Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Part-A) DC & AC Machines

UNIT – II
2. DC & AC Machines

2.1. Electrical Machine

Electrical Machine is a device, which converts one form of energy into another form of
energy. It is majorly classified according to construction as,
1. Static Electrical Machine
2. Rotating Electrical Machine
2.1.1. DC Machine
DC Machine is a rotating type machine and it can acts as,
DC Generator : which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
DC Motor : which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy

2.1.2. Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

First Law:
Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux or magnetic flux cuts the conductor, an
dynamically e.m.f. is induced in that conductor.
Second Law:
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages.

2.1.3. Flemings Right Hand Rule

• The Thumb represents the direction of motion of the conductor.
• The Fore finger represents magnetic Field.
• The Middle finger represents Current.

2.2. Construction details of DC Generator

The basic parts of a DC Generator are as follows
1. Magnetic Frame or Yoke
2. Pole-Cores and Pole-Shoes
3. Pole Coils or Field Coils
4. Armature Core
5. Armature Windings or Conductors
6. Commutator
7. Brushes and Bearings

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Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Part-A) DC & AC Machines

Constructional parts of a DC Generator

2.2.1. Magnetic Frame or Yoke

 Yoke is also called as frame. It provides protection to the

rotating and other parts of the machine from moisture, dust etc.
 Yoke is an iron body which provides the path for flux.
 It provides the mechanical support for the poles.
 Materials used for yoke are cast iron, silicon steel, cast
steel, rolled steel etc.

2.2.2. Pole-Cores and Pole-Shoes

 Pole Core contains field winding which produces the
magnetic flux.
 Pole Core is made up of by cast steel or cast iron.
 Pole core is a Part on which Field Winding is wound over.
 Pole shoe produces a magnetic flux when field winding is
excited.
2.2.3. Pole Coils or Field Coils

 The field winding is also called as exciting winding.

 Current is passed through the field winding in a specific
direction, to magnetize the pole.
 The metal used for the field conductor is copper.

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Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Part-A) DC & AC Machines

2.2.4. Armature Core

 Armature core is having slots and teeth’s which are parallel to the
shaft axis.
 Armature conductors are placed in these slots.
 Armature core provides a low reluctance path to the flux
produced by the field winding.
 Cast steel or cast iron are used for the armature core.

2.2.5. Armature Windings

 Two types of armature windings mostly employed for producing emf are known as,
i. Lap Winding
ii. Wave Winding
 The difference between the two is merely due to the
different arrangement of the end connections at the front or
commutator end of armature.

i. Lap Winding
 It is used in machines designed for low voltage and high current rating windings.
 For lap winding, the two coil-ends of a coil are connected to the two adjacent commutator
segments.
 No of parallel path, A=P ; P = no. of poles
ii. Wave Winding
 It is used in machines designed for high voltage and low current rating and windings
connected in series.
 For wave winding, the two coil-ends of a coil are bent in opposite directions and connected to
commutator segments which two pole-pitches (3600) apart.
 No of parallel path, A=2

2.2.6. Commutator

 The emf induced in the armature conductors of a dc generator is

alternating in nature.
 It is rectified i.e. converts AC into DC in the external load circuits
by slip rings also known as commutator.
 It is made up of two halves separated by an insulating material like
mica.
 The armature conductors are soldered to the commutator Segments.

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Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Part-A) DC & AC Machines

2.2.7. Brushes and Bearings

 The function of brushes to collect current from the
commutator and deliver same to the external load circuit (in case
of dc generator) or the lead the current to it (in case of dc motor)
 Bearing is a device which gives free and smooth rotation to
the armature.
 The function of the bearing is to support the rotating armature
and to reduce the friction.

2.3. Principle of operation of a DC Generator

DC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It works based on the
principle of Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic Induction.
i.e., Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux or magnetic flux cuts the conductor, an e.m.f. is
induced in that conductor.
EMF causes current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
The direction of current, motion and magnetic flux can be observed by Flemings Right Hand Rule.
Hence the most basic tow essential parts of a generator are
i. a magnetic field
ii. conductors which move inside that magnetic field.

In the figure above, a single turn rectangular copper coil placed between two opposite poles of
magnet.
Let's us consider, the rectangular loop of conductor is ABCD which rotates inside the
magnetic field about its own axis ab. When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal
position, it cuts the flux lines of the field. As during this movement two sides, i.e. AB and CD of the
loop cut the flux lines there will be an emf induced in these both of the sides (AB and CD) of the
loop.
As the loop is closed there will be a current circulating through the loop. The direction of the
current can be determined by Fleming's right hand Rule. Now if we apply this right hand rule, we

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Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Part-A) DC & AC Machines

will see at this horizontal position of the loop, current will flow from point A to B, resistive load M
to L and on the other side of the loop current will flow from point C to D.
Now if we allow the loop to move further, it will come again to its vertical position, but now
upper side of the loop will be CD and lower side will be AB (just opposite of the previous vertical
position). At this position the tangential motion of the sides of the loop is parallel to the flux lines of
the field. Hence there will be no question of flux cutting and consequently there will be no current in
the loop. If the loop rotates further, it comes to again in horizontal position. But now, said AB side of
the loop comes in front of N pole and CD comes in front of S pole, i.e. just opposite to the previous
horizontal position as shown in the figure above.
If we observe this phenomena in different way, it can be concluded, that each side of the loop
comes in front of N pole, the current will flow through that side in same direction i.e. downward to
the reference plane and similarly each side of the loop comes in front of S pole, current through it
flows in same direction i.e. upwards from reference plane. From this, we will come to the topic of
principle of DC generator.
Now the loop is opened and connected it with a split ring as shown in the figure below. Split
ring are made out of a conducting cylinder which cuts into two halves or segments insulated from
each other. The external load terminals are connected with two carbon brushes which are rest on
these split slip ring segments.

We can see that in the first half of the revolution current always flows along ABLMCD, i.e.,
brush no 1 in contact with segment ‘a’. In the next half revolution, in the figure, the direction of the
induced current in the coil is reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments ‘a’ and ‘b’
are also reversed which results that brush no 1 comes in touch with the segment b. Hence, the current
in the load resistance again flows from L to M. The waveform of the current through the load circuit
is as shown in the figure. This current is unidirectional.

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Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Part-A) DC & AC Machines

2.4. Generated EMF (or) EMF Equation of a DC Generator

Let us consider,
 = flux/pole (Webers or wb)
Z = Total number of armature conductors
= Number of slots × No. of conductors/slot
P = No. of generator poles
A = No. of parallel paths in armature
N = Armature rotation in revolutions per minute (rpm)
E = e.m.f induced in armature (V)

Generated e.m.f = Eg= e.m.f generated in any one of the parallel paths
dΦ
Average emf generated per conductor = (volts)………(1)
dt
Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution d = P (wb) ………. (2)
No. of revolutions/sec = N/ 60
T ime for one revolution, dt = 60 /N (sec) ………. (3)

According to Faraday’s Law of Electro-magnetic induction

dΦ Φ P N
EMF generated per conductor= = (volts)………(4)
dt 60
No. of conductors (in series) in one parallel path = Z / A
Φ PN Z
∴ EMF generated per path = * (volts)
60 A

ΦZNP
∴ Generated EMF = Eg = (volts)
60 A

Parallel Paths for,

i) Wave winding A = 2
ii) Lap winding A=P

2.5. Open Circuit Characteristics (OCC) or No-Load or Magnetization Characteristics of a DC

Shunt Generator
The OCC of a DC Shunt Generator is used to determine the Critical field Resistance (RC) and
Critical Speed (NC).

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Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Part-A) DC & AC Machines

Circuit Diagram
Steps to plot OCC of a DC Shunt Generator
 Make the connections as per circuit diagram and keep the minimum resistance in Variable
rheostat.
 Adjust the motor field rheostat till the rated speed of the generator is achieved.
 Note down the residual voltage (voltmeter reading).
 Excite the generator field rheostat in steps till the generator builds up to 125% of its rated
voltage and note down the corresponding values of generated emf and the shunt field current.
 Plot the graph between field current (vs) no-load generated emf.

Open Circuit Characteristics

To determine critical field resistance
 After plotting the magnetization characteristics draw a tangent line to its initial portion, which
passes through the origin.
 Calculate the slope of this tangent line, which gives the critical field resistance (Rc) at the
rated speed of the generator.
Δ Eg Eg2 - Eg1
Critical Field Resistance = RC = = (Ω)
Δ If If2 - If1

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Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Part-A) DC & AC Machines

2.6. Principle and Operation of a DC Motor

An electrical motor is a machine which converts electrical energy in to mechanical energy. Its
action is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field,
it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by FLEMINGS LEFT hand rule and
whose magnitude is given by
F = BIL (Newton)
The same DC machine can be operated both like a generator as well as motor. So the
construction of the machine will be same for both DC motor and DC generator.

Fleming Left Hand Rule

If the thumb, middle finger and the index finger of the left hand are displaced from each other
by an angle of 90°,

Middle Finger - represents the direction of the magnetic field

Fore or Index Finger - represents the direction of the current
Thumb Finger - shows the direction of forces acting on the
conductor

While coming to the operation, the armature coil consists the commutators and brushes. The
commutators convert the AC induces in the armature into DC and brushes transfer the current from
rotating part of the motor to the stationary external load. The armature is placed between the North
and South pole of the electromagnet.
Consider that the armature has only one coil which is placed between the magnetic field
shown below in the Figure-i. When the DC supply is given to the armature coil the current starts
flowing through it. This current develops their own magnetic field around the coil. Figure-ii shows
the field induces around the coil.

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Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Part-A) DC & AC Machines

By the interaction of the fields (produces by the coil and the magnet), resultant field develops
across the conductor. The resultant field tends to regain its original position, i.e. in the axis of the
main field. The field exerts the force at the ends of the conductor, and thus the coil starts rotating. It
mean that the Torque is produced in conductor.

2.7. Performance Characteristics of DC Motor

The performance characteristics of a DC motor can be obtained by conducting Brake Test or
Direct Load Test on a DC Motor.

Circuit Diagram of Brake Test on a DC Motor

Steps to plot performance characteristics of a DC Motor
 Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
 Initially keep the field rheostat in minimum resistance position.
 Close the DPST switch and start the motor with the help of 3-point starter.
 Adjust the speed of motor to the rated speed by varying motor field rheostat.
 Gradually apply the load on the motor up to the rated value and note down corresponding
supply voltage, line current, speed and spring field readings.
 Gradually reduce the load to zero, and then open the DPST switch to disconnect the circuit.

Performance Characteristics of a DC Motor

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Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Part-A) DC & AC Machines

Calculations
Let us consider,
V = Input or Terminal voltage (Volts)
I = Line or Load Current (A)
S1 = Spring balance reading-1 (Kg)
S2 = Spring balance reading-2 (Kg)
r = Radius of the brake drum (meters)
N = Speed of the motor (rpm)
Therefore,
T = Torque = 9.81 ( S1  S 2 )  r (N-m)

2π NT
Output power = (watts)
60
Input power = V  I (watts)
Output
%Efficiency =  100 (%)
Input

2.8. Speed Control of DC Motor

The speed control methods for a DC Motor can be classified into two types.
They are,
i. Armature Voltage Control Method (used for below rated speeds control)
ii. Field Flux Control Method (used for above rated speeds control)
2.8.1. Armature Voltage Control Method
The Armature Voltage Control Method is used to control the speeds below the rated speed.
The Circuit is shown in below.

Circuit Diagram of Armature Voltage Speed Control Method

Steps to control the speeds below the rated speed
 Make the connections as per the circuit diagram show in above and keep the motor armature
rheostat at maximum resistance position.

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Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Part-A) DC & AC Machines

 Switch ON the DC supply and start the motor by using the 3-point starter.
 Decrease the external resistance (R) in the armature circuit with the help of armature rheostat
note down voltage across the armature and speed of the motor at each step.
 Disconnect the Circuit from supply.

Voltage versus Speed Characteristics

2.8.2. Field Flux Control Method

The Field Flux Control Method is used to control the speeds above the rated speed. The
Circuit is shown in below.

Circuit Diagram of Field Flux Speed Control Method

Steps to control the speeds above the rated speed

 Make the connections as per the circuit diagram show in above and keep the motor field
rheostat at minimum resistance position.
 Switch ON the DC supply and start the motor by using the 3-point starter.

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Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Part-A) DC & AC Machines

 Increase the external resistance in the field circuit with the help of field rheostat and note
down field current, speed of the motor at each step.
 Disconnect the Circuit from supply.

Field Current versus Speed Characteristics

2.9. Principle and Operation of Single Phase Transformer

A transformer is a static device which transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through the process of electromagnetic induction. It is most commonly used to increase (‘step up’) or
decrease (‘step down’) voltage levels between circuits.
The working principle of a transformer is mutual induction between two or more windings
(also known as coils) allows for electrical energy to be transferred between circuits.

Basic Circuit of a Transformer

Let us say, if we have one winding (also known as a coil) which is supplied by an alternating
current (AC) source. The alternating current through the winding produces a alternating flux that
surrounds the winding. If another winding is placed close to this winding, some portion of this

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Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Part-A) DC & AC Machines

alternating flux will link with the second winding. As this flux is continually changing in its
amplitude and direction, there must be a changing flux linkage in the second winding or coil.
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, there will be an EMF induced in
the second winding. If the circuit of this secondary winding is closed, then a current will flow
through it. This is the basic working principle of a transformer. The winding which receives
electrical power from the source is known as the ‘primary winding’. The winding which is connected
to electrical load is known as the ‘secondary winding’.

Working Principle of a Transformer

A transformer that increases voltage between the primary to secondary windings is defined as
a step-up transformer. Conversely, a transformer that decreases voltage between the primary to
secondary windings is defined as a step-down transformer.
In above diagram, the transformer is theoretically possible in an ideal case. It is not very
practical. This is because in open air only a very tiny portion of the flux produced from the first coil
will link with the second coil. So the current that flows through the closed circuit connected to the
secondary winding will be extremely small (and difficult to measure).
The rate of change of flux linkage depends upon the amount of linked flux with the second
winding. So ideally almost all of the flux of primary winding should link to the secondary winding.
This is effectively and efficiently done by using a core type transformer. This provides a low
reluctance path common to both of the windings.
The purpose of the transformer core is to provide a low reluctance path, through which the
maximum amount of flux produced by the primary winding is passed through and linked with the
secondary winding.

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Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Part-A) DC & AC Machines

2.10. Open Circuit (OC) and Short Circuit (SC) Test on a Transformer
Open and short circuit tests are performed on a transformer to determine the,
 Equivalent circuit of transformer
 Voltage regulation of transformer
 Efficiency of transformer

2.10.1. Open Circuit (OC) Test on a Transformer

The circuit diagram for open circuit test on a transformer is shown below figure. A voltmeter,
wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in LV (Low Voltage) side of the transformer. The voltage
at rated frequency is applied to that LV side with the help of a variac of variable auto transformer.

Circuit Diagram for OC Test

The HV (High Voltage) side of the transformer is kept open. Now with the help of variac,
applied voltage gets slowly increased until the voltmeter gives reading equal to the rated voltage on
the LV side. After reaching rated LV side voltage, we record all the three instruments open circuit
readings (Voltmeter, Ammeter and Wattmeter readings).
The ammeter reading gives the no load current ISC. As no load current ISC is quite small
compared to rated current of the transformer, the voltage drops due to this current that can be taken
as negligible.
Calculations
Let us consider,
VOC = Open Circuit Voltage (Volts)
IOC = Open Circuit Current (A)
WOC = Open Circuit Power or Iron Loss (Watts)
Therefore,
No-Load or Open Circuit Power = WOC = VOC * IOC * cosΦOC (Watts)
WOC
No-Load Power Factor = cos ΦOC =
VOC * ISC
Magnetizing Current = Im = IO sinΦOC (A)

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Working component Current = Iw = IO cosΦOC (A)

VOC
Shunt Branch Resistance = RO = (Ω)
Iw
VOC
Shunt Branch Reactance = XO = (Ω)
Im

2.10.2. Short Circuit (SC) Test on a Transformer

The circuit diagram for the short circuit test on the transformer is shown in below. A
voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in HV side of the transformer as shown. A low
voltage of around 5-10% is applied to that HV side with the help of a variac (i.e. a variable auto
transformer). The LV side of the transformer is short-circuited. Now with the help of variac applied
voltage is slowly increased until the wattmeter and an ammeter gives reading equal to the rated
current of the HV side.

Circuit Diagram for SC Test

After reaching the rated current of the HV side, we record all the three instrument readings
(Voltmeter, Ammeter and Watt-meter readings). The ammeter reading gives the primary equivalent
of full load current IL. As the voltage applied for full load current in a short circuit test on the
transformer is quite small compared to the rated primary voltage of the transformer, the core losses
in the transformer can be taken as negligible here.
Let’s say, voltmeter reading is VSC. The watt-meter reading indicates the input power during
the short circuit test. As we have short-circuited the transformer, there is no output; hence the input
power here consists of copper losses in the transformer. Since the applied voltage VSC is short circuit
voltage in the transformer and hence it is quite small compared to the rated voltage, so, we can
neglect the core loss due to the small applied voltage. Hence the wattmeter reading can be taken as
equal to copper losses in the transformer.
Let us consider, wattmeter reading is WSC
Wsc  Isc 2  R01 ( watts )

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Where, R01 is total Equivalent Resistance of the Transformer refer to HV Side

Wsc
R01  2
()
I sc

X012 = Z012 –R012 (Ω)

Where, X01 is total Equivalent reactance referred to HV Side

I2 Ro2 cos Φ ± I2 Xo2 sin Φ
% Voltage Regulation = * 100
V2
Where, cosΦ = Power Factor of load
Output Power
% Efficiency = η = *100 (%)
Input Power

2.11. Principle and Operation of 3-ΦInduction Motor

Like any electric motor, a 3-phase induction motor has a stator and a rotor. The stator carries
a 3-phase winding (called stator winding) while the rotor carries a short-circuited winding (called
rotor winding).
 Only the stator winding is fed from 3-phase AC supply.
 The rotor winding derives its voltage and power from the externally energized stator winding
through electromagnetic induction.
 The induction motor may be considered to be a transformer with a rotating secondary and it
can, therefore, be described as a “transformer type” AC machine in which electrical energy is
converted into mechanical energy.
Consider a portion of 3-phase induction motor as shown in below. The operation of the motor
can be explained as under:

(i) When 3-phase stator winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is
set up which rotates round the stator at synchronous speed Ns (= 120 f/P).
(ii) The rotating field passes through the air gap and cuts the rotor conductors, which as yet, are
stationary. Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary rotor,

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e.m.f.s are induced in the rotor conductors. Since the rotor circuit is short-circuited, currents start
flowing in the rotor conductors.
(iii)The current-carrying rotor conductors are placed in the magnetic field produced by the stator.
Consequently, mechanical force acts on the rotor conductors. The sum of the mechanical forces
on all the rotor conductors produces a torque which tends to move the rotor in the same direction
as the rotating field.
(iv) The fact that rotor is urged to follow the stator field (i.e., rotor moves in the direction of stator
field) can be explained by Lenz’s law. According to this law, the direction of rotor currents will
be such that they tend to oppose the cause producing them and therefore the torque is produced in
rotor and starts to rotates.

Slip
The difference between the synchronous speed Ns of the rotating stator field and the actual
rotor speed N is called slip. It is usually expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed i.e.,
NS - Nr
Percentage Slip = S = *100
NS
Rotor Current Frequency
The frequency of a voltage or current induced due to the relative speed between a winding
and a magnetic field is given by the general formula;
P NS
Frequency = F =
120
Where, N = Relative speed between magnetic field and the winding
P = Number of poles
For a rotor speed N, the relative speed between the rotating flux and the rotor is Ns - Nr.
Consequently, the rotor current frequency f1 is given by;
(NS - Nr ) P
Rotor Frequency = f1 =
120
Rotor current frequency = f1 = S NS
i.e., Rotor current frequency = Fractional slip * Supply frequency

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