Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 655–669

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Experimental analysis and modelling of bolted T-stubs under cyclic loads

Vincenzo Piluso ∗ , Gianvittorio Rizzano
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Ponte don Melillo, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy

Received 29 January 2007; accepted 8 December 2007

Abstract

Bolted connections have recently attracted new research efforts after the unexpected failures of welded connections during Northridge and Kobe
earthquakes. The criteria and the formulations for predicting the rotational stiffness and the flexural resistance, under static loading conditions, of
the most common connection typologies have been codified by Eurocode 3 [CEN. EN 1993-1-8 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures — Part
1.8 Design of joints. 2005] which is based on the so-called component approach. In order to extend the component approach to the prediction
of the seismic response of partial-strength connections, the modelling of the cyclic response of the joint components is necessary. Starting from
the observation that the main sources of deformability and plastic deformation capacity of bolted connections can be modelled by means of an
equivalent T-stub, an experimental program devoted to the cyclic response of the most important component of bolted connections has been carried
out aiming at the modelling of the cyclic force–displacement curve of bolted T-stubs. In this paper, starting from the analysis of the results of
the experimental tests performed, stiffness and strength degradation rules are derived as a function of the displacement amplitude required at any
cycle and of the energy dissipated in the previous loading history. The combination of these rules with the theoretical prediction of the monotonic
envelope leads to a proposal for predicting the cyclic behaviour of bolted T-stubs starting from the knowledge of their geometrical and mechanical
properties.
c 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cyclic model; Experimental behaviour; Joint component

1. Introduction means of though material, the large strain demands occurring

Regarding the ability of beam-to-column joints in providing
sufficient plastic rotation supply and energy dissipation
capacity for seismic design applications, the use of rigid full-
strength connections is commonly suggested. In such a case,
it is expected that energy dissipation occurs at the beam ends
by means of cyclic inelastic bending, so that dynamic inelastic
analyses require the modelling of the cyclic response of the
beams where plastic hinges develop.
In the aftermath of 1994 Northridge and 1995 Kobe
earthquakes, due to the unexpected numerous failures of
welded connections, it has been recognized that conventional
fully welded moment connections exhibit inherent drawbacks
related to the connection geometry which promotes large strain
demands in critical areas such as those close to the weld access
holes. Typical welded connection details are prone to fracture,
because even if the welds are properly executed and made by
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 089 964108; fax: +39 089 964045.
E-mail address: v.piluso@unisa.it (V. Piluso).
during severe seismic events can lead to the tearing of the base
metal starting from the web cope.
Two main strategies have been suggested to improve the
plastic rotation supply of welded moment connections. The
first strategy is the strengthening of the critical area close
to the column flange by increasing the redundancy of the
welded connection by means of welded haunches, reinforcing
ribs, cover plates, etc. [21,19,32–34,23]. The second strategy
is the weakening of the beam section close to the beam-to-
column connection (RBS connections) to promote the yielding
of the beam end and exploit its plastic rotation capacity [14].
These strategies can be also conveniently used for seismic
rehabilitation purposes [36,37].
An alternative design approach is based on dissipating the
earthquake input energy through the cyclic response of the
connecting elements of bolted beam-to-column joints. In fact,
an appropriate joint semi-rigid design can lead to a plastic
rotation supply compatible with the plastic rotation demand
under seismic motion. To this scope, the designer has to be
aware that the overall joint ductility and energy dissipation

c 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

0143-974X/$ - see front matter

doi:10.1016/j.jcsr.2007.12.009
656 V. Piluso, G. Rizzano / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 655–669
capacity is provided by the contribution of all the components
engaged in plastic range [20].
Bolted connections have been used for decades and have
performed well in past earthquakes [35]. The unexpected
failures of welded connections in steel moment frames in the
Northridge and Kobe earthquakes gave impetus for renewed
research into the use of bolted semi-rigid ductile connections
for high seismic areas [27].
Bolted connections often behave as semi-rigid connections
so that their modelling requires many issues to be faced. In
particular, an accurate analysis of seismic resistant semi-rigid
frames requires the complete knowledge of the connection
rotational behaviour in terms of stiffness, resistance, plastic
rotation supply and cyclic response.
On the basis of the component approach, Eurocode 3
provides the rules for predicting the rotational stiffness and
the flexural resistance of bolted beam-to-column connections.
These provisions allow the design of semi-rigid steel frames,
under monotonic loading conditions, taking into account
the actual rotational behaviour of beam-to-column joints.
Conversely, regarding cyclic loading conditions, such as those
occurring under seismic motion, the state of knowledge is still
not sufficient to allow the prediction of the beam-to-column
joint behaviour starting from their geometrical and mechanical
properties. As a consequence, reference is commonly made
to pre-qualified structural details whose ability in developing
wide and stable hysteresis loops has been demonstrated by
experimental evidence.
It is clear that the knowledge of the joint cyclic behaviour
and its modelling represents a fundamental point when the
frame design is based on the dissipation of the seismic input
energy in the connecting elements.
Many research programs on the cyclic behaviour of beam-to-
column connections have been carried out worldwide [3,5,29,
9,1] aiming at the identification of the behavioural parameters
governing the cyclic response and at the modelling of the hys-
teretic behaviour [8,11,3,2]. In addition, many efforts have been
spent to analyse the low cycle fatigue [25,12,13,28,3,6,4,16].
Most of the mentioned works deals with the overall joint
behaviour and its modelling. This approach does not allow an
easy identification of the contribution of each component and,
as a consequence, of the role played by the geometrical and
mechanical parameters. A different approach can be based on
the observation that the cyclic behaviour of beam-to-column
joints can be predicted by properly combining the cyclic
response of its basic components. This approach represents
the extension to the cyclic behaviour of the component
approach widely investigated in the case of monotonic loading
conditions.
The components governing the cyclic response of partially
restrained bolted connections have been identified so that the
idea of predicting the cyclic response of connections starting
from the knowledge of the cyclic response of their basic
components has given impetus for research, both experimental
analysis and modelling, on isolated joint components [16,17,
35,22,24]. In particular, Swanson and Leon [35] have tested
48 isolated T-stubs with the primary goal of developing design
rules for T-stub connections that would result in a full-strength
connection, ductile behaviour and a connection stiffness close
to the full restraint range. In addition, they tested also six
full-scale beam-to-column joints indicating that the T-stubs in
the full-scale tests behaved very similarly to those tested as
components.
Kasai and Xu [24] carried out a test program on 34 isolated
bolted T-stubs focusing their attention mainly on the low cycle
fatigue models and on the influence of the loading history on
the effectiveness of the application of the Miner’s rule.
An accurate prediction of the joint rotational behaviour
under cyclic loads, based on the component approach, requires
the preliminary characterization of the cyclic behaviour of the
joint components. For this reason, an experimental program
devoted to the analysis of the cyclic behaviour of the most
important component of bolted connections, i.e. bolted T-stubs,
has been performed at Salerno University. In this work, the
results of this experimental program are summarized and the
preliminary models for predicting the cyclic response of such
fundamental component are presented and discussed.
2. Experimental results
The aim of the research program consists in the modelling
of the cyclic behaviour of the most important joint components
aiming at the prediction of the overall joint rotational
behaviour starting from the knowledge of their geometrical
and mechanical properties. The experimental program, herein
presented, consists in the analysis of the cyclic behaviour of the
components namely, according to Eurocode 3, “column flange
in bending”, “end plate in bending” and “bolts in tension”.
However, the results are obviously of concern also for T-stub
connections (T-stub component) which are not directly covered
by Eurocode 3.
All these components can be modelled by means of an
equivalent T-stub according to Eurocode 3. The selection of
the specimens to be tested has been carried out aiming at
the investigation of the influence of the typical failure modes
of bolted T-stubs. To this scope, reference has been made to
Eurocode 3 approach which is herein briefly summarized.
A simple bolted T-stub is an elementary connection where
the flanges are connected by means of two bolts only, i.e. with
only one bolt row. According to Eurocode 3 approach, this
simple connection can fail according to three possible collapse
mechanisms (Fig. 1). The parameter β Rd governing the collapse
mechanism typology is related to the ratio between the flexural
strength of the flanges and the axial strength of the bolts:
4M f.Rd
β Rd = (1)
2B Rd m
where M f.Rd is the design flexural resistance of the T-stub
flanges, B Rd is the design axial resistance of the single bolt
and m is the distance between the bolt axis and the section
corresponding to the flange-to-web fillet where the formation
of a plastic hinge can be expected. According to Eurocode 3,
m = d − 0.8r where d is the distance between the bolt axis and
 V. Piluso, G. Rizzano / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 655–669
Fig. 1. Failure modes of bolted T-stubs.
the face of the T-stub web and r is the radius of the flange-to-
web connection.
Type-1 mechanism (Fig. 1a) is characterized by the
formation of four plastic hinges. Two hinges are located at the
bolt axes, due to the bending moment caused by the prying
forces. The remaining hinges are located at the flange-to-web
connection. The corresponding design resistance is given by:
4M f.Rd
F1.Rd = . (2)
m
Type-2 mechanism (Fig. 1b) is characterized by the formation
of two plastic hinges located at the sections corresponding
to the flange-to-web connection and by the fracture of the
bolts. Prying forces Q arise producing an increase in the bolt
internal action which leads to the bolt failure before the flange
yielding at the sections corresponding to the bolt axis. The
corresponding design resistance is given by:
2M f.Rd + 2B Rd n
F2.Rd =
m+n
where n is the distance between the bolt axis and the location
of the prying force.
Finally, type-3 mechanism (Fig. 1c) corresponds to the bolt
failure only. This means that there are no prying forces, so that
the connected plates are completely detached.
In this case, the design resistance of the T-stub is given by:
F3.Rd = 2B Rd .
The design resistance of the T-stub is computed as the smallest
value among the examined failure modes. As already stated,
the occurrence of a given mechanism typology is governed by
the parameter β Rd . This is graphically represented in Fig. 2, in
nondimensional form, for a given value of λ = n/m (λ = 1 in
the figure).
The computation of M f.Rd is based on an appropriate
definition of the effective width of the T-stub flanges.
657
Fig. 2. Collapse mechanism ranges.
The criteria for evaluating such an effective width, depending
on the bolt row location, are given by Eurocode 3.
Tested specimens are constituted by the coupling of T
(3)
elements connected through the flanges by means of two high
strength bolts (class 8.8) as shown in Fig. 3. The bolt diameter is
equal to 20 mm. The T elements can be divided into two groups.
The first group is constituted by elements obtained from rolled
profiles of steel grade Fe430 by cutting along the web plane,
while the second group is based on T elements composed by
welding.
The experimental program has required the testing of 28
(4)
specimens, 7 derived from an HEA180 profile (series HEA180),
7 from an HEB180 profile (series HEB180), 7 composed by
welding with flange thickness equal to 12 mm (series W12) and
7 composed by welding with flange thickness equal to 18 mm
(series W18). With reference to each series of specimens, 1
monotonic test, 5 constant amplitude cyclic tests and 1 variable
amplitude cyclic test have been carried out. All the tests have
been performed under displacement control. With reference to
the notation of Fig. 3, the measured values of the geometrical
658 V. Piluso, G. Rizzano / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 655–669
Table 1
Measured geometrical properties of tested specimens
Series Test B (mm) b (mm)
Fig. 3. Tested specimens.
properties of the specimens are given in Table 1. Regarding the
pre-stressing of the bolts, the bolt tightening was executed by
means of a calibrated wrench to assure a bolt pre-stressing force
equal to the 80% of the bolt yield axial force.
The experimental tests have been carried out at the
Material and Structure Laboratory of the Department of Civil
Engineering of Salerno University. Under displacement control,
all the specimens have been subjected to a tensile axial force
which is applied to the webs tightened by the jaws of the testing
machine, a Schenck Hydropuls S56 (maximum test load 630
kN, piston stroke ±125 mm). In addition, coupon tensile tests
have been performed to establish the mechanical properties of
t f (mm) tw (mm) r (a) (mm) m (mm) n (mm)
Table 2
Measured material mechanical properties
Series Ao (mm2 ) εu (%) f y (N/mm2 ) f u (N/mm2 ) C
the material. The values of the main mechanical properties are
given in Table 2.
The main purpose of the monotonic tests is the evaluation of
the plastic deformation capacity of the specimens whose value
has been used to establish the range of the amplitude values
to be adopted in cyclic tests. The results of all the monotonic
tests are presented in Fig. 4. The behaviour of bolted T-stubs
under monotonic loading conditions has been the subject of
previous experimental programs which have led to the setting
up of accurate models for predicting the initial stiffness of
bolted T-stubs [15] and the whole force–displacement curve up
to failure [30]. For this reason, in the following, the attention
will be devoted only to the issues regarding the modelling of
the cyclic response.
However, it is important to underline that specimens of
series HEA180 and W12 have collapsed, under monotonic
loading condition, according to a mechanism characterized
by significant yielding of the flanges at the flange-to-web
connection zone and at the bolt axis. So that, despite of the
 V. Piluso, G. Rizzano / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 655–669
Fig. 4. Results of Monotonic Tests.
final collapse is due to the bolt failure which prevents the
complete development of a second plastic hinge close to the
bolts, it can be stated that such specimens exhibit a type-1
collapse mechanism, i.e. flange yielding, according to Eurocode
3. Conversely, the other series of specimens, i.e. HEB180
series and W18 series, are characterized by minor yielding of
the flanges and by significant plastic engage of the bolts. In
particular, with reference to the series W18, Fig. 4 shows a
monotonic curve with a softening branch which corresponds to
the necking of the bolts.
The application of the formulations suggested by Eurocode 3
[7], for predicting the resistance and the collapse mechanism of
bolted T-stubs, provides for such specimens a type-2 collapse
mechanism, i.e. flange yielding with bolt fracture. However,
it is important to underline that, according to experimental
evidence, W18 specimen exhibits a type-3 collapse mechanism,
i.e. bolt fracture only. This disagree is probably due to the fact
that Eurocode 3 formulations do not account for the flexural
engage of the bolts resulting from the deformation of the T-stub
flanges which, due to compatibility, is followed by the bolts.
Regarding the cyclic tests, the differences between the
behaviour of the different groups of specimens are emphasized
in the following. In fact, with reference to specimens of
HEA180 and W12 series, all the specimens exhibited the
same failure mode independent of the imposed displacement
amplitude. Cracking of flanges initially developed in the central
part of the flange at the flange-to-web connection zone. The
number of the cycles corresponding to the development of the
first cracking was dependent on the displacement amplitude
of the cyclic test, being as much greater as smaller is the
displacement amplitude. By increasing the number of cycles
these cracks progressively propagated towards the flange edges
up to the complete fracture of one flange which produces the
complete loss of the load carrying capacity (Fig. 5).
This behaviour gave rise to a progressive deterioration, up
to failure, of axial strength, stiffness and energy dissipation
capacity, as it is testified in Figs. 6 and 7. It is important
to underline that, for these series of specimens, the collapse
mechanism under cyclic loading condition is different from
that shown under monotonic tests, where the yielding of the
659
Fig. 5. Failure mode of the specimen under cyclic tests.
flanges was accompanied by the bolt fracture. On the contrary,
with reference to specimens of HEB180 and W18 series, due to
relevant plastic deformations of the bolts, the cyclic behaviour
is characterized by horizontal slips before reloading. During
these slips the axial force is equal to zero up to the recovery of
the bolt plastic deformation before reloading (Figs. 8 and 9). In
particular, these slips are very large for W18 specimens (Fig. 9).
The failure mode of specimens B7-HEB180 and D4-W18 was
characterized by the fracture of the bolts which, conversely,
never occurred in HEA series and W12 series subjected to
cyclic loading. D3-W18 specimen prematurely failed due to the
cracking of the web-to-flange connection which prevented the
development of the typical collapse mechanism. For this reason,
this specimen has not been included in the following analysis.
Finally, all the other specimens failed as already described with
reference to HEA and W12 series.
Figs. 6–9 are composed by six sub-figures. Five sub-
figures refer to the testing results under constant displacement
amplitude, while last sub-figure provides the results for a
variable displacement amplitude cyclic test. Even though it is
outside of the aim of this paper, the obtained results provide
also information of the low cycle behaviour of bolted T-stubs.
The low cycle fatigue curve could be easily obtained by the
above experimental results.
3. Energy dissipation capacity
With reference to the identification of the failure condition,
there is not a criterion universally recognized. Generally
reference is made to the deterioration of strength, stiffness
or energy dissipation capacity. The influence of the failure
criterion on the low cycle fatigue curve of bolted T-stubs has
been analysed in a previous work by the same authors [16].
Herein, a degradation of the energy dissipation capacity equal
to 50% of the energy dissipated during the first cycle has been
assumed as failure condition.
It can be observed that the prediction of the T-stub energy
dissipation capacity under cyclic loads cannot be based on the
energy dissipated in monotonic tests. This is due to the fact that
the failure mode under monotonic loading conditions can be
different from that occurring under cyclic loads. For this reason,
the energy dissipation corresponding to the conventional failure
condition has been related to the energy E o dissipated in
660 V. Piluso, G. Rizzano / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 655–669

Fig. 6. Behaviour of specimens belonging to A series.

the monotonic test up to the achievement of a displacement
amplitude corresponding to that of the cyclic test.
As the failure under cyclic loads is generally characterized
by the complete fracture of one of the T-stub flanges, the
corresponding monotonic failure mode is a collapse mechanism
involving the T-stub flanges only. With reference to this
mechanism, it has been recognized [30,31] that the theoretical
value of the ultimate plastic displacement of a couple of bolted
T-stubs is given by:
m2
δ p.th = C (5)
tf
where m is the distance between the bolt axis and the section
corresponding to the flange-to-web connection (Fig. 1), t f is
the flange thickness and C is a constant depending on the
true stress–true strain curve of the material. Starting from the
results of the coupon tensile tests, the values of C have been
computed for each series of specimens and are given in Table 2
where the values of the ultimate natural strain εu (εu = ln AA0f
being A0 the original cross-sectional area of the specimen and
A f the minimum cross-sectional area after fracture) are also
given.
The plastic part δ p of the displacement amplitude δ of the
cyclic tests can be properly expressed in nondimensional form
 V. Piluso, G. Rizzano / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 655–669 661

Fig. 7. Behaviour of specimens belonging to C series.

by means of the parameter: the tests on HEA160 and HEA220 performed by the same
authors in a previous work [18], the following relationship has
δp δp · t f
δ= = . (6) been obtained (Fig. 10):
δ p.th 2 · C · m2
t f δ p −ψ2
 
E cc
Regarding the energy dissipation capacity E cc exhibited = ψ1 (8)
under constant amplitude cyclic tests, it can be properly E0 2Cm 2
nondimensionalized considering the parameter: where the coefficients ψ1 and ψ2 are equal to 2.081 and 1.212
with a correlation coefficient equal to 0.85.
E cc
E= . (7) A similar relationship has been derived for welded
Eo specimens. In this case, the coefficients ψ1 and ψ2 are equal
On the base of these considerations and by means of a to 0.485 and 1.117 with a correlation coefficient equal to
regression analysis of the experimental results regarding the 0.73. It can be observed that the prediction of the energy
specimens constituted by rolled profiles and considering also dissipation capacity of T-stubs with welded specimens, deserve
662 V. Piluso, G. Rizzano / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 655–669

Fig. 8. Behaviour of specimens belonging to B series.

further investigations due to the limited amount of experimental
information.
4. Behavioural parameters and model
The aim of the model presented in this paper is the prediction
of the cyclic behaviour of bolted T-stubs starting from the
knowledge of their geometrical and mechanical properties. To
this scope the monotonic force–displacement curve has to be
preliminarily predicted. Such prediction can be developed by
means of a theoretical approach presented by the same authors
in a previous work [30,31].
As soon as the monotonic behaviour has been predicted, the
cyclic behaviour of bolted T-stubs can be modelled provided
that the rules for strength and stiffness degradation and for
the pinching of the hysteresis loops are derived. It can be
observed from experimental results (Figs. 6 and 7) that the
point corresponding to the load inversion remains practically
unchanged during the loading process. These points (A and D
in Fig. 11) can be identified starting from the maximum load
achieved in the first cycle and by the initial stiffness. Therefore,
the unloading branch is strictly identified for all the cycles,
provided that the strength degradation law is known.
As already underlined in the previous sections, the cyclic
behaviour of specimens collapsing, under monotonic loading,
 V. Piluso, G. Rizzano / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 655–669 663

Fig. 9. Behaviour of specimens belonging to D series.

according to mechanism type-1 is different from that of amplitude. The following relationship has been obtained:
specimens collapsing, under monotonic loading, according
δmax a2 E ci a3
   
to mechanism type-2 or mechanism type-3. For this reason, Fi
= 1 − a1 (9)
the degradation laws of resistance and stiffness and the Fmax 2δ y E cc
model have to be appropriately defined for each mechanism
where E ic is the energy cumulated up to the i-th cycle and δmax
typology.
is the displacement amplitude (Fig. 11). The coefficients a1 , a2
and a3 , obtained by minimizing the scatter between the values
Mechanism type-1 of Fi /Fmax predicted by means of Eq. (9) and the corresponding
experimental values, are given in Table 3.
On the basis of a regression analysis of the experimental The displacement δ y corresponds to the limit of the elastic
results, for each cycle the load degradation has been related range and is equal to the ratio Fy /K 0 between the force
to the corresponding cumulated energy and displacement corresponding to first yielding and the initial stiffness without
664 V. Piluso, G. Rizzano / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 655–669

be assumed equal to:

Fmax
tan α = . (10)
δmax − 2 FKmax
0

In addition, in order to completely describe the pinching

phenomenon, the knowledge of the stiffness K i of the first part
of the reloading branch is necessary (Fig. 11). On the basis of
a regression analysis of the experimental results, the following
relationship has been derived:

δmax b2 E ic b3
   
Ki
= 1 − b1 (11)
K0 2δ y E cc
where the coefficients b1 , b2 and b3 , obtained by minimizing
the scatter between the values of K i /K o predicted by means of
Eq. (11) and the corresponding experimental values, are given
Fig. 10. Energy dissipation versus displacement amplitude. in Table 3.
It is useful to observe that 2δ y is the threshold amplitude of δ
beyond which degradation phenomena begin (Fig. 11). Eq. (11)
is characterized by a coefficient of correlation equal to 0.86 for
rolled specimens and 0.81 for welded specimens.
As a conclusion, the modelling of the cyclic behaviour of
bolted T-stubs requires the following steps:
• prediction of the monotonic force–displacement curve [30];
• computation of the energy E 0 dissipated under monotonic
conditions up to the displacement δmax ;
• estimation, through Eq. (8), of the energy dissipation
capacity under cyclic loading condition for the imposed
displacement amplitude δmax ;
• computation of the force Fmax corresponding on the
monotonic F–δ curve to the displacement amplitude δmax
of the imposed cyclic action;
• definition of the strength degradation rule by means of Eq.
(9);
• definition of the stiffness degradation rule and of the
Fig. 11. Cyclic model for type-1 mechanism. pinching phenomenon by means of Eq. (11) and of the
parameter α given by Eq. (10).
Table 3
Degradation laws parameters for type-1 mechanism It can be recognized that the empirical part of the above
modelling of the T-stub cyclic behaviour is constituted only
a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3
by the strength and stiffness degradation rules, given by
Rolled section 0.086 0.716 3.029 0.693 0.126 0.099 Eqs. (9) and (11). The parameters K 0 , Fmax and α can be
Welded section 0.345 0.158 3.595 0.849 0.053 0.137
theoretically predicted starting from the theoretical prediction
of the monotonic F–δ curve [30].
bolt pre-loading which is exhibited in the experimental curve In order to verify the reliability of the proposed model, the
during unloading. Eq. (9) is characterized by a coefficient of comparison with the experimental results has been performed.
correlation equal to 0.86 for rolled specimens and 0.96 for From the qualitative point of view, Fig. 12 shows an example
welded specimens. of the degree of accuracy of the model in predicting the
It can be observed that the stiffness degradation and the cyclic behaviour. However, the reliability of the model can be
pinching phenomenon are promoted by the detachment of better verified by means of a comparison in terms of energy
the flanges at the bolt axis due to the plastic flexural and dissipation. In Fig. 13, the results of this comparison are
extensional deformation of the bolts. The reloading branch can shown. It can be observed that, for all the experimental tests,
be approximated by means of two straight lines with a different the scatters between the experimental values of the energy
slope (Fig. 11). The point C, corresponding to the intersection dissipation and the ones predicted by means of the proposed
of the two straight lines, is approximately lined up with the model, are not particularly significant and always on the safe
point A which corresponds to the inversion of the load sign and side.
with the point B (Fig. 11). Therefore, the slope of the straight With reference to cyclic tests with variable displacement
line connecting the above mentioned points (A, B and C) can amplitude, each test is characterized by several series of three
 V. Piluso, G. Rizzano / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 655–669
Fig. 12. Modelling for type-1 mechanism.
Fig. 13. Accuracy of the proposed model.
cycles having constant amplitude. In the modelling, the increase
of the cyclic displacement amplitude, requires the evaluation
of the maximum load by means of the predicted monotonic
envelope and of the energy dissipation capacity by means of Eq.
(8). Fig. 14 shows, from the qualitative point of view, the degree
of accuracy of the model in predicting the cyclic behaviour
while Fig. 15 provides the comparison between the model and
the experimental tests in terms of energy dissipation. Also in
this case, it can be observed an acceptable degree of accuracy.
665
Fig. 14. Modelling of variable amplitude tests.
Fig. 15. Accuracy of the model for variable amplitude tests.
Mechanism type-2 or type-3
As already underlined, the specimens failing under
monotonic loading conditions according to either mechanism
type-2 or mechanism type-3 exhibit, under cyclic loading,
a typical horizontal slip. For these mechanism typologies,
the cyclic model, depicted in Fig. 16, is proposed. It is
similar to that corresponding to type-1 mechanism, where the
horizontal slips have been introduced and new stiffness and
strength degradation laws are considered. To this scope, Eq.
(11) for stiffness and Eq. (9) for strength degradation can
still be adopted with the coefficients given in Table 4. The
coefficient of correlation of strength degradation laws is equal
to 0.76 and 0.93 for rolled and welded specimens, respectively.
The coefficient of correlation of stiffness degradation laws is
equal to 0.72 and 0.95, respectively. With reference to the
horizontal slip, it can be observed that in the case of rolled
specimens, exhibiting a type-2 mechanism, the horizontal slip
increases as far as the number of cycles increases while, in
the case of welded specimens, exhibiting a type-3 mechanism,
the horizontal slip is practically constant. For this reason,
with reference to rolled specimens, by means of a regression
666 V. Piluso, G. Rizzano / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 655–669

Fig. 17. Comparison between model and test results.

Fig. 16. Cyclic model for type-2 and type-3 mechanism.

Table 4
Degradation laws parameters for type 2 and 3 mechanisms

a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3
Rolled section 0.380 0.025 1.867 0.872 0.008 0.037
Welded section 0.483 −0.168 1.089 0.805 0.098 0.020

analysis, the following relationship has been obtained:

 
E ic
δslip = a + b ln (12)
E cc
where, the coefficients a and b are given, for the unloading
range, by:

a = 0.143(δmax )1.008
(13)
b = 0.001(δmax )2.549
while, for the reloading range, are given by:
2
a = 0.0075δmax − 0.0306δmax − 0.0069
2
(14)
b = 0.0079δmax − 0.0989δmax − 0.3374.
With reference to welded specimens, the value of the
horizontal slip, independently of the energy dissipation, is
given, for the unloading range, by:
δslip = 0.3375δmax − 1.9373 (15) Fig. 18. Accuracy of the model for type-2 and type-3 mechanism.

while, for the reloading range, is given by: 5. Model validation

δslip = 0.0072δmax
2
− 0.1373δmax + 0.6239.
From the qualitative point of view, the model appears
sufficiently accurate (Fig. 17). Moreover, the accuracy of the
model is also pointed out by the comparison in terms of
energy dissipation (Fig. 18). It can be observed that, for all the
experimental tests, the scatters between the experimental values
of the energy dissipation and the ones predicted by means of the
proposed model are not significant.
(16) In the previous section, the presented comparisons between
the predictions coming from the proposed model and the
cyclic response coming from experimental evidence regard the
authors own test results which have been used for calibrating
strength and stiffness degradation rules. Therefore, the model
validation requires the analyses of experimental data different
from those adopted for model calibration purposes.
In order to validate the proposed model, the experimental
tests performed by Deng et al. [10] have been considered.
 V. Piluso, G. Rizzano / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 655–669 667

Fig. 19. Model versus test results for specimen TC2.

Table 5
Isolated T-stubs tested by Deng et al. [10]

Component Material t, φ (mm) ε y (%) εu (%) εu /ε y f y (MPa) f u (MPa) fu / f y

TC-2 End plate 12. 0.15 28.60 191 293 448 1.53
Weld 5.4 0.20 8.08 40 521 640 1.23
TC-3 End plate 18. 0.15 22.22 148 316 450 1.42
Weld 5.4 0.21 7.20 34 542 646 1.19
Bolt – 20. 0.43 4.5 10 888 947 1.07

The joints under investigation are isolated bolted T-stubs (ITS)
composed by welding. Two geometrical configurations of
bolted T-stubs were tested by the authors both under monotonic
and under variable amplitude alternate displacement. The cyclic
tests (TC2 and TC3) were carried out in accordance with
the ECCS recommendations (1986). ITS specimens subjected
to monotonic displacements are characterized with a four
plastic hinges (Type 1) failure according to Eurocode 3
[7]. Conversely in the cyclic displacement regime, besides
to stiffness degradation, strength deterioration and pinching
effects, low cycle fatigue failure happened. In detail, owing to
unavoidable imperfections and defects, a phase encompassing
the initiation and the stable growth of microcracks at the weld
toe took place. Then, a sudden propagation of the crack in
a brittle fracture mode followed, characterized with a low
cycle fatigue collapse. Deng et al. [10] performed also a series
of laboratory tests to characterize the end plate material in
its different microstructural states. Indeed, owing to the filler
metal and the uneven temperature distribution, a welded joint
is a compound of three different metallurgical regions: the
fusion zone, the heat-affected zone (HAZ), and the unaffected
base metal. The HAZ is the area adjacent to the fusion zone
where the material has undergone a thermal cycle that alters
the microstructure of the base material, though it is too low
to determine fusion. In particular, uniaxial tension tests were
conducted on samples extracted from end plates and welds. The
relevant results are collected in Table 5. From this table one may
observe that fillet weld joints exploit by design an overstrength
condition that assures elastic behaviour for the weld metal and
plastic deformation for the base metal.
In order to verify the accuracy of the model presented in the
previous section, the comparison with the experimental results
for TC2 and TC3 specimens has been performed. From the
qualitative point of view, Figs. 19 and 20 show for TC2 and TC3
specimens, respectively, the ability of the model in predicting
the cyclic behaviour.
However, the degree of accuracy of the model can be
better verified by means of a comparison in terms of energy
dissipation. In Fig. 21, the results of this comparison are shown.
It can be observed that, for the two specimens, the scatters
between the experimental values of the energy dissipation and
the ones predicted by means of the proposed model, are not
particularly significant. These scatters are for specimen TC2
always on the safe side. Conversely, in the case of specimen
TC3, the above scatters are on the safe side up to a number of
cycles equal to 50 about, after that there is an overestimation of
the energy dissipation.
6. Conclusions
In this work, the results of an experimental program
devoted to the analysis and modelling of the cyclic behaviour
of the most important components of bolted beam-to-
column joints have been presented. In particular, on the
basis of 28 experimental tests on T-stub assemblages (20
under cyclic loading conditions with constant amplitude, 4
under cyclic loading condition with variable amplitude and
4 under monotonic loading conditions), the stiffness and
strength degradation laws have been derived both in the case
of specimens failing, under monotonic loading conditions,
according to type-1 mechanism and in the case of specimens
668 V. Piluso, G. Rizzano / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 655–669

Fig. 20. Model versus test results for specimen TC3.

Fig. 21. Comparison in terms of energy dissipation capacity.

failing, under monotonic loading conditions, according to either
type-2 or type-3 mechanism. In addition, as the failure mode
under monotonic loading conditions can be different from that
occurring under cyclic loads, the correlation between the energy
dissipation corresponding to the failure condition and the
energy dissipated in monotonic conditions up to a displacement
amplitude equal to that of the cyclic test has been provided.
On the basis of the above analysis, semi-analytical models
for predicting the cyclic behaviour of the T-stub assemblages
starting from their geometrical and mechanical properties have
been developed. Finally, the degree of accuracy of the proposed
models has been pointed out by the good agreement with the
experimental results in terms of energy dissipation capacity.
A preliminary model validation has been performed
considering not only the experimental data adopted for model
parameters calibration, but also the comparison with testing
results due to other researchers.
As soon as the cyclic rotational behaviour of beam-to-
column connections is of concern, it has to be recognized
that the use of the T-stub model to account for the response
of each bolt row is a very simplified approach where all
the three-dimensional effects are considered by means of the
effective width concept. Even though this limitation occurs also
under monotonic loading conditions, for which the component
approach is nowadays completely validated as testified by its
codification in Eurocode 3, according to other researchers,
especially north American researchers, this is the main source
of doubts about the actual possibility of using the T-stub model
and the component approach in low cycle fatigue research.
However, despite of the limited experimental results
available in the technical literature regarding the cyclic
response of isolated connection components, the preliminary
results presented in this paper are encouraging concerning the
possibility of predicting the cyclic behaviour of bolted beam-to-
column joints, starting from the knowledge of their geometrical
and mechanical properties, by means of a component based
approach. Therefore, the forthcoming research activity of the
authors will be aimed at the setting up of a mechanical model
for predicting the connection cyclic rotational response starting
from the knowledge of the cyclic axial response of its basic
components.
Indeed, new experimental tests on bolted beam-to-column
connections under cyclic loads have been recently carried out
by the authors and the cyclic response has been predicted with
sufficient accuracy by means of a mechanical model based on
the component approach [26]. However, the above mentioned
results are outside the scope of this paper and will be presented
in a future work.
 V. Piluso, G. Rizzano / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 655–669
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