Professional Documents
Culture Documents
• Fuel injection is a system for mixing fuel with air in an internal combustion
engine. It has become the primary fuel delivery system used in gasoline
automotive engines, having almost completely replaced carburetors in the late
1980s.
• The carburetor was invented by Karl Benz (founder of Mercedes‐Benz) in 1885
and patented in 1886.
y g (p
• Carburetors were the usual fuel delivery method for almost all gasoline (petrol)‐)
fuelled engines up until the late 1980s, when fuel injection became the preferred
method of automotive fuel delivery. In the U.S. market, the last carbureted cars
were the 1990 Oldsmobile Custom Cruiser, Buick Estate Wagon, and Subaru
Justy, and the last carbureted light truck was the 1994 Isuzu. Elsewhere, Lada
Internal combustion Engines: cars used carburetors until 1996. A majority of motorcycles still use carburetors
due to lower cost and throttle response problems with early injection set ups, but
Carburetor, Fuel injection, valve timing as of 2005, many new models are now being introduced with fuel injection.
Carburetors are still found in small engines and in older or specialized
automobiles, such as those designed for stock car racing.
Gas Review November 1913
Well, lets see if we can figure it out……
Used on tractors, boats, and stationary
engines, including the Waterloo Boy Gas Review September 1917
and Model D tractors
3 4
Carburetor Theory Carburetor Theory
• It’s all due to Air Pressure (or lack thereof)
• Close to sea level pressure is 14.7 psi • Venturi
– Air has weight – 88 lbs in a 12x12x8 ft room – What is it?
• “Vacuum” is a pressure less than 14.7 psi • Wind blowing in downtown Chicago
– Often measured in inches of mercury y – always stronger in the smaller areas between 2
14.7 psi ~ 30 in Hg b ld
buildings
• River currents
• As engine runs, intake strokes create
– always faster in a narrower, shallower place than
“vacuum” or lower air pressure in manifold deep, wide pools
– Normal ~10 psi (~20 in Hg)
• With throttle plate open, carburetor throat
exposed to manifold pressure
5 6
1
Carburetor Theory Carburetor Theory
• What causes air flow through carburetor?
– Intake stroke of piston creates vacuum
Intake valve open, transmits vacuum to throttle plate
– Position of throttle plate determines air flow
Closed no flow –
Closed – no flow high manifold vacuum
high manifold vacuum
Open – full flow – low manifold vacuum
– Air (at ~ atmospheric pressure) flows from air cleaner side,
through venturi, past throttle plate, through manifold and
intake valve, into cylinder
• Carburetors operate on the venturi effect
• The venturi is a narrowing of the bore • Model A running at 975 rpm flows about 70 cfm (cubic feet per
minute)
7 8
Carburetor Theory
Carburetor Theory
• As air flows through venturi, pressure decreases in
venturi • Important factors
– Bernoulli’s Law tells us as Area decreases, velocity – Amount of vacuum created by intake stroke
• Less vacuum if
increases and – Intake valve guides leak air
– As velocity increases, pressure decreases – Exhaust valve leaks air
• Ai
• Air pressure on fuel in bowl is always ~atmospheric
f li b li l t h i – Piston rings leak air
Pi i l k i
• As pressure difference between 1) fuel in bowl and – Manifold gasket leaks air
2) at tip of nozzle (located in venturi) increases, fuel – Position of throttle plate
• Determines air flow through carburetor
flow increases from nozzle – Determines difference in pressure on fuel in bowl and at
– Throttle opens, more air flow, greater ΔP, more fuel tip of nozzle in venturi
flow » Greater difference – more fuel flow
– Throttle closes, less air flow, less ΔP, less fuel flow
9 10
Carburetor types
Carburetor Theory
Air/Fuel Mixture To Engine
Venturi‐type Carburetor
Bernoulli Effect:
• To further regulate the mixture, two “air regulators” or P+1/2 V2 = Constant Throttle Plate
butterfly valves are also added:
Atomized Fuel
– These restrict the amount of air flow through the
carburetor‐‐either manually or automatically. Fuel Inlet Valve Stem
» This action decreases the power and speed and
This action decreases the power and speed and
Float Venturi
the richness of the mixture within the engine.
Bowl Choke Plate
11 12
2
The Throttle
θ % Bore Open
0 0.0
10 1.5 • The throttle is a round
14 3.0 disc mounted on a
17 4.4
24 8.6 shaft beyond the main
θ
30 13.4 fuel nozzle in the
33 16.1 carburetor.
41 25.0
45 29.3 • It regulates the
60 50.0 amount of air‐fuel
75 75.0 mixture entering the
84 90.0 % Bore open = πb²(1 ‐ cosθ)x100
90 100 “Bore Open” is difference between cylinder.
bore
size and area of throttle plate
b = radius of bore size
13 14
The Choke
Natural Draft Carburetor
• The choke is a round disc mounted on a shaft located at
the intake end of the carburetor. • This carburetor is used
• Since cold fuel is hard to vaporize, the choke is used where there is little
during cold engine starts to provide a rich mixture to the space on top of the
carburetor in order to get the engine started.
b d h d engine. The air
horizontally into the
manifold.
15 16
Updraft Carburetors Down‐draft Carburetors
• This type is placed low • This carburetor operates with
lower air velocities and larger
on the engine and use passages. This is because
a gravity fed‐fuel gravity assists the air‐fuel
supply. In other mixture flow to the cylinder.
words, the tank is
above the carburetor • The downdraft carburetor can
provide large volumes of fuel
and the fuel falls to it. when needed for high speed
and high power output.
17 18
3
Diaphragm Carburetors Mixture Requirements
• This type does not have a float, Engine induction and fuel system must prepare a
rather the difference between
atmospheric pressure and the
fuel‐air mixture that satisfies the requirements of
vacuum created in the engine the engine over its entire operating regime.
pulsates a flexible diaphragm.
pu a e a e i e iap ag Optimum air‐fuel ratio for an SI engine is that which
Optimum air‐fuel ratio for an SI engine is that which
• The pulsation of the diaphragm gives
takes place on every intake and
compression stroke. 1. required power output
2. with lowest fuel consumption
3. consistent with smooth and reliable operation
19 20
21 22
Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio
Energy balance for a steady flow system
2
2
Q W m out hout out gZ ot m in hin in gZ in
2 2
2
2
Q in W in m h gZ
in in
in
in Q out W out m
h
out out out
gZ
ot
2
2
2 2
q w hout out gZ ot hin in gZ in
2 2
out
in2
Q
Q out W out W in m out hout
2
in gZ ot m in hin gZ in Applying the steady flow energy equation to
2
2
sections A‐A and B‐B per unit mass flow of air:
i A A dB B i fl f i
2
2 2 2
General form
Q W m out hout out gZ ot m in hin in gZ in q w h2 2 gZ 2 h1 1 gZ1
2
2
2 2
Here, q and w are the heat and work transfers from the entrance to the
Note: In the above equation, heat input to the system and work output from throat and h and v stand for enthalpy and velocity respectively.
the system is positive (+) and heat output from the system and work input If we assume reversible adiabatic conditions, and there is no work
to the system is negative (‐). transfer, q=0, w=0, and if approach velocity v1≈0 we get
23 24
4
Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio
0 h2 h1
2
2 v2 2c p T1 T2
2
k 1
p2
2h1 h2 T1 1
k
v2 T1 T 2
p1
If air is assumed to be a perfect gas we get
h c pT hence we can write k 1
p k
v2 2c pT1 1 2
v2 2c p T1 T2 p1
Assume flow from inlet to throat to be isentropic
k 1 By the continuity equation we can write down the theoretical mass
T2 p 2 k flow rate of air
then .
T1 p1 ma 1 A1v1 2 A2 v2
k 1
p k where A1 and A2 are the cross‐sectional areas at the air inlet (point 1)
T1 T 2 T1 1 2
p1 and venturi throat (point 2).
25 26
Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio
k 1
k 1
p k
p k v2 2c pT1 1 2
v2 2c pT1 1 2 p1
p1
(velocity)
. .
ma 1 A1v1 2 A2 v2 ma 1 A1v1 2 A2 v2
1
p k
To calculate the mass flow rate of air at the throat, we have assumed the 2 1 2
flow to be isentropic till the throat so the equation relating p and v (or p1
ρ) can be used.
1 1
k 1
p1 p2 p2 k p k p k
ma 1 2 A2 2c pT1 1 2
.
p1v1k p2 v2k 2 1
k
k
p1 p1
1 2
p1
(specific volume)
27 28
Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio
1
k 1
2 k 1
p p p k p k
ma 1 2 A2 2c pT1 1 2 2c p 2 2
. k k . A2 p1
ma
p1 p1 1
p
1
p R T1
p1 Since the fluid flowing in the intake is air, we can put in the
For a perfect 1 approximate values of R = 287 J/kgK, cp = 1005 J/kgK and k = 1.4 at 300K.
gas we have RT1
1.43 1.71
1
k 1
. A2 p1 p2 p
p k p1 p k ma 0.1562 2
A2 2c pT1 1 2
.
ma 2 T1 p1 p1
1
1
p RT1 p
1.43 1.71
rearranging the above equation we have p2 p
0.1562
A2 p1
where 2
2 k 1
T1 p1 p1
p k p k
2c p 2 2
. A2 p1
ma
R T1 p1 p1
29 30
5
Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio
1.43 1.71
. A p p2
1.43
p
1.71
p p
ma 0.1562 2 1 2 2 2 1.43 1.71
p1 p1
. A2 p1 p p
T1 p1 p1 ma 0.1562 Cd ,a 2 2
T1 p1 p1
A2 p1
0.1562
T1 The coefficient of discharge and area are both constant for a given
venturi, thus
Here, pressure p is in N/m2, area A is in m2,and temperature T is in K.
If we take the ambient temperature T1 = 300Kand ambient pressure . p1
p1 = 105 N/m2, then .
ma
ma 901.8 A2 T1
Above equation gives the theoretical mass flow rate of air. The actual
Since we have to determine the air‐fuel ratio, we now calculate the
mass flow rate, can be obtained by multiplying the equation by the
fuel flow rate.
coefficient of discharge for the venturi, Cd,a. .
ma
Cd , a .
ma
31 32
. p1 Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio
Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio ma .
ma
p1
T1 Fuel flow will take place because of
the drop in pressure at point 1 due T1
The fuel is a liquid before mixing with the air, it can be taken to be to the venturi effect.
incompressible.
P1 V12 P V2
gz1 2 2 gz2
We can apply Bernoulli’s equation 1 2 2 2
between the atmospheric
conditions prevailing at the top of P1 P2 V22
gz 2
the fuel surface in the float bowl,
e ue su ace i e oa bo , 1 2 2
which corresponds to point 1 and
the point where the fuel will flow P1 P2 V f2
out, at the venturi, which gz (2)
f f 2
corresponds to point 2. (1)
Fuel flow will take place because of the drop in pressure at point 1 where ρf is the density of the fuel in kg/m3, Vf is the velocity of the fuel
due to the venturi effect. at the exit of the fuel nozzle (fuel jet), and z is the depth of the jet exit
below the level of fuel in the float bowl. This quantity must always be
P V2 P1 V12 P V2 above zero otherwise fuel will flow out of the jet at all times. The value
gz C (Constant) or gz1 2 2 gz2
2 1 2 2 2 of z is usually of the order of 10 mm.
33 34
Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio p1 p2 V f2 Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio
gz
f f 2
where Af is the exit area of the fuel jet in m2. If Cd,f is the
From above equation we can obtain an expression for the fuel velocity at coefficient of discharge of the fuel nozzle (jet) given by
the jet exit as .
m f Cd , f A f 2 f p1 p2 f gz
.
mf
p p2 Cd , f
V f 2 1 gz mf
.
f . A2 p1
. ma 0.1562 Cd ,a
Applying the continuity equation for the fuel, we can obtain the Air A m T1
Since a
theoretical mass flow rate, Fuel F m.
1.43 1.71
p p
f
.
mf f Af V f 2 2
p1 p1
A C A p1
0.1562 d , a 2
Af 2 f p1 p2 f gz F Cd , f A f 2 f T1 p1 p2 f gz
35 36
6
Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio
m f Cd , f A f 2 f p1 p2 f gz
.
2 k 1
m f Cd , f A f 2 f p1 p2 f gz
.
Cd ,a A2 p1 p k p k
2c p 2 2
.
ma
R T1 p1 p1 2 k 1
.
1 p1 p k p k c p cv R
2c p 2 2
.
ma Cd ,a A2
R p1 p1
p1 1 R 1 1 R 1 cv R
1 1
RT1 p1 T1 p1 T1 cp cp
2 k 1
. c p p2 p k k
1 R
ma Cd ,a A2 1 p1 2 2 1
2 k 1
R p1 p1
k cp
1R p1 p k p k
2c p 2 2
.
ma Cd ,a A2
p1 R p1 p1 cp k
2 k 1
. 2k p2 k p2 k R k 1
ma Cd ,a A2 1 p1
2 k 1
k 1 p1 1
p
1 p1 p k p k
2c p 2 2
.
ma Cd ,a A2
R p1 p1
37 38
Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio
m f Cd , f A f 2 f p1 p2 f gz
.
2 k 1
2k p2 k p2 k
Cd ,a A2 1 p1
2 k 1
. k 1 p1 1
p
. 2k p2 k p2 k ma
ma Cd ,a A2 1 p1
k 1 p1 p1 mf Cd , f A f 2 f p1 p2 f gz
k 1
1 2
.
2 k 1
ma Cd ,a A2 1 2 p1 k p2 k p2 k
2k p2 k p2 k
Cd ,a A2 1 p1
k 1 p1 1
m f Cd , f A
f
f
p p2 f gz k 1 p1 1
p
p
. 1
ma
mf Cd , f A f 2 f p1 p2 f gz pa
If we put p a p1 p 2 and p1
p
1 2
p1
39 40
Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio
pa
p1
p a p1 p 2 p
1 2 2 k 1
k p2 k p2 k
p1
.
1
k 1 p1 1
p
ma Cd ,a A2
1
2
pa
k 1
p f gz
1 2
m f Cd , f A
.
ma Cd ,a A2
1
2
p1 k p2 k p2 k f f p
a
1 2
m f Cd , f A
f
f
p p2 f gz k 1 p1
1
p p1
1
A C d , a A2 a p a
2
k p2 k p2 k
k 1
F Cd , f A f f p a f gz
.
1
k 1 p1 p1 1
ma Cd ,a A2
1
2
pa 2
k 1 2
p2 k p 2 k
m f Cd , f A
f
f
p f gz p
k p1
1 2 1
a
p
p1
k 1 p2
1
p1
41 42
7
Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio
Air‐fuel ratio neglecting compressibility of air
if we take T1 = 300K and p1 = 105 N/m2 then • If we assume air to be incompressible, then we can apply
A C A Bernoulli’s equation to air flow also. Since initial velocity is
901.8 d ,a 2
2 f p1 p2 f gz
assumed zero, we have
F Cd , f A f
Thus
The coefficient of discharge represents the effect of all deviations from
the ideal one‐dimensional isentropic flow. It is influenced by many p1 p2 v22
factors of which the most important are:
1.Fluid mass flow rate, a a 2
2.Orifice length‐to‐diameter ratio,
3.Orifice area‐to‐approach area ratio,
4.Orifice surface area, Thus p p2
5.Orifice surface roughness, v2 2 1
6.Orifice inlet and exit chamfers,
7.Fluid specific gravity,
a
8.Fluid viscosity, and
9.Fluid surface tension.
43 44
Applying the continuity equation for the fuel, we can obtain the
theoretical mass flow rate,
A Cd ,a A2 a p1 p2
ma a A2C2 A2 2 a p1 p2 f p1 p2 f gz
.
F Cd , f A f
Cd , a
ma
.
F Cd , f A f f 1
ma
.
If we assume z = 0, then
m a Cd ,a A2 2 a p1 p2
.
then
A Cd ,a A2 a
.
Air A m
a F Cd , f A f f
Since Fuel F m.
f
45 46
The effects of equivalence ratio A
1
f f gz 2
s d , f f
variations F C A
1
The equivalence ratio, (ratio between stoichiometric air Cd ,a A2 a pa
fuel ratio to actual air fuel ratio)
• Mixture requirement at full load: Complete utilization of air to
Typical value for a
obtain maximum power, wide operation of throttle, rich‐of‐
gasoline engine A C d ,a A2 a p a
p f gz
stoichiometric mixtures, 1.1.
A F Cd , f A f f
a
s
F 14.6
1 • Mixture requirement at part loads: Part throttle, dilute air
A A 2
k 1 2
p2 k p2 k mixture with excess air or exhausted gas recycled (EGR)
i ih i h d l d (EGR)
F F
k p1 p1 (improves the fuel conversion efficiency).
k 1 p
1 2
A
1
p
• The equivalent ratio of the mixture delivered by an elementary
1
f gz 2 carburetor is not constant.
s d , f f
F C A
1 f
Cd ,a A2 a pa
47 48
8
Calculation of Air‐fuel Ratio
2 k 1
k p2 k p2 k
.
1
k 1 p1 1
p
ma Cd ,a A2
1
2
pa
m f Cd , f A
f
f
p a f gz
1
p2
p1
A C d , a A2 a p a
p
F Cd , f A f f p a f gz
1
2
k 1 2
p2 k p2 k
k p1 p1
k 1 p
1 2
p1
49 50
Carburetor Performance The deficiencies of a elementary carburetor
1. At low loads the mixture becomes leaner; the engine requires the
• Figure shows the performance of an elementary mixture to be enriched at low loads.
carburetor. The top graph shows the variation of Cd,a and 2. At intermediate loads, the mixture equivalence ratio increases
Cd,f and Φ with the venturi pressure drop (typically vary slightly as the air flow increases. The engine requires an almost
with pressure drop). For Δpa ≤ ρfgz, there is no fuel flow. constant equivalence ratio.
Once fuel starts to flow, the fuel flow rate increases more 3. As the air flow approaches the maximum wide open‐throttle
rapidly than the air flow rate. The carburetor delivers a
idl th th i fl t Th b t d li value, the equivalence ratio remains essentially constant.
mixture of increasing equivalence ratio as the flow rate However, the mixture equivalence ratio should increase to 1.1 or
increases. z is typically order of 10 mm. Usually fuel level greater to provide maximum engine power.
in the float chamber is held below the fuel discharge
4. The elementary carburetor cannot compensate for transient
nozzle to prevent the fuel spillage when the engine is
phenomena in the intake manifold. Nor can enrich the mixture
inclined to horizontal.
during engine starting and warm‐up.
5. The elementary carburetor can not adjust to changes in ambient
air density (due primarily to changes in altitude).
51 52
Modern Carburetor Design
Two common methods used to achieve above are
The changes required in the elementary carburetor so that it provides
the equivalence ratio required at various air flow rates are as follows.
1. The main metering system must be compensated to provide a constant
lean or stoichiometric mixture over 20 to 80% of the air flow range. • Boost venturis
2. An idle system must be added to meter the fuel flow at idle and light
loads to provide a rich mixture. Double venturi system, multiple venturis.
3. An enrichment system must be provided so that the engine can get a rich
mixture as wide open throttle conditions is approached and maximum
power can be obtained.
p
4. An accelerator pump must be provided so that additional fuel can be
introduced into the engine only when the throttle is suddenly opened.
5. A choke must be added to enrich the mixture during cold starting and • Multiple barrel carburetors
warm‐up to ensure that a combustible mixture is provided to each Two barrel carburetors usually consists of two single barrel
cylinder at the time of ignition.
carburetors mounted in parallel.
6. Altitude compensation is necessary to adjust the fuel flow which makes
the mixture rich when air density is lowered.
7. Increase in the magnitude of the pressure drop available for controlling
the fuel flow is provided by introducing boost venturis (Venturis in
series) or Multiple‐barrel carburetors (Venturis in parallel).
53 54
9
Fuel injection systems
Merits of Fuel Injection in the SI Engine
• Gasoline fuel injection
– Inject the fuel into the engine intake system • Absence of Venturi – No Restriction in Air Flow/Higher Vol.
– Required one injector per cylinder
Eff./Torque/Power
– There are both mechanical and electronic injector systems • Hot Spots for Preheating cold air eliminated/Denser air enters
– Increased power and torque, uniform fuel distribution, rapid engine • Manifold Branch Pipes Not concerned with Mixture Preparation
response to throttle position, precise control of equivalence ratio‐‐‐‐‐ (MPI)
• Diesel fuel injection
j • Better Acceleration Response (MPI)
– Fuel sprayed in cylinder near TDC • Fuel Atomization Generally Improved
– Atomization, vaporization & mixing delay ignition • Use of Greater Valve Overlap
– Ignition occurs wherever conditions right
• Use of Sensors to Monitor Operating Parameters/Gives Accurate
Matching of Air/fuel Requirements: Improves Power, Reduces
– Combustion rate controlled by injection characteristics (injection rate, fuel consumption and Emissions
spray angle, injection pressure, nozzle size and shape), chamber
• Precise in Metering Fuel in Ports
shape, mixture motion, & turbulence
• Precise Fuel Distribution Between Cylinders (MPI)
– Glow plug may be used to aid cold starting
– Power output controlled only by amount of fuel injected
55 56
Limitations of Petrol Injection Gasoline Fuel Injection System Components
• High Initial Cost/High Replacement Cost
• Increased Care and Attention/More Servicing Problems 1. Electric Fuel Pump
• Requires Special Servicing Equipment to Diagnose Faults and Failures 2. Fuel Accumulator – Maintains Fuel Line Pressure When Engine is
• Special Knowledge of Mechanical and Electrical Systems Needed to Shut Off and Quietness the Noise Created by the Roller Cell Pump
Diagnose and Rectify Faults 3. Fuel Filter ‐ A Pleated Paper or Lint‐of‐fluff Type Plus Strainer
• Injection Equipment Complicated, Delicate to Handle and Impossible to 4. Primary Pressure Regulator – Maintains Output Delivery Pressure to
Service by Roadside Service Units be About 5 Bar
• Contain More Mechanical and Electrical Components Which May Go 5 Push Up Valve – Prevents Control Pressure Circuit Leakage.
Wrong It is a Non‐return Valve Placed at Opposite End of Pressure Regulator
• Increased Hydraulic and Mechanical Noise Due to Pumping and 6. Fuel Injection Valve – Valves are Insulated in Holders to Prevent Fuel
Metering of Fuel Vapor Bubbles Forming in the Fuel Lines Due to Engine Heat.
• Very Careful Filtration Needed Due to Fine Tolerances of Metering and Valves Open at about 3.3 Bar and Spray Fuel.
Discharging Components Valve Oscillates About 1500 cycles per second and so Helps in
• More Electrical/Mechanical Power Needed to Drive Fuel Pump and/or Atomization
Injection Devices
• More Fuel Pumping/Injection Equipment and Pipe Plumbing Required‐
May be Awkwardly Placed and Bulky
57 58
Gasoline Fuel Injection Indirect Injection
• In SI engines the air and • Also Called Manifold Injection or Single Point Injection (SPI) or
fuel are usually mixed Throttle Body Injection (TBI)
together in the intake • Injector Usually Upstream From Throttle (Air Intake Side) or In
system prior to entry to Some Cases Placed on the Opposite Side
the engine cylinder. • Pressures are Low – 2 to 6 Bar. Maybe Injected Irrespective of
• Ratio of air to fuel ≈ 15 : 1 Intake Process
• Fuel is injected to trough • Cost Would be Low
individual injectors from a • Has Same Air and Fuel Mixing and Distribution Problems as
low‐pressure fuel supply Carburetor but Without Venturi Restriction so Gives Higher
system into the intake Engine Volumetric Efficiency
port. • Higher Injection Pressures Compared to Carburetion – Speeds up
Atomization of Liquid Fuel
59 60
10
Semi‐direct Injection Direct Cylinder Injection
• Also Called Direct Multi‐point Injection (DMPI) or Gasoline Direct
• Also Called Port Injection or Indirect Multipoint Injection (IMPI) or
Injection (GDI)
Simply Multi‐point Injection (MPI)
• Injection May be During Intake or Compression Process
• Injectors Positioned in Each Induction Manifold Branch Just in Front of
Inlet Port • Increased Turbulence Required
• Injection at Low Pressure (2‐6 Bar) • To Compensate For Shorter Permitted Time For
Injection/Atomization/Mixing Injection Pressure Must Be Higher
• Need Not Be Synchronized With Engine Induction Cycle
• More Valve Overlap Possible So Fresh Air Can Be Utilized For
• Fuel Can Be Discharged Simultaneously to Each Induction Pipe Where
g y p Scavenging
it is Mixed and Stored Until IVO
• Injector Nozzle Must Be Designed For Higher Pressure and
• Need Not Be Timed – Requires Low Discharge Pressures – Injectors Not Temperature So Must Be More Robust and Will Be Costlier Than
Exposed to Combustion Products so Complexity Reduced – Less Cost Other Types
• No Fuel Distribution Difficulties Since Each Injector Discharges Directly • Position and Direction of Injection Are Important – No One Position
Into Its Own Port and Mixture Moves a Short Distance Before Entering Will Be Ideal For All Operating Conditions
Cylinder • Air and Fuel Mixing Is More Thorough in Large Cylinders Than In
• Induction Manifold Deals Mainly With Only Inducted Air – So Branch Small Cylinders Because Droplet Size is the Same
Pipes Can Be Enlarged and Extended to Maximize Ram Effect • Condensation and Wall Wetting in Intake Manifold Eliminated But
Condensation On Piston Crown and Cylinder Walls
61 62
Gasoline Fuel Injection‐Injector types Fuel Injection (electronic, multi‐port)
• Mechanical injection using an injection
Monitored Engine
pump driven by the engine. Operating Conditions:
TRIGGER COMPUTER Manifold Pressure
Engine Speed
Air Temperature
• Mechanical, driveless, continuous Coolant Temperature
injection.
j Acceleration
Injectors
FUEL TANK
63 64
ELECTRONIC FUEL INJECTION The Fuel Injector
• Strict emission standards require precise fuel delivery • Electromechanical device
• Computers used to calculate fuel needs • Engine rpm determines when injector opens
• EFI very precise, reliable & cost effective • How long it stays open determined by:
• EFI provide correct A/F ratio for all loads, speeds, & temp – Engine temp
ranges – Engine load
Engine load
– Throttle pos.
– O2 sensor voltage
65 66
11
Throttle Body Injection (TBI) LOW PRESSURE FUEL INJECTOR
• First injection
unit used
• Housing • 13‐16 psi
similar to Carb operating
pressure
• One or two
One or two • Ball style
B ll l
injector pintle
• One or two of • Easily
these units FIG 6-40 CLASS
replaceable
mounted to
intake
manifold
67 68
Fuel Pressure Regulator
Multi‐Port Fuel Injection
• Located at end of fuel rail
• One injector per cylinder • Maintains constant pressure at injectors
• Mounts in intake • Internal chamber contains a diaphragm
manifold, sprays directly – Pressurized fuel on one side
at intake valve – Manifold vacuum & spring tension on other
• Fired in groups or
Fired in groups or • Manifold vacuum pulls up on diaphragm,
individually (SFI)
metering fuel that is returned to tank
• Ram Tuning for denser
air charge
• Excess fuel pressure can overcome spring
tension, allowing fuel to return to tank
• Lower A/F temps
• Increases in manifold pressure causes spring
• Leaner mixture during
warm‐up
tension to push diaphragm down, blocking
return line, increasing pressure in rail.
69 70
Fuel Pressure Regulator Fuel Pressure Regulator
Vacuum hose
connection Fuel rail
Fuel
return
71 72
12
Diesel engine (CI) Diesel fuel‐injection system consists of
1. Injection pump
• The liquid fuel jet atomizes into drops and entrains air;
evaporates‐fuel vapor mixes with air‐air temperature and 2. Delivery pipes
pressure are above the fuel’s ignition point. After a short delay
auto ignition starts.
3. Fuel injector nozzles
• At full load air fuel ratio is ≈ 20: 1
At full load air fuel ratio is ≈ 20: 1
73 74
THE DIESEL FUEL SYSTEM Fuel Injection Systems
• Injection Pump usually mechanical drive
–Belts and rollers not good, use gears and chains
• Note spill line from injector, pump, separator
75 76
General Characteristics A pump ain’t so simple!
• Pump runs at ½ engine speed • How does timing vary with load?
–Ignition delay is SHORTER (higher
–Controls Quantity AND density) BUT:
timing of injection
–Although ignition delay is shorted,
–Max fuel limited by smoke still need more advance to ensure all
limit fuel is burnt during stroke
–Timing varies with load and • At max load fuel variance among
speed cylinders should be less than 3%
–Timing accurate to 1o crank otherwise power limited by smoky
exhaust of richest cyl.
angle
77 78
13
Layout of conventional fuel system In‐Line Pumps (most common)‐
a set of cam driven plungers (one for each cylinder)
• Driven from crank ½ speed
• Multi‐lobe cam
• This example uses rack, not
lever
• Rack rotates plunger assy and
controls flow
• Governor and advance coupling
Governor and advance coupling
driven by rotating weights
acting against a spring (like
mechanical advance on
distributor)
• Fuel trapped in the plunger is
forced through a check valve
into the injection line. The
injection nozzle has one or more
holes through which the fuel is
sprayed to cylinder.
79 80
• Operation:
–Plunger moves up and blocks
inlet
–Fuel is allowed to escape
through spill port (notice helical
grove)
–Reminder of fuel forced out
outlet port
–Stroke is constant by delivery
varied by rotation
• Plunger forces fuel through fitting
• Rotating Lever controls how much spills back – lever controls fuel flow (no throttle)
• All run by cam driven by crank
81 82
Rotary Pump Typical Rotary Pump
• Much less complicated but lower pressures
• Few moving parts
• Fed by transfer pump
• Metering through governor mechanism – rotor slides
• Pressurization via sliding pistons
83 84
14
Fuel Injectors Timing sets
• Nozzle type dictates performance
• Single Hole
–Good for ID
–1mm hard to clog
• Multi hole
–Better misting
–Easy clog as size ‐> 0.1mm
• Clogs caused by decomp of leaked fuel
• Differential pressures cause opening
• Note needle design – pressure OPENS
nozzle
• Differential pressures
–f(needle diameter vs. seat diameter) Gear sets
–Spring closing
–Harder to open than to keep open • Cam and crank rotate in opposite directions
• Smaller seat contact area and strong spring
enhance sealing, eliminate dribble
• Noisy if not free of burrs
• Dribble leads to emissions and deposits • Helical and spur cut gears
85 86
• Excellent disbursement,
provides conical spray pattern
• Looks Similar to that used in
CIS systems
• Opens UPWARD
• Excellent clog resistance
E ll t l i t
Timing chains
• Single and double roller
• Tensioners
87 88
More Injector Considerations Pilot Injection
• Aux hole to bleed excess fuel and prevent deposits
• 4V Heads:
• Small Amount of fuel early to initiate flame front
–Upside
• Allows for large advance
• Vf Up
• Eliminates knock and corresponding problems associated with high peak
• Central injector position pressures and wave impingement
–Downside • 2 Spring Special injector needed for 2 mode operation
• Less swirl
• More nozzle holes for g good disbursion/combustion,
/ , as
small as 0.1 mm
• Nozzles cooled by fuel
–Cooling important to maintain tolerances and sealing
• Spray Pattern Critical!
–Aspect Ratio of 2‐8
–Larger Aspect Ratio – more penetration
–Larger Aspect ratio – Smaller cone
–Atomization up –w‐ velocity, but restricts penetration as well
89 90
15
Electronic Unit Injection Moving Components
• Valves
• Electronic Unit Injection – Intake: open to admit air to
–Solenoid Controlled cylinder (with fuel in Otto cycle)
–So fast pilot injection can be used – Exhaust: open to allow gases to be
–Expensive to produce rejected
–Widely used in heavy truck • Camshaft & Cams
where emissions and economy are – Used to time the addition of intake
critical and exhaust valves
–Controlled just like SI EFI
– Operates valves via pushrods &
rocker arms
• Variation is HEUI
91 92
Cam-in-head
No pushrods
Use rocker arms
95 96
16
Charge Stratification
Combustion process: stratified charge
97 98
Combustion Chamber Designs Combustion Chamber Design
99 100
Combustion Chamber Design Combustion Chamber Design
101 102
17
Combustion Chamber Design Combustion Chamber Design
103 104
Combustion Chamber Design CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Cooling
1. Direct Air‐cooling
2
2. Indirect Air cooling (Liquid Cooling)
Indirect Air‐cooling (Liquid Cooling)
3. Low Heat Rejection (Semi‐adiabatic) engine.
105 106
18
CI vs. SI Engines
• SI engines draw fuel and air into the cylinder.
• Fuel must be injected into the cylinder at the desired time of
combustion in CI engines.
• Air intake is throttled to the SI engine ‐‐ no throttling in CI
engines.
• Compression ratios must be high enough to cause auto‐ignition
in CI engines (CI:12 to 24), compressed to pressure about 4 Mpa Diesel: Gasoline’s Dirty Cousin?
y
and temperature about 800 K.
dt t b t 800 K
• Upper compression ratio in SI engines is limited by the auto‐
ignition temperature (SI: 8 to 12).
• Flame front in SI engines smooth and controlled.
• CI combustion is rapid and uncontrolled at the beginning.
• The valve timing in both CI and SI are similar.
109 110
Misconceptions About Diesel
How is Diesel Different from Gasoline?
• Diesel is a petroleum‐based fuel with a higher energy content
than gasoline.
– contains about 30% more energy per gallon as compared to • It’s Dirty
gasoline.
• Diesel is a safer fuel than gasoline or other alternatives.
– less flammable and explosive than gasoline due to lower
p g
• It Causes a lot of Pollution
combustibility.
• Diesel is Cheaper than Gasoline • It has Limited Uses
– Current Cost of a Gallon of Gasoline and Diesel
• Gasoline = $1.78
• Diesel = $1.65
111 112
Problems with “Old” Diesel
Benefits of Diesel
Technologies
• A well maintained diesel engine usually emits lower levels of • High Sulfur Content of Fuel
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide than • High NOx Emissions
gasoline engines. • High Particulate Matter Emissions
• Better fuel economy, – The “Black Smoke” everyone sees
• Increased durability for longer engine life.
Increased durability for longer engine life • Noisy Engines
113 114
19
Sulfur Content NOx Emissions
• Diesel fuel available in the U.S. currently contains from 340 ppm • High cylinder pressure and temperature with excessive air is the
of sulfur to 140 ppm in California. recipe for making NOx
• European Standards are much lower • Because of excess air in diesel engines, current catalytic can’t
– As low as 10 ppm in Germany and Sweden scrub out NOx
115 116
Particulate Matter Clean Diesel
• Unburned fuel in the compression ignition process becomes • Clean diesel is an evolutionary systems‐based process that
soot, a pervasive form of particulate matter. combines advancements in diesel engines, cleaner burning fuels
and emissions control system, all working and optimized
together.
117 118
What Makes Diesel Clean? Cleaner Burning Fuels
• The Three Pillars of Clean Diesel Technology: • The newest in diesel fuels is called Ultra‐low
– cleaner‐burning fuels Sulfur Diesel (ULSD)
– state‐of‐the‐art engines
– Ultra‐low sulfur diesel fuel is a specially refined diesel
– effective emissions‐control systems y
fuel that has dramatically lower sulfur content than
regular diesel and can be used in any diesel engine just
like regular diesel fuel.
• Today, the sulfur content of ULSD ranges from 15
to 30 parts per million. Regular diesel has a
maximum of 500 parts per million of sulfur.
119 120
20
How Does ULSD Help? State of the Art Engines
• Reduces sulfate emissions • New Engine Technologies
• Allows the use of particulate traps and catalytic converters – Electronic Controls
• Lowers engine maintenance costs – Common‐rail Fuel Injection
• Easy to convert to – Variable Injection Timing
– No retrofitting required – Improved Combustion Chamber Configuration
• Only costs a few cents more – Turbocharging
121 122
Comparison of SI and CI Engines Typical Brake Thermal Efficiencies of CI and SI Engines
123 124
125 126
21
(port fuel injection)
Summary Diesel Engines
Advantages:
• Efficiency (most efficient prime mover)
• Emissions (low CO, CO2, good durability)
• Very high torque and performance
Di d
Disadvantages:
t
• Emissions (more challenging to control NOx,
particulates)
• Higher cost
• Heavier
• Noise (more challenging to make quiet)
22