ENZYMES IN INDUSTRY

WHAT ARE ENZYMES-

Enzyme are specialized organic substances, composed of polymers of
amino acids, that act as catalysts to regulate the speed of the many
chemical reactions involved in the metabolism of living organisms, such
as digestion. The name enzyme was suggested in 1867 by the German
physiologist Wilhelm Kühne (1837-1900); it is derived from the Greek
phrase en zymē, meaning “in leaven.”

Enzymes are classified into several broad categories, such as hydrolytic,

oxidizing, and reducing, depending on the type of reaction they control.
Hydrolytic enzymes accelerate reactions in which a substance is broken
down into simpler compounds through reaction with water molecules.
Oxidizing enzymes, known as oxidases, accelerate oxidation reactions;
reducing enzymes speed up reduction reactions, in which oxygen is
removed. Many other enzymes catalyze other types of reactions.

Individual enzymes are named by adding ase to the name of the

substrate with which they react. The enzyme that controls urea
decomposition is called urease; those that control protein hydrolyses are
known as proteinases. Some enzymes, such as the proteinases trypsin
and pepsin, retain the names used before this nomenclature was
adopted.
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF AN
ENZYME

Enzymes are large proteins that speed up chemical reactions. In their

globular structure, one or more polypeptide chains twist and fold,
bringing together a small number of amino acids to form the active site,
or the location on the enzyme where the substrate binds and the
reaction takes place. The enzyme itself is unaffected by the reaction.
When the products have been released, the enzyme is ready to bind with
a new substrate.
HISTORICAL REVIEW-

WILHELM KUHNE COINED THE TERM ENZYME

Alcoholic fermentation is undoubtedly the oldest known enzyme

reaction. This and similar phenomena were believed to be spontaneous
reactions until 1857, when the French chemist Louis Pasteur proved
that fermentation occurs only in the presence of living cells.
Subsequently, however, the German chemist Eduard Buchner
discovered (1897) that a cell-free extracts of yeast can cause alcoholic
fermentation. The ancient puzzle was then solved; the yeast cell
produces the enzyme, and the enzyme brings about the fermentation. As
early as 1783 the Italian biologist Lazzaro Spallanzani had observed
that meat could be digested by gastric juices extracted from hawks. This
experiment was probably the first in which a vital reaction was
performed outside the living organism.
 JAMES.B.SUMNER
(Crystallized Urease)

After Buchner's discovery scientists assumed that fermentations and

vital reactions in general were caused by enzymes. Nevertheless, all
attempts to isolate and identify their chemical nature were unsuccessful.
In 1926, however, the American biochemist James B. Sumner succeeded
in isolating and crystallizing urease. Four years later pepsin and trypsin
were isolated and crystallized by the American biochemist John H.
Northrop. Enzymes were found to be proteins, and Northrop proved
that the protein was actually the enzyme and not simply a carrier for
another compound.
PROPERTIES OF ENZYME- As the
Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius suggested in 1823, enzymes are
typical catalysts: they are capable of increasing the rate of reaction
without being consumed in the process.

Jöns Jakob Berzelius

Some enzymes, such as pepsin and trypsin, which bring about the
digestion of meat, control many different reactions, whereas others,
such as urease, are extremely specific and may accelerate only one
reaction. Still others release energy to make the heart beat and the lungs
expand and contract. Many facilitate the conversion of sugar and foods
into the various substances the body requires for tissue-building, the
replacement of blood cells, and the release of chemical energy to move
muscles.

Pepsin, trypsin, and some other enzymes possess, in addition, the

peculiar property known as autocatalysis, which permits them to cause
their own formation from an inert precursor called zymogen. As a
consequence, these enzymes may be reproduced in a test tube.

As a class, enzymes are extraordinarily efficient. Minute quantities of an

enzyme can accomplish at low temperatures what would require violent
reagents and high temperatures by ordinary chemical means. About 30
g (about 1 oz) of pure crystalline pepsin, for example, would be capable
of digesting nearly 2 metric tons of egg white in a few hours.
Each enzyme is selectively specific for the substance in which it causes a
reaction and is most effective at a temperature peculiar to it. Although
an increase in temperature may accelerate a reaction, enzymes are
unstable when heated. The catalytic activity of an enzyme is determined
primarily by the enzyme's amino-acid sequence and by the tertiary
structure—that is, the three-dimensional folded structure—of the
macromolecule. Many enzymes require the presence of another ion or a
molecule, called a cofactor, in order to function.

MECHANISMS OF ENZYME
ACTION

• Enzymes lower the barriers that normally prevent chemical

reactions from occurring (or slow them down) by decreasing the
required activation energy. Thus, in the presence of enzymes,
reactions proceed and/or proceed at a faster rate.
 MODE OF ENZYME ACTION
THERE ARE TWO VIEWS

1. LOCK & KEY HYPOTHESIS

2.INDUCED FIT HYPOTHESIS

LOCK & KEY HYPOTHESIS

EMIL FISHER

Enzymes are very specific, and it was suggested by Emil Fischer in 1894
that this was because both the enzyme and the substrate possess specific
complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another. This
is often referred to as "the lock and key" model. However, while this
model explains enzyme specificity, it fails to explain the stabilization of
the transition state that enzymes achieve. The "lock and key" model has
proven inaccurate and the induced fit model is the most currently
accepted enzyme-substrate-coenzyme figure.
 INDUCED FIT HYPOTHESIS
In 1958 Daniel Koshland suggested a modification to the lock and key
model: since enzymes are rather flexible structures, the active site is
continually reshaped by interactions with the substrate as the substrate
interacts with the enzyme.

Daniel Koshland

The substrate does not simply bind to a rigid active site, the amino acid
side chains which make up the active site are moulded into the precise
positions that enable the enzyme to perform its catalytic function. In
some cases, such as glycosidases, the substrate molecule also changes
shape slightly as it enters the active site. The active site continues to
change until the substrate is completely bound, at which point the final
shape and charge is determined.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION
OF ENZYMES
ENZYMES FOR DETERGENT -

The most popular known application of enzymes is in the manufacture

of enzymatic washing agents (detergents). Since last 40 years, the use of
enzymes in detergents has been the largest of all enzyme applications.
Consumers of detergents are actual users of an enzymatic product. In
majority of other applications, enzymes are used as auxiliary agents at
some point in the manufacturing process and are not, as a rule, present
in the finished product - not at any rate in an active form.

Proteases
Proteases are the most widely used enzymes in the detergent industry.
They remove protein stains such as grass, blood, egg and human sweat.

These organic stains have a tendency to adhere strongly to textile fibers.

The proteins act as glues, preventing the waterborne detergent systems
from removing some of the other components of the soiling, such as
pigments and street dirt.

The inefficiency of nonenzymatic detergents at removing proteins can

result in permanent stains due to oxidation and denaturing caused by
bleaching and drying. Blood, for example, will leave a rustcoloured spot
unless it is removed before bleaching.

Proteases hydrolyse proteins and break them down into more soluble
polypeptides or free amino acids. As a result of the combined effect of
surfactants and enzymes, stubborn stains can be removed from fibers.
Lipases
Though enzymes can easily digest protein stains, oily and fatty stains
have always been troublesome to remove. The trend towards lower
washing temperatures has made the removal of grease spots an even
bigger problem. This applies particularly to materials made up of a
blend of cotton and polyester. The lipase is capable of removing fatty
stains such as fats, butter, salad oil, sauces and the tough stains on
collars and cuffs.

Amylases
Amylases are used to remove residues of starch-based foods like
potatoes, spaghetti, custards, gravies and chocolate. This type of enzyme
can be used in laundry detergents as well as in dishwashing detergents.

Cellulases
The development of detergent enzymes has mainly focused on enzymes
capable of removing stains. However, a cellulase enzyme has properties
enabling it to modify the structure of cellulose fiber on cotton and
cotton blends. When it is added to a detergent, it results into the
following effects:

Colour brightening-When garments made of cotton or cotton

blends have been washed several times, they tend to get a 'fluffy' look
and the colours become duller. This effect is due to the formation of
micro fibrils that become partly detached from the main fibres. The
light falling on the garment is reflected back to a greater extent giving
the impression that the colour is duller. These fibrils, however, can be
degraded by the cellulase enzyme, restoring a smooth surface to the
fibre and restoring the garment to its original colour.

Softening-The enzyme also has a significant softening effect on the

fabric, probably due to the removal of the micro fibrils.
Soil removal-Some dirt particles are trapped in the network of micro
fibrils and are released when the micro fibrils are removed by the
cellulase enzyme.

ENZYMES IN PULP & PAPER

INDUSTRY

Enzymes have been used in the pulp and paper industry to soften wood
fibers, improve drainage, and present alternatives to chemical
bleaching.

Biopulping - Paper is made from cellulose fibers, which must be

separated from a tough wood fiber called lignin. The step by step
process used to separate cellulose from lignin and other wood
components is known as pulping. It is a time and energy consuming
process, involving the mechanical processing of wood or the treatment
of wood with harsh chemicals. In biopulping, cellulase and xylanase
enzymes made by lignin-degrading fungi are used to pre-treat wood and
break down the lignin fibers. Removing lignin prior to further wood
pulping saves time and energy, and decreases the quantities of
chemicals used.

Draining - Enzymes can also improve water drainage during wood

pulping, a process that often slows down paper production. When fine
lignin fibers are degraded by enzymes, less water is absorbed, thereby
reducing drainage times, lessening the energy required to dry the paper,
and producing a cleaner water runoff.

Bleach Boosting - Lignin fibers that remain in wood pulp are

colored and must be bleached, usually by harsh chlorine compounds
under high pressures. As an alternative, enzymes may be used to
remove fine surface fibers, thereby reducing the bleaching process or
eliminating it altogether.

ENZYMES FOR BAKING-

BREAD-MAKING-
Bread is the most common and traditional foods around the world. But
bread actually has close links with enzymes. For years, enzymes such as
malt and fungal alpha-amylase have been used in bread making. Due to
the changes in the baking industry and the ever-increasing demand for
more natural products, enzymes have gained real importance in bread-
making.
The dough for bread, rolls, buns, etc. consists of flour, water, yeast, salt
and other ingredients such as sugar and fat. Flour consists of gluten,
starch, non-starch polysaccharides, lipids, etc. When the dough is made,
the yeast starts to work on the fermentable sugars, transforming them
into alcohol and carbon dioxide, thus rising the dough.

In the beginning, the fermentation goes smoothly whether sugar has

been added or not, because flour always contains a certain amount of
fermentable sugar. But when this has been used up, the fermentation
process will cease unless new supplies of sugar are made available to the
yeast.

Amylases degrade starch and produce small dextrin’s for the yeast to
act. Gluten is a combination of proteins, which form a large network
during dough formation. This network holds the gas in dough proofing
and baking. The strength of this network is very important for the
quality of all bread raised by yeast. Enzymes such as proteases,
xylanases and lipases directly or indirectly improve the strength of the
gluten network and so improve the quality the bread.

DOUGH IMPROVEMENT-

A small percentage of pentosans (non-starch polysaccharides) are

present in flour. Pentosans have an important role in bread quality due
to their water absorption capability and interaction with gluten, which
is vital for the formation of the loaf structure. By hydrolysing the
pentosans using some enzymes like hemicellulase, pentosanase or
xylanase, the dough becomes easier to handle and the resulting bread
has a bigger loaf volume and an improved crumb structure.
PRODUCTION OF BISCUIT-

Another application of enzymes in baking is in the production of

biscuits and crackers. The requirements of the flour are altogether
different from those in bread-making; soft flour' which produces a
dough with pronounced plastic properties is preferred. For this
purpose, flour with relatively low protein content is desirable. The
gluten protein structure should not be too strong, otherwise the dough
will be too difficult to handle.

Unless flour with these properties is available, it is necessary to add an

agent to weaken the gluten. Reducing agents (substances which have the
opposite effect to oxidizing agents) have been used for this purpose, in
particular sodium bisulphite. The bisulphite has the desired effect on
the gluten, but unfortunately it affects other substances in the flour,
including the content of vitamin B1 (thiamine). This vitamin is
completely or partially destroyed. Sodium bisulphite has been banned in
certain countries and is becoming less popular due to health risks.

An alternative is the application of a protein-degrading enzyme. This

softens the gluten without affecting the other constituents of the dough.
Several fungal and bacterial proteases can be used for this purpose.
Proteases can also be used when making bread with 'hard flour' i.e.
flour high in gluten protein.

TEXTILE ENZYMES-
Before cotton yarn or fabric can be dyed, it goes through a number of
processes in a textile mill. One important step is scouring - the complete
or partial removal of the non-cellulosic components of native cotton
such as waxes, pectin’s, hemicelluloses and mineral salts as well as
impurities such as machinery and size lubricants. Scouring gives a
fabric with a high and even wet ability that can be bleached and dyed
successfully. Today, highly alkaline chemicals such as sodium hydroxide
are used for scouring. These chemicals not only remove the impurities
but also attack the cellulose, leading to a reduction in strength and loss
of weight of the fabric. Furthermore, the resulting wastewater has a
high COD (chemical oxygen demand), BOD (biological oxygen demand)
and salt content.

BIO-SCOURING -ALKALINE PECTINASE is the enzyme used to

remove the non-cellulosic components. The enzymatic treatment leaves
the cellulose structure almost intact, so it reduces weight loss and
strength loss. Bio-Scouring has a number of potential advantages over
traditionally prepared textiles. It reduces total water consumption by
around 25%, the treated yarn/fabrics retain their strength properties,
and the weight loss is much less than for processing in traditional ways.
Bio-Scouring also gives softer cotton textiles.

DESIZING - For fabrics made from cotton or blends, the warp

threads are coated with an adhesive substance know as 'size‘; to prevent
the threads breaking during weaving. Although many different
compounds have been used to size fabrics, starch and its derivatives
have been the most common sizing agent. After weaving, the size must
be removed again in order to prepare the fabric for dyeing and
finishing.

Enzymes like heat stable amylase, fungal amylase are used for desizing
woven fabrics because of their highly efficient and specific way of
desizing without harming the yarn

BIO-POLISHING-
Cotton and other natural fibres based on cellulose can be improved by
an enzymatic treatment known as BioPolishing. This treatment gives the
fabric a smoother and glossier appearance. The treatment is used to
remove 'fuzz' - the tiny strands of fibre that protrude from the surface
of yarn. A ball of fuzz is called a 'pill' in the textile trade. After Bio-
Polishing, the fuzz and pilling are reduced. The other benefits of
removing fuzz are a softer and smoother handle, and superior colour
brightness.

STONEWASHING JEANS-
What is stone washing- stone washing is a textiles manufacturing
process typically utilized by the fashion industry, in order to give a
newly-assembled cloth garments a worn-out appearance. Stone-washing
also helps to increase the softness and flexibility of otherwise stiff and
rigid fabrics like denim.

In the traditional stonewashing process, the blue denim was faded by

the abrasive action of pumice stones on the garment surface. Nowadays,
denim finishers are using a special cellulase.

Cellulase works by loosening the indigo dye on the denim in a process

know as 'Bio-Stonewashing'. A small dose of enzyme can replace several
kilograms of pumice stones. The use of less pumice stones results in less
damage to garment, machine and less pumice dust in the laundry
environment.
BIO-STONEWASHING-has opened up new possibilities in
denim finishing by increasing the variety of finishes available. For
example, it is now possible to fade denim to a greater degree without
running the risk of damaging the garment. Productivity can also be
increased because laundry machines contain fewer stones or no stones
and more garments.

ENZYMES USED IN DAIRY INDUSTRY-

Enzymes are required for the production of cheeses, yogurt and other
dairy products, while others are used in a more specialized fashion to
improve texture or flavour. Five of the more common types of enzymes
and their role in the dairy industry are described below.

1. RENNET
Milk contains proteins, specifically caseins, that maintain its liquid
form. Proteases are enzymes that are added to milk during cheese
production, to hydrolyze caseins, specifically kappa casein, which
stabilizes micelle formation preventing coagulation. Rennet and rennin
are general terms for any enzyme used to coagulate milk. Technically
rennet is also the term for the lining of a calf's fourth stomach. The most
common enzyme isolated from rennet is chymosin. Chymosin can also
be obtained from several other animal, microbial or vegetable sources,
but indigenous microbial chymosin (from fungi or bacteria) is
ineffective for making cheddar and other hard cheeses. Limited supplies
of calf rennet have prompted genetic engineering of microbial chymosin
by cloning calf prochymosin genes into bacteria. Bioengineered
chymosin may be involved in production of up to 70% of cheese
products.

2. PROTEASES
Milk contains a number of different types of proteins, in addition to the
caseins. Cow milk also contains whey proteins such as lactalbumin and
lactoglobulin. The denaturing of these whey proteins, using proteases,
results in a creamier yogurt product. Destruction of whey proteins is
also essential for cheese production.

During production of soft cheeses, whey is separated from the milk after
curdling, and may be sold as a nutrient supplement for body building,
weight loss, and lowing blood pressure, among other things. There have
even been reports of dietary whey for cancer therapies, and having a
role in the induction of insulin production for those with Type 2
diabetes. Proteases are used to produce hydrolyzed whey protein, which
is whey protein broken down into shorter polypeptide sequences.
Hydrolyzed whey is less likely to cause allergic reactions and is used to
prepare supplements for infant formulas and medical uses.

3. LACTASE
Lactase is a glycoside hydrolase enzyme that cuts lactose into its
constituent sugars, galactose and glucose. Without sufficient production
of lactase enzyme in the small intestine, humans become lactose
intolerant, resulting in discomfort (cramps, gas and diarrhea) in the
digestive tract upon ingestion of milk products. Lactase is used
commercially to prepare lactose-free products, particularly milk, for
such individuals. It is also used in preparation of ice cream, to make a
creamier and sweeter-tasting product. Lactase is usually prepared from
Kluyveromyces sp. of yeast and Aspergillus sp. of fungi.

4 .CATALASE
The enzyme Catalase has found limited use in one particular area of
cheese production. Hydrogen peroxide is a potent oxidizer and toxic to
cells. It is used instead of pasteurization, when making certain cheeses
such as Swiss, in order to preserve natural milk enzymes that are
beneficial to the end product and flavour development of the cheese.
These enzymes would be destroyed by the high heat of pasteurization.
However, residues of hydrogen peroxide in the milk will inhibit the
bacterial cultures that are required for the actual cheese production, so
all traces of it must be removed. Catalase enzymes are typically
obtained from bovine livers or microbial sources, and are added to
convert the hydrogen peroxide to water and molecular oxygen.

5. LIPASES
Lipases are used to break down milk fats and give characteristic flavors
to cheeses. Stronger flavored cheeses, for example, the Italian cheese,
Romano, are prepared using lipases. The flavor comes from the free
fatty acids produced when milk fats are hydrolyzed. Animal lipases are
obtained from kid, calf and lamb, while microbial lipase is derived by
fermentation with the fungal species Mucor meihei. Although microbial
lipases are available for cheese-making, they are less specific in what
fats they hydrolyze, while the animal enzymes are more partial to short
and medium-length fats. Hydrolysis of the shorter fats is preferred
because it results in the desirable taste of many cheeses.

FRUIT JUICE ENZYMES-

Juices extracted from ripe fruit contain a significant amount of pectin.

Pectin imparts a cloudy appearance to the juice that many consumers
do not find appealing, it also makes fruit juice unstable.
Enzymes increase processing capacity and improve economy in the fruit
juice and wine industries. The most commonly used enzymes in these
industries are pectinases. Pectinases increase juice yields and accelerate
juice clarification. Pectinases are naturally occurring enzymes that act
on pectin yielding a crystal clear juice with the appearance, stability,
mouth-feel, taste, and texture characteristics preferred by consumers.
While pectinases naturally occur in most fruits used to make juice, the
manufacturer often adds more to produce clear juice in a reasonable
span of time.

ENZYMES FOR LEATHER-

One of the oldest applications of industrial enzymes is processing hides

and skins for leather. Hides and skins contain proteins and fat in
between collagen fibers and before tanning; these substances should be
partially and fully removed. The proteins can be removed by proteases
and lipases as well as other chemicals can remove the fat. Today,
proteases and lipases are mainly used for soaking, bating and enzyme
assisted un-hairing. Using lipases to dissolve and remove fat is a recent
development and lipases are now extensively used for leather processing
in many parts of the world.
BATING
To make leather pliable, the hides and skins require an enzymatic
treatment before tanning know as bating. During bating, scud is
loosened and other unwanted proteins are removed. Bating de-swells
swollen pelts and prepares leather for tanning. It makes the grain
surface of the finished leather clean, smooth and fine. Bating with
proteases is an indispensable operation of leather processing to obtain
best quality of leather and cannot be substituted with a chemical
process.

Traditional methods for bating employed manure of dog, pigeon or hen.

These were very unpleasant, unreliable and slow methods. Bio-technical
developments in science have now completely replaced these methods
with use of industrial enzymes (mostly proteases).

SOAKING
Soaking is first important operation of leather processing. Hides and
skins received into a tannery are in the four conditions, as green or
fresh, as wet salted, as dry salted or as dried. It is advisable to carry out
soaking for all types of skin and hides to obtain best quality leather.
Soaking cleans hides and skins by removing dirt, blood, flesh, grease,
dung etc. and most importantly, re-hydrates them to bring skins as far
as possible back to state of green hides. Soaking agents fall into three
categories, like Chemical Agents, Surface-active agents and enzymatic
agents.

Enzymatic agents are biocatalyst. Specific protease and lipase enzymes

enhance water uptake by dissolving intrafibrillary proteins that cement
fibres together and disperse fats and oils together with dirt and other
contaminants present on skin.

UN-HAIRING
The conventional and most wide spread way to remove hair from
bovine hides is to use lime and sodium sulphide in a hair-burning
process. They dissolve the hair and open up the fibre structure. Most
importantly, enzyme-assisted un-hairing results in a cleaner grain
surface and improved area yield and softness. Proteases are used in
unhairing process.

DEGREASING-
Lipases are a type of enzyme that specifically degrades fat and so cannot
damage the leather itself. Lipases hydrolyse not just the fat on the
outside of the hides and skins, but also the fat inside the skin structure.
Once most of the natural fat has been removed, subsequent chemical
treatments such as tanning, re-tanning and dyeing have a better effect.

The main advantages of using lipases are a more uniform colour and a
cleaner appearance. Lipases also improve the production of
hydrophobic (waterproof) leather; Lipases represent a more
environmentally sound method of removing fat.

CATTLE FEED ENZYMES -

Animal feed is composed of plant material, cereals and vegetable

proteins, which cannot be fully digested and utilized by animals.
However, feed utilization and digestion can often be increased by the
addition of external enzymes to the feed.

Many cereals have a proportion of their energy in the form of nonstarch

polysaccharides (NSPs), more commonly known as fibre. Enzymes are
to break down these NSPs, which lead in increase of metabolisable
energy and protein utilization.
In some cereals, a large part of the NSP is soluble and causes high
viscosity in the small intestine of a monogastric animal. As a result,
digestion becomes impaired. Selected microbial enzymes can partially
degrade this NSP, lowering viscosity in the intestine and improving feed
utilization.

Many vegetable protein sources, such as soybean meal, also contain

NSP. The addition of selected microbial enzymes can be used to break
down the NSP and make it available to the animal. Just as with cereals,
the metabolisable energy and protein utilization for vegetable protein
sources can be improved by using the correct combination of amylases
and proteases.

In almost all plant material used for animal feed, a large part of the
mineral phosphorus is bound in the form of phytic acid, which cannot
be degraded by monogastric animals. Phytase liberates part of the
bound phosphorus and makes it possible to reduce the phosphorus
content of the feed by 25-30%.

ENZYMES FOR POLUTRY FEED-

The main cost in the raising of poultry is the feed, which is mainly
cereal-based. Maize (corn) has a low content of soluble NSPs and is
considered to be an ideal cereal. Other cereals contain higher amounts
of NSPs that normally impair feed utilization. It is possible to partially
degrading these NSPs with selected enzymes acting on specific raw
materials. For example, when using a standard dose of the xylanase
enzymes for poultry feed, the metabolisable energy value for wheat
increases.

Some cereals are also avoided in poultry diets due to the adverse effects
caused by NSP. Barley is a prime example because inclusion of more
than 10% barley in broiler diets gives rise to wet and sticky droppings
as well as reduced growth rates. This is due to beta glucan, a soluble,
high viscosity NSP located in the cell walls of the barley grain. By
adding microbial enzymes to the barley based feed, the NSP could be
degraded giving an improvement in droppings, better feed utilization
and faster growth rate.

CONCLUSION
Global sales of enzymes for industrial use totaled $1,498.0 million in
2004 and will finish out 2005 at $1,557.0 million, according to a new
study released by Business Communications Co., Inc. (BCC, Norwalk,
CT). Global sales are projected to reach $1,820.3 million, for an average
annual growth rate of 4.0% (compounded) during this period.

Prospects for industrial applications of enzymes look bright, according

to Philip Rotheim, author of the study. Providing the expected growth
are increased market penetration in existing applications, new
applications, and new technologies improving the performance
characteristics to make enzymes more attractive to industry.

Food and feed applications dominate industrial enzyme sales on a

worldwide basis

In the detergents sector, enzyme market penetration is nearly complete,

especially in laundry detergents. Dishwashing detergents still offer room
for growth
In the textiles sector, enzymes for cellulosic material dominates. Owing
to a fashion change, the market for enzymes that process denim, which
creates the "stonewashed" look, is expected to stall. On the other hand,
new types of cellulosic fiber being introduced to the market are expected
to pull up the market for enzymes need for their processing.

WORLD INDUSTRIAL ENZYME SALES ($ Millions)

AAGR %,
Market Sector 2003 2004 2005 97-02
Food and animal feed 705.0 729.7 833.1 3.5
Detergents/cleaners 475.2 498.0 600.9 4.8
Textiles, leather, fur 161.0 164.2 182.7 2.0
Pulp and paper 97.6 104.3 136.0 6.9
Chemicals 59.2 60.8 67.6 2.7
Total 1,498.0 1,557.0 1,820.3 19.9

Source: BCC report C-147NA: "Enzymes for Industrial Applications

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2. Enzymes. Wikipedia, the free encycopedia.htm.
3. Industrial application of enzymes Background paper .industrial application
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David.P.Leader The Biochemistry of Nucleic Acids.
5. Enzymes:kinetics. Harper’s Biochemistry