Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

Aerodynamics of high-speed railway train

Raghu S. Raghunathana, H.-D. Kimb,*, T. Setoguchic
a
School of Aeronautical Engineering, The Queen’s University of Belfast, David Keir Building, Stranmillis Road, Belfast BT9 5AG,
Northern Ireland, UK
b
School of Mechanical Engineering, Andong National University, 388, Songchun-dong, Andong 760-749, South Korea
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Saga University, 1, Honjo, Saga 840-8502, Japan

Abstract

Railway train aerodynamic problems are closely associated with the flows occurring around train. Much effort to
speed up the train system has to date been paid on the improvement of electric motor power rather than understanding
the flow around the train. This has led to larger energy losses and performance deterioration of the train system, since
the flows around train are more disturbed due to turbulence of the increased speed of the train, and consequently the
flow energies are converted to aerodynamic drag, noise and vibrations. With the speed-up of train, many engineering
problems which have been neglected at low train speeds, are being raised with regard to aerodynamic noise and
vibrations, impulse forces occurring as two trains intersect each other, impulse wave at the exit of tunnel, ear discomfort
of passengers inside train, etc. These are of major limitation factors to the speed-up of train system. The present review
addresses the state of the art on the aerodynamic and aeroacoustic problems of high-speed railway train and highlights
proper control strategies to alleviate undesirable aerodynamic problems of high-speed railway train system.
r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Train aerodynamics; Impulse noise; Train tunnel; Compressible flow; Unsteady flow; Aerodynamic drag

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
2. Speed-up tendency of train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
2.1. Requirement for the speed-up of train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
2.2. Transportation energy efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
2.3. Limiting factors to the speed-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
3. Aerodynamic problems of railway train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
4. Aerodynamic forces on railway train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
4.1. Aerodynamic drag of train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
4.2. Estimation of aerodynamic drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
4.3. Comparison of the drags on different trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
4.4. Pressure drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
4.5. Friction drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
5. Aerodynamic shape of railway train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482

*Corresponding author. Tel.: +82-54-820-5622; fax: +82-54-823-5495.

E-mail address: kimhd@andong.ac.kr (H.-D. Kim).

0376-0421/02/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 6 - 0 4 2 1 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 2 9 - 5
470 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

Nomenclature R cross-sectional area ratio of train to tunnel

Re Reynolds number
a speed of sound or constant S Struve function
A cross-sectional area of tunnel t time
A0 cross-sectional area of train u flow velocity
AðoÞ Fourier transform u0 flow velocity between train and tunnel wall
b constant U speed of train
c speed of sound or constant V speed of train
Cd aerodynamic drag coefficient Wp payload
Cds aerodynamic drag coefficient of short model W weight of train
train x axial distance of tunnel
Cdl aerodynamic drag coefficient of long model
train Greek letters
Cdp pressure drag coefficient a angle of attack
d hydraulic diameter of tunnel g ratio of specific heats
d0 hydraulic diameter of train r density
D total drag l friction factor of tunnel wall
0
DM mechanical drag l friction factor of train
DA aerodynamic drag l0m friction factor of model train
Ds aerodynamic drag of short model train j energy dissipation
E energy f blockage ratio or velocity potential
f frictional force on train n kinetic viscosity coefficient
F frictional force on tunnel wall k wave number
h height of train
Hp horse power Sub/superscripts
I sound intensity 0 atmospheric state
J Bassel function 1 state just before train fore-body
c train length 2 state just behind train fore-body
m’ mass flow per unit time per unit volume d drag force
Mt train Mach number H hydraulic diameter
M mass flow per unit time l long model train
p static pressure max peak or maximum value
Dp0 pressure difference M pitching moment
P pressure of impulse wave in inside tunnel
Per reference sound pressure out outside tunnel
Pr Prandtl number s short model train or stagnation state
r radial distance ^ moving coordinate system

5.1. Wind tunnel test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482

5.2. Train-induced flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
5.3. Aerodynamic forces due to trains passing each other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
5.4. Cross-wind effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
6. Aeroacoustic problems of railway train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
6.1. Aerodynamic noise due to train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
6.2. Wind tunnel test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
6.3. Reduction of aerodynamic noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
7. Vibration of railway train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
8. Aerodynamics of railway train/tunnel systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
8.1. Aerodynamic analysis of train/tunnel systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
8.2. Pressure wave due to the train entering into tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
8.3. Pressure variation and aerodynamic drag inside tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
8.4. Pressure variation inside train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 471

9. Impulse wave at the exit of tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496

9.1. State-of-the-art of impulse wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
9.2. Theory of impulse wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
9.3. Slab and ballast track tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
9.4. Short and long tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
9.5. Control methodologies of impulse wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
9.5.1. Train body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
9.5.2. Tunnel entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
9.5.3. Inside tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
9.5.4. Tunnel exit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
10. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512

1. Introduction the flows around train are more disturbed due to

During the past 60 decades, a great deal of attention
has been concentrated on the development of airplanes.
Fluid dynamics, structural mechanics and automatic
control engineering have made large contributions to the
present aerospace technologies. Of them, fluid dynamics
mainly dealing with aerodynamic drag has played the
most important role in the development of airplanes and
flight vehicles.
Relatively, there have been only a few studies of the
full train system. This has been attributed to the fact
that train has run at very low speeds along a fixed track,
compared with airplanes. Thus, aerodynamic problems
on the train system could not have attracted much
attention from fluid dynamists. Recently, the train speed
exceeded over 300 km/h, being nearly comparable with
the past airplane speeds. Furthermore, the train system
is playing much more roles in transport than the
airplane. Systematic work is needed in the development
of the train system.
Aerodynamic and aeroacoustic problems accompa-
nied by the speed-up of train system are, at present,
receiving a considerable attention as practical engineer-
ing issues that should be urgently resolved. With the
speed-up of train, many engineering problems which
have been reasonably neglected at low speeds, are being
raised with regard to aerodynamic noise and vibrations,
impulse forces occurring as two trains intersect each
other, impulse wave at the exit of tunnel, ear discomfort
of passengers inside train, etc. These are of major
limiting factors to the speed-up of the train system.
Such aerodynamic problems mentioned above are
closely associated with the flows occurring around the
railway train. However, much effort to speed up the
train system has been paid, to date, on the improvement
of electric motor power rather than understanding the
flow physics around the train and thereby finding a
proper control method. This has led to larger energy
losses and performance deterioration of the train, since
turbulence of the increased speed; consequently, the
flow energies are being converted to aerodynamic drag,
noise and vibrations.
Now, many countries are operating the high-speed
railway trains, such as German Inter City Express (ICE),
Japanese Shinkansen and French Train de Grande
Vitesse (TGV); moreover, some countries like South
Korea and China are trying to construct the high-speed
railway train. Systematic work is highly needed to
understand the aerodynamics of high-speed railway
train, and to improve the existing conventional railway
trains and to develop a new generation of high-speed
train (HST) system.
This article deals with the aerodynamic phenomena
with regard to the high-speed railway trains, with a view
to understand practical engineering problems of the
present high-speed railway trains and with an emphasis
on proper control methods for the aerodynamic
problems.
2. Speed-up tendency of train
2.1. Requirement for the speed-up of train
Since 1960s, the speed-up of transportation vehicles
has been made with the timely requirements for a safe
and bulk volume of transportation. This has led to the
advent of a large tanker, a high-speed railway train, a
jumbo jet, and a supersonic transportation (SST)
vehicle. The speed-up of transportation engine always
leads to the shortness of an economic distance asso-
ciated with the shortness of time–distance, resulting in
an increased value of time. The speed of a transportation
vehicle should be determined from the point of view of
the energy efficiency of the transportation.
Fig. 1 shows Bouladon’s criterion for the speed of a
transportation vehicle [1], in which the speed required
for a transportation vehicle is given by a function of
472 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

Supersonic plane
e
3 t im
s e nt
pr e SST
Super-high speed train n the
ry di
1000 ntu sp e
e
2 ce al
th Ide
Speed (km/h) 21 Jet-plane
the
d in
ee High-speed train (Shinkansen)
l sp Train
100 ea
Id
New traffic system 4 Sea

Maximum distance
Ship
1

Intercontinent
10

Seoul-Pusan
Automobile

13000km
6000km
Walking

1
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Distance (km)
Fig. 1. Relationship between speed and distance required for transportation vehicle.

distance. The solid line indicates the required speed In the case of passenger transport, Eq. (1) is changed to
according to the transportation distance, showing a
consumed energyðkcalÞ
general tendency that the longer the transportation E¼ : ð2Þ
personðone personÞ  transport distanceðkmÞ
distance, the higher the speed required. This line also
indicates an increased gradient with time, thus leading to Meanwhile, the efficiency of a transportation engine can
more increasing requirement for the speed-up of a be obtained from the economic aspects of the fuel used:
transportation vehicle. An ideal speed required for
transportation vehicle in the 21st century is also economic efficiency of fuel
indicated as the thick solid line. The present realizable ¼ lower calorific value of fuel ðkcal=gÞ
speed to meet the speed-up requirement for a transpor-  consumption rate of fuel ðg=hp hÞ
tation vehicle is also indicated in Fig. 1. horse power ðhpÞ  time ðhÞ
There are several regions between the distance–speed  : ð3Þ
payload ðtonÞ  distance ðkmÞ
curves of each transportation and the solid line, which
are, at present, not able to meet the requirement for the For a given lower calorific value and consumption
speed of transportation. Region 1 indicates too long rate of fuel, Eq. (3) reduces to
distance for walking, but too short distance for driving.
Region 2 is between train and airplane. Region 3 economic efficiency of fuel
indicates the speed lack of subsonic airplane for inter- horse power  time
p
continental transportation. Region 4 indicates too long payload  distance
a distance for boat on sea, but too short a distance for horse power Hp
¼ ¼ : ð4Þ
airplane. To meet the speeds required for each region, payload  speed Wp V
new-generation traffic system, high-speed railway train,
SST, and speedboat are under development, respec- The economic efficiency of fuel used can be an index
tively. indicating the transportation energy, and is, thus,
expressed by an inverse of the transportation efficiency:
2.2. Transportation energy efficiency Wp V W V Wp
transport efficiencyp ¼ ; ð5Þ
Hp Hp W
In general, energy efficiency of a transportation
vehicle can be estimated based upon the fuel consump- where W is the total payload, V the speed, and Hp the
tion used. In the case of cargo transport, the energy E horse power.
necessary to carry unit weight per unit distance is Using the equations above, Fig. 2 shows a comparison
expressed as [2] between the transportation energies necessary to carry
consumed energyðkcalÞ one person up to 1 km [2]. For three different types of
E¼ : vehicles, i.e., train, bus and car, the number on the right
transport capacityðtonÞ  transport distanceðkmÞ
side indicates the transportation energy relative to the
ð1Þ train, in which the transportation energy of the train is
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 473

Train 100kcal

Bus
172kcal

Automobile 593kcal

Fig. 2. Energies necessary to carry one person up to 1 km.

3 Lift support
2 3 Helicopter
1.0 Jet plane
HC
1.0 B737
0.5 YS11 SST
B

Turboprop B727
H

0.4 0.5 F27

0.4 B707
0.3
P/Wp V(kW h/ton km)

Destroyer B767 Jet plane

P/Wp V(PS h/ton km)

0.2 0.3 B747 (next generation)

Cruiser Automobile SR
0.2
Buoyancy support
0.1 Bus Karman-Gabrielli
0.1 1
Truck
0.05 Small boat 2 MAGREV
0.04 Reaction force
0.05 support TGV
0.03 0.04
Warship ICE
0.02 0.03
Container
0.02 Shinkansen
0.01 Liner
0.01
Newest ship

0.005
0.004 0.005
0.003 0.004 Large
0.002 0.003 tanker Reaction force
support Lift support
0.002
0.001 Buoyancy
support
0.001
10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500 1000 2000
Speed(km/h)
Fig. 3. Comparison of each transportation.

assumed to be 100 kcal. It is found that the transporta- lower limits of each speed range. For the range of the
tion energy of a car amounts to 6 times that of a train. buoyancy force support, the energy consumption in low-
From the economic point of view of the fuel used, speed ranges is comparatively low. However, with the
Fig. 3 shows a comparison between each transportation speed-up of the boat, the transportation efficiency
engine [3]. The solid line indicates the well-known becomes remarkably low due to the increased wave
Karman–Gabrielli’s limiting line (KG line). The KG drag on the boat. For instance, the value of P=ðWp V Þ
line increases with the speed of transportation vehicle. It increases up to several hundred times as the boat speed
is noted that the economic efficiency of the fuel used in increases from about 15 knot (28.7 km/h) to 30 knot
transportation engine is improved as the transportation (55.6 km/h), resulting in an extremely low transportation
vehicle approaches the KG line. Each transportation efficiency. Therefore, a hydrofoil boat or a hovercraft of
vehicle has different speed ranges. For instance, the boat the lift force support can be one of the alternatives for
is in the range below 50 km/h, the ground vehicles are in higher speeds.
between 50 and 200 km/h, the airplane in between 500 For the range of the reaction force support, the value
and 800 km/h. of P=ðWp V Þ is low in the mid of the speed ranges. For
These speed ranges can be classified, depending on the speeds over this range, a high-speed railway train is
whether the vehicle is driven by the buoyancy force, the recommended. In this case, the value of P=ðWp VÞ is on
reaction force, or the lift force. The KG line indicates the an extended line for the existing conventional train
474 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

system. Further extension of this line approaches the TGV-A

Magnetic levitation (Maglev) train system. For the 515.3

range of the lift force support, the value of P=ðWp V Þ is, 500 TGV-A
482.4
in general, dependent on the lift-drag ratio, being Train de Grande Vitesse(TGV)
independent of the speed of the transportation vehicle. ICE
406.9
DC : diesel locomotive TGV

Speed (km/h)
400 380
EL : electric locomotive
2.3. Limiting factors to the speed-up TGV
ICE
345
331
318 319 336
EL
325.7
In general, the transportation vehicle connecting from 300 Model 286 317
ICE
Shinkansen
city to city is required to meet the following conditions: EL 243
256 Shinkansen
DC 253
high-speed transportation, bulk volume transportation, 215 EL
205
safe and comfortable transportation with less air 200
186km
pollution and noise, highly reliable transportation with Inter City Express(ICE)
low cost and maintenance, etc. The high-speed railway High Speed Train(HST)
train can be one of the alternatives to meet these 100
1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995
requirements. Year
Since 1940s, many countries have tried to speed-up
the conventional train system. Fig. 4 shows the progress Fig. 4. Progress of railway train.
of the speed-up of train [4]. Symbol J refers to the TGV
in France, & the ICE in Germany, K the Shinkansen in
Japan and ’ the HST in UK. It is found that in over a Hardware Foundation Elements
half century, the train speed has increased more than Speed type Limiting factors of Railway system
two fold.
Major limiting factors to the speed-up of train result Power
from many different sources. Technical factors are Retrogression
associated with train/rail systems, while geographical performance Brake system

factors are related to the tunnel system. For instance, in Train

Brake
Maximum speed performace Travel equipment
Japan, the portion of the tunnel to the total railway line
amounts to about 60%, while in France it is at most Traveling
Body
Speed on performance
several per cent. Fig. 5 shows the technical limiting curved track
factors to the speed-up of train and associated factors. Pantograph
performance Track
These factors are mainly associated with the train body, Speed on
Railroad
the track line, the electric devices around the track, etc. branched track Control
performance Tunnel
For instance, the train speed along a curved track is
Adjustable
limited by the traveling performance, passenger’s velocity Passenger
comfort
comfort and safety, which are again associated with Electric lines

the train body and track line. Thus, to be able to Environmental

problem Electric facilities Electricity
increase the maximum speed of trains, it is necessary to
take account of these limiting factors. Signal
communication

Fig. 5. Factors limiting the speed-up and related factors.

3. Aerodynamic problems of railway train

For the purpose of development of a faster and more
safe train system with lower air pollution and noise,
many researchers are paying much attention on the
aerodynamics of high-speed railway train. These works
have attention to the development of new-generation
train body, rail and tunnel systems. The aerodynamic
phenomena with regard to high-speed railway train are
strongly dependent on the train speed. Thus, the
aerodynamic problems become more important as the
train speed increases.
In general, the train aerodynamics are related to
aerodynamic drag, pressure variations inside train,
train-induced flows, cross-wind effects, ground effects,
pressure waves inside tunnel, impulse waves at the exit
of tunnel, noise and vibration, etc. The aerodynamic
drag is dependent on the cross-sectional area of train
body, train length, shape of train fore- and after-bodies,
surface roughness of train body, and geographical
conditions around the traveling train. The train-induced
flows can influence passengers on the platform and is
also associated with the cross-sectional area of train
body, train length, shape of train fore- and after-bodies,
surface roughness of train body, etc.
The pressure variations, occurring as two trains
intersecting each other, are related to passenger’s
comfort and safe traveling of train. These are dependent
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514
Table 1
Aerodynamic problems and their related matters
Aerodynamic problems
1 Aerodynamic drag of train
2 Aerodynamic characteristics of train due to cross-winds
3 Aerodynamic force due to passing-by of two trains
4 Winds induced by train
5 Pressure variations in tunnels
6 Micro-pressure waves radiating from tunnel exit
7 Ventilation and heat transfer in underground station and tunnel
8 Aerodynamic noise
on the shape of train fore- and after-bodies, train width,
and the distance between track lines. The cross-wind can
also influence the safe traveling of the train, relating to
train height and perimeter, bridge system, etc.
The impulse wave at the exit of tunnel influences the
surrounding area around the train track and is
dependent on the cross-sectional area of train body,
the cross-sectional area of tunnel, the shape of train
fore- and after-bodies, the tunnel length, the kind of
track, etc. The pressure variations influence the struc-
tural strength of the train body, passenger’s comfort,
and are associated with the cross-sectional area of the
train body, cross-sectional area of tunnel, train length,
tunnel length, etc. Table 1 lists these major aerodynamic
problems of HST and associated factors. All of these
aerodynamic problems are closely related to the train
shape, which is required to produce aerodynamically
good characteristics.
4. Aerodynamic forces on railway train
4.1. Aerodynamic drag of train
The aerodynamic characteristics of HST are quite
different from those of airplane. There are many
characteristic features in the aerodynamics of the high-
speed railway train, in the points that the train length is,
in general, very long, compared with the equivalent
diameter of it, the train runs close to adjacent structures,
passes through a confined tunnel, and intersecting with
each other, the train runs along a fixed railway track,
always interacting with ground, and the train can be
influenced by cross-winds. Thus, the aerodynamics,
which has been applied to airplane, may not be of help
for a detailed understanding of the HST aerodynamics.
475
Related matters
Maximum speed, energy consumption
Safety in strong cross-winds
Running stability,
Quality of comfort for passengers
Safety for passengers on platforms,
Safety for maintenance workers
Quality of comfort for passengers,
(Ear discomfort)
Airtightness of vehicle,
Stress upon vehicle,
Ventilating system of vehicle
Environmental problems near tunnel exit
Quality of comfort for passengers,
Prevention of disaster (fire)
Environmental problems
In general, a desirable train system should be
aerodynamically stable and have low aerodynamic
forces. These aerodynamic characteristics are closely
associated with the aerodynamic drag of the running
train. The aerodynamic drag on the traveling train is
largely divided into mechanical and aerodynamic ones.
Of both, the aerodynamic drag can influence the energy
consumption of train. Thus, detailed understanding on
the aerodynamic drag and its precise evaluation are of
practical importance.
It has been well known that the aerodynamic drag is
proportional to the square of speed, while the mechan-
ical drag is proportional to the speed. Compared with
the mechanical drag, the portion of the aerodynamic
drag becomes larger as the train speed increases. Thus,
reduction of the aerodynamic drag on high-speed
railway train is one of the essential issues for the
development of the desirable train system.
In the open air without any cross-wind effects, the
total drag on the traveling train can be expressed by a
sum of the aerodynamic and mechanical ones [5]:
D ¼ DM þ DA ¼ ða þ bV ÞW þ cV 2 ; ð6Þ
where DA and DM are the aerodynamic and mechanical
drags, respectively, a; b and c are the constants to be
determined by the experiment, V the train speed and W
the train weight. In Eq. (6), the mechanical drag, being
proportional to the train weight, includes the sliding
drag between rails and train wheels, and the rotating
drag of the wheels.
The measurement of the total drag on train and its
precise prediction are not straightforward. The total
drag can be obtained by using a deceleration speed of
train or the consumed electric power, as will be
described later. Fig. 6 shows a typical example of the
measured total drag on train [5]. All of the data
476 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514
200
D=12.484+0.04915V+0.001654V
2 train body should involve all kinds of the drags
Sinkansen 100series
150
Traveling drag (N)
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200
Speed (km/h)
Fig. 6. Traveling drag on Shinkansen (series 100).
indicated refer to a given train with the same weight and
length, and these collapse onto a single line, given by a
curve fit, D ¼ 12:484 þ 0:04915 þ 0:001654V 2 :
In order to reasonably estimate the total drag on the
trains with variable weight and length, it is necessary to
divide it into the mechanical and aerodynamic drags.
For instance, the least-squares method can be used to
correlate the data, and consequently the term propor-
tional to the square of speed can be considered as the
aerodynamic drag. However, it is quite difficult to
reasonably extract the aerodynamic drag from the total
drag, since it can contain natural wind effects, and
additionally, it can depend on the methods of how to get
the second-order polynomials for the correlation as well.
4.2. Estimation of aerodynamic drag
Unlike the aerodynamics of airplane, the train runs
along a fixed track, strongly interacting with surround-
ing structures, ground, tunnel, platform, etc. Especially,
the presence of an intersecting train makes the analysis
of the train aerodynamics extremely difficult.
In order to speed up the train, it is necessary that the
electric motor power increases or the aerodynamic drag
reduces. Compared with the open air traveling, the
aerodynamic drag can considerably increase as the train
passes through a tunnel [6]. This is because the train-
induced flows do work to increase the pressure by
interacting with the tunnel walls. A pantograph system
may produce the aerodynamic drag corresponding to
that caused by one train. In particular, the structures
underneath the train may produce more drag.
In the open air traveling, the aerodynamic drag on
train can be divided into two contributions; one is
dependent on train length and the other is independent
of it. The drag independent of the train length is the
pressure drag caused by the fore- and after-bodies of
train. It is not easy to estimate the drag dependent on
the train length. This is because the friction drag on the
occurring in the connecting parts between trains,
photographs, the structures under the train, etc.
In this case, the aerodynamic drag can be expressed
as [7]


1 0 2 l0
D ¼ rA V Cdp þ 0 c ; ð7Þ
2 d
where V is the train speed, r the density of air, A0 the
cross-sectional area of train, Cdp the coefficient of the
pressure drag caused by the fore- and after-bodies of
250 300
train, d 0 the hydraulic diameter of train, l the train
length, and l0 the hydraulic friction coefficient caused by
the connecting parts between trains, photographs, the
structures under the train, etc.
In general, a wind tunnel test for measuring the
aerodynamic drag on train, which is quite long
compared with the equivalent diameter, is highly
difficult. The use of a small model for the train wind
tunnel test causes several problems associated with lower
Reynolds numbers. In addition, ground effects on the
aerodynamic drag should be considered in the wind
tunnel test.
In Eq. (7) Cdp can be obtained by wind tunnel
experiment. Using the real train entering into the tunnel,
Hara [8] reported that l0 could be obtained by the
pressure rise on the train body, when it enters into
tunnel. A train entering into the tunnel compresses the
atmospheric air ahead of the train and the resulting
compression waves will propagate nearly at the speed of
sound towards the exit of the tunnel.
Meanwhile, the air displaced by the train entering into
the tunnel will discharge back from the entrance of
tunnel. In this case, the air flow should overcome the
frictional drag on the train body and tunnel walls,
resulting in a pressure gradient. Due to this fact, the
pressure on the train body will increase as the train
proceeds into the tunnel, as schematically shown
in Fig. 7.
The compression waves propagating along tunnel will
discharge from the exit of the tunnel, consequently
forming an impulse wave, as will be described later. At
the same instant as the compression waves discharge
2 3
x
po(A-A') p2(A-A')
U
ρο f
v2
po F
Fig. 7. Flow model for friction coefficient.
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 477

Table 2
Wind tunnel experiment for the traveling drag on TGV

Components of traveling drag Drag coefficient (151C, Total drag

1013 mbar)
Drag in 260 km/h Power in
260 km/h (kW)
N/(km/h)2 (%) N (%)

Aerodynamic component Drag of train 0.04595 80 3106 62.5 2243

Equipments on train 0.00965 17 652 13.1 471
roof
Total aerodynamic 0.05560 97 3758 75.6 2714
components
Disk brake 0.00170 3 115 2.3 83

Total 0.05730 100 3873 77.9 2797

Rolling drag (train BV ¼ 3:256V 847 17.1 612

407 ton)
A ¼ 250 250 5.0 181

Total drag D ¼ A þ BV þ CV 2 4970 100.0 3590

from the exit of the tunnel, expansion waves will be
formed to meet the mass conservation law, and then
propagate back from the exit of the tunnel towards the
entrance of tunnel. In Hara’s analysis, it is assumed that
the expansion waves do not interact with the train body
inside tunnel and the after-body of the train is still in the
open air.
In Fig. 7, the momentum equation can be applied to
the control volume between the cross-sections 2 and 3,
as below
ðp2  p0 ÞðA  A0 Þ  f 0  F ¼ 0; ð8Þ
where p2 is the pressure on the train body, p0 the
atmospheric pressure, A the cross-sectional area of
tunnel, A0 the cross-sectional area of train, f the
frictional force on train body, and F the frictional force
on tunnel walls. Eq. (8) can be changed to [8]
 0  constants A and B are experimentally given by 250
1 2 l v2 2 l v2 2
ðp2  p0 Þð1  RÞ ¼ rV c R 0 c þ þ ; ð9Þ
2 d V d V
where R is the ratio of cross-sectional areas of train to
tunnel, l the distance from the entrance of tunnel to
train, l the hydraulic friction coefficient on tunnel walls,
l0 the hydraulic friction coefficient on the train body, d
the hydraulic diameter of tunnel, d 0 the hydraulic
diameter of train, V the train speed and v2 the air flow
velocity occurring between train and tunnel walls. For a
known value of v2 =V ; the hydraulic friction coefficient l0
on the train body can be obtained by measuring the
pressure rise (p2  p0 ).
4.3. Comparison of the drags on different trains
The aerodynamic drag measurement results [9], which
were conducted using a wind tunnel test in France, are
summarized in Table 2, where each of the contributions
of the train body (TGV), the connecting part between
trains and the structures under the train on the
aerodynamic drag are indicated. The wind tunnel test
was carried out at a train speed of 260 km/h under
standard atmospheric conditions. The total drag is also
presented on the right side of Table 2.
Of the total drag, the aerodynamic drag only on the
train body is about 80%, the aerodynamic drag due to
the pantograph system and other devices over the train
is 17%, the rest drag of 3% is due to the mechanical
drag caused by the brake system, etc. From the
measured data above, the total traveling drag D on
train is given by D ¼ A þ BV þ CV 2 ; where the
and 3.256, respectively. Note that these values are 5%
and 17.1% of the aerodynamic drag on only the train
body, respectively.
Figs. 8 and 9 present the aerodynamic drag on the
Germany ICE [9]. The type of the ICE, its cross-
sectional area and aerodynamic drag are also indicated
in Fig. 8. For example, the train of type a has a cross-
sectional area of 14.61 m2 and is assumed that its
aerodynamic drag is 100%. For the trains of different
types and cross-sectional areas, relative aerodynamic
drag is given based on the train of type a. In the case of
the train of type k, the cross-sectional area of the train is
11.39 m2 and the aerodynamic drag relative to the type a
478 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

Moving direction For the trains shown in Fig. 8, each portion of the
contributions of the fore- and after-bodies of train, the
Type Cross-sectional connecting part between trains, the train wall surfaces,
Drag(%)
area (m2)2) the pantograph system, etc. to the total aerodynamic
drag is given in Fig. 9 [9]. In the case of type a, it is
a 14.61 100% found that the aerodynamic drag caused in the
connecting part between trains is about 4%, the surface
friction drag 23%, the fore- and after-bodies 8%, the
pantograph system 7%, and the underneath structures
b 11.39 78% of train 58%. For type f ; the total aerodynamic drag is
about 50% of that of type a; and each of the portions is
quite different from that of type a. For reference, all
these data refer to the same train length (200 m).
c 10.14 69% In the case of Japanese Shinkansen, the 0 series have
been known as l0 ¼ 0:018; and Cdp ¼ 0:2 [10,11]. An
empirical equation to predict the aerodynamic drag on
the traveling train is given by the following equation:
d 8.70 60%
D ¼ ð1:2 þ 0:022V ÞW þ ð0:013 þ 0:00029 cÞV 2 ; ð10Þ
where D is the total drag (kgf), V the train speed (km/h),
W the total weight of train (ton), and l the train length
e 7.80 53% (m). The term that is proportional to the square of speed
is the aerodynamic drag. For l ¼ 400 m, corresponding
to the length of 16 trains, about 90% of the aerodynamic
drag is attributed to the friction drag on the middle part
f 7.10 49%
of the train. Of the Japanese Shinkansen, series 100 has a
semi-body mount system for the underneath structures,
Fig. 8. Aerodynamic drag on ICE (the hatching area is the and series 200 has an underneath coverage to prevent
device to smooth the structures underneath train). snow accumulation on the train body. Table 3 lists some
major parameters influencing on the aerodynamic
drag [10,11]. It is found that smoothing the under-
15 neath structures of train by using the body mount
Connecting 4%
parts system or the skirt system reduces the hydraulic friction
Surface coefficient.
friction 23%
2%
Cross-sectional area (m2)

Head & tail 4.4. Pressure drag

10 of train 8%
7% 35%
Pantograph
Of the aerodynamic drag components, the pressure
40%
drag comes from the pressures on the fore- and after-
10%
bodies of train, and, in the case with a double deck in
9% 11% 52% train series, it stems from the pressures due to the abrupt
5 Underneath 5% 61%
structures change in the cross-sectional area of the train. Assuming
58%
14% that the coefficient of the pressure drag is Cdp and in the
44% 44% 7% 15% case of a double deck, it is Cdpd ; a wind tunnel test [12]
2%
27% 22% has been carried out to investigate the pressure drag. In
0 the experiment, each of the models for the fore- and
a b c e f after-bodies of train and the middle part of train has
Type been manufactured. Depending on the length of the
Fig. 9. Aerodynamic drag components of ICE. middle part of the model, the model train experiment of
different lengths could be done.
For a train model with a short length, the coefficient
of the aerodynamic drag can be written as
is 78%. In Fig. 8, note that the trains of different cross-
Ds
sectional areas have a train body mount system and a Cds ¼
; ð11Þ
skirt system to smooth the structures underneath the 1 2 0
rU A
train. 2
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 479

Table 3
Parameters associated with aerodynamic drag (Shinkansen)

Series Cross-sectional Hydraulic Friction Pressure drag

area A0 (m2) diameter d 0 (m) coefficient of coefficient Cdp
train side body
(l0 )

Train 0 12.6 3.54 0.017 0.20

200 13.3 3.64 0.016 0.20
100 12.6 3.54 0.016 0.15

Tunnel Line Cross-sectional Hydraulic Friction coefficient of tunnel wall (l)

area A (m2) diameter d (m)

Tokaido 60.5 7.8 0.02

Sanyo 63.4 8.1 0.02
Tohoku
Joetsu

where Cds is the coefficient of the aerodynamic drag for
the short train model, Ds the aerodynamic drag, A0 the
cross-sectional area of the model train, U the wind
velocity, and r the density. Furthermore, the coefficient
of the aerodynamic drag can be divided into two
components: one depending on the length of the model
train and the other independent of the length of the
model train, as
cs
Cds ¼ Cdp þ l0m 0 ; ð12Þ
d
where Cdp is the coefficient of the pressure drag on the
fore- and after-bodies of the model train, l0m the
coefficient of the hydraulic friction on the model train,
ls the length of the model train, and d 0 the hydraulic
diameter of the model train.
Meanwhile, for a long model train, the coefficient of
the aerodynamic drag is similarly given
cl
Cdl ¼ Cdp þ l0m 0 ; ð13Þ
d ever, in reality, the pressure near the fore-body of the
where ll is the length of the longer model train. From
Eqs. (12) and (13), the coefficient of the pressure drag
Cdp can be obtained by
Cds cl  Cdl cs
Cdp ¼ : ð14Þ
cl  cs
In reality, the coefficient l0m of the hydraulic friction
on the model train can be significantly different from
that of real train, as will be described later.
4.5. Friction drag
Of the aerodynamic drag components, the estimation
of the friction drag is more complicated, compared with
that of the pressure drag. The friction drag comes from
the train walls, the pantograph system, the connecting
part between trains, other devices on train roof, etc.
As described previously, the friction coefficient can be
obtained by the pressure rise on the train body entering
into tunnel.
Fig. 10 shows the experimental data of the stagnation
pressure and the pressure rise on the train, which enters
into tunnel [8,10], where a refers to the state just after the
fore-body of the train enters into tunnel, b just after the
after-body of the train enter into tunnel, and c refers to
the instant that the compression waves occurring when
the train fore-body enters into tunnel are reflected back
from the exit of tunnel as the expansion waves. In order
to estimate the hydraulic friction coefficient of a train,
we can use the pressure rise from the instant a to b:
Fig. 11 represents the pressure distributions measured
on the train body for the time range between a and b
[8,10]. For the sake of simplicity, the fore-body of the
train is assumed to be x ¼ 0; where x is the distance from
the entrance of tunnel to the fore-body of the train. It is
found that the pressure increases nearly linearly. How-
train may deviate from the linear distribution due to the
fore-body effects. In this case, we can eliminate the fore-
body effects to precisely estimate the friction coefficient,
as schematically shown in Fig. 12, where the compression
waves due to the train fore-body entering into tunnel do
not yet reach at the exit of the tunnel.
For the flowfield shown in Fig. 12, we can again
assume that the flow is one-dimensional. Neglecting the
viscous forces on the flows between the train fore-body
and the compression waves, the isentropic relation and
the simple wave theory can be written as
p1 p0
¼ ; ð15Þ
rg1 rg0
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 gp1 2 gp0
 u1 ¼ ; ð16Þ
g  1 r1 g  1 r0
480 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

Tunnel
U

Train
p
Time(t)
Pressure distribution for the steady flow inside tunnel
b
a c
Stagnation pressure on the lst train

Pressure on the side body of the 1st train

Pressure

1kPa
Pressure on the side body of the 2nd train

Pressure on the side body of the 4th train

Pressure on the side body of the 6th train

1.0sec
Time(t)
Fig. 10. Pressure rise due to the train entering into tunnel (U ¼ 220 km/h, and Shinkansen series 100).

Distance from tunnel entrance to train head, X(m)

400 300 200 100 0
Pressure rise on the side body of train (kPa)

3.0

Train speed, U=216km/h

Slab track

2.0

1.0

0.0
Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel Train
entrance entrance entrance entrance entrance entrance head

Fig. 11. Pressure distributions on the side body of train.

where p is the pressure, u the velocity, r the density, g the just before the train fore-body, respectively. In addition,
ratio of specific heats of air, and subscript 0 and 1 the flow properties just before and after the train fore-
denote the states just before the compression waves and body can be obtained by the equation systems of mass
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 481

and energy conservation: the state just after the train fore-body and the stagnation
r1 u# 1 ¼ r2 u# 2 ð1  RÞ; ð17Þ state, respectively. The ^ over the flow velocity u
indicates the flow velocity observed by the moving
g p1 1 2 g p2 1 2 g ps coordinate system.
þ u# ¼ þ u# ¼ ; ð18Þ For the region between the train fore-body and the
g  1 r1 2 1 g  1 r2 2 2 g  1 rs
entrance of tunnel, the momentum equation reduces
p1 p2 ps
¼ ¼ ; ð19Þ to
rg1 rg2 rgs
 0 
u# 1 ¼ u1  U; ð20Þ 1 l u2 2 l u2 2
ðp2  p0 Þð1  RÞ ¼ r2 U 2 x R 0 1  þ ;
2 d U d U
u# 2 ¼ u2  U; ð21Þ ð22Þ
where R is the ratio of cross-sectional areas of train to
tunnel, U the train speed, and subscripts 2 and s denote where x is the distance from the tunnel entrance to
the train fore-body and R is the effective cross-sectional
area ratio of train to tunnel, which can be obtained
x Head of waves from ps ; p2 ; U; p0 ; and r0 in the equations described
xi
above.
Fig. 13 shows an experiment to obtain the effective
Measuring point of pressure ρ 2 p2 uo (=0)
u1 u1
ρο
area ratio R from the Japanese Shinkansen test [13]. A
ρ1
U po great deal of scattering is found in R; but it seems
p1
ρο u2 u2 that the experimental data have a certain trend
po independent of x: Here we can get a mean value for R;
Tunnel entrance Tunnel which is defined as the effective cross-sectional area ratio
p3 Stagnation pressure of train
ρ3 of train to tunnel. In order to obtain the hydraulic
Pressure

friction coefficient of train, we can solve the coupled

equation systems from Eq. (15) to (22) for the known
values of U; p0 ; d 0 ; d; l and r0 ; and the measured values
po
Time(t) of p2 and R:
Fig. 14 presents the value of the hydraulic friction
coefficient l0 of train [13]. It is found that the scattering
Velocity

0
Time(t) in the data is quite big, but l0 becomes nearly constant
with an increase in x: For a small x; the estimation of l0
can lead to much error. Thus, we can use a mean value
of l0 as the hydraulic friction coefficient for a larger x
Fig. 12. Flowfield made by the train entering into tunnel. range.

0.3
Cross-sectional area ratio of train to tunnel (R)

0.2

0.1
50 150 250 350 450
Distance from tunnel entrance to train head, X(m)

Fig. 13. Relationship between R and X (Shinkansen 0 series).

482 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

0.04

Hydraulic frictional coefficient on train ( λ )

' 0.02

0.0
50 150 250 350 450
Distance from tunnel entrance to train head, X(m)

Fig. 14. Relationship between l0 and X (Shinkansen 0 series).

1-A 2-A 3-A 4-A

1-B 2-B 3-B 4-B

1-C 2-C 3-C 4-C

1-D 2-D 3-D 4-D

Fig. 15. Model train configuration.

5. Aerodynamic shape of railway train 0.5 times, 1 time, 2 times, and 4 times the model width,
respectively. It is assumed that the length of the change
5.1. Wind tunnel test in the cross-sectional area for the A type of series 1 is
zero.
Detailed configuration of the fore- and after-bodies of Meanwhile, the model configurations of the A and B
train can significantly influence the aerodynamic char- types are nearly two-dimensional, but those of the C and
acteristics. An example of typical wind tunnel test using D types are nearly three-dimensional. For further
model trains is shown in Fig. 15, where the experiments details, see Fig. 15. In real high-speed railway trains,
yield 16 different kinds of the fore- and after-bodies of the ICE is close to A or B type, but the Shinkansen
model trains [14,15]. The fore-body of the model train is (Series 100) close to C or D type.
the same shape as the after-body. The configuration of These systematic train models were tested in a
the model train is characterized by number 1, 2, 3 and 4, subsonic wind tunnel, which is schematically shown in
and the characters A, B, C and D. For the sake of Fig. 16 [14,15], where the fore- and after-bodies are
simplicity, here we define the numbers as train series and installed onto the wind tunnel test section to measure the
the characters as train types. aerodynamic forces on them. The fore- and after-bodies
In addition, the number refers to the length of the of the train model are always combined with the middle
change in cross-sectional area of the model train. For part and the dummy fore- and after-bodies, thus
instance, the length of the change in the cross-sectional forming a full model train. Fig. 17 shows the effects
area of the model train becomes longer with the number; of the fore-body configuration on the aerodynamic
for further details, series 1, 2, 3 and 4 have the lengths of drag [14,15], where the middle part and dummy after-
the change in the cross-sectional area of the model train body are fixed. Fig. 18 presents the influences of the
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 483

Pitot tube

103
Pitot tube

131
131 50m/s 613 400 332

415
13.5
347

800
385
141 300
347 Head Tail(dummy)
Middle
Exit of wind-tunnel
1500
Balance meter
Balance meter
(a) Aerodynamic drag measurement of train head

Pitot tube

103

131
332 400 613
50m/s

415
13.5

800
385
300
347 Middle Tail
Head(dummy)
Exit of wind-tunnel
1500

(b) Aerodynamic drag measurement of train tail

Fig. 16. Test rig for aerodynamic drag on train.

3-C type Middle(dummy) 3-C type Middle

0.8 0.8 Tail
Drag coefficient (CD)
Drag coefficient (CD)

Head (dummy) :1-A,2-A,3-A,4-A

0.6 :1-A,2-A,3-A,4-A 0.6 :1-B,2-B,3-B,4-B
:1-B,2-B,3-B,4-B :1-C,2-C,3-C,4-C
:1-C,2-C,3-C,4-C :1-D,2-D,3-D,4-D
0.4
0.4 :1-D,2-D,3-D,4-D

0.2
0.2

0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 L/W
L/W
Fig. 18. Effect of L=W on aerodynamic drag.
Fig. 17. Effect of L=W on aerodynamic drag.

after-body configuration on the aerodynamic drag those of the fore-body. For a given type of the model
[14,15], where the middle part and dummy fore-body train, series 4 has the lowest Cd value. In the case of the
are fixed. Note that the length of the fore-body is same series of the model train, the aerodynamic drag on
normalized by the width of the train model. type D is the lowest. The fore- and after-bodies effects
For series 1 of a comparatively short fore-body, the on the aerodynamic drags are associated with flow
aerodynamic drag on types B and C is nearly the same, separations, which can influence the train-induced flows,
and their Cd values are relatively low, compared with as will be described next.
types A and D. It is found that the fore-body of type A
has the highest Cd value. For a given type of the train 5.2. Train-induced flows
model, it is interesting to note that the aerodynamic drag
does not change for L=W values larger than 1.0. The winds induced by a traveling HST can affect
It seems that the after-body effects on the aerody- passengers at platform and the structures around the
namic drag are more sensitive to L=W ; compared with railway lines. Thus, estimation of the train-induced flows
484 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

Pitot tube Pressure measurement

Head Middle
30m/s (dummy)

Model platform

Exit of wind-tunnel

(a) Measurement of train head

(dummy)
Tail
Middle
30m/s Pressure measurement

Model platform

Exit of wind-tunnel

(b) Measurement of train tail

Measuring point of pressure

50

Model platform
112

Ground plate
70
158

(c) Train and platform

Fig. 19. Test rig for train-induced flow measurements.

should be included in a structural design of the platform
and surrounding facilities around the railway lines. For
a given speed of train, the train-induced flows are
strongly dependent on the fore-body configuration, and
train length. In particular, the train-induced flows can
differ, depending on whether the fore-body shape is two-
or three-dimensional.
Fig. 19 shows an example of the experimental test rig
for the train-induced flows [14,15]. In order to simulate
the train-induced flows occurring at a platform, a model
platform is placed on one side of the model train, in
which a hot-wire system is installed at a height of 1.20 m
from the ground surface, and the train-induced flows at
a certain distance away from the model train is
measured. The train-induced flow data are presented,
subtracted the wind tunnel air velocity from the
measured velocities.
The train-induced flows due to the fore-body are like a
source flow, while those due to the after-body are like a
sink flow. This phenomenon is more striking for two-
dimensional shapes rather than three-dimensional ones.
The effects of the fore- and after-bodies on the train-
induced flows are shown in Fig. 20 [14,15]. It is found
that the train-induced flows become small with an
increase in L=W : For a given series, types A and B
produce lower train-induced flows, compared with types
C and D. Note that types C and D are close to three-
dimensional shapes. In types A and B, a more train-
induced flows will pass over the model train roof, while
in types C and D, the flow that spills over the model
train can be of the same magnitude as it passes beside
the train.
For series 1–3, the train-induced flows produced in
type D are larger than those in type C. This is attributed
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 485

0.16 and 3, the flow goes along the model surface without
:1-A,2-A,3-A,4-A
:1-B,2-B,3-B,4-B
appreciable separation, resulting in relatively larger
0.14
train-induced flows.
Nondimensional flow velocity (u/U)

:1-C,2-C,3-C,4-C
:1-D,2-D,3-D,4-D In real high-speed trains, the train-induced flows can
0.12
be influenced by the train after-body shape as well as
0.10 boundary layer flows. Thus, the model test results can be
somewhat different from the real circumstances.
0.08 A further study is needed to resolve these problems.
0.06
5.3. Aerodynamic forces due to trains passing each other
0.04
When a train travels in the open air, it induces a very
0.02 complicated flowfield. The implications of this flowfield
on trackside structures and passing trains are much
0.00
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
more important for trains than for other vehicles, since
L/W trains operate much closer to adjacent structures or
other trains.
Fig. 20. Effect of train head on train-induced flows. In order to investigate the trains passing each other in
the open air, using the wind tunnel, we can simulate the
passing trains using a fixed side plate. Here, we discuss
about the flowfield forming on a vertical flat plate placed
0.16 beside the model train. Fig. 22 schematically illustrates
the experimental test rig to simulate the trains passing
:1-A,2-A,3-A,4-A
0.14 each other [14,15]. The side plate has a multiple of
:1-C,2-C,3-C,4-C
:1-D,2-D,3-D,4-D pressure taps. When a train passes another train in the
Nondimensional flow velocity (u/U)

0.12 open air, considerably large pressure fluctuations occur

0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0
Fig. 21. Effect of train tail on train-induced flows.
to a large wall curvature existing between the fore-body
of type D and the middle part.
Fig. 21 shows the effects of the after-body of the
model train on the train-induced flows [14,15]. It is
found that the train-induced flows are not strongly
dependent on the type of the model train used, but the
series of it somewhat affects the train-induced flows,
which are the lowest for series 4. It is worthwhile noting
that for series less than L=W ¼ 4:0; the train-induced
flows increase with an increase in L=W : In the case of
series 1, the train-induced flows are nearly the same,
regardless of the types used, since for all of the types, the
flow separates from the connection part between the
after-body and middle section. However, for series 2
on the sidewall of the train. It is known that a positive–
negative pulse pressure is generated as the fore-body of a
train passes another train, while a negative–positive
pulse as the after-body passes.
In order to compare the model test of the side plate
with the pressure variation on real trains which pass
each other in the open air, the spatial axis can be
changed into the time axis. Let us focus on the peak
pressure values of the pressure variations on the side
body of the trains, occurring when the fore and after-
bodies of the train pass each other. Fig. 23 presents the
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 peak pressures produced when the fore-body of train
L/W passes each other [14,15]. It is found that the positive
peak value of the pressure variation reduces as the
length of the fore-body of train increases, and type A
produces the highest peak pressure, compared with
other types of train model. This is because type A
generates the biggest stagnation region on the fore-body
of the model train.
Meanwhile, the absolute value of the negative peak
pressure decreases as the length of the fore-body
increases, and it is relatively low in types A and B,
compared with types C and D. This can be understood
by the fact that the curvature of the streamlines along
the side body of the model train is low in types A and B
which are close to the two-dimensional shape.
Fig. 24 shows the negative peak pressures on the side
body of the model train produced when the after-body
of the model train passes each other [14,15]. It is found
that the absolute value of the negative peak pressure
486 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

Pitot tube
Pressure measurement
Side plate
Middle
Head
(dummy)
50m/s

Ground

Exit of wind-tunnel

(a) Measurement of train head

Pressure measurement
Tail
(dummy)
50m/s Middle
Side plate

Ground

Exit of wind-tunnel

(b) Measurement of train tail

Side plate
Pressure measurement
100
11

50

18
70 Ground
105

(c) Model train and side plate

Fig. 22. Test rig for pressure variation measurement.

0.4 0.4
Pressure coefficient (Cp)

Pressure coefficient (C p)

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4
:1-A,2-A,3-A,4-A :1-A,2-A,3-A,4-A
-0.6 -0.6 :1-B,2-B,3-B,4-B
:1-B,2-B,3-B,4-B
:1-C,2-C,3-C,4-C
:1-C,2-C,3-C,4-C -0.8
-0.8 :1-D,2-D,3-D,4-D
:1-D,2-D,3-D,4-D
-1.0 -1.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
L/W L/W
Fig. 23. Effect of train head on pressure variation. Fig. 24. Effect of train tail on pressure variation.
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 487

B U
V A
U=260km/h, V=0km/h
Passing train head Passing train tail
1.0
Pressure fluctuation
p (kPa)

0.5
0
-0.5
-1.0
(a)
0.5 Pressure fluctuation (opposite side of the train)
0

0.0s 0.5s 1.0s 1.5s 2.0s 2.5s

(b) Time(sec)

U=260km/h, V=210km/h
1.0
p (kPa)

0.5
0
-0.5 Pressure fluctuation
-1.0

0.0s 0.5s 1.0s 1.5s

(c) Time(sec)
Fig. 25. Pressure variations occurring when two trains pass each other.

produced when the after-bodies of the model train pass 1500

each other is lower than that created when the fore-
bodies of the model train pass each other. The length of
the after-body somewhat affects the negative peak
pressures, but it does not influence the positive peak Rotating end plate
pressure. It is, thus, concluded that the model trains Measuring trains
which are close to the two-dimensional shape produces
Three component force meter

Dummy Dummy
1390
the positive and negative peak pressures less than those

121
333 693 12 333
of the three-dimensional shape.
In the open air, the pressure variations on the side
187
2500
bodies of real trains passing each other are shown in
Fig. 25 [5], where two cases are compared with each Bridge 39
other; The speed V of one train is zero while the speed U Rotating end plate Rail
of the other train is 260 km/h, traveling towards the
right side, as shown in Fig. 25(a). In Fig. 25(c), the speed End plate End plate
V of one train is 210 km/h, while the speed U of the
other train is 260 km/h. The pressure variations are
measured on the middle part of each train.
It is found that the positive–negative pressure varia-
tion like a pulse wave is produced as the fore-bodies of Fig. 26. Test rig for cross-winds.
real trains pass each other, while the negative–positive
pressure variation is created as the after-bodies pass
each other. These pressure variations on the side body of
trains are strongly dependent on the detailed shape of pressures is proportional to an inverse of the sum of the
the fore- and after-bodies and the speed of each train, speeds of each train. Here it should be noted that in
and can cause the yawing motions of the traveling trains. the open air, the pressures, produced opposite side to the
It is known that the peak pressures produced by the trains passing each other, nearly remain constant at
trains passing each other is proportional to the square of atmospheric pressure without any appreciable fluctua-
the speed of trains and the time–width of the peak tions, as shown in Fig. 25(b).
488 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

Table 4
Comparison of wind tunnel experiment and computational results

Train Train+bridge

Experiment Computation Experiment Computation

Drag coefficient Cd 1.4 1.4 1.7 1.7

Lift coefficient Cl 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.2
Pitching moment CM 0.2 0.3
Reynolds number Re 56,000 5000 84,000 5000

Downward pantograph
5.4. Cross-wind effects Upward pantograph

The cross-wind effects on the traveling train can 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

closely be associated with the traveling safety. The cross-
winds can be more seriously influence when the train
U=235km/h
runs over a bridge [16–18]. Fig. 26 shows the typical

Sound pressure level (dB)

example of a 1/30 model test to investigate the three-
component forces on the train running over a bridge

10dB
[19]. The wind tunnel has a dimension of 1.5 m  2.5 m.
In tests, the wind speed and its angle of attack are
changed, the resulting Reynolds number being in the
range of 6  104–8  104. Table 4 summarizes the results
of the wind tunnel tests for the coefficients of drag (Cd ),
1.0s
lift (Cl ) and pitching moment (CM ), compared with a
computational prediction [19]. Time(t)
For the wind speed of 10 m/s, the coefficients of
(a) Typical noise level of high-speed train
drag (Cd ), lift (Cl ) and pitching moment (CM ) are,
respectively, 1.4, 0.2 and 0.2 as the train runs in Pantograph cover
Pantograph
the open air, while these are, respectively, 1.7, 0.6, and High-voltage cable connector
0.3 as the train travels over the bridge. It is believed
Air conditioning unit
that the drag and lift coefficients on the train become
much higher when it travels over the bridge. The
computations of the three-component forces only
qualitatively predict the measured aerodynamic forces
on the train.

6. Aeroacoustic problems of railway train (b) Outlook of high-speed train

6.1. Aerodynamic noise due to train Fig. 27. Aerodynamic noise level of HST.

For the assessment of aerodynamic noises produced

by a traveling train in the open air, it can be often
convenient to classify the noise sources. In addition to
the aerodynamic noises due to the flows around the
traveling train, there are many different noises which are
caused by train wheels, structures around track,
pantograph system, etc. In order to reduce these noises,
it is required to know how extent is each contribution to
the noises. In general, aerodynamic noises are strongly
dependent on the train speed U [20–22], being approxi-
mately proportional to U 6 2U 8 : Thus, the noise allevia-
tion is of more practical importance when the train
speed increases.
Fig. 27 shows the aerodynamic noises produced by a
traveling train in the open air [23–25]. It can be found
that the aerodynamic noises due to the traveling train
are largely generated by the fore-body of the train, the
connection part between trains, and the panto-
graph system. In practice, the pantograph system is
composed of many bars with small diameters, which can
play a musical instrument to create the aerodynamic
noises. The pantograph system creates a number of
vortices behind it. A pantograph cover can be used to
reduce the aerodynamics noises generated by the
pantograph system [24,25], but it can be of an additional
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 489

aerodynamic drag and can be a source of additional a traveling train [24,25], where the peak frequency
noise as well. There may be a big separation region components generated by the fore-body of train are
downstream of the pantograph cover, and consequently presented. It is found that the aerodynamic noises are
it can cause the train body to vibrate, consequently largely composed of high-frequency components. From
influencing the traveling safety of train and passenger’s the point of view of the aerodynamic noises, it is
comfort. desirable that the fore-body configuration of train
The fore-body of a train is one of the noise sources. In should have a long nose to reduce aerodynamic noises.
usual, there are a lot of roughness on the fore-body
surface. The aerodynamic noises are strongly dependent 6.2. Wind tunnel test
on the detailed configuration of the surface roughness
and the entire shape of train fore-body as well. These The aerodynamic noises are almost always associated
geometrical configurations are associated with the wind with the aerodynamic drag. Reducing the aerodynamic
speed along them and separation. noises should be done without increasing the aerody-
Fig. 28 shows a typical example of the aerodynamic namic drag. In addition to the aerodynamic noises
noise measurement at a location of 25 m away from generated by the fore-body of train, the connection part
between trains has lots of component structures such as
ventilation system, pantograph system, etc. Of them, a
Shinkansen (100 series)
majority part of noises are generated by the pantograph
system.
U=270km/h
Fig. 29 shows a typical measurement example of the
Sound pressure level (dB)

10dB

aerodynamic noises which are caused by the pantograph

system [24,25], where the pantograph system and
microphone array are schematically illustrated. The
locations of the microphone are indicated by M1–M7.
The wind tunnel used has a test dimension of
3.0 m  5.0 m, and its maximum wind speed and the
U=230km/h turbulence intensity are estimated by 270 km/h and
0.2%, respectively.
In general, the aerodynamic noises generated by the
pantograph system have some directivity towards the
200 500 1000 2000 5000 flow direction, normal to the direction of the panto-
graph length. Thus, the measurement locations M7 and
1/3 Octave band frequency (Hz)
M3, which are, respectively, just over and beside the
Fig. 28. Aerodynamic noise due to train head. pantograph, are employed to assess the aerodynamic

M7 M7

4000mm 4000mm
M2 M4 M6 M2,4,6
5160mm
2000mm

2000mm

M5
M1,3,5
M1 M3
1160mm

1000mm

1000mm

5435mm 5000mm
Exit of wind-tunnel Side view Front view
Fig. 29. Test rig for aerodynamic noise measurement.
490 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

110 Fig. 31 presents a measurement example of the

260km/h aerodynamic noises which are generated by a two-
1/3 Octave band sound pressure level (dB)

100 dimensional body, like the cross-sectional area of the

200km/h 150km/h
pantograph system [24,25]. A circular cylinder with a
90
100km/h diameter of 50 mm (see Fig. 31(a)) and a square cylinder
80
with the same equivalent diameter (see Fig. 31(b)) are
employed as the aerodynamic noise sources. The wind
70 speed is 200 km/h. The noise measurement is done at a
location beside the cylindrical body. In order to
60 investigate the surface roughness effects, the cylindrical
body is coated with a sponge, a carpet, and a thick cloth,
50
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
respectively. It is found that the SPL of the aerodynamic
Central frequency (Hz) noises in the square cylinder is higher than that
(a) M3 produced in the circular cylinder. For the circular
110
cylinder, it seems that coating the body surface some-
what reduces the aerodynamic noises.
1/3 Octave band sound pressure level (dB)

100 In the case of the square cylinder, the peak SPL and
260km/h 150km/h its peak frequency for the cylinder with an equivalent
90 diameter of 100 mm are higher than those for the
200km/h
100km/h cylinder of an equivalent diameter of 50 mm. In
80 addition, coating the cylinder surface reduces the
aerodynamic noise level.
70

60 110
: No coating
1/3 Octave band sound pressure level (dB)

50 100 : Sponge coating

63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 : Carpet coating
Central frequency (Hz) : Thick cloth coating
90
(b) M5 : Wind tunnel noise level

Fig. 30. Aerodynamic noise due to pantograph system. 80

70

noises, as shown in Fig. 30. The wind speed is changed

60 U=200km/h
between 100 and 260 km/h. It is found that the sound
pressure level (SPL) of the aerodynamic noises is closely 50
related to the wind speed, and the aerodynamic noises 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Central frequency (Hz)
generated by the pantograph system are composed of
(a) Circular cylinder
large amplitude components of a wide band frequency.
This is because the pantograph system is very compli- 110
: No coating
cated and thereby, the noises being caused by many : Sponge coating
1/3 Octave band sound pressure level (dB)

different sources. For instance, the pantograph system is 100 : Carpet coating
: Thick cloth coating
composed of many bars of different diameters. Thus, the : Wind tunnel noise level
different characteristic lengths to the aerodynamic 90

noises can be responsible for the wide band frequency.

80

6.3. Reduction of aerodynamic noise 70

In order to reduce the aerodynamic noises produced 60

by a traveling train, the fore-body configuration of train U=200km/h
is needed to be of the long nose with a smooth surface, 50
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
and the middle part of train to be designed without any
Central frequency (Hz)
sizable roughness. An aerodynamically well-designed
(b) Square cylinder
shape of train can have such a noise level as low as in the
boundary layer shear flows. In practice, there is a limit in Fig. 31. Aerodynamic noise in flows over circular and square
making the strain surface aerodynamically smooth. cylinders.

110
1/3 Octave band sound pressure level (dB)
100
90
80
70
60
50
63
Fig. 32. Aerodynamic noise in flows over several cylinders.
100
1/3 Octave band sound pressure level (dB)
90
80
70
60
50
40
63
Fig. 33. Aerodynamic noise in flows over streamlined bodies.
Fig. 32 shows the effects of the shape of the cross-
sectional area of the cylindrical body on the aerody-
namic noises [24,25]. Several shapes of the cross-
sectional area of pantograph are investigated for the
purpose of design of the pantograph system. The overall
SPL seems to be the lowest in the cylindrical body like
an elliptic shape. Fig. 33 presents the measurement
example of the aerodynamic noises generated by several
streamlined bodies [24,25]. It is found that the stream-
lined body B has a peak frequency at 500 Hz, but the
body C, a peak frequency at 3.15 kHz. These peak
frequencies are due to the trailing edge vortices of the
streamlined bodies.
Compared with the overall SPLs generated in the
previous square and circular cylinders, for the stream-
lined bodies the overall SPLs are significantly lower. It
is, thus, believed that the aerodynamic noises can be
R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 491
reduced if the pantograph system is designed as a
: a) Cross section
streamlined body.
: b)
: c)
a) b) : d)
: Wind-tunnel noise level
7. Vibration of railway train
c) d)
A considerable amount of the lateral vibration of a
train can be often found when the train travels at high
speeds in the open air. Such a lateral vibration becomes
more significant near the trail of the train or in the train
equipped with the pantograph system [26–28]. The
lateral vibration of the train can be an important factor
U=200km/h to the traveling performance. The Karman vortices
downstream of the train can be responsible for the
lateral vibration. The vertical flows are closely asso-
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
ciated with the train length and detailed configuration of
Central frequency (Hz) the after-body of train. For long trains, some structural
vibrations occurring in the leading coach can be one of
the reasons for the trailing coach to appreciably vibrate.
The study on the lateral vibration of train has not been
sufficient in the past.
: Cross section a)
: Cross section b)
U=200km/h : Cross section c)
: Wind-tunnel noise level 8. Aerodynamics of railway train/tunnel systems
8.1. Aerodynamic analysis of train/tunnel systems
The aerodynamic problems occurring when train travels
at high speed in tunnel are more complicated and serious,
a) compared with the open air traveling. The aerodynamic
b) drag and noises on the train are strongly dependent on the
pressure waves in the tunnel. The aerodynamic drag on a
c)
train traveling in a tunnel can significantly increase,
compared with that in the open air [6,29,30].
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 When a HST enters a tunnel, a compression wave is
Central frequency (Hz) formed ahead of the train which propagates along the
tunnel at a nearly sonic speed. A part of the compression
wave is reflected back from the exit of the tunnel as an
expansion wave. A complex wave interaction occurs
inside the tunnel due to successive reflections of the
pressure waves at the exit and entry to the tunnel. These
pressure waves cause large pressure transients resulting
in fluctuating loads on the train causing discomfort to
passengers. It is necessary to predict these pressure
transients to design trains and tunnels, and to improve
the passenger comfort.
Further, a part of the compression wave leaving the
tunnel exit gives rise to an impulse noise, as will be
described later. Such an impulse noise was not an
important issue in the past when the speed of trains was
not so high. But in recent years, with the increase in the
speed of trains the noise and vibration due to impulse
waves have become a new type of environmental noise
problem. According to some measurements conducted
near the exit of the tunnel, the noise is known to be of
low frequency of short duration, and its magnitude
492 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

being approximately proportional to V 3 (where V is where d and d 0 are, respectively, the hydraulic diameters
train velocity). Moreover the impulse noise is closely of tunnel and train, and l and l0 the friction coefficients of
related to the detailed characteristics of the compression tunnel wall and train body surfaces, respectively, R the
waves inside the tunnel [31–35]. ratio of the cross-sectional areas of train to tunnel, and u0
Here, let us focus on the aerodynamics of the train the flow velocity occurring between train and tunnel.
traveling inside tunnel. In nature, the aerodynamics of The compatibility conditions should be used to
train/tunnel systems is governed by a three-dimensional, connect the flowfields in the three regions. Using the
unsteady, turbulent, compressible flow. Very frequently, coordinate system moving with train, the conservation
this method requires an extremely time-consuming work laws of mass and energy are given by
of high cost and much effort to solve the governing ð1  RÞðu0  V Þ ¼ u  V ; ð29Þ
equations as well. It is more helpful to deal with the
aerodynamics of train/tunnel systems with several 1 1
reasonable assumptions. p0 þ rðu0  V Þ2 ¼ p þ rðu  V Þ2 ¼ p0 ; ð30Þ
2 2
We here describe a simple analytical approach to
where p0 is the stagnation pressure on the fore-body of
understand such complicated aerodynamic problems
train. In general, a wake flow is formed behind the trail
occurring inside tunnel. Assume that the cross-sectional
of train; but far away from it, the flow can be regarded
areas of train and tunnel are constant, and their equivalent
to be uniform across tunnel cross-sectional area. For the
diameters are much larger than tunnel length, and train
region closed by the trail of train and the uniform flow
speed V is very low compared with the speed of sound
area, the conservation laws of mass and momentum are
corresponding to the atmospheric conditions, and the
expressed as
propagation speed of pressure wave is the same as the
speed of sound. Under these assumptions, it is reasonable ðu  V Þ ¼ ð1  RÞðu0  V Þ; ð31Þ
to prescribe that the continuity equation involves variable
density of air but the compressibility effect is not p þ rðu  V Þ2 ¼ p0 ð1  RÞrðu0  V Þ2
considered in the momentum and energy equations. 1
 Cdp R rðu0  V Þ2 ; ð32Þ
Assuming that u is the air velocity, and p the pressure, 2
the continuity equation is written as [36] where Cdp is the coefficient of the pressure drag on train
qu 1qp in the open air. At the entrance and exit of tunnel, it is
a2 þ ¼ ðg  1Þj ð23Þ
qx r qt assumed that the flow discharges at atmospheric
pressure and when the flow comes into tunnel, it is also
and the momentum equation is given by
assumed that the pressure reduces as much as the
qu 1 qp dynamic pressure. At the entrance and exit of tunnel, the
þ ¼ f; ð24Þ
qt r gx boundary conditions can be given by
8
where a is the speed of sound, the density r is assumed < 1ru2 ; uX0;
to be constant, x the distance along tunnel, t the time, g tunnel entrance p ¼ 2 ð33Þ
the ratio of specific heats (g ¼ 1:4) and f and j are the :
0; uo0;
frictional force and energy dissipation, respectively, as 8
given in Eqs. (25) and (26). For the sake of simplicity, < 0; uX0;
here we divide the flows into three regions: ahead of tunnel exit p ¼ ð34Þ
: 1ru2 ; uo0:
train, behind train, and in train. For the regions ahead 2
of and behind train, the frictional forces are generated
The aerodynamic drag on the train traveling in the
on tunnel walls:
tunnel is given by
l ( ) ( )
f ¼  ujuj; ð25Þ D 1 R 1 ðu0  V Þ2
2d ¼ r ðu 0
 V Þ 2
þ rC dp
A0 2 0 2 u2
l 3  Z
j¼ juj : ð26Þ 1 l0
2d þ r 0 ðV  u0 Þ jV  uj dx
2 d in
For the region in train, the frictional forces stem from Z 
both train body and tunnel wall surfaces. Thus, the þV 2 dx þ Dp0 ; ð35Þ
frictional force and energy dissipation can be expressed as out

l 1 0 0 l 1 0 where D is the aerodynamic drag and A0 the cross-

f ¼ u ju j  0 ðu0  VÞju0  V j; ð27Þ sectional area of train. R and 0 in the first term on the
2d 1  R 2d 1  R
right side are, respectively, taken for the fore-body
l 1 l0 R of train to be inside and outside tunnel. In similarly
j¼ ju0 j3 þ 0 ju0  V j3 ; ð28Þ
2d 1  R 2d 1  R ðu0  vÞ2 and v2 in the second term are selected for the
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514
after-body of train to be inside and outside tunnel,
respectively. The integral of the third term is performed
along train length, and the subscripts in and out indicate
the inside and outside tunnel, respectively. The last term
p0 on the right side is the pressure difference between the
fore- and after-bodies of train. In the case where the
train is fully outside tunnel, Eq. (35) reduces to Eq. (7)
mentioned previously. Before train enters tunnel, the
flow velocity and pressure both remain zero. Using these
initial conditions, the equations above can be solved
after some calculations.
8.2. Pressure wave due to the train entering into tunnel
The train entering into tunnel at high speed plays a
role of the piston motion against the air inside tunnel
and thus compresses the air in front of the train. The
resulting compression wave propagates along tunnel at a
nearly sonic speed. The compression wave will be
distorted or attenuated by viscous actions and heat
transfer inside tunnel [37]. To understand the compres-
sion wave generated at the entrance of tunnel, here we
introduce a simple one-dimensional approach again.
When a train of the cross-sectional area of A0 enters a
tunnel (cross-sectional area: A) at speed V ; a compres-
sion wave is formed at the vicinity of the entrance of
tunnel, as schematically shown in Fig. 34. It is assumed
that the compression wave form and the resulting
pressure rise are expressed as DpðxÞ and Dp21 ð¼ p2 
p1 Þ; respectively. Here p1 and p2 are the static pressures
just upstream and downstream of the compression wave,
respectively. Assuming that the value of Dp21 is very
small, compared with the atmospheric pressure p1 ; and
that isentropic flow is formed between states 2 and 3
[38], Dp21 can be given as a function of the train Mach
number Mt and the cross-sectional area ratio f:
1 1  f2
Dp21 ¼ gp1 Mt2 2 ; ð36Þ
2 f þ ð1  f2 ÞMt  Mt2
Cross-sectional area of tunnel (A)
Entrance
u3
3 Train speed
Train V 2
'
Cross-section area of train (A)
Fig. 34. One-dimensional flow model of compression wave.
493
where g is the ratio of specific heats of air, and f is
ðA  A0 Þ=A: If we want to use the blockage ratio R of
train to tunnel instead of f; R is replaced with (1  f).
Fig. 35 shows the relation of Dp21 and train velocity
V ; together with the measured data (R ¼ 0:216) at real
tunnels [38]. The calculated curve for R ¼ 0:216 is well
agreed with the measured data. The value of Dp21 is
nearly proportional to V 2 and decreases with a decrease
in R:
The Mach number Ms of shock wave can be obtained
if we assume the compression wave as a weak shock
wave. It is noted from Fig. 35 that Ms is very close to
unity. For instance, the compression wave produced by
the train, which enters into tunnel at a speed of 400 km/
h, propagates along the tunnel at a nearly sonic speed.
It can be deduced from the above results that the
strength Dp21 of the compression wave formed at the
entrance of tunnel is almost independent of the shape of
the fore-body of train. However, it is expected that the
compression wave form DpðxÞ should be dependent on
train velocity, shape of fore-body, blockage ratio, etc.
[39–41]. From some computational and experimental
works it is found that the compression wave form is a
function of train velocity, Dp21 ; and the equivalent
diameter of tunnel D; as indicated in an empirical [41]:


1 1 V0 t
Dpcomp ¼ Dp21 þ tan1 ; ð37Þ
2 p 0:3 D
where t is the time from the center of the compression
wave form. Eq. (37) is often employed to simulate the
compression wave produced at the entrance of real
tunnels.
8.3. Pressure variation and aerodynamic drag inside
tunnel
According to the previous work, the ratio of the cross-
sectional areas of train to tunnel (=blockage ratio R)
has been known to be one of the most important
Compression wave
generated by train
u2 U
1
Compression
wave ∆ P(X)
Pressure
P2
P1
Distance
494 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

Magnitude of Compression wave (− p21)

U=249km/h, C DP =0.12
5 L=471m, A=58.2m, λ=0.020
2

R=0.216
l=100m, A'=13.7m2, λ'=0.018
4 1 Train head

Pressure (kPa)
R=0.5
0
3 Time(sec)
R=0.7 -1

R=1.0 -2 Computation
2 R=0.1 (a)
Train tail Measurement
0

Pressure (kPa)
1 Time(sec)
)

-1
Measurement
0 -2
0 100 200 300 400
Train speed, V (km/h) -3
(b) Aerodynamic drag
(a) V vs ∆P21 Computation

1.10 60

Drag(kN)
R=1.0 40
Shock Mach number (Ms)

1.08
20
R=0.7
0
1.06 0 2 4 6 8
(c) Time(sec)
R=0.5
Fig. 36. Pressure variations and aerodynamic drag on train
1.04
(U ¼ 249 km/h, Cdp ¼ 0:12; L ¼ 471 m, A ¼ 58:2 m2, l ¼
R=0.216 0:020; l ¼ 100 m, A0 ¼ 13:7 m2, l0 ¼ 0:018).
1.02 R=0.1

found that the pressure strongly fluctuates with time,

1.00
0 100 200
Train speed, V (km/h)
(b) V vs Ms
Fig. 35. Effect of train speed on the magnitude of compression
wave and shock Mach number.
parameters influencing the aerodynamics of train/tunnel
systems [39–43]. As R increases, the pressure variation,
flow velocity and aerodynamic drag increase. Addition-
ally, the coefficients of friction forces on tunnel wall and
train body can significantly influence the aerodynamics
of train/tunnel systems.
Using the theoretical equations aforementioned,
Fig. 36 presents the pressure variation and aerodynamic
drag on a train traveling inside the tunnel with a
comparatively short length [36,39]. The thick solid line
indicates the measured pressure variation and the thin
solid lines the theoretical predictions, where tunnel
length L is 471 m, the cross-sectional area A of tunnel
58.2m2, train length l 100 m, the cross-sectional area of
train A0 13.7 m2, the coefficient of friction l on tunnel
wall 0.02, the coefficient of on friction l0 on train body
0.018, the speed of train U 249 km/h, and Cdp 0.12. It is
and the pressure fluctuations are qualitatively similar to
300 400
the fore- and after-bodies of train. The theoretical
results predict the measured pressure fluctuations
comparatively well.
For a longer tunnel of L ¼ 3264 m, Fig. 37 presents
both the measured and predicted pressure variation and
aerodynamic drag on a train of length 400 m [36,39]. It is
again found that the theoretical results predict the
measured pressure variation and aerodynamic drag
comparatively well, in considering the highly compli-
cated flowfield. Thus, it is believed that the theoretical
equations can be used to predict the aerodynamics of
train/tunnel systems.
For the trains passing each other inside tunnel,
the pressure variation is shown in Fig. 38, where
L ¼ 5305 m. The measured and predicted pressure
variations [36,39] are obtained under the situation that
29 s later after one train (l ¼ 400 m) enters into tunnel at
a speed of 207 km/h, the other train (l ¼ 300) enters at a
speed of 201 km/h opposite to the tunnel. Unlike a single
train traveling inside the tunnel described above, it is
found that a negative pressure of its peak value of
3000 Pa occurs when two trains intersect each other
inside tunnel, and a high pressure of about 3000 Pa just
before passing each other. This is due to the pressure
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 495

( L=3264m, A=60.4m2, λ=0.02

l =400m, A'=13.7m 2, λ'=0.018

Static pressure(kPa)
Head U=200km/h, C DP =0.15 )
1

-1
Tail
-2
150
Measurement
Traveling drag(kN)

140 Computation
130 Measurement
120
110
100
90
80

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time(sec)
Fig. 37. Pressure variations and aerodynamic drag on train (L ¼ 3264 m, A ¼ 60:4 m2, l ¼ 0:02; l ¼ 400 m, A0 ¼ 13:7 m2, l0 ¼ 0:018;
U ¼ 200 km/h, Cdp ¼ 0:15).

Measurement
Computation

2
Pressure (kPa)

40 80
0
20 100 120
60
Time(t)

Entering into tunnel

-2 Leaving from tunnel

Tunnel length (L)=5305m

Train 1( l )=400m, train speed (U)=207km/h
Train 2( l )=300m, train speed (U)=201km/h
-4 (Train 2 enters into tunnel 29 second later after train 1 enters into tunnel)

Fig. 38. Pressure variations on trains passing each other in tunnel.

waves made ahead of the two trains. From these conditioning devices, ventilation systems, etc. Thus, the
pressure variations with time, it can be inferred that large amplitude pressure variations on the train body
strong side forces act on the two trains when passing during traveling inside tunnel can penetrate into
each other, and their signs are changed just before and passenger’s room, often leading to ear discomfort in
after passing each other. Consequently, these forces can passengers [44–46]. This phenomenon will be more
cause strong yawing motions of the train. serious with the increase in train speed. Systematic
study is required to alleviate the pressure variations
8.4. Pressure variation inside train inside train.
The passenger’s ear discomfort inside train is, in
In practice, complete sealing of a train body is not general, associated with the magnitude of pressure
possible because the train should have a lot of air variation, the rate of pressure variation, the sign of
496 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

Electronic valve

Flow meter (troattling device)

Pressure transducer
outside car
Supply fan

Control unit

Pressure tramsducer
inside car Car body

Troattling device
Electronic valve
Tunnel information
Exhaust fan

Fig. 39. Ventilation system for alleviating pressure variations inside train.

pressure variation, etc. [47–49]. In real high-speed 4

railway trains, a special ventilation system is usually
adopted to alleviate the pressure variations. This system
controls the flow rate supplied into and exhausted from
2
train, using a fan blower, according to the pressure External pressure (experiment)
variations occurring inside train. These pressure varia-
Internal pressure (experiment)
Pressure (kPa)

tions are proportional to the square of train speed

[48,49]. The ventilation system may not be enough to
0
reduce the pressure variations as the train speed
increases.
In order to alleviate the pressure variation inside
train, several control methods have been investigated -2
using a damper system, a continuous ventilation system,
and a continuous ventilation control system [48,49].
Internal pressure (computation)
All of these methods are to control the magnitude
and the rate of the pressure variation occurring -4
0 50 100 150
inside train. Fig. 39 schematically shows a ventilation
system controlling the flow rate [48,49]. It controls Time (sec)
the flow rate checking the pressure variations inside Fig. 40. Pressure variations inside train.
train.
Figs. 40 and 41 present an example of experi-
mental and computational works to alleviate the 9. Impulse wave at the exit of tunnel
pressure variations inside train [48,49]. It is found
that the pressure variation inside train can reduce using The compression wave generated by the train entering
the ventilation system above, and computational into the tunnel propagates along tunnel. When it meets
results represent the experimental ones with a good the open end of the tunnel, it is reflected by the
accuracy. boundary conditions of the open end and propagates
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 497

back along the tunnel, with an inverse phase to the reflect back from the exit of the tunnel, as a compression
incident compression wave. The resulting expansion wave. Such a situation is again encountered as the
wave reflects again from the entrance of the tunnel. after-body of the train enters into the entrance of
Thus, the complex wave reflections are repeated inside tunnel.
tunnel, leading to strong pressure transients. If the These pressure waves inside tunnel essentially experi-
incident wave were an expansion wave, then it would ences attenuation and distortion during the propagation
processes until it fades out due to viscous friction and
heat transfer effects, as schematically illustrated in
U=350km/h Fig. 42. A compression wave may transition to a weak
shock wave due to the nonlinear wave characteristics.
Exp.(pressure outside train)
2 CFD This transition process is not yet well understood. Much
Exp.(pressure inside train) work has been devoted to the attenuation and distortion
Pressure (kPa)

0 mechanisms of the compression wave occurring during

the propagation process.
Some researchers [50–52] have calculated the propa-
-2 gation processes of the compression waves with a proper
CFD(pressure inside train)
treatment of viscous friction and heat transfer effect and
-4 their prediction results are compared with the measured
results in real high-speed railway tunnels. They have
0 20 40 60 80 100
discussed the distortion problem of the compression
Time (sec) wave occurring ahead of a high-speed railway train and
(a) Train No.1 showed that theoretical and computational predictions
represent well the experimental results associated with
CFD Pressure inside train the wave attenuation and distortions. But the transition
2 (no control) characteristics from a compression wave to a weak
Controlled pressure
Pressure (kPa)

inside train shock wave during the propagation processes are,

0 however, not well known.
Some part of the compression wave, which reaches
the open end of tunnel, is discharged from the open
-2
end, as shown in Fig. 42. The resulting wave usually
Pressure outside reduces to a pulse wave, leading to an impulsive noise,
-4 train which is recently being a new type of environmental
noise problem. The impulsive waves emitted from
0 20 40 60 80 100
the open end of the tunnel have some characteristics
Time (sec)
like a direct current component of the incident pressure
(b) Train No.16
wave, while the pressure transients inside tunnel are
Fig. 41. Pressure variations inside and outside train (computa- alike an alternative current component of the incident
tion). wave.

Entrance
Exit
Train Tunnel
Sound pressure

a Attenuation, b c
Pressure
Pressure

or Distortion

Distance Distance Time

Compression wave Compression wave Impulse noise emitted
generated by a train near exit of tunnel from tunnel exit
entering a tunnel

Fig. 42. Wave diagrams in high-speed railway train/tunnel systems.

498 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

9.1. State-of-the-art of impulse wave a b

Here we discuss on the impulse wave discharged from

90m 22m
the exit of tunnel. Until now, the railway tunnel impulse

Pressure(kg/m2)
wave has been largely investigated in Japan, since they 150 Compression wave at point a
U=197km/h
have a number of tunnels in Shinkansen lines. Many 100
U=167km/h
aspects with regard to the impulse wave have been 50
known [53,54], they are as follows. 0
The wave form of a railway tunnel impulse wave is 0.1s
like a pulse shape with a high peak of short duration. (a) Time (sec)
The magnitude of the impulse wave is closely associated 15 Impulse wave at point b
with detailed shape of the compression wave which
reaches the exit of tunnel, and is nearly proportional to

Pressure (kg/m2)
the time derivative of the compression wave form. For a 10
short tunnel below 1 km, the magnitude of the impulse
U=197km/h
wave is a function of the cubic of train speed, regardless
of whether the railway line is made of slab or ballast 5
U=167km/h
track. The peak pressure of the impulse wave attenuates
with distance, being inversely proportional to distance,
except for the near field very close to the exit of tunnel. 0
For a comparatively long tunnel, the impulse wave is 0.1s
significantly influenced by whether the railway line is (b) Time (sec)
made of slab or ballast track. For ballast tracks, the Fig. 43. Compression wave and impulse wave in slab track
magnitude of the impulse wave decreases with an tunnel (L ¼ 8:9 m).
increase in tunnel length. For long slab tracks, it is no
longer proportional to the cubic of the train speed. The
nonlinear wave effects cause the compression wave front
to be steeper during its propagation inside tunnel, and ∆f=1Hz
consequently leading to the increased magnitude of the
impulse wave. In the slab tracks shorter than 10 km, the
Spectral amplitude

impulse wave becomes stronger with tunnel length, but

over 10 km, the magnitude of the impulse wave U=197km/h
decreases with tunnel length.
Fig. 43 presents the pressure histories measured at
10dB

several locations inside and outside tunnel, where train

speed is tested by 167 and 197 km/h [53,54]. In
Fig. 43(a), where the pressure history is measured at a U=167km/h
location of 90 m upstream of the exit of tunnel, the
pressure suddenly increases as the compression wave
reaches the measurement point, and then, after 0.5 s it
0 100
decreases due to the expansion wave reflected from the 50

exit of tunnel. Fig. 43(b) shows the impulse wave
measured at a location of 20 m outside away from
the exit of tunnel. It is found that the peak pressure of
the impulse wave increases more than 4 times as train
speed increases from 167 to 197 km/h.
In order to investigate the frequency contributions to
the impulse wave shown in Fig. 43, a typical result of the
frequency analysis is presented in Fig. 44 [53,54]. For the
train speed of 197 km/h, the impulse wave is mainly
composed of the frequency components below 100 Hz,
but below 167 km/h the frequency components over
20 Hz seem to be close to the background noise level.
For a slab track tunnel of 13 km, Fig. 45 presents the
pressure histories measured at several locations indi-
cated [53,54]. It is obvious that the compression wave
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 44. Frequency analysis of impulse wave.
front generated at the entrance of tunnel considerably
changes during propagation inside tunnel. Such a
distortion in the wave front is directly associated with
the impulse wave occurring at the exit of tunnel.
9.2. Theory of impulse wave
The railway tunnel impulse wave can be well under-
stood from the aeroacoustical theory [20], as next.
Assume that the air is discharged from an open end of a
tube with a constant cross-sectional area and that the
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 499

13030m It is also assumed that a compression wave propagates

from the left of the tube towards the open end, the
A B C
D pressure rise Dpcomp due to the compression wave
38.5m 32.5m
58m 20m induces the flow velocity ucomp inside tube:
7064m
Pressure (kg/m2)

Dpcomp ¼ raucomp : ð41Þ

150 Compression wave at point A
The discharge velocity ue of air from the open end of the
100 tube is approximately obtained from such a condition
50 U=203km/h
that an expansion wave reflects from the exit of the tube:
0 ue E2ucomp : ð42Þ
(a) Time (sec)
Meanwhile, the mass flow rate discharged from the open
Pressure (kg/m2)

150 Compression wave at point B

end of the tube is given as Eq. (43), if we assume that the
100 cross-sectional area of the tube is At :
50 U=206km/h m ¼ rue At : ð43Þ
0
0.1s By using Eqs. (41)–(43), Eq. (39) reduces to
(b) Time (sec)

At qDp
Pressure (kg/m2)

Dpðr; tÞ ¼ : ð44Þ
100 Compression wave at point C 2pra qt comp
50
U=206km/h The above equation refers to such a case that the sound
0 produced from a source radiates into a three-dimen-
sional infinite space. Therefore, Eq. (44) is corrected as
(c) Time (sec)
Eq. (45), if the sound radiates into a semi-infinite space
12 Impulse wave at point D like the exit of tunnel:


Pressure (kg/m2)

10
At qDp
8 Dpðr; tÞ ¼ : ð45Þ
pra qt comp
6 U=206km/h
4
From Eq. (45), we see that the sound pressure Dp at the
far field is inversely proportional to the distance r: For a
2
given distance of r away from the sound source, the
0 sound pressure Dp is also proportional to the time
0.1s
(d) Time (sec)
variation ðqDp=qtÞcomp of the pressure rise due to the
compression wave.
Fig. 45. Compression wave and impulse wave (L ¼ 13:03 m). The impulse wave form Dppulse is obtained from the
time derivative of a compression wave form Dpcomp ; as
volume of the space outside the tube is V0 ; and the mass schematically illustrated in Fig. 46. It is known that the
per unit time [q kg/(m3 s)] is added to a unit volume of peak pressure of the impulse wave is proportional to the
the air in this space, the resulting pressure fluctuation at maximum pressure gradient in the compression wave
a point of far field from tube exit can be obtained from front, as indicated below:
the wave equation of Lighthill:

At qDp
Dppulse;max ¼ : ð46Þ
1 q2 Dp qq pra qt comp;max
 r2 Dp ¼ : ð38Þ
a2 qt2 qt Fig. 47 shows the result of a total variation diminishing
As an approximate solution of the above equation, the (TVD) numerical calculation for the axi-symmetric,
pressure fluctuation Dpðr; tÞ at a point of distance r away unsteady, compressible flow [55,56]. In the numerical
from the tube exit is expressed as calculation, it is assumed that an infinite baffle plate is

 installed at the exit of a tube with its diameter of D; and
1 qm
Dpðr; tÞ ¼ ; ð39Þ a compression wave propagates towards the tube exit
4pr qt and discharges into still air. It can be known that
where m is the mass (kg/s) per unit time discharged from impulse wave is produced outside the tube and then
the tube. The following equation relates m to q of attenuated with the increase in its propagation distance.
Eq. (38): According to Eq. (46), the strength of the impulse
Z Z Z  wave, i.e., the peak pressure in the impulse wave form, is
r proportional to a maximum value of time derivative of
m¼ q t dV ð40Þ
V0 a compression wave front that reaches the exit of tunnel.
500 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

t
Particle
path (e) t
Expansion
wave
(c) ∆pmax (x)
Impulsive
wave 0 ∆p(x)

c
0 x
Compression
wave
(d) t
∆pe, max (x)
L ∆p
a
K
(b) ∆p* 0 ∆pe
∆pi (t=0) b
0 x
Tube
A
(a) D
B
Infinite
Compression baffle plate
wave
Exit
Fig. 46. Discharge of compression wave from tunnel exit.

Besides this, it is known from experience that the words, a spherical sound wave is attenuated by 6 dB for
strength of impulse wave can be dependent on the the double distance.
following factors:
(1) the velocity of train entering into tunnel; 9.3. Slab and ballast track tunnels
(2) the ratio of cross-sectional area of train to tunnel;
(3) the characteristics of railway track (ballast or slab In order to fully understand the generation mechan-
track); ism and detailed characteristics of the impulse wave
(4) the length of tunnel; occurring at the exit of tunnel, it is necessary for us to
(5) the shape of walls inside tunnel; investigate the relationship between the compression
(6) the topography at the vicinity of the exit and wave fronts at both the entrance and exit of tunnel. To
entrance of tunnel, etc. do this, the detailed distortion and attenuation of the
compression wave propagating along tunnel should be
The sound pressure of a spherical sound wave understood. Here we discuss about the impulse wave
radiating from a point source attenuates, being inversely occurring at the exit of the slab and ballast track tunnels.
proportional to the distance from the sound source. A compression wave given at a location of x away
Assuming that the SPL at a point of the distance r0 away from the entrance of tunnel can be modeled by Eq. (48)
from a sound source is expressed as Lp0 (dB), the SPL Lp [57], when it propagates along a tunnel with the length
(dB) at a point of the distance r; being further away from of L;
that point, is given by ( pffiffiffi !
du 1 l 2 4 n g1
þ u þ pffiffiffi 1 þ pffiffiffiffiffiffi
Lp ¼ Lp0  20 log10 ðr=r0 Þ: ð47Þ dt 2 2dH pdH Pr
Z t )
qu dz
It can be noted from the above equation that the second  ðzÞpffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; ð48Þ
term of the right is 6:02 dB for r=r0 ¼ 2:0: In other N qt ðt  zÞ
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 501

of hydraulic friction, and dH the hydraulic diameter of

tunnel, n the kinematic viscosity, and Pr the Prantl
number. In this case, the pressure P of the impulse wave
at far field from the exit of tunnel is given by a function
of the pressure p of the compression wave form at the
exit of tunnel, as described in Eq. (45).
In the case where the compression wave front is very
steep like a shock wave, the relationship between the
pressure P of impulse wave and the pressure p of
compression wave can be simulated as a vibration plate
with a radius of a [58]. The resulting sound pressure
P at a location of r away from the exit of tunnel can be
given by
Z N
1 4AðoÞ
P ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi expðiotÞ
2p N Rð2KaÞ þ 1 þ iX ð2KaÞ
( rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi !)
Ka r 2 r
 sin þ1 
2 a a
"( r ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi ! )#
p Ka r 2 r
 exp i  þ1 þ do; ð50Þ
2 2 a a

where k is the wave number, w the angular frequency, I

the complex number, and AðoÞ is the Fourier transform
of the pressure of the compression wave at the exit of
tunnel, as given by
Z N
1
AðoÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi pðtÞ expðiotÞ dt: ð51Þ
2p N
In Eq. (50), RðxÞ and X ðxÞ are, respectively, expressed as
RðxÞ ¼ 1  2J1 ðxÞ=x; ð52Þ

X ðxÞ ¼ 2S1 ðxÞ=x; ð53Þ

where J1ðxÞ and S1ðxÞ are Bessel function and Struve
function, respectively.
Eqs. (50) and (51) can be obtained by using a Fast
Fourier transform. Figs. 48 and 49 present calculation
results of the compression and impulse wave forms and
its frequency components [57], using the impulse wave
theories above, where the train speed U is 200 km/h, and
tunnel lengths are 1 and 5 km. It is found that after the
impulse wave, the fluctuations of about 13 Hz are
qualitatively similar to the characteristic features of the
impulse wave occurring at the exit of a long slab track
tunnel, as shown in Fig. 48. For longer tunnels, the
impulse wave seems to be stronger and its frequency
band is broader. This implies that tunnel length should
Fig. 47. Impulse wave discharged from tube exit. be an important factor to influence the impulse wave.
In ballast track tunnels, the pressure gradient of
compression wave front can be reduced due to the
where the differential operator d=dt is defined as ballast effects, which produce flow turbulence and
suction actions on the compression wave [59]. In high-
d q q
¼ þ ðu þ cÞ ; ð49Þ speed railway tracks, the relative roughness of ballasts is
dt qt qx very small, being estimated by about 1/250. In consider-
where t is the time, u the flow velocity induced by the ing the fact that the ballast part on the track occupies
compression wave, c the speed of sound, l the coefficient only 14 times the equivalent diameter of tunnel, it is
502Pressure (kg/m2) R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

150 difficult to conclude that the increased resistance due to

Compression wave
100 the ballasts drastically changes the major characteristics
V=200km/h of impulse wave. A more systematic work is needed to
50
L=1000m correctly assess the ballast effects on the impulse wave.
0
-0.5 0.0 0.5
(a) Time (sec) 9.4. Short and long tunnels
14
Impulse wave In very short tunnels, the compression wave front may
12
V=200km/h not appreciably change during its propagation inside
Pressure (kg/m2)

10 R=20m
L=1000m tunnel. In such a case, it may be reasonable to believe
8
that the time needed for the pressure to rise from
6 atmospheric state to a level of compression wave is
4 determined by the equivalent diameter of tunnel and
2
train speed [57]:
0 ð1=2Þru2  ð2R  R2 Þ
-0.5 0.0 0.5 p2  p0 ¼ : ð54Þ
(b) Time (sec) ð1  RÞ2
0
Frequency anaysis Thus, the time derivative qpi =qt of the pressure p on
-10 the right-hand side of Eq. (54) may be determined by
SPL (dB)

V=200km/h U 3 ð¼ U 2 =U 1 Þ; where U is train speed.

-20
L=1000m
-30
Meanwhile, the magnitude of the impulse wave at the
exit of tunnel can be influenced by the geography around
-40
the tunnel exit. The peak pressure Pmax ðtÞ of impulse
-50 wave can be obtained by an empirical equation [57]:
0 50 100
(c) Frequency (Hz) U3
pmax ¼ k ; ð55Þ
Fig. 48. Computed compression and impulse waves in slab r
track tunnel.
where r is the distance away from the exit of tunnel.
As tunnel length increases, the impulse wave in slab
tracks can be significantly different from that in ballast
track. For train speeds of 180 and 200 km/h, Fig. 50
Pressure (kg/m2)

150
Compression wave presents the tunnel length effects on the peak pressure of
100
V=200km/h the impulse wave, which is measured at a location 20 m
50
L=5000m away from the exit of tunnel [57]. It is found that for a
0
-0.5 0 0.5 comparatively short tunnels, less than 1.5 km, the tunnel
(a) Time (sec)
length does not influence the peak pressure of the
14 impulse wave; but for the tunnels over 1.5 km, the tunnel
Impulse wave
12
10 V=200km/h 100
Pressure (kg/m2)

L=5000m
8 R=20m
6
4

2 10 V=200km/h
Pmax (kg/m2)

0
-0.5 0 0.5
(b) Time (sec)

0
-10 V=200km/h 1
L=5000m
SPL (dB)

-20 V=180km/h
-30
-40 Frequency anaysis
-50
0 50 100 0.1
(c) Frequency (Hz) 0.1 1 10 100
Distance, X(m)
Fig. 49. Computed compression and impulse waves in ballast
track tunnel. Fig. 50. Relationship between tunnel length and impulse wave.
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 503

length seems to influence the peak pressure. This is 1.0 R=0.30

because the compression wave attenuates due to the

(p-p )/(ρ V /2d)

0.8
viscous and heat transfer effects on tunnel walls or its
R=0.22
M=0.286

2
front changes due to nonlinear effects. It is believed that 0.6
the attenuation of the compression wave would be
8
a/b=3.0
0.4
R=0.12
greater in ballast tracks than that in slab tracks, and that 8
0.2
the distortion of the compression wave due to the Revolutional
nonlinear effect is strongly dependent on the strength of 0.0
ellipsoidal body
the entry compression wave and consequently it would -0.2
be more remarkable as the train speed increases. -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
(a) tV/d
9.5. Control methodologies of impulse wave 1.2
Revolutional

(∂p/ ∂t)/(ρ V /2d)

1.0 ellipsoidal body
Most of the research for reducing the tunnel impulse

3
0.8 R=0.30
noise have been concentrated on alleviation of the 8

pressure gradient of the compression wave propagating 0.6 M=0.286 R=0.22

a/b=3.0
inside tunnel. These efforts are largely applied to the 0.4
R=0.12
train body or tunnel. If the blockage ratio of train to 0.2
tunnel R decreases by using available means, the impulse
0.0
noise can be reduced. However, such a method will
result in a reduction in vehicle efficiency or an increased -0.2
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
cost of construction of a larger tunnel. Optimization of (b) tV/d
train shape can also reduce the tunnel impulse noise.
Fig. 51. Effect of R on entry compression wave.
Similar to an airplane body, this method has started
receiving much attention in recent years.
Control techniques can also be applied to the tunnel
at the entrance of the tunnel, the inside of the tunnel, or 1.4
M=0.400
the exit of the tunnel. A hood at the entrance of the M=0.286
1.2
tunnel can reduce the pressure gradient of the initial
(∂ p / ∂t)max /(ρ V /2d)

M=0.184
compression wave. Inside the tunnel, branch tunnels, 1.0 M=0.100
3

water curtains, spray mists, porous/cavity walls and 8

ballast on the track can be utilized to alleviate the x=6.8d
0.8 a/b=3.0
compression wave propagating along the tunnel. More-
over, an active control method by using the impulse 0.6
wave with an inverse phase against the tunnel impulse
noise or a passive silencer can be applied to the exit of 0.4
the tunnel. These control methodologies have not yet Revolutional
0.2 ellipsoidal body
been investigated sufficiently, and more systematic
research is needed for application to real tunnels. 0.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
R
9.5.1. Train body
The control techniques applicable to the train body Fig. 52. Effect of R on maximum pressure gradient of
can be considered as both the reduction of the train’s compression wave.
cross-sectional area and the optimal design of the train
fore-body. Fig. 51 presents the effects of the blockage
ratio of train to tunnel R on the compression wave Mach number (except at very high speeds), when
which is generated at the entrance of tunnel, where train it is normalized by the train speed, as presented in
Mach number Mt is 0.286 [60]. The detailed shape of the Fig. 52 [60].
train fore-body is given by a revolutional ellipsoidal Fig. 53 presents the effects of the shape of train fore-
body with the major and minor axes of a and b; body on the entry compression wave, where the train
respectively, and the entry compression wave is obtained fore-body shape is given by both the major and minor
at x=D ¼ 6:8: It is found that the over-pressure of the axes of the revolutional body, and train Mach number
compression wave and its pressure gradient increases as Mt is 0.184, R is 0.116 and a=b is 7.0 [60]. For the three
R increases. The maximum pressure gradient of the shapes of train fore-body used, it seems that the over-
entry compression wave is an increasing function of the pressure of the entry compression wave is nearly
blockage ratio R; and is nearly independent of the train independent of the fore-body shape, but the entry
504 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

0.4
1.1 : Experimental results

Reduction rate of pressure gradient

R=0.116
M=0.184 : Computational results
Revolusional
(p-p )/(ρV /2)

0.3
a/b=7 ellipsoidal body Revolusional paraboloidal
2

1.0
8
Revolutional paraboloidal body body
0.2 Circular cone
8 Circular cone
0.9 Revolusional
0.1 ellipsoidal
R=0.116 body

0.0 0.8 M=0.184

-0.1 a
-1 0 1 2 3 0.7
Time, tV/d
b
0.4 0.6
R=0.116 Circular cone 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.3 M=0.184 Revolusional
(∂p/∂t)/(
∞V 3 /2d )

a/b=7 ellipsoidal body Length of train head/radius (a/b)

0.2 Fig. 54. Effect of train head on pressure gradient of compres-
Revolusional
paraboloidal body sion wave.
0.1

0.0
Head of train
Cross-sectional area of train

-0.1 Close to double carsp type

-1 0 1 2 3
Time, tV/d Non-effective
Fig. 53. Effect of train head on compression wave.

compression wave form is strongly dependent on the
fore-body shape. Of the three shapes of train fore-body
used, the paraboloidal body produces the lowest
maximum pressure gradient of the entry compression
wave. This is because the change rate in the cross-
sectional area of the revolutional paraboloidal body is
nearly constant, compared with other two bodies.
Fig. 54 shows a comparison between a computation
and a wind tunnel test to investigate the effects of the
fore-body shape on the maximum pressure gradient of
the entry compression wave [60]. The reduction ratio of
the pressure gradient is based upon the maximum
pressure gradient of the entry compression wave
produced by the revolutional ellipsoidal body of a=b ¼
3:0: It is known that the reduction ratio of the maximum
pressure gradient of the entry compression wave reduces
as the length of the train fore-body increases. The
computational results represent the same trend as the
wind tunnel test.
From the results described above, it is believed that
the shape of the train fore-body to effectively reduce the
maximum gradient of the entry compression wave is
obtainable by means of either computation or experi-
ment. In this case, the revolutional paraboloidal body
may be first used as the fore-body of train through an
optimization. Fig. 55 schematically shows an optimal
shape of the fore-body to minimize the impulse wave
[60]. The shape indicated by the thick solid line may be
Effective
Close to aerodynamic wedge type
Head
Fig. 55. Optimum shape of train head to reduce the impulse
wave.
more desirable than that of the thin solid line. The
former is very close to the Aero-wedge type which is
being discussed at present as an aerodynamically
desirable shape of train fore-body. In addition to the
impulse wave, it should be noted that the shape of
train fore-body is associated with the aerodynamic
drag, pressure transients inside tunnel, train-induced
winds, etc.
9.5.2. Tunnel entrance
An entry hood system can be used to reduce the
pressure gradient of the entry compression wave which
is generated by a train entering into tunnel [61,62].
Fig. 56 schematically shows the entry hood system
installed at the entrance of a real tunnel. Figs. 57 and
58 presents the measured results of the entry hood
effects on the impulse wave, where the tunnel length is
5.4 km [63,64]. The measurement locations are indicated
by A, B, and C, which are located at the locations of
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 505

B A
C U=197km/h

Pressure (kg/m2)
20m 90m 90m

150
Compression wave at point A
100

50 U=197km/h

0.1s
(a) Time(sec)

Pressure (kg/m2)
Compression wave at point B
100

50

0
0.1s
(b) Time(sec)

Pressure (kg/m2)
15
Impulse wave at point C

10

0
0
0.1s
(c) Time (sec)

Fig. 57. Compression and impulse waves in slab track tunnel

(no entry hood, L ¼ 5389 m).

B A
C U=200km/h

20m 80m 100m

Pressure (kg/m2)

150 Compression wave at point A

100

50 U=200km/h

0 0.1s
(a) Time(sec)
Pressure (kg/m2)

Compression wave at point B

Fig. 56. Entry hoods installed at the tunnel entrance. 100

50

0
90 m away from the entrance of tunnel, 90 m back from 0.1s
the exit of tunnel, and 20 m away outside from the exit (b) Time(sec)
Pressure (kg/m2)

of tunnel, respectively. In the case of the entry hood

system, its cross-sectional area is about 1.57 times the 5 Impulse wave at point C
tunnel cross-sectional area. The hood length is about
15 m and several windows are installed on the hood
0
walls. These windows play a role of the bleed ventilation 0 0.1s
hole to exhale the compressed air. For the entry hood
(c) Time(sec)
system, the entry compression wave and the impulse
wave are considerably reduced, compared with no entry Fig. 58. Compression and impulse waves in slab track tunnel
hood system. (entry hood, L ¼ 5389 m).
506 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

For the entry hood, Fig. 59 presents the frequency no entry hood and for the 30 m entry hood, it reduces to
components of the impulse wave [63,64]. It is known about 50% of that of no entry hood.
that the entry hood system reduces high-frequency It is likely that the length of the entry hood can
components of the impulse wave. Fig. 60 presents the significantly influence the impulse wave strength. Fig. 61
entry hood effects on the impulse wave, where the entry shows the effects of the entry hood length on the impulse
hood lengths used are 30 and 40 m [63,64], and the wave, where the entry hood effects are given by terms of
tunnel length is 6.64 km. The impulse wave becomes the reduction ratio of the pressure gradient of the entry
stronger as train speed increases, and can be given by the compression wave and the reduction ratio of the train
law of U 3 : For the entry hood with the length of 40 m, speed corresponding to the reduced pressure gradient
the impulse wave strength is only about 10% of that of [63,64]. For instance, the reduction ratio is about 0.92,
which is equivalent to a reduction in the train speed of
8%, as the reduction ratio of the pressure gradient of the
No entry hood entry compression wave is 0.8.
Spectral amplitude

It is known that the pressure gradient of the entry

Slab track tunnel (length : 5389m) compression wave reduces as the hood length increases,
but it no longer reduces over a certain hood length, and
that the entry hood leads to a reduction effect of the
10dB

train speed. For a given train speed and tunnel length,

U=197km/h
the entry hood length can be optimized to reduce the
impulse wave strength.
0 50 100
(a) Frequency (Hz)
9.5.3. Inside tunnel
Entry hood In general, there are some branch tunnels inside real
Spectral amplitude

tunnels. These are used as a passage to maintain tunnel

and track system, or to store some tools necessary for
the maintenance. These branch tunnels can be used to
reduce the impulse wave at the exit of tunnel because
U=200km/h
10dB

those can bleed out the compressed air inside tunnel.

Additionally, sound-absorption materials are applied to
the tunnel walls, playing the same role of the ballasts on
0 50 100 track. Water curtain and mist spray which are applied
(b) Frequency (Hz)
inside tunnel are used to reduce the impulse wave
Fig. 59. Effect of entry hood on the frequency of impulse wave [59,65–68]. Here we discuss several methods to reduce
(slab track tunnel, L ¼ 5389 m). the impulse wave.
When the compression wave propagates through tunnel
with a branch tunnel, some part of the compression wave
500
Maximum pressure of impulse wave, Pmax (Pa)

Entry hood (length : 40m) 0.8

Entry hood (length : 30m)
Reduction rate of pressure gradient (α)

200 No entry hood

Reduction rate of train speed (α1/3)

0.6
100 0.9

0.4
50
0.8

0.2
20
0.7

10 0.1 0.6

0.5
5
190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270
0.0
Train speed (km/h) 0 10 20 30 40 50
Entry hood length (m)
Fig. 60. Effect of entry hood length on the peak pressure of
impulse wave. Fig. 61. Entry hood length effect.
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 507

Pressure (Pa)
Compression wave U=200km/h
1.0

0.5
Tunnel
0
-0.5 0 0.5
(a) Time(sec)

Vertical branch Inclined branch

140 Impulse wave
120
p1(t) : Pressure before branch
R=20m

Pressure (Pa)
p2(t) : Pressure after branch 100
U=200km/h
80
Fig. 62. Branch installed inside high-speed railway/tunnel.
60

goes into the branch tunnel. In this case, a reflected wave 40

propagates back to the main tunnel, consequently 20

influencing the compression wave propagating into the 0
-0.5 0 0.5
main tunnel. For the branch tunnel shown in Fig. 62, the (b) Time(sec)
pressures p1 ðtÞ and p2 ðtÞ before and after the compres-

Spectral amplitude
sion wave propagating through the branch tunnel are Frequency anaysis of impulse wave
expressed by using a low frequency approximation ∆f=1Hz
[65,67]:

10dB
2 4n
p2 ðtÞ ¼ p1 ðtÞ þ p1 ðt  2TÞ; ð56Þ
2þn ð2 þ nÞ2 0 50 100

where t is the time, n is the ratio of the cross-sectional (c) Frequency (Hz)
area of the branch and main tunnels, and T (¼ l=c) is a Fig. 63. Measured compression and impulse waves (no branch
characteristic time associated with the branch tunnel tunnel).
length ðlÞ and the speed of sound (c). From Eq. (56), it is
known that for long branch tunnels p2 ðtÞ is 2=ðn þ 2Þ
times p1 ðtÞ: Thus, the pressure gradient of the compres-
sion wave reduces to 2=ðn þ 2Þ:
For a sufficiently long branch tunnel, several branch
10
tunnels can considerably reduce the impulse wave. For U=200km/h
instance, in the case of eight branch tunnels of n ¼ 0:2;
the pressure gradient of the compression wave propa-
gating through tunnel reduces to about 47% of that of
the entry compression wave. However, there are many
p (Pa)

unknown problems for the branch tunnel effects. For

5
instance, how long is the branch tunnel length to obtain
practical benefits? Of what effect is the branch tunnel
inclination? etc. The resonance effects which can be
generated in the branch tunnels should be investigated
prior to the practical application.
Fig. 63 presents measured compression and impulse 0
waves for no branch tunnel, where train speed is 200 km/
h [65,67]. Fig. 64 presents the branch tunnel effects using 0.1sec
a computational analysis [65,67]. It is known that the
branch tunnel considerably reduces the impulse wave.
The computational results are compared with real tunnel
Time (sec)
tests in Fig. 65, where train speed is 210 km/h [65,67].
The computed result seems to over-predict the strength Fig. 64. Computed impulse wave in branch tunnel.
of the impulse wave and fails in predicting the impulse
wave frequency. More elaborate computational work is
needed to solve this problem. With the branch tunnel, Fig. 66 presents a practical application of the water
the peak pressure of the impulse wave reduces from spray to reduce the impulse wave [66]. An experiment is
about 7 to 5 Pa. These branch tunnel effects should be carried out using the compression wave propagating
further investigated for higher speeds of train. through a branch tunnel. The water spray region is
508 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

10

U=210km/h

Pressure (Pa)
5

0
0.2s

-5
Time (sec)
Fig. 65. Measured impulse wave in branch tunnel.
Tunnel

115m 30m 115m

into passive and active controls. The passive controls
287m 85m
yield a silencer system at the exit of tunnel, while the
30m active controls use a negative impulse wave with an
B C D inverse phase to the impulse wave.
S S Fig. 68 schematically shows the silencer system
A installed into the exit of a duct [69,70]. A simple shock
tube with an open end can be used as the tunnel impulse
Water spay region wave simulator. A weak shock wave propagates into the
632m low-pressure chamber of the shock tube, and it
discharges from the open end of the shock tube,
producing the impulse wave at the exit of the shock
Fig. 66. Experiment of water spray. tube. A silencer system is installed at the exit of the
shock tube to control the impulse wave, as shown in
1.5 Fig. 68(b), where the silencer has a height of H and a
Pressure (kPa)

length of L: A series of baffle plates having a height of h

1.0 B
are inserted into the silencer. In experiment, the
C operating pressure ratio of the shock tube is changed
0.5 below 1.40 to obtain the weak shock wave, which is
similar to the compression wave at the exit of tunnel.
0.0 Fig. 69 presents the major characteristics of the
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time (sec) impulse wave using the shock tube experiment, where
the sound pressure level DSPL of the impulse wave is
Fig. 67. Effect of water spray on compression wave. taken relative to that at rref ¼ 4D:

DSPL ¼ SPLr¼ref  SPLr¼r ; ð57Þ

about 30 m over the branch tunnel. Fig. 67 presents the
change in the compression wave form before and after where D is the diameter of tube and r is the radial
the water spray region [66], where train speed is 210 km/ distance from the exit of tube. According to the linear
h, the water spray is operated under the supply pressure aeroacoustics, the strength of the impulse wave reduces
of 2.0 atm (abs). It is known that the pressure gradient of to a half for a double distance, 6.0 dB/a double
the compression wave considerably reduces after the distance. It is found that the absolute value of DSPL
water spray region. This method may highly cost to increases as r=D increases and the shock Mach number
obtain practical reduction effect, and further study is decreases. For a location far away from the exit of tube,
needed. the impulse wave with a weak incident shock wave is
alike the acoustic wave, but for a stronger incident shock
9.5.4. Tunnel exit wave it differs from the linear acoustic waves. This is
The control methods to reduce the impulse wave are associated with the nonlinear effects of the impulse wave
also applied to the exit of tunnel. These are classified with a strong incident shock wave.
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 509

Measurement field

y
Microphone

1320 2130
θ
Driven section 1 2
Driver section
x
60×60 r
253 30
Needle
z
zm

Diaphragm
(a) Open-ended shock tube

Exit box
L Cross-section
Diaphragm
Needle H h Box
Driver section Driven section D

Baffle plate

(b) Exit box and baffle plate

Fig. 68. Schematics of experimental facility and measurement system.

0 0
L/D=0.5
-2 r/D=5
-2
∆'SPL (dB)

=1.0
-4 =1.5
r/D=10 =2.0
-4
SPL

-6
L
−

-6 H h Me=1.03
-8 Flow D r/D=15
r/D=15 zm /D=0.5
θ=45°
-8
-10 0.0 0.5 1.0
h/H
-12 Fig. 70. Effects of silencer and baffle plate on impulse noise
1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07
reduction.
Me
Fig. 69. Propagation characteristics of impulse wave.
reduction of the impulse wave is obtained for h=H ¼
0:75:
In order to investigate the detailed configuration of Fig. 71 presents the effect of the height H of the
the silencer system, the height h of the baffle plates and silencer on the impulse wave [69,70]. For no baffle
the length L of the silencer are changed, as shown in plates, the reduction of the impulse wave slightly
Fig. 70 [69,70]. For no baffle plates inside the silencer, increases with H; but for baffle plates the reduction of
the reduction of the impulse wave increases with L=D: It the impulse wave is again obtained at h=H ¼ 0:75: In
seems that the baffle plates lead to more reduction of the this case, an H over D does not produce the practical
impulse wave. In this case, reduction of the impulse reduction of the impulse noise. Figs. 72 and 73 present
wave is not strongly dependent on L=D: The maximum the effect of the silencer configuration on the impulse
510 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

0 Fig. 75, the impulse waves at x=D ¼ 2:0 are presented

for three different incident compression waves with and
without the silencer [70,71]. For L=D ¼ 0:1 the peak
-2 H/D=0.5
∆'SPL (dB)

pressure of the impulse wave slightly reduces, but the

=1.0 second peak is generated. For L=D ¼ 1:0 and 2.0, it
-4 =1.5 seems that the silencer does not reduce the impulse wave.
It is concluded that such a passive control method
L=1.5D using the silencer and baffle plates above is dependent
-6 Me=1.03
H h on the wave length of the incident compression wave. In
Flow D r/D=15
zm /D=0.5 reality, the wave length of the compression wave which
θ=45° is generated inside high-speed railway tunnels is
-8
0.0 0.5 1.0 estimated to be several to several 10 times the equivalent
h/H diameter of the tunnel. Thus, the size of the silencer to
Fig. 71. Effect of silencer height on SPL. produce the practical reduction of the impulse noise
should be of a comparable order as the wave length of
the compression wave.
Meanwhile, an active noise control (ANC) concept
Exit box Cross-section ∆'SPL(dB)
can also be applied to the impulse wave. This concept
(a) D 0 dB yields a negative impulse wave having the same
L=D characteristics as the tunnel impulse wave [72]. On the
H=D verge of the discharge of the compression wave from the
-2.5 dB
(b) exit of tunnel, the negative impulse wave is discharged
from an additive sound source, as schematically shown
D/2
(c) -3.1 dB in Fig. 76. A pressure transducer detects the com-
pression wave P1 ; and its signal having an impulse
D/2
response Xss drives the additive sound source S through
(d) -2.4 dB a signal processor. Then the wave form Pc at the
location 2 is made of both the impulse wave Pp
D/2 discharged from the exit of tunnel and the negative
(e) -2.4 dB
impulse wave Pa : The resulting wave form can be
expressed as [72]
D/2
(f) -2.1 dB pp ¼ p1 r1e re2 ; ð59Þ
D/4
-3.1 dB
pa ¼ p1 r1s rs2 Xss ; ð60Þ
(g)
where r1e is the impulse response from point 1 to the exit
of tunnel, re2 the impulse response from the exit of
Me=1.03, r/D=15, zm /D=0.5, θ=45° tunnel to the reference point, r1s the impulse response
Fig. 72. Reduction of impulse noise using a passive control. against the output signal from the pressure transducer 1,
and rs2 is the impulse response from the additive sound
source to the reference point. Neglecting the acoustic
noise, where the volume of the silencer remains constant
combination between the output signal from the
at D3 : It is found that the reduction of the impulse noise
additive sound source and the electric signal from the
is somewhat dependent on the silencer configuration.
pressure transducer 1, the reduction of the tunnel
Figs. 74 and 75 show the computational results to
impulse wave is obtained if Eq. (61) is satisfied as
investigate the impulse noise, where the incident
compression wave is given by [70,71] Xss ¼ r1e re2 =r1s rs2 : ð61Þ


Dp Dp
1 1 1 px 16pD In this case, the strength of the tunnel impulse wave is
¼  tan þ : ð58Þ ideally zero. For the ANC applications like this, it is,
pa pa 2 p L 3L
thus, of practical importance to know the impulse
In Eq. (58), Dp
is the over-pressure of the incident response against the tunnel impulse wave, and in
compression wave, pa the atmospheric pressure, x the especially, to properly predict the tunnel impulse wave
distance from the tunnel exit, and L is the wave length of from the compression wave inside the tunnel. The
the incident compression wave. Eq. (58) has been known directivity of the negative impulse wave should be
as an empirical relation of the compression wave fully understood with the practical installation of the
occurring inside the real high-speed railway tunnels. In additive sound source at the exit of tunnel. This ANC
 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514 511

Exit box & Baffle plate ∆'SPL(dB) Exit box & Baffle plate ∆'SPL(dB)
L=1.5D L=1.5D
H=D H=D

(a) Flow D h=0.75D -4.9 dB (h) Flow D h=0.75D -3.2 dB

(b) -3.9 dB (i) -3.1 dB

(c) -3.8 dB (j) -4.3 dB

(d) -3.7 dB (k) -3.8 dB

(e) -3.6 dB (l) -4.1 dB

(f) -3.4 dB (m) -3.1 dB

(g) -3.3 dB (n) -2.3 dB

Me=1.03, r/D=15, zm /D=0.5, θ=45°

Fig. 73. Impulse noise reductions at far field.

control methods above have not yet been investigated
sufficiently, and a more systematic research is needed for
application to real tunnels.
10. Concluding remarks
The aerodynamic and aeroacoustic problems accom-
panied by the speed-up of train system are, at present,
receiving a considerable attention as a practical en-
gineering issue that should be urgently resolved. With
the speed-up of trains, many engineering problems
which have been reasonably neglected at low speeds,
are being raised with regard to aerodynamic noise and
vibrations, impulse forces occurring as two trains
intersect each other, impulse wave at the exit of tunnel,
ear discomfort of passengers inside train, etc. These are
the major limiting factors to the speed-up of train
system. Such factors all are closely associated with the
flows occurring around the railway train. However,
much effort to speed up the train system has to date
been paid on the improvement of electric motor power
rather than understanding the flow physics around the
train and thereby finding a proper control method. This
has led to larger energy losses and performance
deterioration of the train, since the flows around train
are more disturbed due to turbulence of the increased
speed, consequently the flow energies being converted to
aerodynamic drag, noise and vibrations.
The high-speed railway train system connecting
between cities is required to have aerodynamically
and aeroacoustically good performance to meet safe
and comfortable transportation with less air pollution
and noise, and reliable transportation with low cost and
maintenance. Although, recently, Schetz [73] has deeply
reviewed the aerodynamics of high-speed railway train,
information available on the train aerodynamics is
still lacking, and a great deal of work should be
made to solve the aerodynamic and aeroacoustic
problems of high-speed railway trains. The major
objectives of this review article are to enhance the
current understanding of the aerodynamic phenomena
with regard to the high-speed railway trains, and to
provide help in designing the railway train systems of
512 R.S. Raghunathan et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 38 (2002) 469–514

Without exit box

L/D=0.1 With exit box (silencer)

1000Pa
(a) 100ms

Without exit box

L/D=1.0 With exit box

1000Pa
100ms
(b)

Without exit box

L/D=2.0
With exit box

1000Pa

100ms
(c)
Fig. 74. Compression wave forms for computation.
Fig. 75. Computation of passive control for impulse wave.

Tunnel Exit Impulse wave

r1e re2 Pp
1 e 2
P1
Pa

rs 2
r1s Xss S
Negative Pc
impulse wave
Fig. 76. Positive control for impulse wave.

safe and comfortable transportation with less air
pollution and noise.
Acknowledgements
The second author of this paper would like to thank
the post-graduate students at Andong National Uni-
versity Gasdynamics Lab for drawing figures and typing
manuscript.
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