Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval

hinduism and later revolutionised Sikhism. The movement was inspired by many poet-
saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions. The movement has
traditionally been considered as an influential social reformation in Hinduism and
provided an individual-focussed alternative path to spirituality regardless of one’s caste
of birth or gender. Along with male poets and saints, women poets and saints too have
immensely contributed for the movement. Some of the women poets and their
contribution were:

Lal Ded (1320-1384), the Muslim poetess from Kashmir Lalded & Habba Khatun,
represented the Sant tradition of Bhakti and wrote Vakhs (maxims), which are peerless
gems of spiritual experience. Meera Bai, in Gujarati, Rajasthani and Hindi (she wrote in
three languages), Avvayyar, in Tamil, and Akkamahadevi in Kannada, are well known for
their sheer lyrical intensity and concentrated emotional appeal. Their writings speak to
us about the social conditions prevailing at that time, and the position of woman at home
and in society. They all wrote small lyrics or poems of devotional fervour, metaphysical
depth, and with a spirit of dedication and utmost sincerity. Behind their mysticism and
metaphysics is a divine sadness. They turned every wound inflicted by life into a poem.
Bhakti movement was an important phase where women, who were previously kept
away from spiritual affairs came to the forefront and made important contributions.
Women for the first time in history exercised their freedom of speech and movement.
Social evils like Sati have received a jolt. It was an important phase where Hinduism
underwent a drastic change.

Bhakti movement refers to theistic devotional trend that emerged in Medieval period
from South India and then spread to all over India. Bhakti movement has traditionally
been considered as an influential social reformation in Medieval society. A number of
women poet became famous through their poems and writing during this period.
Following are some of the women poets and their contribution in Indian Writing in
English

1. Akka Mahadevi: She was a poet of Kannada Language. She is known to have
considered the god Shiva as her husband. Her mystical poems have notable contribution
to Kannada literature.
2. Meera Bai: Meera Bai a mystical poet and singer known for her songs of devotion to
Lord Krishna. She wrote poems or bhajans in 3 languages. Her bhajans or devotional
songs of high literary value are sung all over the country even today. Mira is a symbol of
a liberated woman who risked all to protect her independence, freedom, and love
towards Krishna.
3. Andal: A well-known South Indian poet and only female among 12 Alwars of
TamilNadu.
4. Lal Ded: The Muslim poetess from Kashmir Lalded & Habba Khatun, represented the
saint tradition of bhakti and wrote Vakhs (maxims), which are peerless gems of spiritual
experience.
5. JanaBai: Janabai was influenced by teachings of Saint Namdev. Her poetry
encompasses the discrimination faced by women & sudras. This awaken the sudras and
women for their rights.

Women contributed a lot through their poems and writing during Bhakti Movement. Their
writings speak to us about the social conditions prevailing at that time and the position of
woman at home and in society. They all wrote small lyrics or poems of devotional fervour
with a spirit of dedication and utmost sincerity.

Andal

The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval
Hinduism. It originated somewhere around 6th century AD in south India, and spread
northwards. It emphasized on single-minded intense devotion or a complete surrender of
oneself to God.
Some of the important women poets and their contributions in the movement are:
1> Andal(6th Century AD): The only female of the twelve Alvar saints of south India,
expressed her devotion to Vishnu through beautiful poems called 'Thirupavvai' .
2> Akka Mahadevi(12th Century AD): A follower of Shiva who wrote 'Vachans'in
Kannada language.
3> Lalleshwari aka Lal Ded(14th Century AD): the Muslim poetess from Kashmir, wrote
Vakhs (maxims),the peerless gems of spiritual experience.
4> Mirabai(17th Century AD): A Rajput princess, turned towards bhakti of Krishna, wrote
'Padas' in Gujarati, Rajasthani and Hindi.

These poetesses are well known for their sheer lyrical intensity and concentrated
emotional appeal. Their writings speak to us about the social conditions prevailing at that
time, and the position of woman at home and in society. They all wrote small lyrics or
poems of devotional fervour, metaphysical depth, and with a spirit of dedication and
utmost sincerity.
Time and geographical spread reflects their presence widely across the country and
during whole period of the movement and not just an event of poetic ephemera.

BUDDHISTS

The Bhakti movement, better known as the movement which had its theme as the
emphasization of one's devotion towards God, through media such as songs and
poems, rather than through elaborate performance of rituals holds a significant
importance in the history of India. In fact, the women poets like Lopamudra, Ghosha,
and Gargi, are well known names associated with the movement.

Beginning in the 6th century B.C itself, the women poets had contributed towards the
Bhakti movement in the following ways:
1. Buddhist nuns, like Mutta and Ubbiri, were well known for their expression of intense
feelings about the life left behind.
2. The Alwar women poets were known for their love and devotion for the Divine One.
3. Women poets like Meera Bai, besides highlighting her devotion towards God, had at
the same time highlighted the social conditions and status of women during those times.

In short, the woman poets, apart from relying on metaphysical and meta-spiritual themes
to express their feelings, also portrayed the general social life of the times, and the
practices adopted by the society. In fact, throughout the movement, these poets had
highlighted the essential role that women needs to play in a society.

Bhakti Movement had its genesis in the South of India in the 6th century CE. It is
characterized by the writings of its poet-saints, many of whom were female, that extolled
passionate devotional love for the Divine.The contribution of women writers in different
languages during that period deserves special attention.Nonetheless, many of these
women had to struggle for acceptance within the largely male dominated movement.
Only through demonstrations of their utter devotion to the Divine, their outstanding
poetry, and stubborn insistence of their spiritual equality with their contemporaries were
these women reluctantly acknowledged and accepted within their ranks.

Akkamahadevi- She was a bhakta from the southern region of Karnataka and a devotee
of Shiva in the 12th century CE. Legends tell of her wandering naked in search of her
Divine Lover; her poetry, or vacanas tell of her frustration with societal norms and roles
that restricted her. Her all-encompassing love for Shiva, whom she addresses as
Chennamallikarjuna.

Janabai- was born around the 13th century in Maharashtra in a low-caste sudra
family.Janabai wrote over three hundred poems focusing on domestic chores and the
restrictions facing her as a low-caste woman.

Mirabai- Mirabai’s poetry tells of her vision of Lord Krishna when she was a child; from
that point on Mira vowed that she would forever be his bride. Mirabai’s poetry portrays a
unique relationship with Krishna; in it, she is not only the devoted bride of Krishna, but
Krishna is ardent in his pursuit of Mira.

Bahinabai - a poet-saint from 17th century Maharashtra, writing in the form of abangas,
women’s songs that accompanied their labors, especially in the fields. Her writings are
particularly autobiographical, recounting her childhood, puberty and married life.Her
poetry recounts visions she experiences of the low-caste poet-saint Tukaram; despite
her high-caste status, she became his devotee, thus choosing the path of devotion over
brahmanical norms of ritual purity...

Bhakti movement was a great contributor to the literature world. Since many rigidities in
the mode of worshipping broke with the advent of Bhakti movement, popular
participation in religion started. This also allowed women, who were traditionally not
allowed in religious practices ( though they contributed during the Rig veda time ), to
pray god on their own, without the need of a priest, which was the main point of the
Bhakti movement.

Meerabai:- She was a saint of 15th century. Her bhajans in the praise of Lord Krishna
are very famous. She wrote in Rajasthani, Gujarati and Hindi.

LalDed: She was a Shaivite Mystic of 14th Century AD who was the first to sing in
Kashmiri language. Thus she helped in the development of Kashmiri through Bhakti
movement.

Ayyavar: Contributed to the Tamil Bhakti literature.

AkkaMahadevi:- She is a Kannada writer and a devotee of shiva.

With the rise of Vaishanivism and Shaivism in the south especially due to Bhakti
Movement, many women writers from Nayanmars and Alvars also contributed a lot to
the Bhakti literature in the form of devotional songs. Even today, most of the devotional
songs in our temples are sang by the women.
Bhakti movement started from South India around 8th century and reached its zenith
aroung 14th-15th century. Bhakti movement is an remarkable reform event in the
hinduism which focused on age old practices like Sati, Jauhar, caste discrimination,
women inequality. As movement was male dominated but role of females can not be
neglected as Mirabai is still famous in nooks and corners around country.

Women poets & Contributions:

1. Mirabai: She belonged to an upper caste Rajput family and was not satisfied with her
marriage against her wish. She turned out to be a devotee of Krishna later. She
influenced the saints with her intellectualism. She was very vocal about existing social
order & stigma.She challenged the society by considering herself as krishna's bride.

2.AKkaMahadevi: Mahadevi was from South India and devotee of Shiva. She was
compassionate about Shiva & considered him divine lover.

3. JanaBai: Janabai was a sudra from maharashta. She influenced by teachings of Saint
Namdev. Her poetry encompasses the discrimination faced by women & sudras. This
awaken the sudras and women for their rights.
4. Bahina: Bahina was also from maharashtra and devotee of Krishna. She was the
disciple of Saint Tukaram. But unlike others she never left her marriage but devoted to
bhakti alongwith marriage. Thus she became idol for women who were hesitating
breaking social norms but wanted to devote herselves to bhakti.

Poetry written by these poets invigorated women about their rights & gave them strength
to achieve a respectable position in society.
What is today known as the Bhakti Movement had its genesis in the South of
India in the 6th century CE. It is characterized by the writings of its poet-
saints, many of whom were female, that extolled passionate devotional love
for the Divine. The Bhakti Movement gained momentum from the 12th
centuries in the central western regions of India, then moved northward,
coming to an end roughly in the 17th century.

The Bhakti Movement: Context and

Overview
The Hindu tradition has generally been divided into a number of important
historical and religious periods through its long development. The formative
time frame from 2500–400 BCE is highlighted by what are known as the
sacred texts, the Vedas, and a nomadic people known as the Indo-Aryans;
this period is classified as the Vedic Period. Central to the Vedas was the
visionary figure of the rishi, or seer, one who was able to communicate with
and about the various gods of the Vedic pantheon through a complex system
of rituals that could only be conducted by an increasingly powerful
priesthood. Liberation, or moksha, was to be found through the precise
performance of ritual.

The Epic and Classical Periods, from 400 BCE–600 CE are so named because
of their focus on important texts, namely, the Mahabharata and
the Ramayana. These epics are concerned with heroes and heroic battles,
kings, queens, and ideal roles of individuals. Also of central importance to
this time frame were Law Books concerned with the ideal nature of society.
Social order and stability were to be found in a hierarchical ordering of
people as well as specific roles assigned to each individual’s life stage
(ashrama) and position in society (varna) or caste. On the upper rung of this
system was the Brahmin priesthood, followed by Kshatriyas (warriors) and
Vaishyas (merchants), also known as twice-born classes. Only these groups
were enabled to take part in an initiation ceremony known as the “sacred
thread,” study the Vedas, and take part in Vedic rituals. Beneath these three
groups were the Shudras, those who were servants to the upper three
varnas. Underneath this rung came another subsection, the Untouchables,
those whose occupations were so polluting that they did not even qualify to
fit within an ordered society. The way to liberation from rebirth
or moksha was in a true understanding of dharma, recognition and
maintenance of the good of the social order, as exemplified and regulated by
the Epics and Law Books.

The Medieval Period followed, of which the Bhakti Movement was an integral

aspect. This was due in part to the rise of a new line of kings, the Gupta
lineage (320 CE) that supported the pantheon of gods through worship of
divine images (puja) and also included the building of temples and support
for devotional groups. Alongside these developments came a flourishing of
mythical compositions about the gods, known as the Puranas, or, “ancient
stories.” Central to this pantheon were the gods Vishnu, the cosmic king, and
Shiva, the great yogi and ascetic known by many names, and his
feminine counterpart, Shakti, or divine energy. Shakti was worshipped both
as wife and consort of Shiva, but also in her own right as the Great Goddess
in a variety of manifestations.

Most Hindus, today, identify themselves with the worship of one of these
gods. Devotees of Vishnu in his many incarnations—known as avatars,
Krishna and Rama being the most popular manifestations—are called
Vaishnavites. Those worshiping Shiva are known as Shaivites, whereas
followers of the feminine divine are Shaktas. Devotees within each strand
focus on their god or goddess as Ultimate Reality, thus having a distinctly
monotheistic outlook, while at the same time acknowledging that the Divine
takes many forms for the benefit of humanity.

The Bhakti Movement

The term bhakti is defined as “devotion,” or passionate love for the
Divine. Moksha, or liberation from rebirth, was not in the following of rules,
regulations or societal ordering, it was through simple devotion to the Divine.
Within the movement at large, useful distinctions have been made
by contemporary scholars between those poet-saints who composed verses
extolling God with attributes or form, namely, “saguna” bhaktas, and, those
extolling God without and beyond all attributes or form, “nirguna.”

While the differences between these two branches are indeed important,
their overarching similarities cannot be minimized; both focused on singular
devotion, mystical love for God, and had a particular focus on a personal
relationship with the Divine. Given their belief in the centrality of personal
devotion, poet-saints were highly critical of ritual observances as maintained
and fostered by the Brahmin priesthood. For many, their critique also
included the caste system that supported the traditional religious hierarchy,
with Brahmins at the head of this hierarchy. Many poet-saints, particularly as
the movement developed northward, were themselves of lower caste
lineages. Another commonality was their usage of the vernacular, or regional
languages of the masses, as opposed to the sacred language of the elite
priesthood, Sanskrit. This practice, too, stemmed from the movement’s focus
on inner, mystical, and highly personal devotion to the Divine.

Women in the Bhakti Movement

Many of the bhakti poet-saints rejected asceticism as the crucial means
toward liberation; some bhaktas were instead householders. As well, themes
of universalism, a general rejection of institutionalized religion, and a central
focus on inner devotion laid the groundwork for more egalitarian attitudes
toward women and lower-caste devotees. Women and shudras, both at the
bottom of the traditional hierarchy ordering society, became the examples of
true humility and devotion.

Female poet-saints also played a significant role in the bhakti movement at

large. Nonetheless, many of these women had to struggle for acceptance
within the largely male dominated movement. Only through demonstrations
of their utter devotion to the Divine, their outstanding poetry, and stubborn
insistence of their spiritual equality with their contemporaries were these
women reluctantly acknowledged and accepted within their ranks. Their
struggle attests to the strength of patriarchal values within both society and
within religious and social movements attempting to pave the way for more
egalitarian access to the Divine.

The imagery of bhakti poetry is grounded in the everyday, familiar language

of ordinary people. Women bhaktas wrote of the obstacles of home, family
tensions, the absent husband, meaningless household chores, and
restrictions of married life, including their status as married women. In many
cases, they rejected traditional women’s roles and societal norms by leaving
husbands and homes altogether, choosing to become wandering bhaktas; in
some instances they formed communities with other poet-saints.
Their new focus was utter devotion and worship of their Divine Husbands.

Caste status and even masculinity were understood as barriers to liberation,

in essence a rejection of the hierarchy laid out by the Law Books of the
Classical Period. Male bhaktas often took on the female voice calling to her
Beloved, utterly submissive to His desires. However, while male bhaktas
could engage in this role-playing on a temporary basis, returning at will to
their privileged social status as males, women bhaktas faced overwhelming
challenges through their rejection of societal norms and values, without
having the ability to revert back to their normative roles as wives, mothers
and in some cases, the privileges of their original high-caste status.

While it is tempting to see women’s participation within the bhakti movement

as a revolt against the patriarchal norms of the time, there is little evidence to
support this perspective. Injustices and the patriarchal order itself were not a
major focus of these poet-saints. Women bhaktas were simply individuals
attempting to lead lives of devotion. Staying largely within the patriarchal
ideology that upheld the chaste and dutiful wife as ideal, these women
transferred the object of their devotion and their duties as the “lovers” or
“wives” to their Divine Lover or Husband. Nonetheless, that their poetry
became an integral aspect of the bhakti movement at large is highly
significant and inspirational for many who look to these extraordinary
women as ideal examples of lives intoxicated by love for the Divine.

Further, it would appear that with the movement’s northward advancement

(15th through 17th centuries), its radical edge as it pertained to women’s
inclusion was tempered. Greater numbers of women took part in the
movement’s earlier development (6th to 13th centuries); it is largely male
bhaktas and saints that are today perceived as the spokespersons for the
movement in its later manifestations. The poetry of women bhaktas from this
latter time period is generally not indicative of a rejection of societal norms in
terms of leaving family and homes in pursuit of divine love. Instead, some of
the later poet-saints stayed within the confines of the household while
expounding on their souls’ journeys, their eternal love for the Divine, as well
as their never-ending search for truth.
Female Bhaktas
The poets outlined below represent a panorama of female poet-saints within
the Bhakti movement. Some were extraordinarily radical in their rejection of
social norms and values, leaving husbands, families, and society behind in
order to extol their love for God. Others attempted to fit into more traditional
roles in society by maintaining their responsibilities as wives and mothers. All
wrote exquisite poetry that has been passed on through bards and singers
throughout India.

Bhakti poets—who were in some cases lower-caste Hindu women—and their

audiences drew emotional sustenance from these verses, which expressed a
pure devotion to Hindu deities. Their poetry, written in local languages
beginning in the 6th century in South India and the 12th century in North
India, attracted large audiences among the marginalized in Hindu society,
such as women and “untouchables.”

Akkamahadevi

Śiva (Shiva)

Akkamahadevi, also known as Akka or Mahadevi was a bhakta from the

southern region of Karnataka and a devotee of Shiva in the 12th century CE.
Legends tell of her wandering naked in search of her Divine Lover; her
poetry, or vacanas tell of her frustration with societal norms and roles that
restricted her. They also bear witness to her intense, all-encompassing love
for Shiva, whom she addresses as Chennamallikarjuna. Through Shiva and
Shiva alone is her love fulfilled; through separation from her “lord white as
jasmine” is her heart broken.

Shiva is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme God

within Shaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in
contemporary Hinduism. This is an artistic representation of Shiva,
surrounded by 12 Jyotirlingas / (Wikimedia Commons)

In this 12th century vacana (poem), Akkamahadevi, or Akka, is lamenting her

separation from her lord, Siva, (Lord White as Jasmine). At times in
Akkamahadevi’s poetry, Siva is her illicit lover, and at times, he is her
legitimate husband. In this poem, she writes of her wandering, in search of
Siva. Her travels took her to various parts of India, where, traveling naked
and forlorn in search of her true love, Akkamahadevi often had to ward off
molesting men and the harsh criticism of other wandering saints who were
aghast at her imprudent nakedness.

O mother I burned
in a flameless fire
O mother I suffered
a bloodless wound

O Mother I tossed
without a pleasure:

loving my lord white as jasmine

I wandered through unlikely worlds.
(Vacana, 69)

Source: “O mother I burned.” In Speaking of Siva. Translated by A. K.

Ramanujan. London: Penguin, 1973.

Brother, you’ve come

drawn by the beauty
of these billowing breasts,
this brimming youth.
I’m no woman, brother, no whore.

Every time you’ve looked at me,

Who have you taken me for?
All men other than Chennamallikarjuna
Are faces to be shunned, see brother.

Source: “Brother, you’ve come.” In Women Writing in India, 600 B.C. to the

Present. Vol. 1. Edited by Susie Tharu and K. Lalita. New York: The Feminist
Press at The City University of New York, 1991.

Janabai

The Veena, also spelled as Vina or Beena or Bina, is a multistringed

chordophone of the Indian subcontinent. It is an ancient musical
instrument that evolved into many variations, such as lutes, zithers and
arched harps. (Wikipedia)

Janabai was born around the 13th century in Maharashtra in a low-

caste sudra family. As a young girl she was sent to work in the upper-caste
family of Namdev, one of the most revered of the bhakti poet saints. While
within this household, she continued to serve Namdev, both as a servant and
as his devotee. Janabai wrote over three hundred poems focusing on
domestic chores and the restrictions facing her as a low-caste woman.

In the following poem, Janabai, a 13th century poet from a low-

caste surda family, presents herself as shrugging off social conventions
enshrining women’s honor (covering her body) and taking up musical
instruments (cymbals and the veena) to go sing and dance in the
marketplace. Janabai, though a low-caste woman, was brought up in the
household of Namdev, a popular poet-saint, and thus treated with a certain
amount of respect in light of the egalitarian ethos of Namdev’s message.
Nonetheless, she is still well aware of her “place” in society; she is a servant,
one who is perhaps more aware of social conventions because of her
associations with Namdev, and is here apparently flaunting these very
conventions, imagining herself as a woman who is utterly outside the bounds
of respectability. Shedding these bonds of respectability, she is left with
nothing. In essence, there is nothing standing between herself and her
Beloved Vithoba, another name for Krishna, incarnation of the god Vishnu in
human form.

Cast off all shame,

and sell yourself
in the marketplace;
then alone
can you hope
to reach the Lord.

Cymbals in hand,
a veena upon my shoulder,
I go about;
who dares to stop me?

The pallav of my sari

falls away (A scandal!);
yet will I enter
the crowded marketplace
without a thought.

Jani says, My Lord

I have become a slut
to reach your home.

Source: “Cast off all shame.” In Women Writing in India, 600 BC to the Present.
Vol. 1. Edited by Susie Tharu and K. Lalita. New York: The Feminist Press at
The City University of New York, 1991.

Mirabai

Krishna is a major Hindu deity worshiped in a variety of different

perspectives. Krishna is recognized as the Svayam Bhagavan in his own
right or as the absolute incarnation of Lord Vishnu. / Wikimedia
Commons

Mirabai, or Mira is said to have been born into a ruling Rajput family.
Mirabai’s poetry tells of her vision of Lord Krishna when she was a child; from
that point on Mira vowed that she would forever be his bride. Despite her
wishes, she was married into another princely family at a young age. Yet the
numerous legends surrounding Mira tell of an undying devotion toward
Krishna, her true husband. Central to these accounts are Mirabai’s struggles
within the family she had been married into, including unsuccessful attempts
made by her jealous husband to kill her. Others focus on her sisters-in-law’s
efforts to obstruct Mirabai in her desires to join the company of wandering
saints, actions deemed utterly improper for a woman of her high-caste
status. Eventually, Mirabai left her husband and family in pilgrimage to
various places associated with “her Dark Lord,” including Brindavan, Krishna’s
holy city. There she was initially rejected because she was a woman. Yet
Mirabai’s reputation of devotion, piety, and intellectual astuteness eventually
led to her inclusion within the community of the saints of Brindavan.

Mirabai’s poetry portrays a unique relationship with Krishna; in it, she is not
only the devoted bride of Krishna, but Krishna is ardent in his pursuit of Mira.
Because of Mirabai’s singular focus and intense devotion of her Husband, the
“lifter of the mountain,” she can be perceived as simply upholding the “wifely”
duties of women and patriarchal norms in general. On the other hand, she
remains for many a symbol of resistance of social order of the day.
In Caturvedi 42, Mirabai (ca. 1498–ca. 1546), famous devotee of Krishna,
speaks of her struggles within the domestic sphere, particularly with her in-
laws, as a high-caste woman who chooses to defy conventional expectations
and family roles. Here we see how her extended family through marriage is
attempting to dissuade Mirabai from her associations with fellow devotees of
Krishna. Her in-laws (particularly the king, the rana) are said to have
attempted to poison Mirabai who was breaking all societal norms in search of
her true love, Krishna. Krishna, here presented as the “Mountain Lifter,”
refers to a story of Krishna widely known in Rajasthan, where Krishna held up
Mount Govardhan to protect the cattle and herders from the rain-god Indra’s
wrath; Indra’s anger was directed at the people of Braj because they turned
their devotion away from him and toward Krishna instead.

Life without Hari is no life, friend,

And though my mother-in-law fights,
my sister-in-law teases,
the rana is angered,
A guard stationed on a stool outside,
and a lock is mounted on the door,
How can I abandon the love I have loved
In life after life?
Mira’s Lord is the clever Mountain Lifter:
Why would I want anyone else?
(Caturvedi, no. 42)

Source: “Life without Hari is no life, friend.” In Songs of the Saints of India.

Edited and translated by John Stratton Hawley and Mark Juergensmeyer. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Sister, I had a dream that I wed

the Lord of those who live in need:
Five hundred sixty thousand people came
and the Lord of Braj was the groom.
In dream they set up a wedding arch;
in dream he grasped my hand;
in dream he led me around the wedding fire
and I became unshakably his bride.
Mira’s been granted her mountain-lifting Lord:
From living past lives, a prize.
(Caturvedi, no. 27)
Source: “Sister, I had a dream that I wed.” In Songs of the Saints of India. Edited
and translated by John Stratton Hawley and Mark Juergensmeyer. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1988.

I am pale with longing for my beloved;

People believe I am ill.
Seizing on every possible pretext,
I try to meet him ‘by accident.’

They have sent for a country doctor,

He grabs my arm and prods it;
How can he diagnose my pain?
It’s in my heart that I am afflicted.

Go home, country doctor,

Don’t address me by my name;
It’s the name of God that has wounded me,
Don’t force your medicines on me.

The sweetness of his lips is a pot of nectar,

That’s the only curd for which I crave;
Mira’s Lord is Giridhar Naagar.
He will feed me nectar again and again.

Source: “I am pale with longing for my beloved.” In Women Writing in India, 600
B.C. to the Present. Vol. 1. Edited by Susie Tharu and K. Lalita. New York: The
Feminist Press at The City University of New York, 1991.

I’m colored with the color of dusk, oh rana,

colored with the color of my Lord.
Drumming out the rhythm on the drums, I danced,
dancing in the presence of the saints,
colored with the color of my Lord.
They thought me mad for the Maddening One,
raw for my dear dark love,
colored with the color of my Lord.
The rana sent me a poison cup:
I didn’t look, I drank it up,
Colored with the color of my Lord.
The clever Mountain Lifter is the lord of Mira.
Life after life he’s true-
colored with the color of my Lord.
Source: “I’m colored with the color of dusk, oh rana.” In Songs of the Saints of
India. Edited and translated by John Stratton Hawley and Mark
Juergensmeyer. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Bahinabai

Maharashtra, India

Bahinabai or Bahina was a poet-saint from 17th century Maharashtra, writing

in the form of abangas, women’s songs that accompanied their labors,
especially in the fields. Her writings are particularly autobiographical,
recounting her childhood, puberty and married life. Despite having obvious
conflicts with her husband due to her overarching and ecstatic love for her
Divine Lover in the form of Lord Vithoba, another name for Krishna, she took
her role as wife and responsibilities to her earthly husband seriously. Her
husband was also critical of her allegiance to the bhakti poet-saint Tukaram.
Nonetheless, her poetry reflects an attitude of duty and respectful empathy
toward both her marriage and her spouse. This becomes clear through her
writings on the responsibilities of women toward their husbands.
Though highly unusual, it is believed that Bahinabai received some classical
training from her father, a Brahmin scribe. Her poetry recounts visions she
experiences of the low-caste poet-saint Tukaram; despite her high-caste
status, she became his devotee, thus choosing the path of devotion over
brahmanical norms of ritual purity.

The possibility of Bahinabai’s Vedic training, or training in Hindu religious

hymns, comes to the fore in her 17th-century poetry, in that she consistently
refers to the Vedas and their regulations on married life. In this abhanga, a
song that accompanied women’s work, readers become aware of Bahinabai’s
anguished decision-making process. The Vedas are clear on the duties of
women toward their husbands, particularly women’s deference to their
husband’s wishes. But Bahinabai is called to a different life, a different object
of affection and duty than her husband, namely, reverence and affection
toward her teacher, the low-caste poet-saint Tukaram. Bahinabai’s husband
initially scorned Tukaram and stressed the invincibility of the Vedas and Vedic
rituals over and against Tukaram’s message of devotion over ritual.

To leave a husband is against the teachings of the Vedas, and

thereby one can never acquire the supreme spiritual riches.

At my door there seemed a great serpent hissing at me. How could I

live under such conditions?

It is the teaching of the Vedas, that one should not neglect one’s duty,
but my love was for the worship of God (Hari).

Says Bahini, ‘I was in a sea of troubles. How can I describe the

increasing anguish of my heart!’
(Abhanga 62)

Source: McGee, Mary. “Bahinabai: The Ordinary Life of an Exceptional

Woman, or, the Exceptional Life of an Ordinary Woman.” In Vaisnavi: Women
and the Worship of Krishna. Edited by Steven J. Rosen. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 1996.

In worshiping Thee I can still be true to my duty of devotion to my

husband. Thou, O God (Meghashyama) must thus think also.

The Supreme spiritual riches are surely not contrary to the Vedas.
Therefore, think of this purpose of mine.
Says Bahini: ‘Oh God (Hari), think at once of my longing, by which I can
accomplish both.
(Abhanga 68)

Source: McGee, Mary. “Bahinabai: The Ordinary Life of an Exceptional

Woman, or, the Exceptional Life of an Ordinary Woman.” In Vaisnavi: Women
and the Worship of Krishna. Edited by Steven J. Rosen. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 1996.

Secondary Sources: Women and Bhakti

Feldhaus, Anne, ed. Images of Women in Maharashtrian Literature and Religion.
Albany: SUNY Press, 1996.

This volume includes a number of important translations of women’s poetry

and folk songs from Maharashtra, one of India’s largest states.

Johnsen, Linda. Daughters of the Goddess, The Women Saints of India. St. Paul,
MN: Yes International Publishers, 1994.

A very readable, popular account of contemporary women saints of India.

Manushi: Tenth Anniversary Issue, Women Bhakta Poets. No.s 50-52. 1989.

Manushi was founded in 1978 by a group of women scholars and activists in

India. This particular issue focuses specifically on women in the Bhakti
movement.

Narayanan, Vasudha. “Brimming with Bhakti, Embodiments of Shakti:

Devotees, Deities, Performers, Reformers, and Other Women of Power in the
Hindu Tradition.” In Feminism and World Religions. Edited by Arvind Sharma
and Katherine K. Young. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.

This article questions whether the women who were a part of the Bhakti
movement can be best understood within the later feminist movement.

Ramanuja, A. K.. “On Women Saints.” In The Divine Consort Radha and the
Goddesses of India. Edited by John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff.
Berkeley: Graduate Theological Union, 1982. 316-24.

A good introductory reading on women within the Bhakti movement.

Sangari, Kumkum. “Mirabai and the Spiritual Economy of Bhakti,” Economic

and Political Weekly. July 7, 1990, 1464-75 and July 14, 1990, 1537-52.
An excellent historical critical essay on the Mirabai of myth and history.

Sharma, Arvind, ed.. Women Saints in World Religions. Albany: SUNY Press,

2000.

Includes a chapter on Janabai by Rajeshwari Pandharipande, “Janabai: A

Woman Saint of India.”

Original Sources: Introductions, Translations

Abbot, Justin E., tr.. Bahina Bai: A Translation of Her Autobiography and Verses.
Pune: Scottish Mission Industries, 1929.

An important early 20th-century translation from Marathi, the language of

the state of Maharashtra in India.

Alston, A. J.. The Devotional Poems of Mirabai. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1980.

An introduction to and translation of 200 of Mirabai’s poems.

Hawley, J. S. and Mark Juergensmeyer. “Mirabai.” In Songs of the Saints of India.

Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988. 119-142.

An important volume that includes a scholarly focus on the historical Mirabai,

in addition to Hawley’s own translation of 22 of Mirabai’s poems.

Menezes, Armando and S. M. Angadi, tr.. Vacanas of Akkamahadevi, with the

original text in Kannada. Dharwar, M. A. Adke, 1973.

This translation covers 315 of Akkamahadevi’s poems and includes the

original Kannada language (from the state of Karnataka in India), with an
introduction and notes to accompany the poetry.

Ramanan, Mohan. “Andal’s Tirupavai.” In Journal of South Asian Literature. 24:2

(Summer/Fall, 1989). 51-64.

Selections and translations of Andal’s poems from the Tamil language, the
official language of the state of Tamil Nadu in South India.

Ramanjuan, A. K., tr.. “Mahadeviyakka.” In Speaking of Siva. London: Penguin

Books, 1973.

A. K. Ramanujan’s translations of Mahadeviyakka’s poems, from the Kannada

language.
Ramanujan, A. K.. “On Women Saints.” In The Divine Consort: Radha and the
Goddesses of India. Edited by John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff.
Boston: Beacon Press, 1986.

Ramanujan’s overview, analysis, and comparison of the lives of women saints

in India, including that of Mirabai.

Rosen, Steven J., ed.. Vaisnavi: Women and the Worship of Krishna. Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1996.

A collection of writings including: Dennis Hudson’s “Antal’s Desire,” which

includes translations of her poetry in prose; Andrew Schelling’s essay on
Mirabai, “Where is my Beloved”; and Nancy Martin’s “Mirabai: Inscribed Text,
Embodied in Life.”

Shelling, Andrew. For Love of the Dark One: Songs of Mirabai. Illustrated by

Mayumi Oda. Boston: Shambhala Publications, 1993.

A translation of 220 of Mirabai’s poems including a brief introduction to

Mirabai and the poetry itself.

Tharu, Susie and K. Lalita, eds. “600 B.C. to the Early 20th Century.” Vol. 1
in Women Writing in India: 600 B.C. to the Present. New York: The Feminist
Press at The City University of New York, 1991. 77-98.

A theoretical and historical overview of the Bhakti movement at large as it

pertained to women, with numerous translations of women bhaktas.

Websites
Other Women’s Voices: Translations of women’s writing before 1700: Akka
Mahadevi /Mahadeviyakka (1100s)
Dorothy Disse
http://home.infionline.net/~ddisse/mahadevi.html#anchor186952

An extensive website devoted to women’s voices, pre-1700s from around the

world, including a selection of Akka Mahadevi’s poetry in the Tamil language
from South India.

Other Women’s Voices: Translations of women’s writing before 1700: Antal/ Andal/
Goda /Kotai (mid-800s?)
Dorothy Disse
http://home.infionline.net/~ddisse/antal.html
An extensive website devoted to women’s voices, pre-1700s from around the
world, including a selection of Antal’s writings in the Kannada language from
India.

Sri Vaishnava Home Page

Mani Varadarajan
http://www.ramanuja.org/sv/alvars/andal/

A website devoted to Vaishnavism, a dominant strain within Hinduism. Andal

was one of the Alvar Saints of South India.

Sri Vaishnava Home Page

Mani Varadarajan
http://www.ramanuja.org/sv/alvars/andal/tiruppavai/verse1.html

“Tiruppavai” (Andal’s first work), here presented in both the Kannada

language and English literal translation.

[tamil] tiruppavai and Tiruvempavai – English, “Dr.N.Ramani”

Tamil.net
http://www.tamil.net/list/2000-12/frm00575.html

This email, part of a larger discussion from Tamil.net, focuses on Andal’s

poetry, including her poems “Thiruppavai,” “Thiruvempavai,” and
“Thiruppalliyelucci,” translated from Kannada by N. Ramani.

Other Women’s Voices: Translations of women’s writing before 1700: Mirabai

/Mira /Meera (c.1498-aft.1550)
Dorothy Disse
http://home.infionline.net/~ddisse/mirabai.html

An extensive website devoted to women’s voices, pre-1700s from around the

world, including a selection of Mirabai’s poetry in English, originally from the
Gujarati language.

Madhu Kishwar, “Traditional Female Moral Exemplars in India.”

The Infinity Foundation
http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/s_es/s_es_kishw_EAA.htm

An excellent article by Madhu Kishwar, Senior Fellow at the Center for the
Study of Developing Societies in Delhi, India, and founding editor of Manushi
—A Journal about Women and Society from India. This article focuses on
female “moral exemplars” or “role models” from within the Hindu tradition,
from the divine feminine creative energy known as “shakti,” village
 goddesses, Pan-Indian goddesses (devis) such as Parvati, Sita, and Durga, as
well as bhakti poets, including Mirabai (spelled Meerabai in this article) and
Antal (here spelled Andal).

Introduction. Contextual Introduction.
Body. Mention about women in Bhakti movement. Contribution of women poets in Bhakti movement.

Conclusion. Way forward.

The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval
Hinduism and later revolutionised in Sikhism. It originated in the Tamil south India (now
parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.
Women in Bhakti movement:

1. The contribution of women writers in different languages during that period deserves
special attention. Women writers like Ghosha, Lopamudra, Gargi, Maitreyi, Apala,
Romasha Brahmavadini, etc.right from the days of the Vedas, focused on the image of
women in mainstream Sanskrit literature.
2. Thesongs of BuddhistnunslikeMuttaandUbbiriandMettika in Pali expressthetorment of
feelings for the life left behind.
3. The Alwar women poets, like Andal and others, gave expression to their love for the
divine.
4. Lal Ded, the Muslim poetess from Kashmir Lalded&HabbaKhatun, represented the sant
tradition of bhakti and wrote Vakhs (maxims), which are peerless gems of spiritual
experience.
5. Meera Bai, in Gujarati, Rajasthani and Hindi (she wrote in three languages), Avvayyar, in
Tamil, and Akkamahadevi in Kannada, are well known for their sheer lyrical intensity and
concentrated emotional appeal.
Contribution of women:

1. Their writings speak to us about the social conditions prevailing at that time, and the
position of woman at home and in society. Behind their mysticism and metaphysics is a
divine sadness.
2. If weexaminethe role ofthewomen in thebhaktimovementwecansee that women
exploited the religiousemotion to deal with patriarchy and created an alternate space for
themselves.
3. They challenged patriarchy and the mortal man to whom they were tied in a relationship
of marriage by extending the definition of love to God and understanding his relation
with them in terms of a lover, a wife, a mistress, a friend and a servant.
4. It is the large scale participation of women that gave the movement the character of a
mass movement. Religion was the only space which was open to women in medieval
times.
Through this legitimate space women could define their actions and aspirations and
participate in public gatherings, visit pilgrimage places, compose their own songs and
through bhakti directly reach God.In this way they sowed the seed that women could be
agents of their own religious emancipation.
The Significance of Women Saints in the Bhakti Movement in South
India

ByDeepasree Dey

June 21, 2022

4888

source: Quora
From the 6th to 9th centuries, a religious movement called the ‘Bhakti Movement’ occurred in the
Tamil country. The ‘Nayanars’ or ‘Nayanmars’ or devotees of Shiva and the ‘Alvars’ or devotees
of Vishnu played significant roles in this movement. The bhakti movement witnessed the
widespread participation of women saints. These women saints were either the conformists, i.e.,
daughters, wives, or sisters of male saints, or rebels who broke every norm of the society,
including the discarding of clothes and redefined the idea of the domestic and outside worlds.

In early medieval India, the prime factors behind the exploitation of women were the lack of
education and economic independence (interestingly, only prostitutes had both). In short, the role
assigned to women was that of an obedient daughter, a chaste wife, and a sacrificing mother or,
alternately the prostitute. The traditional society provided no scope for freedom or self-expression
of women. The spiritual path of bhakti helped them to break free from all stereotypes. It provided
women with the release of self-expression that the orthodox Hindu religion and the patriarchal
society denied them. Women broke out of the shackles of tradition, orthodoxy, and convention
that attempted to control their sexuality and sought God either as a skeletal being (Karaikkal
Ammaiyar) or a naked saint (Akka Mahadevi).

source: img.maalaimalar.com/

In Northern India, women saints were considered ‘mad’ and ‘shameless’ and did not gain
recognition during their lifetimes. However, the situation in Southern India was in stark contrast
to the situation in North India. In the Southern part of the subcontinent, women saints emerged in
an atmosphere of oppression and discrimination but blossomed into great scholars, thinkers, and
realised souls. They were greatly revered by their followers and peers, both during their lifetimes
and after their deaths. There is a noticeable feature regarding the participation of women in the
Bhakti Movement in South India. Most of the women came either from the highest social class,
i.e. women belonging to the priestly classes who had access to some sacred and secular,
education, or from the lowest category, i.e. the Shudra class, in which women were economically
almost equal to men. The very emergence of these women saints can be considered a social revolt
in itself.
There were two types of female saints – one type was the conformists or the ideal stereotype of
womanhood (the pious and chaste housewife) like Vasukiyar, the wife of Tiruvalluvar; the other
type consisted of rebels like Akka Mahadevi. Located between the two ends of this spectrum
were the saints like Karaikkal Ammaiyar, who gave up their conventional styles of living only
when driven to it and had no other option. There were various reasons why the rebel saints broke
free from the stereotypical mother-daughter-wife dynamics. Ill-treatment and torture after
marriage caused many of them to renounce the world and take to the path of bhakti. Another
cause of renunciation was the unnatural husband-wife relationship, for instance, the husband of
Punitavati (later known as Karaikkal Ammaiyar), called Paramadutta, was so afraid of her
spiritual powers that he could no longer look upon her as his wife. He disappeared and settled in
Madurai with another wife. When Punitavati was brought to him, he fell to her feet with his new
family seeking her blessings. This incident portrays a reversal of traditional gender roles as it is
generally the wife who is expected to serve and worship her husband. When Paramadatta
renounced all claims on Ammaiyar, she gave up her beautiful earthly body and assumed a fearful
skeletal form. Apart from these two types, there was another category of women saints who never
went through a worldly marriage and considered themselves to be the brides of the Lord, it was
not merely a metaphysical relationship but a physical surrender of oneself; body and soul, to
one’s divine husband. Akka Mahadevi’s verses express this intense love. Another female saint,
Andal, considered herself to be the bride of Lord Sriranganatha (Vishnu) and daily fashioned a
garland for the Lord, earning the name of Kodai (meaning garland). She is said to have merged
with the Lord of Srirangam.
 source: Rakuten Kobo

Unlike their male counterparts, women saints were completely free from all inhibitions. They did
not recognise the gender binary or suffer from body consciousness. Akka Mahadevi, for example,
discarded all clothes and covered her body only with her long, luxurious hair. The ritual taboo on
female pollution during their menstrual cycle was broken by Karuramma, who entered the
sanctum sanctorum and engaged in worship while she was menstruating. Women saints left their
homes and freely mingled with male saints and scholars. Their compositions depict freedom from
material things, gaining spiritual bliss, as well as alienation from society and personal loneliness.
Both alienation from worldly pursuits and social alienation led them to be non-conforming
women. It is hard to believe that in an age when women were confined behind silk veils and
concrete walls of their households, a prominent women saint like Akka Mahadevi – the naked
saint existed who was in fact a leading member of the Virasaivite Council of Saints in South
India; or that at a time when poets eulogised the beauty of their fair-skinned, dainty lady-love, a
female saint like Karaikkal Ammaiyar who was referred to as ‘peyar’ or demoness because of her
fearful form, not only lived among the people of a highly conservative society but was also highly
respected by her followers. Both the conformists and the rebel saints are equally respected in
modern times. By rejecting existing social structures and flouting behavioural modes, these rebel
saints have redefined societal paradigms about women’s roles and have altered conservative
attitudes and transformed the bhakti movement into a social reform movement.
Bibliography

Ramaswamy, Vijaya. Rebels – Conformists? – JSTOR. Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft MbH,

The Bhakti movement was one of the impactful religious movements started by

Adi Shankaracharya in South India. The Bhakti Movement began in South India.
Later, the movement spread to other parts of India, i.e., North India and
Maharashtra. The Bhakti movement stresses the union of an individual with the
almighty God between the 8th and 18th centuries CE.

Bhakti Movement Saints like Shankaracharya, Madhavacharya, Mira Bai, etc., were
responsible for spreading the bhakti movement among the masses. The Bhakti
movement topic holds significant importance in the Indian History segment of the
UPSC Syllabus. Below you will learn about the origin of the bhakti movement, its rise
in India, schools of Bhakti, Alvars, and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu, its prominent
leaders, and its significance in India.

Table of content

 1. Bhakti Movement

 2. Bhakti Movement in India

 3. Bhakti Saints

 4. Bhakti Movement: Women Bhakti Saints

 5. Bhakti Leaders According to Their Year of Birth

 6. Bhakti Movement in Medieval India

 7. Bhakti Movement in South India

 8. Bhakti Movement in North India

 9. Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra

  10. Features of the Bhakti Movement

 11. Schools of Bhakti Movement

 12. Literature and Poems of the Bhakti Movement

 13. Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu

 14. Significance of the Bhakti Movement

 15. Bhakti Movement UPSC

 16. Bhakti Movement UPSC Questions

Bhakti Movement
The Bhakti movement was the religious movement that brought religious reforms to
medieval Hinduism. The movement started in Tamil Nadu in the 6th century
CE and later spread to other parts of the country. However, the movement reached
its zenith from the 15th to 17th century CE.

Initially, the Bhakti Saints were divided into two groups, Nayanars and Alvars,
who were the devotees of Shiva and Vishnu, respectively. They composed poems in
regional languages and preached masses.

☛ Know the Difference Between Bhakti and Sufi Movement

However, in the later half of the Bhakti movement, there was a change in the
ideology of the reformers who believed that God is universal and condemned the idol
worship of God. The period from the eighth century to the eighteenth belonged to the
bhakti movement. It involved a lot of saints (Sikhs, Muslims, and Hindus) who taught
the masses about devotion and the transition of life through salvation.

Bhakti Movement in India

Bhakti refers to the Sanskrit word “bhaj,” meaning participate in or share. Thus,
Bhakti is a spiritual term that means total devotion. The origin of the Bhakti
Movement dates back to the 7th and 12th centuries in South India, particularly Tamil
Nadu, and the 15th century in North India.
In South India, the Bhakti Saints were divided into two groups, i.e., Alvars (Vishnu
Devotees) and Nayanars (Shiva Devotees).

 These Bhakti Movement Leaders were poets who wrote many poems in
regional languages like Telugu and Tamil. Their poems were subjected to the
holy relationship between God and its devotees.
 Along with this, a wave was initiated against the priest, and the Bhakti saints
thought the priest’s presence was unnecessary. This ideology got great
support from ordinary people.
 The caste system and other religious ceremonies of the Hindu society
influenced the rise of Bhaktism. At that time, there was an influence
of Buddhism and Jainism. Still, these two groups rejected the austerities
they taught them, and because of this, people left these religions and moved
towards the Bhakti Movement to advocate several changes in their already
established religions.

Along with this, Sufi Movement was also gaining popularity at that time because of
its ease of prayer and democratic beliefs.

Bhakti Saints
The Bhakti movement had a lot of popular Bhakti saints who influenced the bhakti
movement. From Shankaracharya to Yogis, here are the brief descriptions of the
contributions made by these Bhakti Saints-

 Shankaracharya- Shankaracharya was one of the prominent Bhakti Saints

born in 788 CE. He was responsible for giving a new orientation to Hinduism.
He explained the theory of Monism (Advaita philosophy) and was also of the
thought that God is without any attributes ( Nirgunabrahman). He thought that
Gyan (knowledge) was the only way to salvation. His famous quotes
were Ekameva Adviteeyam Brahma and Brahma Satyam Jagat Mithya Jivo
Brahmatra Naparaha.
 Ramanuja– Ramanuja was a supporter of Vishista Advaitavade, meaning
qualified monism. He believed that God has attributes. According to him, all
the creative processes were held by Shankaracharya. He found Brahmin as
the personal God with omnipotent power. He wrote Vedantasara, Gita
Bhasya, Vedanta Dipa, Sribhashya.
 Madhavacharya– Madhavacharya was a bhakti leader from Kannada who
believed in the dualism of Jivatma and Paramatma. He was the founder of
the Brahma Sampradaya and thought that the universe and the Brahmins
were equal entities. According to him, matter, soul, and God are unique.
Vishnu was the God of dualism who controlled all worldly affairs. He believes
everyone must pray and worship God.
 Nimbarka– Nimbarka was Ramanuja’s younger contemporary. He
pronounced the philosophy of Bheda Abheda and Dvaita Advaita. He
believes that the world is a part of Brahmins. He founded the Sanak
Sampradaya and was the preacher of Vaishnavite Bhakti.
 Vallabhacharya– Vallabhacharya was the founder of pushtimarg and Rudra
Sampradaya. According to him, Shudh Advaita forms the basis of pushtimarg
 devotional practice. He believed that the universe and brahmins are two
different parts.

Bhakti Movement: Women Bhakti Saints

The Bhakti movement was restricted to prominent male leaders, and women leaders
significantly impacted the movement. At that time, women were not allowed to go out
of their houses and were considered homemakers, but they refused to follow the old
norms and left their homes to lead the path of God by becoming wandering saints.
Though it was not an easy task for these women to get a hold of the movement, they
fought for their acceptance and changed the narrow-minded thinking of the people.

Here are some of the essential female leaders of the Bhakti Movement-

 Akkamahadevi– Akkamahadevi was a passionate Shiva devotee. She was a

12th-century female bhakt who lived in the southern region of Karnataka. The
great philosophers of the 12th century (Prabhu Deva, Basavanna, Chenna
Basavanna, and Madivalayya) gave her the title of Akka, meaning elder sister.
 Janabai– Janabai was a 13th-century devotee born into the Shudra Caste.
She was one of the household workers of one of the most reputed Bhakti
Saint, Namdeva. She has composed more than 300 poems. Her poems were
based on her daily life matters, like the difficulties of being a lower caste
woman and household chores. But she was able to write poems without any
formal education.
 Mira Bai– Mira was one of the most chanted Krishna devotees who belonged
to the high-class ruling Rajput family. She was the wife of the son of Rana
Sanga of Mewar. But her love for God made her leave her husband and
family. She went to different pilgrimage places. Her writings show her love for
Krishna, but her poetry depicts a unique relationship between God and her
wherein she is Krishna’s devotee bride, and Krishna is characterized in her
pursuits.
 Andal– Andal is another devotee who considers herself the beloved of
Vishnu. She was the only female Alwar whose verse explains her divine love
towards Vishnu.
 Bahina Bai– Bahina Bai was a devotee from Maharashtra. This 17th-century
poet-saint wrote various abhyanga. She took inspiration from the life of
women working in the field and wrote folk songs about women.
 Karaikkal Ammaiyar– There were 63 Nayanar, of which only 3 were women.
She is one among those 3 women who was Shiva devotee. She leads the
path of asceticism to attain her goals.

☛ Go through: Indian History Notes for UPSC

Bhakti Leaders According to Their Year of Birth

It is believed that the Bhakti Movement was started in South India in the 9th
century by Adi Shankaracharya and grew throughout India. Go through the complete
list of Saints of the Bhakti Movement as per their birth year.
  Shankara (788 – 820 AD)
 Ramanuja (1017-1137 A.D)
 Basava (12th Century)
 Madhva (1238-1319 AD)
 Ramanada (15th century)
 Kabir (1440-1510 AD)
 Guru Nanak Dev (1469-1538 AD)
 Purandara (15th century)
 Dadu Dayal (1544-1603 AD)
 Chaitanya (1468-1533 AD)
 Shankaradeva (1499-1569 AD)
 Vallabhacharya (1479-1531 AD)
 Surdas (1483-1563 AD)
 Mirabai (1498-1563 AD)
 Haridas (1478-1573 AD)
 Tulasidas (1532-1623 AD)
 Namdeva (1270-1309 AD)
 Jnanesvar (1275-1296 AD)
 Eknath
 Tukaram
 Ram Das

Bhakti Movement in Medieval India

During the medieval period, the Bhakti Movement was established because of the
following reasons-

 Religion’s Complexity– Though other religions’ reforms spread the

importance of Vedas, ordinary people found it difficult to understand the
complex philosophy of the Upanishads and Vedas.
 Simple Way of Devotion– There were a lot of rituals and complex religious
practices that were being performed throughout the country. But there was a
desire to adopt the more straightforward form of worship, social conventions,
and other spiritual practices. The Bhakti Marga came up more
straightforwardly.
 Societal Problems– There were a lot of evil practices against the common
person prevailing in society during the medieval period. There was a need to
bring on the liberal form of religion with basic religious rituals.
 Evils in Hindu Culture– There were a lot of problems in Hindu society, such
as irrelevant rituals, blind faiths, caste rigidity, social dogmas, and other
religious practices.
 Role of Religious Reformers– Ramanuja, Shri Chaitanya, Namdev,
Ramananda, Mirabai, Shankara, Kabir, Nanak, Surdas, Nimbarka, Tukaram,
Tulsidas, Chandidas, Vallabhacharya, and a lot of other important people had
a significant impact on the society.

☛ Check: Difference Between Vedas and Upanishads

The other reasons that lead to the rise of the Bhakti Movement are–
  Spread of Islam
 Influence of Sufi sects
 Influence of Shaivism and Vaishnavism ideologies
 The emergence of great reformers

Bhakti Movement in South India

The development of the Bhakti movement took place in Tamil Nadu between the 7th
and 12th CE. It was reflected in the emotional poems of the Nayanars (devotees of
Shiva) and Alvars (devotees of Vishnu). These saints viewed religion not as cold,
formal worship but as a loving bond based upon love between the worshiped and the
worshiper.

Following are the key features of the Bhakti Movement in South India-

 Discarded rituals and sacrifices.

 They emphasized purity of heart and mind, humanism, and devotion.
 Monotheistic in nature.
 God has either Saguna or Nirguna form.
 An egalitarian movement, they denounced casteism.
 These saints preached in local languages.
 They rejected the austerities preached by Jainism and Buddhism. These
religions saw a decline in their growth due to the Bhakti movement.
 Social reforms: They disregarded the caste system and attacked
institutionalized religion, Brahminical dominance, idol worship, methods of
elaborate rituals, etc. Not only this, the Bhakti Saints opposed Sati and female
infanticide. The women were encouraged to join Kirtans. The primary aim of
the Bhakti movement in south India was to bridge the gulf between Hindus
and Muslims.

Bhakti Movement in North India

The saints wrote in local languages, Tamil and Telugu, and were, therefore, able
to reach out to many people. They also translated Sanskrit works into local
languages. Few saints are

1. Jnanadeva – Marathi
2. Kabirdas, Surdas, Tulsi das – Hindi
3. Sankaradeva – Assamese
4. Chaitanya and Chandidas – Bengali

Sanskrit, prevalent in the North, was given a new form as the movement moved to
the North. Bhagavata Purana was a significant work in the 9th century and an
essential component of the Bhakti movement. Kabir, Namdev, and Guru Nanak
had preached devotion to a Nirankar form of God. The followers of Guru Nanak
identify themselves as Sikhs.
Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra
The features of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra are as follows-

 Monotheism was the basic principle of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra.

 They were against idol worship.
 The bhakti reformers spread the idea of universal brotherhood.
 They opposed fasts, pilgrimages, and rituals.
 They do not believe in the cycle of life and death.
 They composed poems in regional languages, making it more accessible for
ordinary people to sing those hymns as they considered accolades a
language to connect with God.
 They believed that self-surrender is bliss and preached its importance among
the masses.

Features of the Bhakti Movement

The essential features of the Bhakti Movement were-

 They rejected the idea of idol worship. ‘

 God is believed to be one and called up by different names.
 It was firmly against the rituals and the religious activities being performed,
and thus, they condemned blind faith, ceremonies, and other practices.
 It is believed that one needs to surrender oneself to God completely.
 It supported both Schools of Bhakti- Nirguna and Saguna and emphasized
both teachings.
 It is believed that one can achieve salvation through Bhakti.
 It brought open-mindedness among the masses regarding religious matters.
 It was the thought that all humans are equal. It is also against the rejection of
people based on the caste system.
 It supported all the regional languages and rebelled against the dominance of
the Sanskrit language in society.
 It was of the idea that teachings must be delivered in the regional languages,
and for ease of understanding, the literature must be created in the local
languages.

Schools of Bhakti Movement

Based on the separation of thoughts for perceiving God, the Bhakti Saints were
divided into 2 types of schools. These were Nirguna School and Saguna School. The
Nirguna School thought God was formless and devoid of qualities or traits.

On the other side, Saguna School believed that God has a particular form and
character. It was also thought that God shows himself in incarnations and has
positive attributes.

Nirguna School
Adi Shankara introduced the Nirguna School. This School of Bhakti was
represented by those poet-saints who considered God free from any form or
qualities. These saints were popularly called Monotheistic Bhakti
Saints. The principal saints are Kabir and Nanak. Here are the critical points of
these saints-

 Monotheistic Bhakti Saints were firmly against caste-based traditions.

 They condemned Brahmin supremacy and were firmly against the practice of
idol worship.
 These Bhakti Saints believe God is formless, non-incarnate, formless, and
ineffable.
 Their thoughts combined Sufism, the Nanpanthi movement, and the
Vaishnava concept of Bhakti. They adopted the Vaishnava concept of Bhakti
with Nirguna emphasis on it.

Saguna School

The Saguna School of Bhakti was the school of poet-saints who believed that God
had a particular form. They Glorified the forms and qualities of God. The popular
saints of the Saguna School were Surdas, Meera, Chaitanya, and Tulsidas. The
critical points of the Saguna School are as follows-

 They were in favor of Brahmin domination.

 They defended the caste system.
 They favor idol worship, but this also spreads the idea that one should believe
in a personal God.
 They believe that Vedas hold spiritual validity.
 The Saguna School preached that there was a need for brahmins or gurus
that would act as the bridge between the devotees and God.

Literature and Poems of the Bhakti Movement

During the Bhakti Movement, literature of many regional languages flourished,
particularly in devotional poems and songs. Here are some essential writers and
poets of the Bhakti Movement:

 Tulsidas (1527-1623) wrote Rama Charita Manasa (holy lake of Rama’s

deeds), the first and greatest Hindi epic where he saw Lord Ram as the
embodiment of God.
 Surdas (1478- 581), on the other hand, wrote a devotional poem about Lord
Krishna.
 Meerabai (1498-1546) of Rajasthan penned and sang devotional lyrics in the
glory of Lord Krishna.
 Saint Purandaradasa (1480-1564) developed a large following in Karnataka
by singing the praises of God – ‘Jagadodharana.’
 Jayadeva, a poet-devotee from the 11th century, wrote the Sanskrit
masterpiece Geeta Govinda, which narrates the tale of Lord Krishna.
  Basavanna (1105-68) developed a rich vein of literature in the Kannada
region known as Vachana Sahitya, composed by him and his pupils
(Akkamahadevi, Allama Prabhu, Devara Dasimayya, and others).
 Jnanadev (1275-96), Namdev (1270-50), and Tukaram (1608-50) were
among the most popular Bhakti Movement figures in Maharashtra, having
penned many hymns that encapsulate the essence of Bhakti.

The Bhakti Movement reformers taught that liberation could only be obtained through
great devotion and faith in God. The reformers emphasized the importance of
singing hymns with profound devotion. It was an influential spiritual period to be
reckoned with, especially after the great waves of Kabir, Basavanna, and Shri
Chaitanya.

☛ Check: Difference Between Vedas and Puranas

Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu

The Alvars and Nayanars led the Bhakti Movement in Tamil Nadu. The Nayanars
were the Shiva devotees, while the Alvars were Vishnu’s devotees.

 Appar, Sambandar, Sundaramurti, and Manikkavasagar were prominent

Nayanars. The first three hymns are mentioned in Thiruvasagam and were
written by Manikkavasagar.
 Tirumurais is the collection of works of Nayanars which is called the fifth
Veda.
 Andal was a woman Alvar saint. There were 12 Alvars and 63 Nayanars.
Periyapuranam by Shekkihzar traces the life history of Nayanars.
 Divya Prabhandam was the collection of hymns by Alvars.
 Alvars and Nayanars were against the caste system. They opposed the
Brahmin’s dominance.

Significance of the Bhakti Movement

The Bhakti movement was established to spread the idea of monotheism. It was
against idol worship. Thus, it condemned the practice of idol worship. It is strongly
believed that rituals and religious rites are not the way to reach God. Instead, one
can get God through love and adoration.

The primary significance of the Bhakti Movement is as follows-

 Regional languages, like Marathi, etc., were promoted among the masses.
 It resulted in unity for all the Hindu gods.
 There was a rise in devotion among people.
 People adopted a loving and open-minded approach to faith and religion.
 It resulted in equality, and evil practices like the caste system were brought to
an end.
 It empowered Indian society in a lot of fundamental ways.
 There was an introduction to the practices like social giving (Seva)
  Apart from Bhakti, it helped poor farmers.
 People started to believe in non-violence.

Bhakti Movement UPSC

Bhakti Movement is of paramount importance for IAS Exam and comes under
the History syllabus for UPSC. It is equally important for the UPSC
Prelims and UPSC Mains exams. So, if you want to obtain good grades on the
exam, it is essential to have a hold on the topic thoroughly.

You can learn about the Bhakti Movement and all other related topics through
the NCERT Books for UPSC. Also, you can check your preparation by solving
the UPSC Previous Year Question Papers.

Bhakti Movement UPSC Questions

Questions 1: Which of the following statements is/are incorrect about the Bhakti
tradition in South India?

1. Earliest Bhakti movements in India were led by Alvar and Nayanar saints.
2. Nalayira Divyaprabandham, frequently described as Tamil Veda, is an
anthology of compositions by the Alvars.
3. Karaikkal Ammaiyar, women Alvar saints, supported patriarchal norms.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

A) 1, 2 and 3

B) 1 and 2 only

C) 3 only

D) 2 only

Answer- Option B

Question 2: Who among the following was the first Bhakti saint to use Hindi to
propagate his message?

A) Dadu

B) Kabir

C) Ramananda

D) Tulsidas

Answer- Option C
 Important Notes for UPSC

Exclusive Economic Zone [EEZ] Difference Between Early Vedic Period and Later Ved

Governor of India Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats

Fascism Vs Nazism Types of Funds in India

FAQs on Bhakti Movement

Why did the Bhakti Movement start?

The Bhakti movement first appeared in Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the seventh or

eighth century. It expanded to Maharashtra and Karnataka before reaching North
India in the 15th century. The 15th and 17th centuries saw the height of the Bhakti
movement.

Who started the Bhakti Movement?

What were the principles of the Bhakti Movement?

Who were the important Bhakti Saints?

Who were the prominent women of Bhakti saints?

What are the two phases of Bhakti Movement in India?

What were the Philosophical Beliefs of the Bhakti Movement?

 What did the Bhakti Movement teach?

What was a common feature of the Bhakti Movement?

Who is the founder of the Bhakti Movement?

What are the salient features of the Bhakti Movement?

How did Bhakti Movement change Hinduism?

What was the impact of the Bhakti movement?

Approach:

o Write in brief about the Bhakti Movement in the introduction.

o Give the reasons that led to the rise of Bhakti movement.
o Elaborate on its Impact on the society.

Introduction

o The development of Bhakti movement took place in Tamil Nadu between the
seventh and twelfth centuries. It was reflected in the emotional poems of
the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and Alvars (devotees of Vishnu). These
saints looked upon religion not as a cold formal worship but as a loving bond
based upon love between the worshipped and worshipper.
o Originally began in South India in the 9th century with Shankaracharya spread
over all parts of India and by the 16th century was a great spiritual force to reckon
with, especially after the great wave made by Kabir, Nanak and Shri Chaitanya. 

Body
Reasons that led to the rise of Bhakti movement:
o Evils in the Hindu Society: Hindu society was full of many social anomalies like
rigidity of caste system, irrelevant rituals and religious practices, blind faiths and
social dogmas. Common men in general had developed an averse attitude
towards these social evils and were in need of a liberal form of religion where
they could identify themselves with simple religious practices.
o Complexity of religion: The high philosophy of the Vedas and Upanishads were
very complicated for the common people. They wanted a simple way of worship,
simple religious practices and simple social customs. Alternative was Bhakti
marga—a simple way of devotion to get salvation from worldly life.
o Role of Religious Reformers: The chief exponents of the movement were
Shankara, Ramanuja, Kabir, Nanak, Shri Chaitanya, Mirabai, Ramananda,
Namdev, Nimbarka, Madhava, Eknath, Surdas, Tulsidas, Tukaram,
Vallabhacharya and Chandidas. They were the propounders of Bhakti movement
and gave a call to the people to worship in the simplest possible way of devotion
and love.
o Challenge from Rival Religion: the impact of the Muslim rule and Islam put
dread in the heart of Hindu masses. The Hindus had suffered a lot under some of
the fanatic rulers. They wanted some solace to heal their despairing hearts.
o Influence of Sufism: The Sufi saints of the Muslim community also inspired the
movement. Some similar chords in the two evoked resonance.

Impact of Bhakti movement:

o The Bhakti exponents raised their powerful voice against different types of
immoral acts like infanticide and sati and encouraged prohibition of wine, tobacco
and toddy. Adultery and sodomy were also discouraged. They aimed to set up a
good social order upholding high moral values.
o Another remarkable impact was bringing about a unity among the Hindu and
Muslim communities. The movement tried to reduce the growing bitterness
between the two and bridge the gap. The saints of Bhakti movement and the Sufi
saints spread message of friendship, amity, tolerance, peace and equality among
all.
o The method of worship and belief in God took a new turn during the movement.
Henceforth, importance was given to devotion and love for God who is the God of
all-God of both Hindus as well as Muslims. Bhakti or devotion for the Almighty
was the central theme of this movement.
o The spirit of tolerance, harmony and mutual respect which was inaugurated by
the Bhakti saints had another everlasting impact – the emergence of a new cult of
Satyapir. It started under the initiative of King Husain Shah of Jaunpur which later
paved the way for the spirit of liberalism adopted by Akbar.
o The Bhakti movement promoted the growth of vernacular language and literature
in different parts of the country. Kabir Nanak and Chaitanya preached in their
respective vernacular tongues – Kabir in Hindi, Nanak in Gurmukhi and chaitanya
in Bengali.

Conclusion
With such long-lasting impacts, the religious depression of the medieval society
was set aside. The teachings acted as a healing balm to the suppressed classes.
A deep-rooted change came about to lay the foundations of a liberal and
composite Indian society.