CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW

1.1 OBJECTIVE

To analyse and design a Suspension bridge with a span of 400m for

pedestrian and two wheeler traffic.

1.2 NECESSITY

 The bridge across the river Cauvery, currently caters to a mixed traffic
ranging from pedestrians to heavy duty vehicles causing a lot of traffic
congestion and numerous accidents.
 Diverting the pedestrians and two wheelers on to the Suspension bridge will
reduce the traffic volume and enhance safety.
 Also, as the Suspension bridge is aesthetically appealing, it could also be an
added source of revenue for the town.

1.3 SCOPE

 This project basically comprises of analysis and design of a Suspension

bridge across a river with a span of 400m for pedestrian and two wheeler
traffic.

1
  The project includes manual analysis leading to the designing of the
Suspension Bridge.
 It includes the design of slabs, tension members, columns and foundation
using limit state design.

1.4 METHODOLOGY

 Literature survey: Books and codes required for the project are collected.
 Relevant data collection: The required soil characteristics are collected.
 Traffic survey: Traffic studies are conducted and necessary traffic data
collected on the bridge across river Cauvery.
 Analysis: Analysis of the bridge is done manually
 Preliminary Design: The necessary design data like bridge type, span length,
number of spans, type of stiffening girder, cable sag, type of suspenders are
arrived at.
 Detailed design: Design of members-cables, suspenders, towers are done.
 Final report: A detailed report of the project is prepared.

1.5 MAJOR DESIGN EXPERIENCE

The project is a “Structural Design Project”. Design experience in the

following areas shall be gained during the course of the project.

 Design of Deck slab.

 Design of Cross beams (steel members).
 Design of Suspenders (steel cables).
 Design of Main steel cables.
 Design of Columns.
 Design of Anchorages.

2
1.6 REALISTIC DESIGN CONSTRAINTS

 Environmental constraints: During floods, the hydraulic forces exerted on

the supporting columns are expected to be very high in comparison with the
light Superstructure load.
 Manufacturing constraints: Piling foundation can be avoided since good
stratum is available at a greater depth.

1.7 REFERENCE TO CODES AND STANDARDS

The various codes and standards that are used for the completion of the
project are given in Table 1.1 below.

Table 1.1 Codes and Standards used

CODES CONTEXT
IS 1835-1977 Design of Steel Wires for Rope
IRC: 6- 2010 Standard Specifications and code of practice for Road
Bridges
IS 9282-1979 Specifications for Wire ropes and Strands for Suspension
Bridges.
IS 9182-1979 Standard specifications and code of practice for Road Bridge
(part-II) (section:6 Composite Construction)
IS 456:2000 Plain and Reinforced concrete - Code of practice
IS 800:2007 Code of Practice for general construction in Steel
IRC:24-2010 Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road
Bridges, Steel Road Bridges (Limit State Method)
IRC:SP-56:2011 Guidelines for Steel Pedestrian Bridges
AASHTO American code for Pedestrian loading standards

1.8 APPLICATION OF EARLIER COURSE WORK

3
 The academic course works that are used in project are shown in Table 1.2
below.

Table 1.2 Earlier Course Work used

COURSE CODE AND NAME CONTEXT

CE 0201 - Mechanics of Solids Evaluation of bending moment and shear

forces
CE 0202 - Strength of Materials Evaluation of slope and deflection

CE 0301, CE 0302 - Structural Analysis of determinate structures and

Analysis suspension cables
CE 0204 – Structural Design Design of steel structures

CE0303, CE0304 Structural Design of RCC structures

Design
CE0104 – Computer aided AutoCAD
building drawing
Analysing soil as a medium of water flow,
CE0305,CEO311-Soil Mechanics Structural support and a Primary building
material
CE0306- Foundation Engineering Behaviour of foundations for Engineering
structures

1.9 MULTIDISCIPLINARY COMPONENT AND TEAM WORK

This project involves in multidisciplinary team work and helps

interacting with the public, builders and Government officials during the selection of
layout and plan and also collection of rules and regulations respectively.

1.10 SOFTWARE/EQUIPMENT USED

The software used in the project is AutoCAD.

4
1.11 CONCLUSION

A thorough knowledge about suspension bridges, their structural

behavior, their analysis and design are expected to be gained by the end of this
project work.Various technical drawings used for construction and reference have
been drawn using AutoCAD .

1.12 FUTURE SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

The analysis and design of this suspension bridge can be extended for bridges
with longer spans and to accommodate more traffic over bigger rivers or at any other
location.

CHAPTER 2

5
 INTRODUCTION

2.1 GENERAL

It is estimated that about 900 million rural people in developing countries

do not have reliable year-round access to road networks, and 300 million are without
motorized access. All the money invested into infrastructure improvements for paved
highways and major vehicular bridges are only serving those with a standard of
living appropriating vehicular use and the remaining 300 million rural citizens have
unreliable access to even the most basic services or opportunities. Investment in rural
transportation improvements would help to reduce poverty through improving access
to markets, educational opportunities and medical clinics not currently accessed.
Accordingly, a country’s ability to maximize its economic potential to link is closely
linked to efficiency of its transportation system.

This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical
suspender cables that carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses.
The arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional
clearance. Like other Suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without
false work. Suspension bridges in its simplest forms were originally made from ropes
and wood. Modern Suspension bridges use a box section roadway supported by high
tensile strength cables.

With any bridge project the choice of materials and form usually comes
down to cost. Suspension bridges tend to be the most expensive to build. A
suspension bridge suspends the roadway from huge main cables, which extend from
one end of the bridge to the other. These cables rest on top of high towers and have
to be securely anchored into the bank at either end of the bridge. The towers allow
the main cables to be draped over long distances. Most of the weight or load of the

6
bridge is transferred by the cables to the anchorage systems. These are embedded in
either solid rock or huge concrete blocks. Inside the anchorages, the cables are spread
over a large area to evenly distribute the load and to prevent the cables from breaking
free.

2.2 PEDESTRIAN BRIDGES

For nearly 50 percent of world’s population living in rural isolation, the lack
of access reinforces the cycle of poverty. Rural community members spend a great
deal of time and effort on transport activities to fulfil their basic needs (Ref. 1).

These bridges

 For a given capacity, are lighter in weight per foot of bridge.

 They can be built to span gaps up to 400 feet with no intermediate supports.
 All bridge parts, with exception of main cables and suspenders, can be built
from timber.
 Cable and equipment for construction can be divided into light, compact
loads.

Pedestrian bridge technologies vary vastly in design, cost and function.

From a structural standpoint, pedestrian bridges have taken a number of forms, each
with the function of providing safe transport over an otherwise impassible crossing.
The arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional
clearance. Like other Suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without
false work.

2.3 LITERATURE REVIEW

7
 The major components of the suspension type bridge are described
below. Stiffening girders/trusses, Main cables, Main towers in longitudinal and
transverse directions, Anchorages and Suspenders are the necessary components of
the Suspension type bridges.

The below Figure 2.1 shows the major bridge components and
parameters.

Fig 2.1 Structural Components of a Suspension Bridge

The basic structural components of a suspension bridge system are

shown in Figure 2.1.

I. Stiffening girders/trusses: Longitudinal structures which support and

distribute moving vehicle loads act as chords for the lateral system and
secure the aerodynamic stability of the structure. Stiffening girders are
typically classified into two-hinge or continuous types. Two hinge stiffening
girders are commonly used for highway bridges. For combined highway–
railway bridges, the continuous girder is often adopted to ensure train
runnability.

8
 II. Main cables: A group of parallel-wire bundled cables which support
stiffening girders/trusses by hanger ropes and transfer loads to towers. In
early suspension bridges, chains, eye-bar chains, or other material was used
for the main cables. Wire cables were used for the first time in suspension
bridges in the first half of the 19th century, and parallel-wire cables were
adopted for the first time in the Niagara Falls Bridge in 1854. Cold drawn
and galvanized steel wires were adopted for the first time in the Brooklyn
Bridge in 1883. This type has been used in almost all modern long-span
suspension bridges. The types of parallel wire strands and stranded wire
ropes that typically comprise cables. As per IRC:24-2010, strands are
bundled into a circle to form one cable. Hanger ropes might be steel bars,
steel rods, stranded wire ropes, parallel wire strands, and others. Stranded
wire rope is most often used in modern suspension bridges.

III. Main towers: Intermediate vertical structures which support main cables and
transfer bridge loads to foundations.
In Longitudinal direction, towers are classified into rigid, flexible, or
locking types. Flexible towers are commonly used in long-span suspension bridges,
rigid towers for multi span suspension bridges to provide enough stiffness to the
bridge, and locking towers occasionally for relatively short-span suspension bridges.

In Transverse direction, towers are classified into portal or diagonally

braced types. Moreover, the tower shafts can either be vertical or inclined. Typically,
the centre axis of inclined shafts coincides with the centre line of the cable at the top
of the tower. Careful examination of the tower configuration is important, in that
towers dominate the bridge aesthetics.

IV. Anchorages: Massive concrete blocks which anchor main cables and act as
end supports of a bridge. In general, anchorage structure includes the
foundation, anchor block, bent block, cable anchor frames, and protective
housing. Anchorages are classified into gravity or tunnel anchorage system.

9
 Gravity anchorage relies on the mass of the anchorage itself to resist the
tension of the main cables. This type is commonplace in many suspension
bridges. Tunnel anchorage takes the tension of the main cables directly into
the ground. Adequate geotechnical conditions are required.

V. Suspenders: These are the cables that connect the girders to the main cable.
They help in load transfer from the girder to the cable (Ref 2).

2.4 ADVANTAGES OVER BRIDGE TYPES

 A Suspension bridge can be made out of simple materials such as wood and
common wire rope.
 Less material may be required than other bridge types, even at spans they can
achieve, leading to a reduced construction cost.
 Except for installation of the initial temporary cables,little or no access from
below is required during construction, for example allowing a waterway to
remain open while the bridge is built above.
 Longer main spans are achievable than with any other type of bridge.
 May be better to withstand earthquake movements than heavier and more
rigid bridges.

2.5 DISADVANTAGES COMPARED WITH OTHER BRIDGE TYPES

10
  Considerable stiffness or aerodynamic profiling may be required to prevent
the bridge deck vibrating under high winds
 The relatively low deck stiffness compared to other (non-suspension) types of
bridges makes it more difficult to carry heavy rail traffic where high
concentrated live loads occur
 Some access below may be required during construction, to lift the initial
cables or to lift deck units. This access can often be avoided in cable-stayed
bridge construction

2.6 VARIATIONS

2.6.1 Under Spanned Suspension Bridge

In an under spanned suspension bridge, the main cables hang entirely

below the bridge deck, but are still anchored into the ground in a similar way to the
conventional type. Very few bridges of this nature have been built, as the deck is
inherently less stable than when suspended below the cables. Examples include the
Pont des Bergues of 1834 designed by Guillaume Henri Dufour, James Smith’s
Micklewood Bridge and a proposal by Robert Stevenson for a bridge over the river
Almond near Edinburgh. Roebling’s Delaware Aqueduct _begun 1847) consists of
three sections supported by cables. The timber structure essentially hides the cables;
and from a quick view, it is not immediately apparent that it is even a suspension
bridge (Ref 3).

2.6.2 Suspension Cable types

11
 As per IS 1835-1977, the main suspension cable in older bridges was
often made fro the chain or linked bars, but modern bridge cables are made from
multiple strands of wire. This contributes greater redundancy, a few flawed stands in
the hundreds used pose very little threat, whereas a single bad link or eye bar can
cause failure of the entire bridge. (The failure of a single eye bar was found to be the
cause of the collapse of the Silver Bridge over the River Ohio). Another reason is
that as spans increased, engineers were unable to lift larger chains into position,
whereas wire strand cables can be largely prepared in mid-air from a temporary
walkway.

2.6.3 Deck structure types

Most suspension bridges have open truss structures to support the road
bed, particularly owing to the favourable effects of using plate girders, discovered
from the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse (1940). Recent developments in bridge
aerodynamics have allowed the reintroduction of plate girders. In the picture of
Yichang Bridge, note the very sharp entry and sloping under girders in the
suspension bridge shown. This enables this type of construction to be used without
the danger of vortex shedding and consequent aero elastic effects, such as those that
destroyed the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge. Cable suspension may also be
augmented by the inherent stiffness of the structure that has much in common with
the tubular bridge light cable suspension may prove less expensive and seem more
elegant for a footbridge than strong girder supports.

CHAPTER 3

12
 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE

3.1 Objective

The objective of the project is to analyse and design a suspension bridge with
a span of 400 m that caters to pedestrian and two wheeler traffic. The structure that
will be designed is a simple conventional suspension bridge structure that involves
manual analysis and design of various structural components of the bridge like main
cable, suspenders, deck slab, stiffening girder, column and the footing. This project is
proposed to be built on the banks of river Cauvery at Trichy. The primary objective
of this project is to divert the pedestrian and two wheeler traffic on to this new
structure, thereby streamlining the traffic flow across the river. The suspension
bridge, as mentioned earlier is a simple and a conventional structure owing to reduce
the complexity of the manual calculations.

3.2 Scope

The project basically comprises of analysis and design of a suspension bridge

of 400 m span as mentioned in the objective of the project. As the structure caters to
only two wheeler and pedestrian traffic and not to commercial vehicles it is designed
as a simple and a conventional structure. The project envisages the manual analysis
and design of the suspension bridge. The simplicity of the structure is also to reduce
the complexity in the manual analysis and design of the structure. The manual
analysis of the structure is based on the paper presented in ASCE journal by
Professor P. Wollman. The analysis is an iterative procedure and hence, involves the
use of various mathematical functions and tools. The manual analysis in turn leads to

13
the design of the various components of the suspension bridge. This project involves
the design of the main cables, suspender cables, deck slab, stiffening girder, columns
and their footing slab. The design of anchorages is beyond the scope of this project.

3.3 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

This entire project is analytical in nature. Literature survey is done with

reference to journals, online articles and publishing from previous works. Once
literature survey is completed functional layout is prepared. Thus allocating the
spaces as per the functional requirement. Plan of the Suspension bridge is prepared
by using AutoCAD software. The deck slab is designed as a conventional rigid
pavement as per AASHTO codes. As per IRC:SP-56:2011, the hangers are
continuously distributed along the girder and are inextensible. The girder stiffness is
constant for each span.Cross Beams are designed as per IS:800-2007, the Steel
members are designed to transfer load to connected Suspenders. As per the reference
(3), Gravity Anchorages relies on the mass of the anchorages itself to resist the
tension of the main cables.

CHAPTER 4
14
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 ANALYSIS

Modern suspension bridges are typically analysed using computer

programs with nonlinear analysis capabilities based on finite element formulations .
Such models may have many thousands of degree of freedom. For example, a global
finite element model with 9,780 degrees of freedom was developed.

A global finite- element model with 9,780 degrees of freedom was

developed for the final design of the East Bridge across the Great Beltin Denmark
(East 1998) . Obviously, there is a need for simpler models that help the designer to
understand the behaviour of the structure in a manner not offered by finite element
analysis. Such models are useful for preliminary design and for the independent
checks of the more complex models. The method of analysis used in this project is
from a paper “Preliminary Analysis of Suspension Bridges by Geogor P. Wollman”.
In this paper the derivation of the fundamental equations of suspension bridge
analysis is based on the deflection theory, and a practical solution method is
presented. This method, while not suitable for hand calculations, can be easily
implemented in a mathematical analysis program [e.g. Math=cad(1998)] or for
simpler cases in a computer spread sheet program . The derivations in the paper
follow the presentation.

In Petersen (1993) and Rubin and Vogel (1982) .However, the method
has been extended to cover the case where the flexural pylon stiffness is not
negligible. The approach is different from that typically presented in the U.S.
literature Steinman 1929,1934; Timoshenko and Young 1965) and takes advantage
of the analogy between a suspended girder and a beam under tension (Ref:).

15
4.1.1 Basic equations of Stiffening girder

The following assumptions are made for the derivations of the

differential equation describing the suspended stiffening girder as per the Reference
(1).

a) The dead load (self-weight and super imposed dead load) is uniform
and is carried by the suspension cable alone.
b) Under dead load the cable shape is parabolic.
c) The hangers are continuously distributed along the girder and are
inextensible.
d) The hangers are vertical initially and remain vertical under load.
e) The girder stiffness is constant for each span.

Fig. 4.1
Cable geometry

Based on
the assumptions and the notations used in Fig.4.1, the equations for the geometry of
cable under the action of dead load are:

4f 4f 8f
y = x tan α c + α
2 x (l-x) ; yꞌ = tan c + 2 x (l-2x); yꞌꞌ= - 2
l l l
(4.1)

16
Where,

y - cable ordinate under dead load

y'- cable slope under dead load

y''- cable curvature under dead load

x - distance from left support

l - span length

f - sag

8 × 40
y''= - 400 × 400

= - 2 × 10-3 1/m

g l2
Hg = (4.2)
8f

Where,

g - uniform dead load, including weight of cable;

Hg - horizontal cable force component under dead load;

97.89 ×400 × 400

Hg =
8 × 40

= 48,945 kN

gl 21
f1 = (4.3)
8 Hg

97.89 ×150 ×150

= 8× 48945

f1, f2 = 5.65 m.

17
f1 f3
l1
= l3
= 0.0375

f2
l2
= 0.1

The chord angles of the suspension bridge are:

tanα 2 = tanα 4= 40/150

α = 14 °55' 53''

The cable parameters are:

f 2 1
[()
Lc = l 8
l
+
cos 3 α ] (4.4)

Where,

Lc = Length of cable

2 1
Side span = 150(8 × 0.0375 + 3 )
cos 14 ° 55 '

= 167.89 m

2 1
Main span = 400(8 × 0.1 + 3 )
cos 14 ° 55 '

= 475.4 m

To evaluate the formula, Hp must be known. The condition to determine

the floors is provided by the compatibility requirement that the horizontal projection
of the change in cable length due to live load and temperature equals the change in
horizontal distance between the cable end points as illustrated in Figure 4.2.

18
 Fig 4.2 Compatibility conditions for cable
The cable stretch due to live load and temperature change is given by

Hp Hp dy 2 2
ε= + α TT = [1+( ) ] + α T T (4.5)
Ec A c cos θ Ec A c dx

Where,

Ec A c - Cable stiffness;

T - temperature change;

αT - coefficient of thermal expansion;

The flexural stiffness of the pylons is represented by horizontal springs

with stiffnesses kb and kc and similarly the stiffness of the anchor block are
represented by horizontal springs with stiffnesses ka and kd. Vertical deflections at
anchor blocks and pylons are ignored. If the pylon stiffness can be neglected, then (k b
= kc = 0).

In such a case, the compatibility equation has to be written as the sum

over all cable segments from anchor block to anchor block, resulting in a single
equation for the unknown horizontal cable force component, Hp

Hp H H
∑ Lci +α T T ∑ Ln + y ' ' ∫ wdx+ P + P =f ( H P)=0 (4.6)
EC A C i i K a Kd

Where,

EC AC - Cable stiffness

19
 K a , K d - stiffness of anchor blocks

The notations in the above formula have been explained in the earlier article.

The integration ∫ w dx is best performed numerically, based on the Simpson rule.

l l

∫ w ( x ) =l∫ w ( ξ ) dξ= 3ln ( w0 + 4 w 1+2 w 2+ 4 w3 … … …+4 wn−1 +w n )

0 o

(4.7)

Where,

ε - Stiffening girder parameter

x
ξ - dimensionless quantity ( )
l

wo- wn - deflection at various ordinates of the cable

1 cosh ε (0.5−ξ) ξξ ' q l 2

w (ξ) = [ 2 ( −1 ¿+ ]
2 N (4.8)
ε coshε/2

Where,

Hg+ H p
ε - stiffening girder parameter = l
√ EI
;

8f
q - transverse load = p + Hpy'' = p – Hp
l2

N - axial tension = Hg + Hp

As per IS 9282:1979, this method of analysis is completely a mathematical

approach. So, the tension in the cable under the action of live load is deduced using
an iterative procedure called the Newton Raphson’s method. The other quantities
used for arriving at the final tension value are also mathematically found out using
various mathematical tools like The Simpson’s integration rule etc. The Idealized

20
Suspension bridge with necessary symbols displaying each span with its cable
tension, lengths and stiffnesses in the below Figure 4.3.

Fig 4.3 Idealized Suspension Bridge

The equations used to find out tension are non linear and must be solved
iteratively. The steps for the solution of the equation using Newton Raphson’s
method are given below.

 Step 1: Assume an initial value for Hp and the step size ΔHp based on the
desired levels of accuracy.
 Step 2: Calculate deflections w for the given H p as per the equations for
w (ξ). Load case to be considered are the applied live load and the
uniformly distributed load directed upward given by -Hpy''.
 Step 3: Calculate ∫ w dx using simpson’s integration rule.
 Step 4: Calculate the new improved Hp using the equation ** given
below

f ( H p, i ). ∆ H p
H p ,i +1=H p ,i −
f ( H p ,i +∆ H p ) −f (H p ,i )
(4.9)

Where,

H p ,i - current value for Hp

H p ,i +1 - New value for Hp
 Step 5: Repeat steps 2-4 until f(H p) is close to 0 within the desired
accuracy.

General assumptions:

21
 EcAc = 36×106 kN; EI = 57×106 kN/m; K = 8500 kN/m.

In order to reduce the monotony, this report contains just the tabulated
results of the first and the final iterations.

Iteration I:

Assume H P = 6000 kN;

q = 44 kN/m; N = 54945 kN; ε = 12.42; H P y ' ' = =12 kN/m

Table 4.1 Results of deflection due to Hp

X X(m) W due to Hp Sum wt Sum× wt Σ(Sum×wt)

0 150 0 0 1 0

0.1 190 5.175 5.175 4 20.7

0.2 230 9.489 9.489 2 18.978

0.3 270 12.643 12.643 4 50.572

0.4 310 14.550 14.550 2 29.10

0.5 350 15.185 15.185 4 60.74

0.6 390 14.539 14.539 2 29.10

0.7 430 12.603 12.603 4 50.572

0.8 470 9.489 9.489 2 18.978

0.9 510 5.175 5.175 4 20.7 299.44

l
∫ w dx = ( w + 4 w 1+2 w 2+ 4 w3 … … …+4 wn −1 + wn)
3n 0

400
∫ w dx = 30
(299.44)

22
∫ w dx=¿ 3392.53 m
Hp Hp
f (H P ) = Lc + y ' ' ∫ wdx+
EC A C 2Ka

f (H P ) = 0.90

H P+ Δ H P = 6250 kN

Table 4.2 Results for deflection due to Hp + ΔHp

X X(m) W due to Sum wt Sum× wt Σ(Sum ×

wt)
( H p+ ∆ H p)

0 150 0 0 1 0

0.1 190 5.094 5.094 4 20.376

0.2 230 9.340 9.340 2 18.68

0.3 270 12.445 12.445 4 49.78

0.4 310 14.323 14.323 2 28.646

0.5 350 14.950 14.950 4 59.80

0.6 390 14.323 14.323 2 28.646

0.7 430 12.445 12.445 4 49.78

0.8 470 9.340 9.340 2 18.68

0.9 510 5.094 5.094 4 20.376 294.764

q = 43.5 kN/m

N = 55195 kN

ε = 12.44

H P y ' ' = -12.5 kN/m

23
 l
∫ w dx = ( w + 4 w 1+2 w 2+ 4 w3 … … …+4 wn −1 + wn)
3n 0

400
∫ w dx = 30
(294.764)

∫ w dx = 3930.13 m
H p+ Δ H p Hp
f (H P + Δ H p) = Lc + y ' ' ∫ wdx+
EC A C 2Ka

f (H P + Δ H p) = 0.8812

f ( H p, i ). ∆ H p
H p ,i +1=H p ,i −
f ( H p ,i +∆ H p ) −f (H p ,i )

H p 2 = 17,968.08 kN

The final iteration:

H P = 16053.2 kN

q = 23.89 kN/m

N = 64998 kN

ε = 13.50;

H P y ' ' = -32.10 kN/m

l
∫ w dx = ( w + 4 w 1+2 w 2+ 4 w3 … … …+4 wn −1 + wn)
3n 0

400
∫ w dx = 30
(146.80)

= 1957.33 m

Hp H
f (H P ) = Lc + y ' ' ∫ wdx+ p
EC A C 2Ka

24
 q = 43.5 kN/m

N = 55195 kN

ε = 12.44

H P y ' ' = -12.5 kN/m

Table 4.3 Results for deflection due to H P

X X(m) W due to Hp Sum wt (Sum × wt) Σ(Sum× wt)

0 150 0 0 1 0

0.1 190 2.64 2.64 4 10.56

0.2 230 4.69 4.69 2 9.38

0.3 270 6.168 6.168 4 24.672

0.4 310 7.050 7.050 2 14.1

0.5 350 7.344 7.344 4 29.378

0.6 390 7.050 7.050 2 14.1

0.7 430 6.168 6.168 4 24.672

0.8 470 4.69 4.69 2 9.38

0.9 510 2.64 2.64 4 10.56 146.80

f (H P ) = 0.0745

H P+ Δ H P = 6250 kN;

q = 43.5kN/m;

N = 55195 kN; ε = 12.44; H P y ' ' = -12.5 kN/m

l
∫ w dx = ( w + 4 w 1+2 w 2+ 4 w3 … … …+4 wn −1 + wn)
3n 0

25
 400
∫ w dx = 30
(131.08)

= 1747.82 m

Table 4.4 Results for deflections due to H P+ Δ H p

X X(m) W due to Sum wt Sum× wt Σ(Sum ×

wt)
( H p+ ∆ H p)

0 150 0 0 1 0

0.1 190 2.349 2.349 4 9.396

0.2 230 4.296 4.296 2 8.59

0.3 270 5.715 5.715 4 20.70

0.4 310 6.571 6.571 2 13.142

0.5 350 6.8578 6.8578 4 27.431

0.6 390 6.571 6.571 2 13.142

0.7 430 5.715 5.715 4 20.70

0.8 470 4.296 4.296 2 8.59

0.9 510 2.349 2.349 4 9.396

1.0 550 0 0 1 0 131.08

H p+ Δ H p Hp
f (H P + Δ H p) = Lc + y ' ' ∫ wdx+
EC A C 2Ka

f (H P + Δ H p) = 0.493

f ( H p, i ). ∆ H p
H p ,i +1=H p ,i −
f ( H p ,i +∆ H p ) −f (H p ,i )

H p = 16008.2 kN.

26
 Therefore, the tension due to live load analysed by the iterative procedure
using deflection theory was found to be 16008.2 kN. The cables and the other
structural members of the suspension bridge are designed to withstand the above
deduced load.

4.2 DESIGN

4.2.1 Cables

Parallel wires have been exclusively used exclusively as the main cable
in suspension bridges around the world. Parallel wires have the advantage of having
higher strength and modulus of elasticity when compared with the normal stranded
wire ropes. Alignment of the main cable must be decided first. The sag span ratio of
the suspension bridge is 1/10. After the structural analysis, the structural area is
calculated based on the maximum tension in the cable. High strength steel wire of
tensile strength 1770 N/mm2 is used.

Tension in cable = 16008.2 kN

Tensile strength = 1770 N/mm2

Area of cable to be provided = 9044 mm2

Provide a parallel wire cable of diameter 145 mm as the main cable which has
the following properties:

Nominal diameter = 145 mm

Nominal cross-section area = 12080 mm2

Nominal axial stiffness = 1873 MN

Nominal metallic mass = 101.5 kg/m

27
 Minimum breaking = 19450 kN

4.2.2 Suspenders

Suspenders transfer the loads from the deck of the suspension bridge to
its main cable. So they are designed for strength of 5880 kN. So for reduced loads of
this magnitude smaller wire cables are used. For instance, here, a spiral strand rope
of 80 mm diameter is used as suspenders. They are provided at 10 m intervals
starting from the left end the cable properties are:

Nominal diameter = 80 mm

Nominal cross section area = 3673 mm2

Nominal metallic mass = 30.3

Nominal axial stiffness = 569 MN

Minimum breaking force = 5910

Cable strands and anchored to the cable anchorage frame. Hanger ropes are
connected to the main cable with cable bands.

4.2.3 Deck slab

The deck slab is designed as a conventional rigid pavement as per

AASHTO codes. According to the design, contraction joints are provided at every
3.5 m intervals and expansion joints at an interval of 60 m.

4.2.4 Stiffening Girder

28
 Plate girders are a deep flexural members used to carry loads that cannot
be carried economically by a rolled beam. Plate girders offer a unique flexibility in
fabrication and the cross section can be uniform or non-uniform along the span. Due
to the compactness of the plate girders, vibration and impact are not serious
problems. It is a normal practice to fabricate plate girders by welding together three
plates. The plate girder used in this suspension bridge is an example of such a
fabrication.

The plate girder is designed for a span of 10 m. The girder spans between
the suspenders. The design loads for which the girder is designed are:

Dead load = 42.24 kN/m

Live load = 56 kN/m

The design of girder is according to the design standards mentioned in IS

800:2007. The design warrants for the provision of web plate of dimension 1200 ×
40 mm and flange plates of dimension 350 × 40 mm. Plate girders offer a unique
flexibility in fabrication and the cross section can be uniform or non-uniform along
the span.

4.2.5 Column

This project envisages the design of a column that takes an axial

compressive force equivalent to the vertical component of the tension due to live
load Hp. In order to withstand the high magnitude of compressive force, a built up
laced column is designed.

4.2.5.1 Design of load column

As per IRC: 6-2010

29
 P = 4124.65 kN

L = 12 m

Assume a design stress of 125 MPa

4124.65
Required area = =27497.667
(0.6 × 0.250)

Use 4 number of 200×200×20 angles

Mass = 60 Kg/m

Or = 76.4 cm2

The dimensions are as follows:

A×B = 200×200

Thickness = 20 m

R1=15.0, R2= 4.8;C x = 57.1 mm, C y = 5.71 cm

I x = 2880cm4 , I y= 2880 cm4

I u(max) = 4570 cm4 , I v (min) = 1180 cm4 ; r x = r x = 6.14 cm

r u (max) = 7.73 cm, r v(min) = 3.39 cm; z x = 201 cm3 ; z y = 201 cm3

Area provided = 7640×4

= 30560 mm2

For 30560,

Req f cd = 4124.65×10 3

= 134.96 N/mm2

Table (11) value of k = 0.65 L for fixed condition

Efficient length L = 0.65×12×10 3

30
 7800
Required = = 97.5 mm
80

Moment of Inertia required section = Ar 2

= 30560×(97.5)2

= 290.5×10 6 mm 4

Equating the required moment of inertia provided

290.5×10 6 = 4×2880 × 104+30560( ý )2

ý = 75.74 mm

Spacing of angles(s) = 2×(75.74+57.1)

= 265 mm

Provide 265 mm spacing

Now, I zz = I yy of built up section

= (4×2880 × 104+30560 ( 2602 −57.1)

9
r = 1.436 × 10 = 216.77 mm
√ 30560

L 7800
=
r 216.77

L
= 35.98
r

L
From table (9c), = 35.98; fy = 250
r

fcd = 303.5 N/mm2

31
 30560× 303.5
Capacity of the built up column = = 9274.96 kN
1000

9247.96 > 4124 kN

Hence the column is safe.

4.2.5.2 Connecting systems

Providing a double lacing system with a lacing flat inclined at45 °.

Both are provided at the centre of the leg.

Spacing of Lacing bar, ( L0)

L0 = (265 – 100 – 100) cot 45 °

= 65 mm

L0 65
= = 1.06 < 50
r yy 61.4

Should be less than 0.7 × 35.98 = 25.18

25.186 > 1.06

Shear force, V = 2.5 % Load (codes)

2.5
= × 4124.65
100

(V) = 103.116 kN

V
Transverse shear in each panel = ( ) cosec θ
2N

51558.12
= × cosec 45 °
2

32
 = 36457

4.2.6 Section of Lacing flat

Assuming 20 mm bolts

According to (clause 7.6.2) w = 3 × 20 mm

= 60 mm

Length of lacing = (365 – 100 – 100) cosec 45 °

= 91.9 mm

1
Minimum thickness of lacing flat = (91.9)
60

= 1.53 m

Providing a flat of 60× 6 mm

t 6
Minimum radius of gyration, r = = = 1.73 mm
√12 √12
L1 (0.7)(91.9)
= = 37.18 < 145
r 1.73

Hence the flat is safe.

L1
For = 37.18 and fy = 250
r

fcd = 207.34 N/mm2

Capacity of lacing bar = 270.34 × 60 × 6

= 74640.24 > 36457

Hence the lacing bar is safe.

33
4.2.7 Connections

Strength of a 20 mm diameter bolt in double shear = 2 × 45.3

= 90.6 kN

fu
Strength of bolt in bearing = 2.5 kb d t ×
γ mb

410
= 2.5 × 0.6× 120 × 6 ×
1.25× 1000

= 59 kN

Number of bolts = 2×36457×cot 45° /¿(59×103)

=1.235

Provide two 20mm diameter bolts

Tie plates

Effective depth = 265 - (2 × 57.1) = 150 mm

Which is minimum edge distance of 16mm diameter bolts = 25mm

Overall depth = 150 + (2×25)

= 200mm

1
Thickness of plate = ( 265−100−100 )
50

= 1.3 mm

Therefore provide (265 × 200 × 6) mm plate and connect it using three number

of 16 mm diameter bolts.

34
4.2.8 Base plate

P = 4124kN

h = 265mm

b= 265mm

Bearing strength of concrete = 0.45, fck = 0.45×30

=13.5 N/mm2

4124.65 ×103
Required area of base plate =
13.5

= 305529.629 mm2

Use a base plate of size 600×600 mm with an area = 360000 mm2

The column is kept in the centre

Therefore there will be a projection of about 335mm on each side

4124.65 ×103
W=
600 ×600

= 11.47 N/mm2

2.5 w(a 2−0.3 b2 )γ mo

ts =
√ fy
¿)

2
)2
= 2.5 × 11.47(300 − 0.3 ×300 )×1.1
√ (
250

= 16.65mm < 20mm

Hence provide a base plate 600×600×20 mm

35
 Also provide 20 mm diameter and 300 mm lone anchor bolts to connect the
base plate to the foundation concrete. Use a 6 mm fillet weld all around the column
section to hold the base plate in place.

4.2.9 Footing

As mentioned in the manufacturing constraints, avoiding the pile

foundation due to the availability of good stratum at a greater depth is a hurdle.

This constraint is overcome by designing a massive R.C.C footing slab to

overcome the axial compression and high moments. The design of the footing
follows design specifications as per IS 456. The design resulted in the provision of a
pedestal of dimension 800x800x900 mm and 10 nos. of 20 mm diameter rods around
the pedestal. Also provision of 8 mm tie bars at 300 mm c/c is also mandated. The
footing slab with a dimension of 6000×6000×1300 mm is to be provided and 30 nos
of 20 mm rods are to be provided at 300 mm spacing. The dimensions of a tie bar is
shown in the below Figure 4.4.

Fig 4.4 Dimensions of a tie bar

36
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

5.1 GENERAL CONCLUSION

The various parts of the pedestrian suspension bridge are analyzed with
respect to cost, time, availability of skilled labors and ease in construction and
designed to arrive at an economical structure which requires low maintenance and
thereby providing easier and better access. Various technical drawings used for
construction and reference have been drawn using AutoCAD.

37
5.2 FUTURE SCOPE

The analysis and design of this suspension bridge can be extended for
bridges with longer spans and to accommodate heavier traffic over bigger rivers or at
any other location. Investment in rural transportation improvements would help to
reduce poverty through improving access to markets, educational opportunities and
medical clinics not currently accessed. Accordingly, a country’s ability to maximize
it’s economic potential to link is closely linked to efficiency of its transportation
system. The Suspension bridge can be built up to 400 feet with no intermediate
supports. From structural standpoint, Suspension bridges have taken a number of
forms, each with the function of providing safe transport to the rural community
members who wants to avoid travel by river and to fulfill their basic needs.

REFERENCES

1. Okukaiao A., Suzuki S, Harazaki I., (2000), ‘Bridge Engineering

Handbook’CRC Press LLC.
2. Gregor P. Wollman, (2001), “Preliminary Analysis of Suspension Bridges’,
Journal of Bridge Engineering Vol.6, No.4
3. N. Subramanian, (2010), ‘Design of Steel Structures’, Published by Oxford
University Press.
4. Dayaratnam P. (1996), “Design of Steel Structures”, wheeler publishing, 2nd
Edition.
5. Bridon, ‘Structural Applications’ Structural Systems, 2nd Edition
6. S.K.Duggal (2000), ‘Design of Steel Structures’, Mc Graw Hill, 2nd Edition

38
7. http://www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/IIT-
MADRAS/Design_Steel_Structures_1/index.php retrieved on December 23,
2012 at 9:30 pm

39