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Aldea Claudiu-Bogdan

Professor Alina Oltean-Cîmpean

Babeș-Bolyai University – Faculty of Letters

2nd Year English-Japanese

May 2018

The Extreme Japanese Work Culture: Historic Development, Effects and Reactions

Overworking has developed in the Japanese society as a significant social and cultural

problem. The work habit has become so profoundly integrated in the Japanese lifestyle that it

frequently generates drastic consequences, the most severe one being death. Subsequently, the

issue of working over one’s capacity is so strongly engraved into Japanese culture that it

provoked the coining of two words related to overwork death. Foremost, there is the concept of

karōshi ( 過 労 死 ), which means “work-related death that takes the form of cerebral and

cardiovascular disorders brought on by overwork” (Morioka 80). Secondly, the concept of

karōjisatsu (過労自殺) refers to “suicide from overwork” (Furuya).

However, the situation is more complicated, as cardiovascular diseases are not always the

cause of death, the others being “related to delayed medical treatment because of lack of free

time to see a doctor” (Nishiyama and Johnson 629). Thus, the Japanese working culture turned

into an intricate element that affects the individual from multiple perspectives.
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As a consequence, numerous researchers have engaged in the investigation of this topic.

In spite of this, it still remains a fresh subject due to the numerous points of view from which it

can be evaluated. Nishiyama and Johnson, in Karoshi – Death from Overwork: Occupational

Health Consequences of Japanese Production Management, and Furuya, in Karoshi and

Karojisatsu in Japan, focus mainly on the medical effects that these incidents generate, while

Morioka, in Work till You Drop, aims his attention more on the social attitudes developed by the

Japanese people and institutions towards this arduous work habit.

Therefore, the aim of this paper is to present the most important causes that developed

this phenomenon from a historic point of view, and to make a summary of the effects that it

generates. Moreover, it attempts to clearly reveal these aspects and to identify attitudes and

resolutions towards the overworking problem in the Japanese society.

The Japanese extreme work culture started to develop in the years after World War II,

when “Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida made rebuilding Japan’s economy his top priority”

(Weller). Being part of The Axis, Japan experienced a crushing defeat during the war and it was

also target of a nuclear bombardment. In spite of all these, Japan succeeded in overcoming most

of its problems and it even rose among the wealthiest countries after the war. However,

numerous sacrifices were paid for this great progress, the most poignant one being the

development of an extremely harsh work habit as an integrated component in Japanese culture,

which still manifests in the contemporary society.

This exhausting effort led to the first officially reported death due to overwork, which

took place in 1969 (Morioka 81). The phenomenon started to expand as a serious social problem

in the 1980s, and it also caused the publication of a book entitled Karoshi (Nishiyama and

Johnson 627). The three physicians who published the book were the first to analyse the growing
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problem of Japanese work culture. Most importantly, the “analysis indicated that karoshi deaths

were associated with long working hours, shift work, and irregular work schedules” (Nishiyama

and Johnson 627). In other words, the study successfully exhibited the fact that there was a

strong connection between harsh and intense labour customs and the increasing number of

deaths.

In the next ten years, people and even authorities became concerned and in 1988 “a

volunteer group of lawyers and doctors set up nationwide ‘karoshi hotlines’ to provide free legal

assistance about karoshi-related compensation and prevention” (Morioka 82). In the same year,

The National Defense Council for Victims of Karoshi was founded (Nishiyama and Johnson

627). However, no significant improvements resulted from these actions and the lack of progress

concerning this damaging labour routine still manifests in the contemporary society.

What is more, there are multiple causes that generated and enhanced the rapidly emerging

problem. These causes were greatly influenced by what is known as the darkest economic period

of Modern Japan. After World War II, Japan was financially flourishing, but the miracle “ended

in the early 1990s when its economy stalled, plunging the economy into what has been termed

the lost decade” (Kuepper). During this period, inflation vastly rose and “the economic

expansion halted for more than 10 years” (Kuepper). In other words, the yen lost a high amount

of its buying power and Japan was thrown into a gradual recovery process.

Therefore, as an unavoidable consequence, “the pressure of the long recession” (Morioka

82) was profoundly felt by the working class for a lengthy period of time and traces of it are still

visible in present-day Japan. In the lost decade people had to work intensely in order for them to

maintain a stable career and also provide for their families. The most severe effects were “job

related exhaustion and depression” (Morioka 82).

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These exhausting and lengthy hours of work generated an essential cause that shaped the

evolution of this intricate work habit: stress. This element is widely considered as having a

defining role in influencing behaviour in contemporary Japan (Furuya). The origin of this

problem appears to be part of “the very structure of Japanese Production Management”

(Nishiyama and Johnson 630). This represents a “focus on reducing the cost of labor through the

elimination of what is referred to as ‘waste’” (Nishiyama and Johnson 630). In other words,

everything that is not related to the actual process of production is considered useless and has to

be removed. Among these so-considered unessential aspects, there are numerous activities that

truly relieve the psychological burden of the employee, such as longer periods of rest, waiting

time and even holidays. (Nishiyama and Johnson 630).

Therefore, this expansion of labour determined numerous individuals to engage in “night

shift work, increased scheduled and unscheduled overtime and holiday work” (Nishiyama and

Johnson 630). That is to say, workers prioritize the company as to fulfil its pressing demands and

also to ensure their professional position. What is more, there are numerous cases in which the

employees have actually become financially dependent on overtime wages (Morioka 84). This

usually happens among young workers, so that through their enormous efforts they will

eventually be able to climb the hierarchy of the institution (Weller).

As it was previously mentioned, this elaborate overwork culture affects several domains,

as it has significantly developed in the last three decades.

First of all, the greatest impact is on the social level. As mentioned before, the Japanese

intense labour habit generates two damaging elements that slowly crush the individual:

depression and fatigue caused by excessive effort. In other words, this attitude towards work,

which is based on inappropriate principles, not only affects the physical countenance, but it also
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disturbs the mental integrity of the person. Consequently, there are numerous cases in which

employees perish or suffer permanent corporal or psychological damage.

Taking into consideration the fact that Japan is also one of the wealthiest countries with

an extremely high suicide rate (Wingfield-Hayes), it has become clear that the society is greatly

affected by numerous problems, among the most important ones being overwork. Furthermore,

one of the factors that determine the high number of suicides is the fact that the employees are

not entirely capable of fulfilling their professional objectives. As a serious consequence of the

recession, in certain companies the number of workplaces was reduced significantly but the

quantity of labour did not diminish (International Labor Organziation).

Other social effects are closely related to individual pleasure and familial responsibility.

Foremost, there is what Kato named “’wealth without pleasure’” (50). This implies that even

though Japan’s economy is extremely prosperous, the average Japanese worker who dedicates

enormous amounts of time for his labour is unable to earn significant wealth that would allow

him to fully enjoy the satisfactions of life. The second issue mentioned by Kato is “’familyism

without family bonds’” (51). In other words, most of Japanese male employees extensively direct

their attentions towards professional efforts, and consequently, they spend a limited amount of

bonding time with their families. Therefore, they become mere working machines, partially

losing their condition as a father.

Secondly, this attitude towards work has become a defining cultural element of the

contemporary Japanese individual. As it was discussed before when the causes of this

phenomenon were presented from a historic point of view, it is clear that the overwork mentality

has gradually developed and integrated in the basic Japanese way of thinking. This idea is
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supported by Nishiyama and Johnson, who stated that in 1997 “unpaid and so-called voluntary

overtime work has become very common” (631).

Taking into consideration the fact that an employee’s “average service overtime is

approximately 350 hours per year” (Kato 47), it becomes evident that numerous workers are

exposed to serious health problems or even death. Subsequently, as mentioned before, the drastic

consequences of this intricate work phenomenon were adapted into the Japanese language

through the development of two words related to death: karōshi (過労死) and karōjisatsu (過労自

殺 ). Annually, The National Defense Council for Victims of Karoshi estimates approximately

around 10.000 victims of karōshi.

Even though the number may not appear significant, it should be taken into account the

fact that this is “a figure similar to the annual number of deaths due to motor vehicle accidents in

Japan” (Kato 44). Moreover, this cultural deficiency also changes numerous individuals into

socially unadaptable beings due to the psychological damage that it produces.

The reactions towards this phenomenon started to develop in the 1980s, when it was

gradually turning into a serious social problem (Morioka 84). As it was previously mentioned,

The National Defense Council for Victims of Karoshi and numerous karōshi hotlines were

established. However, the course of events has been slow paced, as the “Japanese government’s

list of occupational diseases … does not specify karoshi and karojisatsu” (Furuya). Therefore,

one of the basic upgrades would be improving the recognition process, so that it facilitates

further solutions for this phenomenon. Another instance of “non-decision-making by the

Japanese government” (Kato 47) is the fact that up until 2017, when it was proposed “to cap

monthly overtime at 100 hours” (McCurry), there was no “official regulation limiting overtime
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work” (Kato 48). Furthermore, numerous workers are financially dependent upon overtime

wages, so that the company has almost absolute power open its employees.

Moreover, another deficient attitude is “the ineffective workers’ compensation system”

(Kato 48). Specifically, the government should provide financial aid for the families of the

employees who have become incapable of working or of karōshi victims. However, the criteria

for such compensation is exceedingly strict and it also forces the victims to undergo a significant

administrative hardship: presenting necessary evidence (Kato 49). Adding to this the fact that

trade unions have an extremely restricted power of influencing overwork limitations, there is a

serious legislation issue regarding the possibility of enhancing this damaging work habit.

In conclusion, in the last half of the century, the Japanese mentality has been able to

generate and build up an unconventional work culture that was initially considered remarkably

efficient. However, this approach reduces the individual to a bare production engine,

disregarding his physical and mental wellness. In the course of time, different causes influenced

the manifestation of this intricate component of the Japanese mindset, but the effects that it

generated remained widely destructive. What is more, the healing solutions for this injurious

labour mentality remain out of reach, as official institutions address this problem incompletely

and they also dissuade civil organisations’ efforts towards potential improvements.
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Bibliography

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20 May 2018.

Furuya, Sugio. “Karoshi and Karojisatsu in Japan.“ Asian Monitor Resource Center, 1 Sept.

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Kato, Tetsuro. “THE POLITICAL ECOMONY OF JAPANESE ‘KAROSHI’ (DEATH FROM

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McCurry, Justin. “Japanese Woman ‘Dies from Overwork’ after Logging 159 Hours of Overtime

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Accessed on 20 May 2018.

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