of the struggle for political freedom of
India. An account of Indian struggle for independence and part
played by Gandhiji in it. The important factors which contributed
to the growth of political consciousness among the Indian people.
British writers are of the opinion that “British imperialism itself
was one of the important causes for the growth of freedom
movement in India”. Many factors contributed towards the growth
of the National movement in India mentioned above in my paper.
References
1 Bhatiya, H.S. Genesis of British Power in India, Deep and Deep
publications Pvt, Ltd, New Delhi, Reprint, 2001.
2 Bipan Chandra, India’s struggle for Independence (1857-1947),
Penguin books, New Delhi
3 Grover B.L.and S. Grover , Modern Indian History, S.Chand
Company, New Delhi, 2002.
4 Kulkarni, V.B. British Dominion in India and after, Bharatiya Vidya
Bhavan Bombay, 1964
5 Kulshreshtha V.D. Landmarks in Indian Legal and Constitutional
History, Eastern Book Company, Lucknow, Reprinted, 1997.
6 Mahajan, V.D. A History of India part-III (Modern India), S.Chand
& Company, New Delhi, 1990.
7 Pattabhi Sitaramayya, The History of Indian National Congress,
Vol. I ( 1885-1935), Padma publications, Ltd, Bombay1946,
8 Rajiva Mohan, Indian National Movement and the British Raj,
Chugh publications, Allahabad, 1988.
9 Ram Gopal, British Rule in India an Assessment, Asia publishing
House, Bombay, 1963.
10 Tara Chand, History of Freedom Movement in India, Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting Government of India, Patiala House,
New Delhi, reprinted 1990. (Vol.1 & 2).
11 William Wilson, A History of British India, Indian Reprints
publishing, Delhi, 1972.

Impact of British Rule on Indian Archeology
and Heritage Conservation
- Miss. Khandelwal Ishwari Prakash
Introduction
“No Document No History”: Mary Ritter Beard(Beard,1995)
Foreign scholars have often complained about India's lack of an
indigenous tradition of historiography. India possesses an enormous
heritage of literature accumulated over the Centuries, much of it
relating to past events, yet there has never' been a historian to
compare with those of ancient Greece and Rome, or later
European scholars who contributed to the development of history
as a discipline. Indifference to the western conception of history,
to the idea that man can be its subject and agent, actively working
to change the human condition, is cited as a distinguishing trait of
Indian civilization. Explanations offered for this deficiency are
that Indians have no sense of history, are not interested in factual
or 'objective' history, or have in any case had such a static society
that there has been little in the way of historical development to
encourage its scientific study.
“Those who don't know history are doomed to repeat it.” ?
Edmund Burke(1729-1797), a thinker of 18th century says while
Arthur Marwick in his “The Nature of History” says that the
people who tend to forget history are the people who have lost
their memories of the past. Similar was the condition of the Indians
on the eve of the British rule they had almost lost the memory of
their past where the Indus Valley Civilization had once developed
or King Ashoka rule over this land. But as the relations with the
foreign travelers increased there developed a historical
consciousness and they got acquainted with the importance of
conservation of history and its sources whether literary or non
literary. By this they started to reconstruct history. While
reconstruction of history the historians got acknowledged about
the importance of archeological sources. Thus through this they
got to know about archeology.

Archeology is a Discipline of history. Archeology has long
been accepted as a scientific discipline providing tangible evidence
for building up the superstructure of history. In fact, its claim is
accepted as supreme especially in such periods where written
records are absent or have remained undeciphered. Where,
however written records exist, the material remains turned up by
the spade convey in a telling manner the import of the written
word. Archeology also helps in conservation of our past. Indians
failed to conserve their past and thus because of that foreign
scholars could claim that India is a land of no history. However
with the time when British started to expand their rule all over
India they started to discover certain unknown facts of Indian
History. With the findings of antiquities and several other sites it
came to be known as India had a long forgotten history. With this
aim to rediscover the past there got established “Archeological
Survey of India”. The British have played a significant role in
discovering, exploring our pas and helping to conserve our past.
Thus the impact of British in Indian Archeology is been tried to be
explained through this paper.
Antiquarians and Not Archeologist
The first European notices of the living temples and ancient
monuments of India are found in the reports of travelers and sailors
in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and the first half of the eighteenth
centuries. These notices relate primarily to west and south India.
The most important records of living temples are by John Huighen
van Linschoten in the late sixteenth century and Pietrodella Valle
in the early seventeenth century. While Linschoten (Purchas 1905)
was unhappy about 'pagodes, cut and formed most uglie' Valle
(1664) was detailed, objective and remains unique among his
contemporaries in the sense that he supplemented his descriptions
of south Indian temples with ground plans. Among the ancient
monuments the rock-cut caves of the Deccan, particularly
Elephanta, Kanheri and Ellora, attracted most attention(anon, 1785
and Sen, 1949). The descriptions were sometimes detailed,
although there was no attempt at historical explanations, except
occasional refer ences to Alexander. T he two important
archaeological landmarks on the Orissan coast, the Jagannath
temple of Puri (the White Pagoda) and the sun temple of Konarak

(the Black Pagoda) Jagannath temple of Puri (the White Pagoda)
and the sun temple of Konarak (the Black Pagoda)
The middle of the eighteenth century saw the beginning of a
systematic and scholarly interest. In 1758 Anquetil du
Perron(anon,1785) as interested in the precise measurements and
plans of the Ellora rock-cut complex and its associated mythology.
About 1760 he investigated Elephanta and Kanheri. Carsten
Niebuhr's visits to Elephanta, where he 'made drawings of all the
most remarkable parts of it', seem to be somewhat later. In both
du Perron and Niebuhr one detects a positive awareness of India
as an area of historical and archaeological research. Niebuhr wrote:
'One still finds among the Indians, one of the oldest nations of the
world, so many valuable remains of antiquity, which deserve more
attention from the literati of Europe, than has been hitherto
bestowed on them' .(anon, 1785). The first significant author on
Indian historical geography was M. D'Anville,(1753, 1775) who
was concerned, among other things, with the identification of
historical sites that had been mentioned by the Classical authors
on India, such as the Palibothra of the Classical sources with
Pataliputra. A fuller subsequent study of these problems appeared
in a three-volume work by Joseph Tieffenthaler, du Perron and
James Rennell (1786-88).
The Asiatic Society
The Asiatic Society was founded in Calcutta on 15 January
1784, primarily at the initiative of William Jones. An annual journal,
Asiatic Researches, was first published in 1788 and a museum
was established in 1814. The aim of the Society was 'to inquire
into the history and antiquities, the arts, sciences and literature of
Asia'. Three historical factors explain the success of this society.
First, it was increasingly clear that the early British role of the
trader would be replaced by that of a territorial ruler, and the time
was ripe for a systematic investigation of the country. Second, as
Poliakov (1974: 183-88) has shown, in their attempt to free
themselves from Judaeo-Christian thought, Western philosophical
thinking, particularly that of the French Encyclopaedists, turned
to India for the origin of culture and religion. This attitude is well
reflected in the writings of Voltaire, who was 'convinced that
everything has come to us from the banks of the Ganges,

astronomy, astrology, metempsychosis, etc. Third, the closing years
of the eighteenth century witnessed the growth of many literary
and philosophic societies in Britain.(Plumb, 1966,177) By 1815
every provincial town of importance had its society, supported by
both the local aristocracy and the local manufacturers who were
equally aware of the social value of scientific discovery . . . The
results of this activity were vast and valuable. There were two
early theoretical traditions. The first was distinctly geographical
in content and a continuation of the earlier historical-geographical
studies. In the late eighteenth century its chief exponent was
Rennell (1793), who identified ancient Pataliputra with modern
Patna. He was also aware that ancient Ujjayini was the Ozene of
the Periplus and Ptolemy. On some sites, such as Gaur, he made
precise measurements. By and large Rennell's was a factual
approach that tried to bring an element of objectivity into the
reporting of ancient Indian monuments and sites. The primary
exponent of the second theoretical tradition was William Jones,
who tried to link Indian history to Universal History as it was then
understood. Its important source was the ten 'discourses' Jones
delivered on various topics between 1784 and 1793 (published
between 1788 and 1793) as President of the Asiatic Society. When
he delivered his discourses, the biblical theory of human creation
was still dominant. One of the main issues before Jones was to
understand these survivals in the Indian context and to demonstrate
how ancient India and Indians were historically linked to other
human groups in the world. This theme is recurrent in virtually all
his discourses. Jones's idea of the affinity of Sanskrit with several
other ancient languages neatly fitted into this thought-pattern. In
the third discourse delivered on 2 February 1786. He argued that
the speakers of Sanskrit had an immemorial affinity with the old
Persians, Ethiopians and Egyptians, the Phoenicians, Greeks and
Tuscans; the Scythians or Goths, and Celts; the Chinese, Japanese
and Peruvians.
Jones's ideas were echoed by many of his contemporaries,
although in a different form. T. Maurice wrote a seven-volume
study of Indian Antiquities in which antiquities themselves hardly
figured, but there were discussions of such esoteric issues as the
Indian origin of Druid.(A.M.J)

Later, similar societies were started at Bombay (Mumbai) in
1804 and at Madras in 1818The identification of Chandragupta
Maurya with Sandrokottos of Greek historians by Jones enabled
to fix a chronological horizon of Indian history. This was followed
by the identification of Pataliputra (Palibothra of classical writings)
at the confluence of the Ganga and Son. The decipherment of
Gupta and Kutila script by Charles Wilkinson was a landmark in
this aspect. Many individuals like H.T. Colebrooke, H.H. Wilson,
Sir Charles WarreMalet, Lt. Manby, William Erskine, Collin
Mackenzie contributed enormously in furthering the research and
documentation.
In 1833 James Prinsep became the secretary of the Asiatic
Society. His most eventful achievement is the decipherment of
the Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts between 1834 and 1837. The
identification of Piyadasi with Asoka and the contemporary kings
mentioned in his Rock Edict XIII enabled to fix a clear
chronological bench mark for Indian history.(Prakash, 2013) The
excavations at Manikyala stupa (now in Bangladesh) in 1830 and
in sites in the Indus – Jhelum region in 1833 and 1834 revealed
Buddhist relics and through coins a new ruling family, the Kushanas
was identified. Meanwhile Alexander Cunningham a Second
Lieutenant of the Bengal Engineers who initially assisted James
Prinsep formulated a plan in 1848 for an Indian Archaeological
Survey and placed it before the British government, but, without
success. The following years saw the uprising of the Indian soldiers
and the First War of Indian Independence in 1857 virtually put a
standstill of archaeological pursuits.
Establishment of Archeological Survey of India
The fresh proposal put by Alexander Cunningham was given
due attention by Lord Canning, who sanctioned a scheme of survey
in northern India . It was defined as: - “an accurate description-
illustrated by plans, measurements, drawings or photographs and
by copies of inscriptions-of such remains as deserve notice, with
the history of them so far as it may be traceable, and a record of
the traditions that are retained regarding them”
Cunningham was appointed as the first Archaeological
Surveyor from December 1861. Duke of Argyll, the new Secretary
of State, advised the Government of India to establish a central

department to tackle the archaeological problems of the whole
country. Because of this The Archaeological Survey was revived
as a distinct department of the government and Cunningham was
appointed as Director General who assumed his charge in February
1871. The department was entrusted with the task of doing - ‘a
complete search over the whole country, and a systematic record
and description of all architectural and other remains that are either
remarkable for their antiquity, or their beauty or their historical
interest’. Cunningham was also entrusted - ‘to direct his attention
to the preparation of a brief summary of the labours of former
enquirers and of the results which had already been obtained and
to the formulation of a general scheme of systematic enquiry for
the guidance of a staff of assistance in present and future
researches’. Cunningham was given two assistants J.D. Beglar
and A.C. Carlleyle who were later joined by H.B.W.
Garrik.(Chakraborty,1976)
Director Generals of ASI and their Role
a. Alexander Cunningham
He is to be considered as “Father of Indian Archeology”
as he has played a major role in establishment of
Archeological Survey of India.Cunningham headed the
Archaeological Survey for two spells, 1861-5 and 1871-85.
The Survey was disbanded in 1865 and organized again in
1871. In the first phase he worked alone; in the second he
was allowed two assistants. Over a total of nineteen years
he went over the ground, sometimes repeatedly, of a
surprisingly large amount of territory which included the whole
of the Gangetic valley, Panjab and the Northwestern Frontier
Province, central India and Rajputana. No archaeologist in
India, before or since, has had such a close personal familiarity
with such an impressive stretch of territory. The results of
surveys done either by him or by his assistants are contained
in the twenty-three volumes of his Reports, published between
1862 and 1887.To initiate the survey in a systematic way
Alexander Cunningham chose to record the Buddhist finds
and monuments by plotting them on a map so as to understand
the ancient trade route.
The surveys of Cunningham led to several discoveries

such as monolithic capitals and other remains of Asoka,
specimens of architecture of Gupta and post-Gupta period;
great stupa of Bharhut; identification of ancient cities namely:
Sankisa, Sravasti and Kausambi. He also brought to
prominence the Gupta temples at Tigawa, Bilsar, Bhitargaon,
Kuthra, Deogarh and Gupta inscriptions at Eran, Udayagiri
and other places.
b. James Burgess
Cunningham's successor in the Survey, James Burgess,
was inspired by the tradition of architectural studies initiated
by James Fergusson. Before he came to the Survey, he made
his mark by undertaking and organizing a series of detailed
surveys of some of the principal monuments of west and
south India. In 1872 he started a journal, Indian Antiquary,
which came to be famous for its detailed inscriptional and
other historical studies. Inscriptional studies were put on a
more secure basis with the series EpigraphiaIndica. He also
emphasized on heritage conservation. Yet it would be wrong
to say that archaeology as such flourished under him in the
Survey. In fact, in the post-Cunningham period there was
virtually no concern with field archaeology. The period
witnessed significant developments in the general historical
understanding of ancient India but, by and large, field
archaeology remained totally neglected until the appointment
of John Marshall as the head of the Survey in 1902.
c. John Marshall
The arrival of Lord Curzon was a blessing in disguise
for the revival of Archaeological Survey of India. He observing
the lack of coordinated efforts and the total disorganization
of Circles proposed the revival of the post of Director General.
John Marshall was appointed as the new Director General.
Lord Curzon totally centralized the Survey and vested the
powers with the Director General of the Archaeological
Survey of India. It was under his patronage that John Marshall
began the work in 1902. Marshall directly shaped the course
of Indian archaeology until 1928, when he retired. Conser-
vation of ancient monuments and objects was among his first
priorities and the basic principles of conservation laid down

by him in the Indian context (Marshall 1923) are still followed
by the Survey. The Survey was reorganized and centrally
consolidated; the whole of the subcontinent was neatly
parcelled into a number of archaeological 'circles', each with
its com- plement of officers and men. Some of the discoveries
and excavations revolutionized Indian archeology and ancient
history by discovery of Harappa and Mohenjadaro leading
to finding out history of Indus Valley Civilization. Marshall
directly shaped the course of Indian archaeology until 1928,
when he retired. Conser- vation of ancient monuments and
objects was among his first priorities and the basic principles
of conservation laid down by him in the Indian context
(Marshall 1923) are still followed by the Survey. A point that
is not usually appreciated is that when John Marshall was
directing the Indian archaeological scene, historical
scholarship about India had already come of age. The details
of ancient Indian political history, religion, economy and
culture had been established on the basis of textual,
inscriptional, numismatic, architectural, sculptural and other
sources. Yet at the same time, as the important sites
associated with the course of ancient Indian history remained
largely unexcavated, there was something shadowy about
the historical image of ancient India. The excavations initiated
by Marshall at such sites as Taxila, Bhita, Sravasti, Vaisali,
Rajagriha, Sarnath and Nalanda provided the much needed
touch of reality to this image. A point that is not usually
appreciated is that when John Marshall was directing the
Indian archaeological scene, historical scholarship about India
had already come of age. The details of ancient Indian political
history, religion, economy and culture had been established
on the basis of textual, inscriptional, numismatic, architectural,
sculptural and other sources. Yet at the same time, as the
important sites associated with the course of ancient Indian
history remained largely unexcavated, there was something
shadowy about the historical image of ancient India. The
excavations initiated by Marshall at such sites as Taxila, Bhita,
Sravasti, Vaisali, Rajagriha, Sarnath and Nalanda provided
the much needed touch of reality to this image. Sir John

Marshall relinquished the post of Director General in 1928
and retired on 19th March 1931 as he had to write a series
of monographs on Mohenjodaro, Harappa , Taxila, Sanchi,
Mandu, Delhi , Agra and Multan
d. Harold Hargreves
Between 1910 and 1912, Hargreaves officiated as the
Supreintendent of the Frontier Circle. When the serving
Supreintendent of the Northern Circle resigned, Hargreves
was transferred to the Northern Cirle where he participated
in the excavations at Harappa under John Marshall. He
succeeded John Marshall as the Director General of ASI in
1928. His recommendation for abolition of the Superintendent
of Hindu and Buddhist Monuments at Lahore and
Superintendent of Muhammadan and British Monuments at
Agra into an Assistant Superintendent attached to Frontier
Circle and Superintendent of Northern Circle was accepted
in 1931.
e. DayaramSahani
In 1925, Sahni was transferred to Delhi as Deputy
Director General of ASI and in July 1931, he succeeded
Hargreaves as the Director General of the ASI. Sahni was
the first native Indian to be appointed to the post. His period
saw a curtailment both in posts and funds to be followed by
a reverse trend in functioning. The Annual Reports soon had
a huge backlog and in 1935 a special officer was appointed
to clear them.
f. J.F. Blackiston
On retirement of Sahni on 1 June 1935, Blackiston
succeeded him as the Director General.
g. K.N. Dikshit
Dikshit assumed office of Director General of ASI on
21 March 1937 and continued till 1944. As the Director
General he gave the permission to University of Calcutta to
excavate the site of Bangarh in south Dinajpur. Ahichchhatra
was excavated under the direction of K.N. Dikshitbetween
1940-1944. The intervening period saw some setback due to
World War II, which slowed down the progress of survey.
Dikshit retired in 1944.

h. R.E.M. Wheeler
Mortimer Wheeler was at the helm of the
Archaeological Survey for only four years (1944 to 1948)
out of which one was lost in the turmoil of Independence
and Partition. Yet what he achieved and initiated during this
short period was considerable, and is reflected in the notes
and articles that he wrote for the first five issues of Ancient
India, a new Survey journal which was started by him in
1946. He revived the Excavation Branch under an Assistant
Superintendent, which was later elevated to Superintendent.
He laid special emphasis on exploration, excavation
techniques and to solve the problems related to chronology.
In 1945 conservation was centralised and brought under the
purview of Survey for which additional staff were sanctioned.
He excavated three important sites namely Arikamedu in
Pondicherry Brahmagiri in Karnataka and Taxila (now in
Pakistan ) to ascertain and fix clear chronological timeframe
for Indian history which was eluding the archaeologists so
long. He brought out a new series of publication namely the
Ancient India which itself contained detailed excavation
reports of many sites apart from research articles and reports
on field surveys.
Archeological Excavations under British Rule
Archaeological and historical pursuits in India started with
the efforts of Sir William Jones. The identification of Chandragupta
Maurya with Sandrokottos of Greek historians by Jones enabled
to fix a chronological horizon of Indian history. This was followed
by the identification of Pataliputra. The excavations at Manikyala
stupa (now in Bangladesh) in 1830 and in sites in the Indus –
Jhelum region in 1833 and 1834 revealed Buddhist relics and
through coins a new ruling family, the Kushanas was identified by
James Pricep who also helped in deciphering Brahmi and Kharoshti
scripts. Isolated finds of microlithic and Neolithic implements were
made in India before 1863, but was in that year that Robert Bruce
Foote, a geologist in the Geological Survey of India first identified
a Palaeolithic implement in India (a handaxe) in a gravel pit at
Pallavaram near Madras. (Chakraborty, 1976)
James Fergusson who carried out extensive surveys of the

rock-cut monuments in India between 1829 and 1847. Walter
Eliott who followed the work of Collin Mackenzie and copied
nearly 595 inscriptions from Dharwar, Sonda and north Mysore,
also reconstructed dynastic history of Chalukyas and other south
Indian dynasties through coins; Colonel Meadows Taylborttyor
who carried out extensive surveys on the megalithic monuments
of south India; Dr. Stevenson and Dr. BhauDaji carried out surveys
of the cave-inscriptions of western India. Alexander Cunningham
who was designated as Director General of Archeological Survey
of India which was established in 1861 surveyed areas stretching
from Gaya in the east to the Indus in the northwest, and from
Kalsi in the north to the Narmada in the south, between 1861 and
1865. For this, he largely followed the footsteps of the Chinese
pilgrim Hieun Tsang. he surveys of Cunningham led to several
discoveries such as monolithic capitals and other remains of Asoka,
specimens of architecture of Gupta and post-Gupta period; great
stupa of Bharhut; identification of ancient cities namely: Sankisa,
Sravasti and Kausambi. He also brought to prominence the Gupta
temples at Tigawa, Bilsar, Bhitargaon, Kuthra, Deogarh and Gupta
inscriptions at Eran, Udayagiri and other places.James Burgess
became the Director General in March 1886. Among the major
works carried out by Burgess the important ones are survey made
by Fuherer and Smith between 1886 and 1887 of the Sharqi
architecture of Jaunpur and monuments of Zafarabad, Saheth and
Maheth and Ayodhya. Smith also carried out surveys in Budaon,
Lalitpur, Orcha, Bundelkhand. Henry Cousens carried out surveys
in north Gujarat and Bijapur while Rea undertook survey of
Mahabalipuram, Krishna , Nellore and Godavari. During the tenure
of Burgess the KankaliTila at Mathura was excavated in 1887-
1888. In 1901 the recommendations were accepted and John
Marshall was appointed as the New Director General under
Viceroyalty of Lord Curzon.The details of the discoveries and
excavations made in India during this period by Marshall's
colleagues and Marshall himself perhaps do not fit into the present
survey of archaeological tradition. The years 1921-22 saw the
discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization the important sites were
Harappa and Mohenjadaro. The explorations of Aurel Stein in
Baluchistan, the explorations of N. G. Majumdar in Sind, and the

excavations at Taxila and at some of the most important early
historical sites of the Gangetic valley. The excavations initiated
by Marshall at such sites as Taxila, Bhita, Sravasti, Vaisali,
Rajagriha, Sarnath and Nalanda provided the much needed touch
of reality. Daya Ram Sahni has contributed a lot in excavating
sites of Indus Valley Civilization.contexts. In 1935 H. de Terra of
Yale University and T. T. Paterson of Cambridge University led a
joint prehistoric expedition to the Potwar plateau where they
discovered a succession of Palaeolithic industries and put them in
the context of successive terraces along the Soanriver. The terrace-
sequence was corre- lated to the outwash of the glacial cycle in
Kashmir, which again was taken to correspond to the four-fold
glacial cycle in Europe. Thus an attempt was made to provide a
precise chronological perspective to the Palaeolithic industries
of the Soan valley. Terra and Paterson also investigated, albeit
briefly, the Narmada valley and the area around Madras. A broad
correlation was attempted between the Soan and Narmada
sequences in an attempt to give a chronological framework to the
central Indian Pleistocene and related industries (Terra and
Paterson 1939). Ahichchhatra was excavated under the direction
of K.N. Dikshitbetween 1940-1944.In 1939 K. R. U. Todd
published a major paper on his discoveries around Bombay,
describing a major section and the associated industries. Between
1939 and 1942 N. K. Bose and D. Sen of Calcutta University
(1949) discovered a rich Lower Palaeolithic industry in
Mayurbhanj, Orissa. In 1946 H. D. Sankalia of Deccan College,
Poona University, published the results of his prehistoric
investigations in Gujarat. What is important from the point of view
of later development is that during this period the Indian universities
became involved in prehistoric research.(Chakraborty,1976)
R.E.M. Wheeler excavated three important sites namely
Arikamedu in Pondicherry Brahmagiri in Karnataka and Taxila
(now in Pakistan ). Because of all these excavation allot of Indian
history came to highlight and a chronology of Indian history could
be arranged properly. Also allot of efforts were taken by Indian
native archeologists in Indian Archeology.
Heritage Conservation under British Rule
A history of architectural work has yet to be written. An

awareness of Indian monuments as cultural heritage sprung up
during the later part of the 18th century. It was given a meaning
and coherence by Sir William Jones, in his formulation task of
Asiatic Society of Bengal. The first enthusiasm was not unnaturally
for discovery and this was the sentiment which was not commonly
found expression in the publications of that time. It was followed
by a desire to date and classify the various monuments and to
relate styles to another. In the early days there seem to be a little
thought in conservation, at least of monuments.this is not surprising
when one considers the condition prevailing at that time. However
during these early days some interest on the part of the government
in the preservation og outstanding monuments. In 1808 e Taj
committee was formed by the then Governer General, the earl of
Minto , and sum of one lakh rupees for its repairs.
A new Era dawned with the establishment of the
Archeological Survey of India in 1861, with appointment of Director
and the assistants charged with the exploration and recording of
all antiquities of all sorts. This period witnessed systematic attempt
on the part of the government to conserve the monuments. In
1873 the task of conservation was delegated by the central
government to local government and in 1880 a curator of ancient
monument was appointed by the centre major. Major Cole was
entrusted upon the duty of advising on matters of conservation,
while local government were left to devise their own schemes of
permanent inspections and conservation. Around this time
Cunningham undertook series of expeditions. Thus he
understandably deplored this development. James Burgess his
successor gave emphasis to archeology in India which heavily
swung towards architecture.When Lord Curzon became the
Viceroy his bold and imaginative approach produced a profound
change in the policy of the Government. The outcome of Curzon’s
enthusiasm was the reorganization of the Archeological Survey
of India under a new Director-General John Marshall. The
conservation of monuments was probably seen from the first and
heaviest charge upon the Survey. Yet even then, the planned
programme could not be completely successful as lack of
resources or other factors left the work on the Provincial
government. In 1904 the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act

was enacted. The working out of the conservational policy under
this act was one of the greatest achievement of Sir John Marshall.
In his Conservation Manual(Calcutta, 1923), Marshall discussed
the philosophy of conservation. He stressed the need for
preservation of worthwhile monuments, and therefore for
intelligent selection and for provision for continuing maintenance
once a monument had been preserved.
If many of the major monuments of India are to this day in a
state of good repair, and if they have been faithfully conserved
without the loss of their original authenticity, it is largely to the
credit to this Act and to the way in which it was administered.
During Sir Mortimer Wheeler’s brief spell as Director General
of ASI the main emphasis was on the systematic reorganization
of the Archeological Survey including its conservation wing tending
towards greater centralized control of all work.
Thus we find that besides excavation of archeological site
British played a significant role in conservation of the monuments.
Specially like Bodhgaya Temple, Sarnath Stupa of Sanchi, Ajanta
and Ellora as well many others. (ALLCHIN, 1978)
The Ugly Side of British Impact on Archeology
The British raj was a colonising power and there is no way
to look at anything they did in India in a positive light. It was
during the British rule that archeology as a science and a separate
discipline was developed, and the Archaeological Survey of India
(ASI) was founded. Subsequent to that, it was the British and the
Europeans who worked diligently to reveal India’s ancient past.
the monuments that are still there, they are part of this enterprise
of the British. In that way, the archaeologists from Britain and
other parts of Europe have made a huge contribution. But not
everything can be said good. A large number of antiquities and
other artefacts were taken away by the Britishers and are lying in
private collection now in many cities in the United Kingdom and
Europe. Of course, at that time there were no laws against taking
antiquities out of India. But It was not a very ethical thing to do.
The imperialists stole the Kohinoor from Lahore, whisked away
priceless sculptures from Amravati to British Museum and even
made a valiant attempt to record piece by piece the marbles of
TajMahal, so it could be rebuilt in England.

Conclusion
British have played a significant role in Indian Archeology. It
is because of them the timeline of Indian history went century
back till the Paleolithic period. It was through them that many
sites were discovered like Indus Valley Civilization, Stupa of Sanchi,
Vijyanagara Empire, Lumbini, and many more. Indian
Archeologists came forward to study and excavate sites. Besides
establishment of ASI there also developed archeology as a subject
to study in schools and colleges.
Also one has to give credit to British archeologists for
rediscovering and preserving some of our great buildings like Sanchi
Stupa, Ajanta-Ellora caves, and the Khajuraho temples. If not for
them, these world heritage sites would have been lost forever to
India and the world. There were dedicated British archeologists
who spent years in India to preserve for posterity the wealth of
Indian architecture. They established the Architectural Survey of
India (ASI) which was responsible for maintaining and recording
historical sites. Historians like Fergusson, Havel and Percy Brown
have paved the way for future Indian studies of our past. It may
not be out of place to mention the contribution of British architects
like Lutyens and Baker as well as Swinton Jacob, who built some
truly great works in India.
But with this they also took away enormous antiquities with
them back to London.
With this research one finds that there was a positive as well
as negative impact on the Indian Archeology.
References
1. ItihasachyaShakha: Puratattvashastra, Sangrahalayshastra,
Pryavaranshastra – Prof. S.S. Gathal, Kailas Publications, First
Edition: July 2011.
2. Archeological Survey of India Website: http://asi.nic.in/
asi_aboutus_history.asp
3. The development of Archeology in Indian Subcontinent: D.K.
Chakraborti, Taylor & Francis Publications, Pgs. 326-344
4. Works of Sir William Jones (Volume I)- A.M.J.Pgs 1-8
5. Archeological Survey of India Reports, Indological Book House
Ltd. Varanasi. 1972. Minnesota University.
6. Royal Asiatic Society, http://royalasiaticsociety.org/indian-
anthropology/
7. Objects, Archaeology and the Influence of Nationalism and

Colonialism Rebecca Jones, Pgs 7-30
8. The Discovery of Ancient India: Early Archaeologists and the
Beginnings of Archaeology- Upinder Singh, Delhi: Permanent Black
(2004). xix + 381 pp., 27
9. Archeological Sources for the Reconstruction of the History of
Sciences of India, M.N. Deshpande, Pgs 1-8
10. The Journey of Indian Archaeology: From Antiquarianism to
Archaeology under British Rule RAVI PRAKASH
11. Monument conservation and policy in india- F. R. ALLCHIN
Journal of the Royal Society of Arts,Published by: Royal Society
for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, Vol.
126, No. 5268 (NOVEMBER 1978), pp. 746-765
12. British Raj: The Good, The Bad and The Ugly, DNA http://
www.dnaindia.com/lifestyle/report-british-raj-the-good-the-bad-
and-the-ugly-2528145
13. British museums shine thanks to all the loot from India, Indian
Express, Dated: August 15,2016

British Rule and Development of Entrepreneurship
- Mr. Sharad K. Shirule
Abstract
Entrepreneurship involves a willingness to take responsibility
and ability to put mind to a task and see it through from inception
to completion Entrepreneurship is considered to be a significant
determinant of economic development. Entrepreneurship is much
broader than the creation of a new business venture, it is the act
of being an entrepr eneur. T he evolution of the Indian
entrepreneurship can be traced back to even as early as Rig-
Veda, During British Rule the Entrepreneurship was impelled but
not developed due to the ruling policies of British. After
independence entrepreneurship is developed.The present paper
consists of the meaning , history, and development of
entrepreneurship before and after independence in India.
Key words - Entrepreneur, Entrepreneurship, British Rule
Introduction
Entrepreneurship is the practice of starting new organizations
or revitalizing mature organizations, particularly new businesses
generally in response to identified opportunities. Entrepreneurship
is a creative human act involving the mobilization of resources
from one level of productive use to a higher level of use. It is a
complex term that's often defined simply as running your own
business. It is much broader than the creation of a new business
venture. Entrepreneurship is the process of designing, launching
and running a new business , which is often initially a small business,
and the people who create these businesses are called
Entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship has been described as the
"capacity and willingness to develop, organize and manage a
business venture along with any of its risks in order to make a
profit”. According to Schumpeter (Austrian-born American
political economist) -“An entrepreneur is a person who is willing
and able to convert a new idea or invention into a successful

innovation. Ent Schumpeter called the employs of Entrepreneurship
"the gale of creative destruction" to replace in whole or in part
inferior innovations across markets and industries, simultaneously
creating new products including new business models. In this way,
creative destruction is largely responsible for the dynamism of
industries and long-run economic growth.
Peter Drucker defined the Entrepreneurship as ‘A systematic
innovation, which consists in the purposeful and organized search
for changes, and it is the systematic analysis of the opportunities
such changes might offer for economic and social innovation.’
History of Entrepreneual development
The evolution of the Indian entrepreneurship can be traced
back to even as early as Rig-Veda, when metal handicrafts existed
in the society. This would bring the point home that handicrafts
entrepreneurship in India was as old as the human civilization
itself, and was nurtured by the craftsman as a part of their duty
towards the society. Before India came into contact with west,
people were organized in a particular type of economic and social
system of the village community. Then, the village community
featured the economic scene in India. The Indian towns were
mostly religious and aloof from the general life of country. The
elaborated cast based diversion of workers consisted of farmers,
artisans and religious priests. The majority of the artisans were
treated as village servants. The workshops called ‘Karkhana’
came into existence.
The craftsmen were brought into an association pronounced
as ‘guild system’. The cities like Bengal enjoyed worldwide
celebrity for Corah, Lucknow for chintzes, Ahmadabad for dupttas
and dhotis, Nagpur for silk boarded cloth, Kashmir for shawls and
Banaras for metal wares. Thus, from the immemorial till the earlier
years of the 18th century, India enjoyed the prestigious status of
the queen of the international trade with the help of its handicrafts.
In the 17th Century the advent of so many business
companies/businessman like Portuguese, Dutch, British, French
at west coast of India. They established the business depots -
‘Wakhar’ in India. Unfortunately, so much prestigious Indian
handicraft industry, which was basically a cottage and small sector,
declined for various reasons. These may be listed as-

1. Disappearance of the Indian royal courts who patronized
the crafts earlier.
2. The lukewarm attitude of the British colonial govt. towards
the Indian crafts.
3. Imposition of heavy duties on the imports of the Indian goods
in England.
4. Low priced British made goods produce on large scale which
reduced the competing capacity of the product of the Indian
handicrafts.
5. Development of transport in Indian facilitating the easy
access of British product even to far-flung remote part of
the country.
6. Changes in the tastes and habits of the Indian, developing
craziness of foreign products.
7. Unwillingness of the Indian craftsmen to adapt to the
changing tastes and needs of the people.
The competitions / struggle between foreign companies
converted in to the strife /war. After the death of Aurangajeb the
emperors of Moguls declined. Then the battle started among the
foreign companies for the monopoly and adopt the rule in India.
The three wars between British-French which were known as
Karnataka War. The Battle of Plassey 1757, The battle of
Baxar,1767 ,The Mysore War, 1799, The Three Maratha Wars
1774 -1818 , Lastly the Punjab War the fall of Sheikh Emperor.
Then the East India Company established its supremacy over the
Hindustan.
Some scholar s hold the view that manufacturing
entrepreneurship in India emerged as the latent and manifest
consequence of east India company advent in India.The company
injected various changes in the Indian economy through export of
raw materials and import of finished goods in India. Particularly,
the Parsis established good rapport with the company and were
much influenced by the company’s commercial operations. The
company established its first ship building industry in Surat where
from1673 onwards the Parsis built vassals for the company. The
most important was shipwright Lowjee Nushirvan, who migrated
to Bombay around 1935. He belonged to a Wadia family which
gave birth to many leading ship-builders of Bombay. In 1677,

Manjee Dhanjee was given a contact for building the first large
gun powder mill in Bombay for the East India company. Besides,
a Parsi foreman of a gun factory belonging to the company
established a steel industry in Bombay in 1852.
On the basis of these facts, it can be stated that the East
India Company made some contribution towards entrepreneurial
growth in India. But whether the company did it deliberately for
the growth of entrepreneurship in India or it was just a coincident
that people came in contact with the company and entered the
manufacturing, nothing can be said with certitude.
The actual emergence of manufacturing entrepreneurship
can be noticed in the second half of the 19th century. Prior to
1850, some stay failure attempts were, indeed , made by the
Europeans to setup factories in India. In the beginning, the Parsis
were the founder manufacturing entrepreneurs in India. Ranchodlal
Chotalal, a Nagar Brahman, was the first Indian to think of setting
up the textile manufacturing on the modern factory lines in 1847,
but failed. In 1853 Railways set up Cowasjee Nanabhoy Davar
established 1st Textile Mill in Bombay. 1st Jute Mill Started in
1855 at Rishra in Bengal.
After the revolt of 1857, by the Manifesto of Queen Victoria,
the rule of East India Company was terminated and the power
went in the hands of British Parliament.
Ranchodlal Chotalal in his second attempt, he succeeded in
setting up a textile mill in 1861 at Ahmadabad. Nawrosjee Wadia
who open his textile mill in Bombay in 1880.In 1877 Mr.Mahadev
Namjoshi , journalist was started the special news paper ‘Kiran’
for increasing the diligency and entreprenures. Industrial Seminars
and Conferences were organized by him in 1889,1890,1892-93.
In 1887 he started a magazine ‘Shilpkalavigyan’ for industrial
education.
The credit for the expansion of textile industries up to 1915
goes to the Parsis. Out of 96 textile mills existing in 1915, 43%
(41) were set up by Parsis, 24% (23) by Hindus, 10% (10) By
Muslims and 23% (22) by British citizens. Jamshedjee Tata was
the first Parsi entrepreneur who established the first steel industry
inJamshedpur in 1911.In the first wave of manufacturing
entrepreneurship, except Parsis, all others hailed from non-

commercial communities. Why the well-known commercial
communities namely, Jains and Vaishyas of Ahmadabad and
Baroda, lagged behind in entrepreneurial initiative throughout the
19th century can be explained by two factors. Firstly, the
improvement of business climate in the countryside during this
period results in an increase in the quantum of trade which
assumed quick returns on investments. This proves the commercial
activity more lucrative during the period, Secondly; it can also be
attribute to their conservative attitude to change from commercial
entrepreneurship to industrial entrepreneurship.
The Swadeshi campaign (1905 and continued up to 1911).
i.e.,emphasis on indigenous goods, provided, indeed, a proper
seedbed for inculcating and developing nationalism in the
country.Due to the campaign of Swadeshi, Jamshedji Tata named
his first mill as 'Swadeshi Mill'. Major players were Ghanshyam
Das Birla, Goenkas, Khaitans, Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, Mafatlal
Gagalbhai, Laxmanrao Kirlsokar, Walchand Hirachand,
Nusserwanjee Wadia, Pirojsha Godrej, K.Gopalakrishnan,
L.K.Singhania, Gujar- lal Modi and lala Shriram, entrepreneur came
to focus as a person responsible to undertake a business venture.
These persons who beared the risk as a part of their work.
The second wave of entrepreneurial growth in India began
after the First World War. For various reasons, the Indian
Government agreed to 'discriminating' protection to certain
industries, even requiring that companies receiving its benefits
should be registered in India with rupee capital and have a
proportion of their directors as Indians. The advantages of these
measures were mostly enjoyed by the Indians. The Europeans
failed to harness the protectionist policies to their interests."
These measures helped in establishing and extending the
factory manufacturing in India during the first four decades of the
twentieth century. During these decades, the relative importance
of Parsis declined and Gujaratis and Marwari Vaishyas gained
that pendulum in India's entrepreneurial scene. The emergence
of Managing Agency System which made its own contribution to
the Indian entrepreneurship can be traced back to 1936 when
Carr, Tagore & Co. assumed the management of Calcutta Steam
Tug Association. The credit for this initiation goes to an Indian,

Dwarkanath Tagore, who encouraged others to form joint-stock
companies and invented a distinct method of management in which
management remained in the hands of the 'firm' or ‘trust’ rather
than of an ‘individual’. JRD Tata, MS Oberai, Jamnalal Bajaj lead
the way for Indian entrepreneurs. Govindram Seksaria- He started
his firm in 1937 which sold vegetable oil and then diversified
business to many other fields. Considering the hostile environment
for Indians at the time of British Raj Govindram is nothing but a
pearl in the ocean. In this way there was the industrial growth
and entrepreneurship development. In 1942 Gandhiji started Quit
India Movement.and after a lot of struggle India get freedom on
15th August 1947 and .British left from India .
Factors affecting the development of entrepreneurship in
India
Following are the factors affecting on the development of
entrepreneurship before and after independence.
1) Due to the colonials and British rule India get acquainted
with the western culture, knowledge, technology etc.
2) Industrial revolution and technical inventions came in India
3) Educational reforms by British rule, which were responsible
to develop the entrepreneurship, “Wood’s Despatch of 1854”.
4) Reforms by Lord Dalhousie like Electric Telegraph (1852),
Railway (1853), Postal Department (1854) Free Trade policy-
all ports were open for sea trade.
5) Swadeshi Campaign and nationalism were helps for increasing
the entrepreneurship.
6) Awareness about the independence and economical
independence.
7) Impact of English Literature.
Causes of undevelopment of entrepreneurship in India
1) British policy to rule over India for a long period.
2) Import - Export policy (Export the raw material and Import
the Finish Good)
3) Aim of educational reform was to create the clerks and Babus
only.
4) Lack of Knowledge, Lack of capital, Lack of technical services
there was not growth of industries & entrepreneurship.
5) Castration of Indian crafts, arts , small and cottage sector.

6) Large competition by British Udyogs / Products.
7) Heavy duties and taxes for Indian and Indian industry.
8) Unwillingness of the Indian craftsman / entrepreneurs to
adopt the changing techniques and knowledge.
9) Lack of inspiration to the Indian entrepreneurs.
10) Development was not all over India but only for limited cities.
11) Lack of training and technical education.
Though, there was entrepreneurship developed in India but
it was not remarkable or prominent in comparison with the
development after independence.
References
1. Chaudhari Arvind, et al, Business Entrepreneurship, 2015, Prashant
Publications, Jalgaon.
2. Deshmukh Prabhakar, Entrepreneurship Development,
Pimpalapure & Publishers, Nagpur.
3. Grover B.L, Belhekar N.K, Adhunik Bharatacha Itihaas (Marathi),
2003, S.Chand (G/L) & Company Ltd , New Delhi.
4. Joshi S.V., et al, Business Entrepreneurship, 2015, Atharva
Publications, Jalgaon.
5. Murthy C.S.V , Small -Scale Industries And Entrepreneurial
Development, 2010, Himalaya Publishing House, New Delhi.
6. Sharma Sangeeta, Entrepreneurship Development, 2017, PHI, New
Delhi.
7. Tambe-Katdare, Prachin Bharat, 2017,K’Sagar Publications, New
Delhi.
Websites
1. https://www.businessnewsdaily.com
2. https://www.shopify.com/encyclopedia/entrepreneurship
3. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entrepreneurship

Impact of British Rule on
English Language Teaching in India
- Prof. Sidhartha B. Sawant
Abstract
The modern system of education came to be established in
India during the British period at the cost of the traditional
indigenous system. Before the British established a new system
of education in India both the Hindus and the Muslims had their
own systems of education. But with the arrival of British in India
changed the scenario of education and emphasis was laid on
English and western education than traditional Sanskrit literature.
The development of education system during the British period
was determined by the needs of the colonial powers. They started
changing the Indian Education system gradually and one day we
were there with a completely new process of educating people.
They transformed the whole system to encapsulate European
attitude in Indian children. They emphasized on use of English in
education rather than our own native languages. Present situation
of English language is an output of British influenced education
system thereby nowadays it is necessary to learn all the four skills
of listening, speaking, reading and writing English. Previously,
English was taught from fifth standard in the non-English medium
schools of Maharashtra. Now it is taught from the first standard
even in the non-English medium schools. In the past the syllabus
was literature based but now it is skill-based. Now after America,
India is the only country where English language speaks largely in
the world with utmost care of grammar and linguistic rules. These
are the major results and impact of British rule in India in concerned
with English language.
Key Words - Indian Education System, English Language, British
Rule
Introduction
English is a widely spoken language today. It has often been
referred to as ‘global language’, the lingua franca of the modern

era and currently the language most often taught as a second
language around the world. In India, English is not only an
associate language but also plays the role of medium of
communication. After Hindi it is the most commonly spoken
language in India and probably the most read and written language
in India. English in India is used not only for communicating with
the outside world, but also for inter-state and intrastate
communication. English symbolizes in Indians’ minds, better
education, better culture and higher intellect. Indians who know
English often mingle it with Indian languages in their conversation.
It is also usual among Indians to abruptly move to speak fluent
English in the middle of their conversations. English also serves
as the communicator among Indians who speak different
languages. When talking all these good things about English
language, it becomes essential to know its inception in India and
its widespread popularity in language learning perspective.
Introduction of English in India
The development of education system during the British period
was determined by the needs of the colonial powers. After arrival
of East India Company in India, they started changing the Indian
Education system gradually and one day we were there with a
completely new process of educating people. They transformed
the whole system to encapsulate European attitude in Indian
children. When the British started ruling India, they searched for
Indian mediators who could help them to administer India. The
British turned to high caste Indians to work for them. Many high
caste Indians, especially the Brahmans worked for them. The
British policy was to create an Indian class who should think like
the British, or as it was said then in Britain “Indians in blood and
colour but English in taste, in opinions and morals and intellect”.
The British also established in India universities based on British
models with emphasis on English. These Indians also got their
education in British universities. The English Christian missionaries
came to India from 1813 and they also built schools at primary
level for Indians in which the language of instruction was local
language. Later on the missionaries built high schools with English
as the language of instruction which obliged the Indians who
wanted to study to have a good knowledge of English. The British

rulers began building their universities in India from 1857.
The Indians were also realized the importance of the English
language. Meanwhile some movements were started by Raja Ram
Mohan Roy to introduce western scientific education through
English. He wanted to replace traditional Sanskrit and Persian
teaching. To take a decision on the issue, a committee was formed.
Lord Macaulay was the chairman of this committee. He advocated
English as the medium of instruction in the place of Sanskrit and
Persian. He thought the members of this class would spread their
knowledge through English. Macaulay’s purposes were: i) To
create the dominance of British culture over the Indians and to
have the control over the minds of the Indian people through
English. ii) To train Indians and make them fit for the employment.
The British Government gave preference in jobs to the Indians
who had the knowledge of English. This strategy of Lord Macaulay
worked positively in their favour and the result was so abrupt that
English language learners were multiplied then onwards and
English became the first language in Indian education. The ‘modern’
leaders of that era in India also supported English language and
claimed it to be the main key towards success. Indians who knew
good English were seen as the new elite of India.
Influence of English after Independence
When India got the independence, Indian government had to
decide its policy towards English. They decided to make Hindi
the official language. Regional languages were given the status
of national languages. But certain states insisted to make English
as an official language. Universities and schools were increasing
rapidly in India. Some of the people from the neglected society
also came forward to learn English. Therefore English was not
limited to a few elite schools and colleges. But there were
complains about the standards of English. The government
appointed many commissions to improve the standard of English
in schools and colleges. Despite continued pressure from
nationalist, English remains at the heart of Indian society. It is
widely used in the media, in higher education and govt. and
therefore remains a common means of communication, both
among the ruling classes, and between speakers of mutually
unintelligible languages. The Britishers were instrumental in

introducing Western culture, education and scientific techniques.
Through those means, they gave traditional Indian life a jolt and
galvanized the life and culture of its people. Now English is the
state language of two states in Eastern India, Meghalaya and
Nagaland. It is the main medium of instruction at the post graduate
level, and it is taught as a second language at every stage of
education in all states of India.
Present Scenario of English Language in India
The present status of English language in India is so obvious
that it is fully drenched in the bloods Indian Education system.
There are many institutes were established to get the knowledge
of better English. In 1958 The Central Institute of English was
started in Hyderabad. Regional institutes were established in
Bangalore and Chandigarh. But nobody tried to change the
literature based system of English. English was studied mainly for
education and administration. But because of the revolutionary
developments in science, technology, travel, trade, communications
and entertainment, English got a new role as the international
language of communication. British Council has been set up in
India in major cities in order to spread out correct English language
education. English language teaching is the core area developed
by British Council and subsidiary institutions which focus on
improvement of English language at any cost. This changes the
scenario of English language in India even after Britisher left India.
Emphasis is laid on the four skills of listening, speaking, reading
and writing English through which India people become so perfect
user of English than British themselves. English teaching has
remained unchanged for nearly 150 years, though new
developments are taking place worldwide in the methods of
teaching and learning English. These developments have affected
the English language teaching in India also. Previously, English
was taught from fifth standard in the non-English medium schools
of Maharashtra. Now it is taught from the first standard even in
the non-English medium schools. In the past the syllabus was
literature based but now it is skill-based. Earlier the evaluation
system centred on the written skill only, from the year 2006-07
the oral test is introduced in the secondary and higher secondary
schools. People are aware of the importance of English. They

are interested in learning the spoken English.
As a result, various courses are developed for teaching
spoken English. The use of Language Laboratory and Computer
Assisted Language Learning (CALL) has created new changes
in the teaching of English. The audio cassettes and CDs are being
used on a large scale to learn the spoken language. Various
software of English teaching are developed and used by a growing
number of people. There are many private institutions that run the
courses of spoken English. Especially in big cities the language
trainers are helping the learners to acquire the required proficiency
over the communicative skills in general and the spoken skills in
particular. Now Television channels are also working towards
improving spoken English.
Conclusion
Thus English has been considered as a major foreign
language in India since independence. As the world is getting
globalized, there has also been a sense of English as a global
language, not just a language of the USA or the UK. Although
British introduced English language to Indian but Native people
accepted this language as a challenge and now the result is
awesome as most of the Indian population speaks English
language. The changes in the functions and benefits have brought
about change in the status of English from that of a foreign
language to a global language. In the of field English language
teaching is growing day by day in India because of good and
dedicated researchers have contributed something to English
language teaching and moreover number of linguists have made
footprint in the field of applied linguistics. This impact of British in
English language teaching is very acute and apt as many of the
teachers and learners imitate British in their pronunciations and
gestures. Apart from this good results can be seen across India
with earnest desires of Students in Learning English especially
rural area students.
References
1 Bhardwaj Vivek, ICT Usage in 1000 Schools of India Article Cover
story in Digital learning, November (2007).
2 Billows, F. L, The Techniques of Language Teaching, Longman,
London (1961).
3 Chand, J. Education in India during British Period. New Delhi:

Anshah Publishing House, 2007.
4 Kachru, Braj B, English education in India: a sociolinguistic profile
of Indian English, (1986).
5 Krashen, S. D. Second Language Acquisition and Second
Language Learning, Peragamon Press, Oxford (1981).
6 Nururllah, S. & Naik, J. P. History of Education in India during the
British Period. New York: The MacMillan Company, 1952.
7 Sharma, R.N. & Sharma, S.K. History of Education in India, New
Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors (P) Ltd, 2012.
8 Srivastava, A.K, Multilingualism and school education in India:
special features, problems and prospects, 1990.

The British Rule and its Impact on Indian Skill
- Sonali Nimba Wagh
Abstract
The main motive behind British to engage with India was
trading purpose. Due to introduction of industrial revolution, there
was a great demand for market & raw material. Systematic
planning & technical knowledge help them to rule India for a longer
period. As such, British rule has some favourable & unfavourable
impact on Indian system. Thus in the present paper, the attempt
has been made to study the British rule & its impact on industrial
skill.
Keyword - Manufacturing Industries, British rule, India, Skill,
Technical Education.
Introduction
Pre British period India was famous for handicraft and
handloom products, the search for sea route by Portuguese called
Vasco Da Gama in 1498, while trading with India he invited number
of country for trade such as French, English, Portuguese and
Dutch. There were great exports from the India to other country.
Due to introduction of industrial revolution by British to the world
there was need of market and raw material for manufacturing
products, thus for the trading purpose they came to India. As
India was full of raw material, skill and number of things which
were untouched. For the industrial purpose the British established
‘East India Company’ in 1600. The company was supported by
British government and from there the stage introduced many
more new things that bought a favourable climate of development
in industries and in skill of people.
Impact of British rule on Indian skill
From olden days India was famous for handicraft goods made
from metals, gold, wood etc and handloom industries with an old
wooden loom of weaving cloths which were in great demand, but
industrial revolution expected much more, therefore number of

manufacturing with new technology was established. Number of
trading port was opened at different place of India such as Surat
(1619), Madras (1639), Bombay (1668), and Calcutta (1690).
Thus industrial revolution introduced with new concept of
production, distribution & which leads to have skilled worker which
can be developed only by giving proper training. New
manufacturing industries were establishing day by day such as
textile industries, iron making industry & expansion of canals, road
& railways. For handling such industrial work, most of the worker
were less skill or unskilled, to make the worker more expert and
upto the quality demand for such train technician and technical
school were opened. ‘The technical education plays an important
role in human resources development of country by creating skilled
manpower, increasing industrial productivity & quality’ was the
future vision of British, Therefore technical education started given
in India and which was provided under different streams such as
art, craft, architecture, town planning, pharmacy etc. Passing
knowledge from generation to generation was of less value, for
such new system of learning was in great demand therefore
technical schools were open to develop the skill of the employee
who was working in modern industries. Education with skill training,
learning & training system for supply of trained manpower for
industrial & economic growth was the need of the period. In the
year 1825, industrial school was established at ‘Gundy’, in 1842
at madras and school for the training of overseas was open in
poona in 1854. During this period many new technical education
colleges were open such as first engineering college for training
of civil engineering work was open at Uttar Pradesh in 1847.
After providing such a technical education workers working in
the factories were well educated and well skilled, this help to
achieve them a great success as well as development of the
industries and nation. The industrialist ‘Jamsetji Tata’ in 1877
started with central spinning, weaving & manufacturing company
in Bombay. This was the period from were development of
industries was increasing day by day.
For the upliftment and development of Indian industries,
British raj has taken an important step, they were well known
that industries will survive & develop only when there are skills

among employees which are asset just like another asset of the
industry.
Conclusion
British rule bought the industrial development at the same
time they has also try to develop skill of the worker through
technical education, which was essential for the development of
the industries as well as nation. In short we can say the industrial
development was a seed put by British in India and now we are
tasting fruit of those trees.
References
1. http://euroasiapub.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/46ESSNov-
4377-1.pdf
2. http://icrier.org/pdf/Working_Paper_298.pdf
3. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/7053/7/
07_chapter%202.pdf
4. http://mhrd.gov.in/technical-education
5. http://www.ivarta.com/columns/OL_060610.htm
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_India_under_the_
British_Raj
7. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/7144/12/
12_chapter%203.pdf
8. http://www.flowofhistory.com/units/eme/18/FC123

Court System during British Rule in India
- Dr. Sandesh D. Shegaonkar
“We are not makers of History We are made by History”

- Martin Luther King Jr
Introduction
According to me there are two subject’s which are of prime
importance for human being one ‘History’ which teaches us what
wrong has been committed by previous generation and the present
generation shall not follow it. Second subject is ‘Law’ which
teaches us how we should behave in present otherwise if we
don’t obey law our future will be painful.
For proper governance of any nation three organs are
necessary Legislation, Executive and Judiciary. Judiciary has been
given a huge responsibility to do justice and avoid injustice. To
understand the development of today’s judiciary in India we have
to go in history and search for judicial system or court system
prevailing during Ancient India and during British Rule.
Judicial system in ancient India
As India is having rich cultural and religious heritage we find
grate impact of religion on Indian society. Religious books provide
information about judicial system in ancient time Vedas and
Upanishadas have provided information about judicial system. The
legal system was styled as “Nyanyniti” Dharma was the king of
the king , As there is saying “King is fountain of justice and King
can do no wrong but in actual sense in India Dharma was the king
of the king during those days Dharma shatra was studied by few
people in the society as studying or learning shastras was only
allowed to particular class and cast of people so when the incident
or a case came before king he use to take advice from his council
regarding the shastras interpretation and due to some wrong
interpretation or misguiding injustice was committed. As during
ancient period different kings were ruling there province so there
was different while giving justice and we could not find uniformity

in giving justice in some of the cases.
Judicial system during British Rule
The history of the legal system in British India opens with
the establishment of the East India Company. Administration of
justice and development of court and judicial institution in the
settlement of East India Company can be basically categorised in
three stages .
Administration of justice during 1600 to 1726
Adminestration of justice in Madras
Madras was divided in two parts “Black Town” where mostly
Indian people use to reside and “White Town” where British people
use to live. During 1639-1665 in white town justice was in the
hands of merchants who were member of council .The person
who were having responsibility to give justice were not well trained
in law so they use to give judgement on the basis of common
sense. During this stage Executive were doing the function of
judiciary.
Situation in Black Town village headmen known as “Adigar”
(i.e Adhikari) was responsible for maintenance of law and order.
Along with Adigar one more court was prevailing that was
“Choultery Court” who was empowered to decide small civil and
criminal cases. If any party was aggrieved by the judgement
provided by choultry court appeal could be made to “Agent-in-
council” 2nd stage 1665-1683 In White town court of Governor
and council was declare to be the High court of judicature for
helping court of Governor “Jury” system was introduced. Black
town judicial system was also undergoing change “Choultry Court”
was reorganised . Number of judges were increased from 2 to 3
and all judges were Englishman. 3rd stage 1683-1726 During this
period two important courts the court of Admirality and Mayor’s
were established.
Administration of justice in Bombay
1st stage 1670-1683 . Plane of 1670 divided Bombay in two
division1-Bombay, Mazagaon , Girgaon 2- Mahim , Parel , Sion,
Worly.
Separate courts were established for each division and each
court consisted of 5 judges. By 1672 plan a new court “Court of
Judicature” was established along with “Court of Conscience”

In Bombay, Mahim , Mazagaon and Sion administration of criminal
justice was done by “ Justice of peace” who was an Englishman.
2nd stage 1684-1690; 1684 to decide admiralty and maritime cases
court of Admirality was established. In 1691 siddi yakub attacked
Bombay so British judicial system of Bombay came to an end.
3rd stage 1718-1726 On 25th March 1718 court of judicature
was restored, it consisted of English Chief justice, five English
judges and four Indian judges who belonging to principal community
in India.
Administration of justice in Calcutta 1726
The collector was empowered to collect revenue and decide
criminal and revenue cases.
Administration of justice 1726 to 1773
By studying judicial system prevailing during 1600 to 1726
we could understand there was no uniformity in Administration of
justice in India presidency town same thing was realised by East
India Company and for that purpose a new charter called 1726
which established a corporation and Mayor’s court in each
presidency Town. The appeals from the mayors court were to be
heard by Governor and council and appeal from Governor in council
were allowed to king in council.
Under 1726 Criminal matter were decided by “Justice of
Peace”
Judicial Plan of Warren Hasting –He was a man of vision.
He provided two plans 1772 and 1774.
Plan 1772- The judicial plan provided for three-tier system
1. Two wings of judicial system
2. Separate courts for civil and criminal case
3. It is also provided for trial courts and appellate courts for
civil appellate cases .
Governor in council-Sadar Diwani Adalat, Sadar Nizamat
Adalat
Collector-Moffusil Diwani Adalat ,Moffusil Nizamat Adalat,
Village headman
The judicial plan 1774 provided for the establishment
a) Sadar Diwani Adalat
b) Sadar Nizamat Adalat
c) Provincial council

d) Provincial court of appeal
e) Mofussil Diwani Adalate
f) Mufussil Nizamat Adalat
g) Village headman
Administration of justice 1773-1947
Regulating Act 1773 the prime Object of Regulating Act was
to bring the management of the company under the control of the
British parliament and the British crown.
The Regulating Act empowered the British crown to establish
a supreme court at Calcutta by issuing a charter. The Act made
specific provisions for the appointment for the judges of the court
and also for the jurisdiction of the court. It consisted of chief
justice and three puisne judges. Only person who were barristers
not less than 5 years standing could be appointed. The supreme
court established in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were court of
British crown while Adalates established in Mofussil were court
of East India Company. As in those days because of dual system
of court prevailed it was obvious that relation between crown’s
and East India Company court were tense and conflicting and
confusing which could be observed by historical cases.
For removing conflict and confusion Indian High Court Act
1861in to existence as a means of settlement. The object of Act
1861 was to abolish supreme court and sadar Adalat and Introduce
High court in Presidency Town.
High Court under Government of India Act 1915 This Act
repealed all the existing High Court . It introduced several changes
in the constitution jurisdiction of these court. High court consisted
of Chief Justice and Other Judges up to twenty.(Judges were to
be Barrister or Advocate of England.)
High Court Under Government of India Act 1935- High court
was to be court of record. Judge could hold office up to 60 years.
Appeal from High court could be made to Fedral Court in Britain.
After independence (15 August 1947) but before the
commencement of the constitution (26th January 1950) following
High courts were established. Punjab, Assam , Orissa, Rajasthan,
cochin , Maysor and Jammu and Kashmir. Presently we are having
Supreme court at Delhi which is the apex body of court , High
Court at each state , District Court at District level and JMFC

court at Taluka level.
Conclusion
Supreme court of India is known for its land mark judgements
and it is been appreciated by world. India has adopted common
law system from England after independence at the same time
court system which prevailed during British rule has helped Indian
judiciary to pronounce its judgements with Equity, Equality and
Justice.
References
1. Kailash Rai, History of court Legislature and Legal profession In
India, Abhay Law Agency Harayana P1
2. Kailash Rai, History of court Legislature and Legal profession In
India, Abhay Law Agency Harayana P14
3. Dr G P Tripathi , History of Court And legislation, Central Law
Publication Allahabad p137
4. M P Jain, Outline of Indian Legal History, Wadhwa and Company
Nagpur Fifth Edition p35
5. Arvind S Avhad, ,The Indian Legal History, Hind Law House Pune
p72

Advent of Educational Institutions in
th
19 Century Bombay : Impact of British Rule
- Dr. Ravinder Kaur Cheema
The British imperialism produced significant results in India

and had great impact on all aspects such as social setup, education,
political and administrative The British rule directly or indirectly
brought about the social and political unification of India. At the
beginning of the 19th century there existed no national
consciousness or unity. Though, within limits, an exposure to the
western ideas of rationalism and humanism, led to a new social
and political awareness among small educated elite group. This
group took up the task of leading the people into a reformed political
set-up. The ‘Young Bombay’ comprised of the educated elite and
business community of Bombay, took a lead in creating a platform
for the radical and moderate reformers to work together. This
paper explores the emergence of various educational institution
during the British rule and its impact on the society. It also brings
out the contribution of the intelligentsia in the field of education,
especially female education, leading to reforming the society
The traditional education system in India related to religion.
The village schools were regarded as a kind of divine institution
and survived all wars, revolutions, rebellions and famines. While
the Hindu communities were content with the study of Sanskrit,
Marathi and Gujarati, the Muslim community confined their
education to Koran. For them it was the encyclopedia of all
knowledge, being a divine book. “The Parsis were a share better,
but their early association with the English Factory Agents and
‘writers’ made them to acquire a smattering of English with great
facility. But there was nothing beyond”. And further, “The
indigenous literature was confined to the learned Pandits and
Mullas. The mass of population was illiterate.”
New Education
It was not until 1835, The East India Company thought of
introducing western education in India. Rev Richard Cobbee of

ST. Thomas Church had established a ‘Charity School’ in Bombay
in 1718 for providing English Education to Anglo-Indian and poor
European children. The East India Company gave this school an
annual grant of Rs.3600 and raised it to Rs.5280 in 1915. Its
success inspired the government to start such schools by mid 18th
century and later controlled all such schools. However, it seems
such schools existed before 1718. The East India Company
mentioned that there was already a school by 1680s since the two
ministers, viz., James Sterling and James Hutchinson, were sent
to Bombay to preach the Gospel, James Hutchinson was requested
to instruct scholars in a free school. However, no reference to
this school has been found after this, until the mention of Cobbe’s
school in 1718”.
In 1815, the European residents of Bombay in order to provide
educational opportunity for their children founded the Bombay
Education Society with the benevolent object of training the
children of their countrymen to keep them attached to the principles
of Christianity and to instill in their minds all the required knowledge
that might turn them into useful members of the country”. Bombay
Education Society took over the Charity School established by
Rev. Richard Cobbe and the Company’s government agreed to
pay Rs.300 p.m. as grant in aid. It also established other schools
where necessary. Bombay Education Society started its first school
for Indians at Fort and later at Girgaum and Mazagon in 1818 that
helped them to learn English and qualify for many positions. Many
Indians such as Hindus, Parsis and Muslims received education
at these schools. By 1820 the Society opened four schools for
Indians in the Island. The American Marathi Mission was the
earliest missionary organization to open a school for Hindu boys
in Bombay in 1815, a first one based on Western system of
education in Western India.
A separate branch of Bombay Education Society named
Elphinstone Native Education Institute was started for educating
the Indians in 1820. Its objective was to prepare school books in
the vernaculars and to establish or provide aid to vernacular
schools. Under the Chairmanship of Mountstuart Elphinstone, then
Governor of Bombay, this new branch became ‘The Bombay
Native School Book and School Society’ in 1822 with a committee

constituting of 12 Indian members who were subscribers to the
Native School and School Book Funds. Though supported by
private contributors, its aim was to publish and prepare books
introducing Western Arts and Sciences to Indians. The Indian
members strongly supported such committees as they were meant
for the welfare of Indians. They had realized their own deficiency
of knowledge and difficulty speaking English. They did not want
their countrymen to suffer due to the same. The Bombay Native
School Book and School Society was renamed and reconstituted
in 1825 as the Bombay Native Education Society and commenced
its work in 1827 under the immediate supervision and control of
separate managing committee represented by Shetias such as
Framji Cowasjee, Jamshedji Jeejeebhoy, Mohamed Ali Roghay
and Nana Sunkershet. The Parsi, Hindu and Muslim subscribers
and British officials contributed to raise funds for the Society under
the titles ‘benefactions’ and ‘subscriptions’.
The Bombay Native Education Society was influenced by
Mountstuart Elphinstone, the Governor of Bombay, who in his
Education Minutes of 1824 stressed that ‘a part of the revenue
should be spent on education, a necessary expense to be cheerfully
incurred”.
Mountstuart Elphinstone was keen in spreading western
education. He mentioned the following seven points regarding
introducing western education in detail in his Minute without mixing
religion with education;
1. To improve the mode of teaching at the native schools, and
to increase the number of schools.
2. To supply them with school books;
3. To hold out some encouragement to the lower orders of
natives to avail themselves of the means of instruction thus
afforded them.
4. To establish the schools for teaching the European Sciences
and improvements in the higher branches of education;
5. To provide for the preparation and publication of the books
of moral and physical sciences in native languages;
6. To establish schools for the purpose of teaching English to
those disposed to pursue it as a classical language and as a
means of acquiring knowledge of the European discoveries.

7. To hold forth encouragement to the natives in the pursuit of
those branches of knowledge
The society received the annual grants from the Government
in 1824. When Mountstuart Elphinstone retired, the shetias and
leading men of Bombay raised a special fund in his honour. The
fund raised on his farewell on the eve of his departure from
Bombay in 1827, was used to institute two professorships in
Western languages and sciences to be started in 1835 in the
Elphinstone Institute. The fund was further augmented and was
used to establish Elphinstone College. This college got students
from the Society’s English School. Ultimately, the School and the
College were brought under the Elphinstone Native Education
Institution in 1840 and since then Elphinstone College developed.
The above-mentioned Societies put in their sincere hard labour
for promoting education in the city. However, the cause of education
received great impetus under the leadership of Mountstuart
Elphinstone.
Western system of education thus came to be expanded to
government aided English and Vernacular medium primary and
secondary schools throughout the Presidency. The Indians
expressed their interest and desire for Western Learning that would
ensure them employment in government offices. The Bombay
Native Education Society report of 1836-37 states that the ambition
of students was to obtain only “a smattering of English sufficient
to ensure employment in some public office.” ‘The Shetias
underestimated the impact of Western learning; Nana Sunkershet,
in 1831, saw Indians becoming “conversant with the Arts and
Science of Europe, and yet retaining all that we consider sacred
in the religious peculiarities of our several tribes.”
The development of education by the missionaries in India
from the period from 1830 to 1850 has left a mark on the Indian
minds. This period is rightly called, “Age of the Mission School.”
By 1830s, there were missionary schools including Wilson High
School and College in Bombay. By the beginning of the 1840s, the
keenness of students to enter the English School in Bombay
indicated a “great and general desire for instruction.” Education
up to 1840s helped the students of school and colleges in getting
government employment and serve as clerks, writers, interpreters,

magistrates and teachers. Thus, a class of educated group,
especially from Elphinstone College, made their career in different
fields such as Bal Gangadhar Shastri Jambekar and Dadabhai
Naoroji took to teaching, Nawroji Furdunji became a translator
and interpreter at High Court, Bombay while Bhau Daji Lad became
a doctor. A few others like B. Sorabji, J. Yajnik and K. Mulji
excelled in the field of commerce. Alexander Duff who visited
the Elphinstone Institution in 1840 praised the students for their
sparkling intelligence.” On a number of occasions, they had a
common purpose of coming together. They encashed such
opportunities at committee meetings or at the newspaper offices
or at homes. This intellectual group was later responsible for
contributing to the growth of the city. They as ‘The Young Bombay’
influenced the life of the city. The Young Bombay was appreciative
of the benefits of the Western Education as Bhau Daji in his writing
expressed his view on the presence of Britishers in India, “Divine
Providence has placed us under the control of Britain and the
time has arrived when she has in her power to bestow on us
benefits, whose limits no man can foresee”.
Board of Education
Macaulay’s Minute of 1835 laid the foundation of modern
education in India. in 1840, the Bombay government set up a Board
of Education by dissolving the Bombay Native Education Society
for promoting education in Bombay Presidency under Sir Erskine
Perry as the President of the Board, which consisted of three
Europeans appointed by the government and three native members
elected by Bombay Native Education Society. The board
controlled all educational institutions of the Bombay Native
Education Society and also vernacular schools run by the district
collectors. The Board by 1850s established a number of English
and vernacular schools in may cities and town as recommended
by the Commission which included Elphinstone School, Poona
College, Grant Medical College and Schools at Surat, Ratnagiri,
Ahmedabad, Aurangabad, Dharwar, Broach, Thana, Satara,
Dhule, Rajkot and Solapur.
A number of institutions with private financial support such
as Bombay Education Society’s boys and girls school, Indo-British
Institution, Bombay Scottish Orphange, St. Mary’s Institution and

Sir Jamshedjee Jeejeebhoy Parsi Benevolent Institution did
contribute to the field of education during 1850’s. Bombay in the
mid nineteenth century was becoming the hub for educational
activities adding to its growth such as Board of Education, Students
Literary and Scientific Society and schools non by missionaries.
The schools of Students Literary and Scientific Society were totally
dependent on the financial assistance provided by the Indians.
Students Literary and Scientific Society (SLSS)
The SLSS was established in Bombay in June 1848. Prof.
Patton of Elphinstone College promoted the formation of the
society. The Society had 24 members, of which 18 were bonafied
students of Elphinstone College. The SLSS’s aim initially was social
reform. It also emphasized on female education. It supported nine
vernacular free schools for girls. Bhau Daji was one of the
members of the SLSS in 1851. and the first Indian to be elected
as the President of the SLSS for the year 1863-64 and continued
to hold this post for a decade.
In India, female education had peculiar difficulties particularly
due to unfavourable social customs that’s opposed education of
girls, it was the Christian missionaries, who despite opposition,
pioneered in promoting female education because they believed
that women played a key role in building an enlightened society
by bringing up children in the right way. The social reformers
emphasized education of girls. Bal Shastri Jhambhekar was one
of the earliest reformers to express his views on female education.
He indirectly emphasized on promoting education of the girls while
discussing the topic of widow-remarriage. He pointed out that the
examples set by the educated European women would enable the
Indians to understand that education never perverted the female
mind. Education would help the girls in developing their self-
confidence, independent thought and when required to become
financially independent. All this would bring a better future for
her, though in those the orthodox society was against such ideas.
However, when the schools for the girls were established a very
small number sent their daughters to these schools. The Report
of the Board of Education stated that among 54 girls in five schools
of the Society, there were also some native girls”. In 1824 the
first Marathi School for Jewish girls was started by the American

Missionary Society.
Dr. John Wilson’s efforts through lecture series and award
of prizes for essays on topics of ‘Female Education” and other
efforts made by Missions did not really speed up the growth in
this field. Probably the obstacle in the progress of female education
may be the belief that education was not respectable for a girl of
good family as it was considered proper only for dancing girls.
Surely all such efforts provided the inspiration for the
formation of the SLSS in 1848. The Society branched out into
two vernacular sections viz. Marathi DvanPrasarak Sabha (for
Marathi Hindus) and Gujarati Dyan Prasarak Sabha (for Parsis)
aiming at promoting Marathi and Gujarati languages respectively.
Activities like essay writing and debates were conducted by the
Sabhas. The other lecture was delivered by Sakharam Dixit at
Marathi Sabha. These lectures had great impact. The Society’s
Report stated: “His earnest appeal accompanied in the impressive
oriental style, with a prayer to almighty- to do something met with
a hearty response. Let every student here present use his influence
with the members of his own family to get one pupil atleast’;
‘Yes!’ responded scores of voices. ‘Let us teach the schools
ourselves and show that we are in earnest’ ‘Yes! Yes!’ exclaimed
all.”
The Society promoted Female education and opened four
Schools for Parsi girls at Fort, Chandanwadi, Agyari Lane and
Mirza Street and three for Marathi Hindu girls at Lohar Chawl,
Appolo Road and Kurnbharwadi on 21st October 1849. The four
Parsi Girls’ Schools had 44 girl students and the three Marathi
Hindu Girls schools had 24 girl students. At the end of 1850, the
number at these schools increased to 203 and 125 respectively.
The members of the (Elphinstonians) voluntarily contributed
as part time teachers at these schools. The Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
of SLSS and individuals such as Mangaldas Nathubhai started
schools for the Gujarati Hindus in early l850s. The number of
girls’ schools increased to nine by 1856 with 654 pupils and it also
served as an inspiration to open such schools in Poona. Dharwar,
Belgaurn, Sholapur and Ahmedabad.
Bombay Times commenting on the progress achieved in
Bombay within a short period wrote: “The great advance made in

the cause of female education is one of the most conspicuous
events of the year …... the great step lately made is that the
natives have taken the case most cordially into their own hands
and the instruction of their females is accordingly, beginning to
become an indispensable part of their system of general
education”.
In 1863, the first English-teaching school, The Alexandra
Native Girls’ Institution for Parsi families was started by Maneckjee
Cursetjee Shroff (a Parsi judge of the Court of Small Causes, a
Sheriff of Bombay and the first Indian member of the Bombay
Branch of Royal Asiatic Society). His aim in setting up this school
was to provide “mental and moral development of the female
members of respectable native families.”
The sincere efforts of some intellectual and rich Indians of
the city were appreciated by some but not by all. As female
education had just started gaining importance it was difficult to
get female teachers to teach in these schools. Sir Erskne Perry
(President, Students Literary and Scientific Society) in October
1852 through the Board Education announced that in the absence
of female teachers a committee consisting of women be appointed
to consider the daily functioning of these schools. This idea was
not well received by the Parsis. After persuasion, the Society
assured that the instruction was to consist merely of reading,
writing and sewing. English learning, English manners and customs
would not be introduced: “The Committee of English ladies had
been formed for the purpose of superintending the schools Mr.
LeGeyt to act as their Secretary; and that each lady is to take
upon herself the duty of reporting on the progress of instruction in
on school ! …..”
In the late 1850s, Anglo- Vernacular Schools of different
categories were started with a purpose of train students to qualify
for government employment or for entrance to study in English
schools. In 1857 formation of the “The Parsi Girls’ Schools
Association” as stated by Edwards “marked the practical
recognition by the Parsis of the advantages of female education”.
There were three Marathi Girls Schools in Mumbai. Due to
poor financial condition, these schools were about to close. In
such a situation Shet Bhagwandas Purshotumdas, Jagannath

Shankershet, and Bhau Daji took the financial responsibility of
one school each. Their generosity was well appreciated and the
Girl’s School at Lohar Chawl in 1862 received permanent
endowment from SLSS.
Many well-placed and rich persons came forward to offer
their contribution to many such schools that provided much needed
financial support to these schools. This kind of response received
from the Indians reflected the awakening that had grown for female
education amongst the Indians. Dr. Reid remarks, “The education
of the higher classes of Hindu families is no longer as it was ten
years ago, a matter of doubtful experiment but a successful reality,
the practical effects of which are apparent”.
The SLSS no doubt achieved its objective of educating the
girls and enhancing the spirit of the Society in the city as
commended by the Times of India on 4th April 1865, “those four
hundred girls are being educated without any charge on
government: and the liberal donations announced at the meeting,
give assurance that the spontaneous efforts of wealthy native
gentlemen will keep pace with the desire of the poorer classes for
the education of their girls.” His Excellency appreciated the
progress of the schools of SLSS under the Presidentship of Dr.
Bhau Daji. Further the SLSS received an offer of a large sum
from Premchand Roychand for the purpose of advancing
education in the city, a very generous gesture. As a gratitude
Bhau Daji, President of SLSS, thanked Sir B. Frere and Lady
Frere to the cause of education in Bombay Presidency, at the
Prize and Scholarship distribution function at the residence of
Vinayak Jaganath Sunkershet. (22 Feb. 1867)
Meanwhile, the Wood’s Despatch of 1854 recommended the
creation of a fully equipped and separate Department of Public
Instruction to look after educational development including female
education and the establishment of a University within each of
the three Presidencies. The important feature of the Dispatch
was its definite support for the extension of female education as it
was found that there was an increased desire on the part of many
Indians to give a good education to their daughters. Wood’s
dispatch led to the establishment of higher education in India which
till date stand testimony of it.

The introduction of western education in India encouraged
the growth of English and vernacular educational institutions through
missionaries and individual philanthropy. They also initiated the
female education which was a great reform in the Indian society.
The impact of the British rule brought about a socio-religious
change in the Indian society.
References
Monier Williams, Modern India and Indians, p.10
Wacha, D.E. Wacha, D.E. Shells from the Sands of Bombay, 1860-1875.
Bombay: Bombay Chronicle Press 1920., pp. 632-33
Edwards S.M. Gazetteer of Bombay City and Island (henceforth GBCI),
vol. I, p. 100
David M. D., History of Bombay 16661-1708, Bombay, p. 413
A Review of Education in Bombay State, 1855-1955. p.457
Ibid, p.457; First Annual Report of Bombay Education Society, 1816, pp.
13-14
Annual Report of Bombay Education Society II Report 1817, p.17; Society
for promoting the Education of the poor within the government of
Bombay, Bombay, 1816
A review of Education in Bombay State, 1855-1955. p.3
GBCI, vol. III, p.102
David M.D., John Wilson and his institution, p.19.
GBCI, vol. I, p.101; First Report of the Bombay Native School Book and
School Society, 1824, p.3.
* FN no. 3 Ramanna. M. Indian financial support of Western Education:
Bombay City 1820-1856, p. 2 (unpublished article) They were
Ruttonji Bomanji Framji Cawasji, Hormusji Dhanji, Mulla Firoz, J.
Jeleebhoy, Devidas Harjivandas, Nagardas Hirji Modi, Raghunath
K. Joshi, Sadashiv K. Chatre, Kazi Ghulam Hussain, Mohd. Ali
Roghay and Mohd Ibrahmi Mukba.
Masselos. J., Towards Naiionalism, , op.cit., p.22: Ramanna M., Indian
Financial Support, op.cit., pp. 2,3.
* Promient Indian donors were – The Nawab of Surat – Rs.500; J.
Jeejeebhoy – Rs.250 (two donations); Aga Moohummud Soostree,
Bombani Muncherji, Dhunjisha Ferozsha Ardashir, Framji Cawasji,
Hormusji Bomanji, Jagannath Shankar Shet and M. Ali Roghay
made benefactions of Rs.200 each; Devidas Harjivandas – Rs.150;
Cursetji Manekji, Kazi Ghulam Hussain Ramchandra Shastri
Janwakar, Ranchoddas Girdharbhai, Sadudin Shekh Ullakoor –
Rs.100 each. Amongst the British donors Governor M. Elphinstone
donated Rs.600 (Reports of BNES 1824 – 25, pp. App. 830-35)
Forrest G.W., Selection from the minutes and other official writings of
M. Elphinstone, London, Richard B & sons, 1884. p.103.

Basu A. N., Indian Education in Parliamentary Papers Bombay Presidency
Part I, pp. 197, 198; Cheema, K. S., British Policy in Western India,
1830-1875, pp 269-270. (unpublished Thesis)
Bombay Native Education Society, 1827, pp.30-31; 1835, p. 15; RBEd,
1840-41 pp. 2-3; David M.D., John
Wislson, op.cit p.19. The annual grant received was about Rs.6000
Bombay Native Education Society, 1836-37 p. 14.
David M.D., John Wilson. op.cit. p. 18
Bombay Native Education Society, 1838. p. 13; Smith George, Life of
John Wilson, pp.246-247.
Masselos James, Towards, op.cit., pp. 27- 28
David M.D., John Wilson,, op.cit, p. 24.
Wacha, Shells, op.cit, pp. 767, 891, 892.
Masselos James, Towards, op.cit., pp. 767, 891, 892.
First Report of the Elphinstone Native Education Institution, 1840, p.
18. (Bhau Daji, “The Probable effects of the spread of a literary
and scientific education on the Natives of India.”
Report of Board of Education 1840 – 41, p. 65
Cheema, K.S. op.cit., p. 282.
GD, vol.28, 1853, pp. 30-31, Para – 19; Report of Board of Education
1852-53
Gazetteer of Bombay City and Island, vol. III, in fn., p.108.
Ibid.
The Telegraph and Courier, vol II, 140, 12 June 1848, p. 539
Proceedings of Students Scientific and Literary Society 1856-59, Bombay,
1860, pp.10-11
Ibid., 1863-64, Bombay, 1860, pp.10-11
G.G.Jambhekar (ed). Memoirs and Writing of Acharya B. S. Jambhaker.
vol. II, pp. 293-295.
Shirgaonkar. S S. “Education of the Girls in Maharashtra.” Proceedings
of Marathi History Seminar, Kolhapur.1970. pp. 251-263.
GBCI, vol. III, p. 102; Cheema K.S., op.cit., p. 300 * In 1826 tile Church
Missionary Society opened a school for native girls and in 1835
an Anglo-Vernacular School in memory of Robert Cotton Money.
Secretary to Government, education Department. The Church
Missionary Society’s Vernacular Department started 8 Marathi
Schools attended by 306 girls under Miss. White. By 1827, 80
schools were run with 313 girls in it. In 1829-30, 120 girls were
taught in 6 schools started by Mrs. Margaret Wilson as stated in
GBCI (vol. III. p. 102-3). The Brahmin masters taught these girls
under the guidance of Mrs. Margaret Wilson and these schools
even catered to the lowest and most despised. Titus her school
for destitute became one of the first in Western India Mrs. Wilson
died in 1834 and the responsibility was taken up by her two sisters

Mr. George Smith writes, “To her more than to any other is due the
rapid progress of female education in Bombay not only in Christian
Schools, but in Parsees, Hindus and even Mohamadan families.
(Columba School in Bombay)
M. D. David.. John Wilson, op.cit., p. 3 1
Proceedings Students Scientific and Literary Society. 1854-55. pp. 1-9,
1848-49 to 1947-48. p, 5; Masselos. op.cit., p. 30
Ibid.
Ibid., Part I, 1853-68, p. 26
Ibid.
Ibid., 1854-55, 1855-56, pp.13-14.
Ibid., 1855-56, p. 7.
Albuquerqe T., Urbs Prima in Indis, pp. 145-150: Bombay Times 1 Jan
1852. *As the missionaries, the communities also contributed in a
big way to female education. In 1849, with an endowment fund of
Rs. 685.000 under the trusteeship of the Government of India. Sir
Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy Benevelont Institution was started by Sir J.
Jeejeebhoy for promoting education among Parsis, particularly
catering free education to the underprivileged pupils. The first
school of the institution was known as Central English School
with 201 boys enrolled in the very first year and increasing year by
year.
Ibid., pp. 146-147: Alexandra Native Girls’ English Institution Centenary
Souvenir, 1963, pp. 5-7.
Priyolkar, A. K., Dr. Bhau Dali Vyakti, KaaI va Karttutva., Proceedings of
Students Scientific and Literary Society 1854-56 pp. 17- 20
GBCI, vol. III, pp. 110-111.
Ibid., p.151; Edwardes S.M. Memoris of Kharshedji Rustomji Cama, p.18.
Karnataki, op.cit, p. 74.
Proceedings of Students Scientific and Literary Society, 1858-59. p. 3;
Albuquerque, op.cit., p. 152
Times of India, 4th April 1865; Albuquerque. op.cit., p. 153.
Pitale B.N., The Speeches and Addresses of Sir H. B. E. Frere, p. 208.
Ibid., pp. 209-10.
Albuquerque, op.cit., p.

British Rule and Indain Society
- Mr. Mahendra Satyavijay Wagh
The beginning of British rule in India can be considered from

1757 when the British East India Company's army defeated the
Nawab Sirajuddaula of Bengal in the Battle of Palasi. But a strong
national struggle against British imperialism in India happened in
the latter half of the 19th century and early 20th century.Before
this Mughal Empire established their power in India. But in the
beginning of the 18th century, the central structure of the Mughal
Empire started to break. The Mughal rulers remained unsuccessful
in making India a central power. Mughal can neither nationalize
with the military vision nor in the cultural sense in general public.
The treason and rebellion against the Mughal state became like
normal events. In time, the Mughal emperors started changing like
clothes. Mughal states became centers of selfishness and conspiracy
Bengal, Awadh and the Deccan became almost independent, now
they ignore Mughal rulers for their benefit and expansion of the
empire, and join forces with European powers. After the invasion
of Nadir Shah in 1739, the Mughal rule in India was completely
devastated. After that there were three angular conflicts between
the Marathas, the Mughals and the Afghans, for three eminent kings
in India. The result of this conflict was that the powerful and clever
Anglists took advantage of it and became the heirs of the unclaimed
manor of India. In the end, the British defeated the three powers
Mysore, Marathas and Nizam in southern India and got their right.
In this systematic manner, the British established their full empire in
India. Although the British took about hundred years to implement
it, it took about a hundred years to implement it.
Historians believe that at that time the British were far ahead
in the field of material civilization and technology from the
immediate Indian society. The English society was disciplined,
while the Indian discipline was not known what happens. This
was the situation in the military sector too. While the English army

was professional on one side and in discipline, it carried out war
etc., Indian soldiers sometimes ran away from the war zone and
were not very professional. Talking about the political situation, it
was the same way. The British leaders used to represent their
country and not make personal identities. On the other hand, Indian
leaders represented their own state and made their personal
identities. The Indian leaders used to fight for their self-interests
and were involved in the conspiracy.
Influence of British Rule
Some historians have seen the British rule in India with a
positive attitude. According to them, English rule had a meaningful
effect in India. They believe that before this India was passing
through a blind phase. At that time Indian society was full of evils.
The Indian polity and the economy were stuck in maladjustment.
It was wrapped in an environment like illiteracy, poverty,
sectarianism, racism, child marriage and anti-socialism. Historians
believe that during the British rule, these disorders were washed
in a manner. Discussions are still being held in scholars today on
the impact of the English rule in India.
Impact the Politics Sector
Before the arrival of the British, India had no permanent
political form. The country was scattered in several provinces, whose
boundaries were changed from time to time. But establishing political
unity under the strong central government in India was a great
achievement. The British brought the land from the Himalayas to
Kanyakumari and Chittagong from Chittagong to Khaibar under a
limit. It is said that if the British did not come to India at that time,
then determining what the current India's boundary would be, is still
beyond understanding. Thus, the British established a vast empire
in the form of India which was much larger than the Mughal rule.The
British also established stability and peace in the politics of the
country. The political pulls of the past and the mutual dualism ended
with its imperialist policy. There was a central army ready with the
British, who was completely disciplined, while Bharti soldiers used
to be mercenaries and were mind-boggling.
There was also a British police system that contributed to
maintaining peace and order in the country. It is notable that all
these reforms were done by the British for their political interests,

but Indians became victims of the weaknesses of this system. As
a result, the wind in the country was ready against the British
rule. The British adopted a system of governance throughout the
country and developed a large scale road, rail and postal
department in India for its convenience. This facilitated traffic in
the country and people came closer to the other and the spread of
nationalism began to spread.
Education was developed and newspapers started publishing.
During this period, the English rule expanded, the Indian feeling
began to thrive, and in 1885 the Indian National Congress
organization was formed. It was an English institution created by
AO Hume. The main objective of this organization was that the
British rule should work for the benefit of Indians in India, so that
the English rule can be popular here. But later Congress proved
to be inauspicious for the British, in the fight for independence,
this organization played an important role and made important
contributions to the liberation of the country.
The British always supported their rule in India and continued
to claim that there was no rule of law before their arrival. The
governance system here was based on the author's autocracy.
According to the British, he started democratic parliamentary
system based on public welfare in India and thus he developed
liberal government system in India. The biggest of the problems
that the British government has created in India, the feudal classes
remain dominant in the changing scenario due to industrialization-
modern education. This is the reason that while on the one hand
the values of freedom, equality and fraternity arose in the Indian
subcontinent, the feudal ideology of caste and sexual orientation
also got stronger. Thus we can said that the British who had come
as traders and had become rulers and administrators had influenced
the economic social political and cultural systems of India and
such British rules developed root of the modern India.
References
1. Aadhunik Bhartacha Itihas B.L Grover S Chand publishing
2. History of Mordern India Bipanchandra
3. www.historydiscussion.net>british-india
4. www.yourarticlelibrary.com>society
5. https://en.m.wikipedia.org>wiki>History

List of Authors
• Dr. Sandesh Wagh

Associate Professor, Department of History,
University of Mumbai, Mumbai.
• Dr. Shep B. K.
Head, Department of History,
Vaidyanath College, Parli-V., Dist. Beed (MS).
• Dr. Rita Bhambi
Associate Professor & HOD, Deparment of History,
G. N. Khalsa College, Matunga, Mumbai-19.
• Prof. Dr. (Major) Keshav Narayan Patil
H.O.D. Defeance & Strategic Study,
JDMVPS Arts, Comm. & Science College, Jalgaon.
• Rajvirendrasing Rubji Gavit
Head of the Department, History,
Vidyawardhini College, Dhule.
• Pardeshi Enayat Ranjeet
Research Scholar, Dept. of History,
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad.
• Dr. Shubhada Thakare
V.W.S. College,
Dhule.
• Smt. Rekha C. Deokar
Assist. Prof., Dept. of History
Iqra’s H. J. Thim College, Mehrun, Jalgaon
• Satish Nikam
Vidyawardhini College,
Dhule.
• Prof. U. Y. Gangurde
English Dept., K N.B. Arts College,
Navalnagar, Tal. & Dist. Dhule.
• Dr. Ajaykumar Pralhad Lokhande
Asst. Professor, Dept. of History,
DSPM’s K. V. Pendharkar College, Dombivli, Thane.
• Mr. Madhukar R. Wankhede
Assistant Professor in English,
Vidyawardhini College, Dhule.

• Dr. Raghunath D. Shelake
Dhanwantari College of Arts and Science,
Dhawalpuri, Tal-Parnerm, Dist-Ahmednagar.
• Dr. Nalini Avinash Waghmare
Assistant Professor, NISS (History),
Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth, Pune.
• Miss. Khandelwal Ishwari Prakash
PG (MA II) Student, Department of History,
Vidya Wardhini Sabha’s Arts, Comm. & Sci. College, Dhule.
• Mr. Sharad K. Shirule
Ph.D. Student,
NMU, Jalgaon.
• Prof. Sidhartha B. Sawant
Assist. Professor, S.S.V.P.S.’s College,
Shindkheda, Dist. Dhule, Maharashtra.
• Sonali Nimba Wagh
Research Scholar,
VWS College, Dhule.
• Dr. Sandesh D. Shegaonkar
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Memorial Law College,
Dhule.
• Dr. Ravinder Kaur Cheema
Department of History,
G. N. Khalsa College, Mumbai.
• Mr. Mahendra Satyavijay Wagh
VWS College,
Dhule.
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India is one of the developing countries in the 21st century in

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Asst. Prof. Rajvirendrasing Gavit

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History of the British Raj

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