A SEMINAR REPORT ON

NANOTECHNOLOGY – FUELLING THE CHEMICAL

INDUSTRY’S FUTURE

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by

IKHIDERO, CHRISTIAN OMOIKHUDU

(U2014/3030041)

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF PORTHARCOURT

CHOBA, PORTHARCOURT

SEPTEMBER 2019

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank God Almighty for life and strength. I sincerely thank all who have kindly offer their
valuable support, guidance, and encouragement. I would like to express my gratitude to all
my lecturers who have taught me thus far and have some-way or the other imparted
knowledge and discipline. I cannot forget to thank my coursemates who have been of help
too.

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 ABSTRACT

This report is basically on nanotechnology and its impact on the chemical industry’s future.
An attempt was made to trace the emergence of nanotechnology, see its current state and its
potential future impact it will have in enhancing and improving the quality of lives by its
advancement, and how such advancement can fuel the future of chemical industries.

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 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1...................................................................................................................................................3

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................3

CHAPTER 2...................................................................................................................................................5

LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................................................5

2.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................5

2.2 Overview of Nanotechnology as an Emerging Technology............................................................5

2.3 Applications of Nanotechnology....................................................................................................6

2.3.1 Chemical reactions and catalysis.............................................................................................6

2.3.2 Filtration and separation.........................................................................................................6

2.3.3 Composite materials...............................................................................................................8

2.3.4 Coatings...................................................................................................................................9

2.3.5 Additives and the role of dendrimers....................................................................................10

2.3.6 Dendrimers and Decontamination........................................................................................11

2.3.7 Nano-protection....................................................................................................................12

CHAPTER 3.................................................................................................................................................13

NANOTECHNOLOGY – FUELLING THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY’S FUTURE.................................................13

3.1 Nanoparticles - What Is Now, What Is Next?...............................................................................13

3.2 Chemical-mechanical polishing — here today and trending........................................................14

3.3 Drug delivery – futuristic, but attractive.......................................................................................15

CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................................17

REFERENCES...............................................................................................................................................18

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List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Ordered mesoporous nanosilica ……………………………………………..........8

Figure 2.2 BASF AG’s new nanotechnology-based coatings have a water-repellant effect...10
Figure 2.3: Dendritic box ………………………………………………………………….... 11
Figure 2.4: Drug delivery capsule ……………………………………………………............16

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Nanotechnology is an emerging technology which has gained more recognition over the years
mainly due to the launching of the National Nanotechnology Initiative in early 2000 which has
helped to create awareness of the future potential of this technology.

Truly revolutionary nanotech products, materials and applications, such as nanorobotics, are

years in the future. What qualifies as "nanotechnology" today is basic research and
development that is happening in laboratories all over the world.
Nanotech products that are on the market today are mostly gradually improved products
where some form of nano-enabled material (such as carbon nanotubes, nanocomposite
structures or nanoparticles of a particular substance) or nanotech process (e.g. nanopatterning
or quantum dots for medical imaging) is used in the manufacturing process.
In their ongoing quest to improve existing products by creating smaller components and
better performance materials, all at a lower cost, the number of companies that will
manufacture nanoproducts will grow very fast and soon make up the majority of all
companies across many industries.
Evolutionary nanotechnology should therefore be viewed as a process that gradually will
affect most companies and industries.
In some senses, nanoscience and nanotechnologies are not new. Chemists have been making
polymers, which are large molecules made up of nanoscale subunits, for many decades and
nanotechnologies have been used to create the tiny features on computer chips for the past 20
years. However, advances in the tools that now allow atoms and molecules to be examined
and probed with great precision have enabled the expansion and development of nanoscience
and nanotechnologies. The bulk properties of materials often change dramatically with nano
ingredients. Composites made from particles of nano-size ceramics or metals smaller than
100 nanometers can suddenly become much stronger than predicted by existing materials-
science models.
For example, metals with a so-called grain size of around 10 nanometers are as much as
seven times harder and tougher than their ordinary counterparts with grain sizes in the
hundreds of nanometers. The causes of these drastic changes stem from the weird world of

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quantum physics. The bulk properties of any material are merely the average of all the
quantum forces affecting all the atoms. As you make things smaller and smaller, you
eventually reach a point where the averaging no longer works.
The properties of materials can be different at the nanoscale for two main reasons:
First, nanomaterials have a relatively larger surface area when compared to the same mass of
material produced in a larger form. This can make materials more chemically reactive (in
some cases materials that are inert in their larger form are reactive when produced in their
nanoscale form), and affect their strength or electrical properties.
Second, quantum effects can begin to dominate the behavior of matter at the nanoscale –
particularly at the lower end – affecting the optical, electrical and magnetic behavior of
materials. Materials can be produced that are nanoscale in one dimension (for example,
nanowires, nanorods and nanotubes), in two dimensions (plate-like shapes like nanocoatings,
nanolayers, and graphene) or in all three dimensions (for example, nanoparticles).

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Developments during the past decade in biochemistry, physical chemistry, microscopy, and
engineering have resulted in a tremendous upsurge of interest in the properties of very small
particles and their possible applications in a wide variety of products. Technological
innovations have enabled the manipulation of tiny structures called dendrimers, quantum
dots, nanoshells, nanotubes, and buckyballs (fullerenes) (Nagda et al, 2010). Currently
available products marketed using the term "nanotechnology" includes transparent
sunscreens, stain-resistant clothing, self-cleaning glass, paints, sports equipment, and
numerous applications in electronics.

2.2 Overview of Nanotechnology as an Emerging Technology

Nanotechnology as an emerging technology is an enabler and catalyst of current and future

possibilities. It can help us realize a wide spectrum of applications not only in engineered
materials, nanomanufacturing, electronics, and communication, but also in energy,
environment, biomedicine, food and agricultural systems.

Nanotechnology is the ability to synthesize, manipulate and characterize matter at the sub-100-
nm level. A nanometer (nm) is one thousand millionth of a meter. For comparison, a red
blood cell is approximately 7,000 nm wide and a water molecule is almost 0.3nm across
(Narendar and Gopalakrishnan, 2011). This broad and multidisciplinary field encompasses
several major areas of development and commercialization, including nanomaterials,
nanobiotechnology, nanoelectronics and nanosystems, such as nanoelectromechanical systems
(NEMS) and molecular machines. Engineers are interested in the nanoscale – which is defined
to be from 100nm down to the size of atoms (approximately 0.2nm) – because it is at this
scale that the properties of materials can be very different from those at a larger scale.
Nanoscience is defined as the study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic,

8
molecular and macromolecular scales, where properties differ significantly from those at a
larger scale; and nanotechnology as the design, characterization, production and application
of structures, devices and systems by controlling shape and size at the nanometer scale.

2.3 Applications of Nanotechnology

2.3.1 Chemical reactions and catalysis

Applications for nanotechnology-improved catalysts are prevalent in the chemical and related
industries, especially in areas where chemical reactions are pivotal. Nanoporous materials
such as zeolites have long been used to refine crude oil, an industry that will readily adopt
catalysts that have been improved through control of structures on the nanoscale. However, for
the large incumbents, the development of novel catalyst structures (e.g., nanoporous
materials) are likely to be off the radar, offering great opportunities for any company that
might devise a scalable approach to an industrially viable chemical synthesis process that is
either new or significantly cheaper (i.e., uses milder reaction conditions) than existing
processes. An example of this would be an efficient method for converting methane into a
liquid fuel, such as a diesel substitute. Current methods for doing this are expensive and
involve a large physical, rather than chemical, component.
The catalytic qualities of nanoparticles are attributed to their high surface-to- volume ratio. In
addition, the substrate that holds the catalyst in place has a large influence on the catalyst
efficacy, and can further boost the effectiveness of the catalyst if comprised of a
nanostructure material. To illustrate, catalytic nanoparticles of silica substrate can increase in
the efficiency of the catalyst by a factor of ten. In some cases, the use of silica nanoparticles
as a catalyst support has been inhibited by the brittleness of the silica material. This problem
has been overcome by cross-linking the silica nanoparticles through polymerization. The
cross linked nanoparticles can also be used as catalyst supports.
In the energy industry, nanocatalysts may benefit a $2 billion coal liquefaction project in China
involving Shenhua Group Corp. (http://ns.coalinfo.net.cn/shenhua/e1.htm), Hydrocarbon
Technologies Inc. (HTI; htinj.com), and the U.S. Dept. of Energy (DOE; doe.gov). The process
produces extremely clean diesel fuel and is economical enough for many regions in China to
compete with imported oil or diesel at average global prices. Catalysis is also important in the
promising area of fuel cells. The platinum catalysts used in current commercial prototypes are
about 2 nm across. (Harper et al, 2003).

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 2.3.2 Filtration and separation

In the filtration industry, nanofiltration generally refers to the use of membranes with pore sizes
larger than those in reverse osmosis membranes. The process is broadly applicable in water and
air purification and many industrial processes, including purification of pharmaceuticals and
enzymes, oil/water separation and waste removal. Slightly farther away is the goal of
separating oxygen from nitrogen molecules, which only differ in size by two hundredths of a
nanometer. The main application of such a process would be to cost-effectively produce pure
oxygen without cryogenic methods.
In particular, nanofiltration technologies offer the potential to remove many contaminants from
water. The world’s first nanofiltration facility for drinking water, built by Générale des Eaux,
went into operation in 2000 in France, using polymer membranes with pores of slightly less than
1 nm (Yazhen, 1999). Although power consumption is higher than for traditional purification
technologies, there are offsetting benefits, such as avoiding the need to add chlorine.
The ability to control pore sizes more accurately will lead to near-term niche applications.
Pacific Northwest National Labs (http://www.pnl.gov) has already created a class of structures
called self-assembled mono-layers on mesoporous supports (SAMMS) that contain uniform
cylindrical pores with sizes from 1–50 nm, depending on the application. The pores are coated
with self-assembled mono- layers to which active groups, such as enzymes, are attached.
SAMMS have been successfully demonstrated to ex- tract a variety of metals and organics from
both aqueous and non-aqueous media.
The adsorbent and absorbent properties of nanoporous materials also offer potential in
environmental remediation, for example by mopping up heavy metals, such as arsenic or
mercury. But, filtration technologies not based on nanoporous materials are also advancing. A
prime example is the technology developed by Argonide Nanomaterials, which uses 2-nm
diameter fibers to create high-throughput systems that can filter out viruses, arsenic and other
contaminants.
Some new polymer-inorganic composites also promise higher-throughput rates for gas filtration
systems. A membrane made of aligned carbon nanotubes should offer very high-throughputs for
gases, due to the lack of interaction between the nanotubes and gas molecules. One of the great
promises of such materials is the inexpensive separation of gases in power stations, mainly
because the high flowrate translates into lower pressure requirements. Such membranes could be
used to remove carbon dioxide from a gas stream, or separate hydrogen from carbon monoxide,
which would find applications in new-generation power stations, coal-to-liquid plants and gas-

10
to-liquid plants. Membranes containing precisely sized nanotubules also hold great potential for
separating biochemicals. (Harper et al, 2003).

Fig2.1: Ordered mesoporous nanosilica

(Courtesy of Frontier Research Group)

2.3.3 Composite materials

Using nanoparticles in composite materials can: enhance material strength and/or reduce
weight; increase chemical, heat and abrasion resistance; add new properties such as electrical
conductivity; and change the interaction with light and other radiation.
The market for clay-based nanocomposites looks set to expand significantly in the near future.
The prospect of new structural materials based on nanotube composites is just a few years
away, with the major obstacles being the cost and availability of the best fillers (i.e., single-
walled nanotubes) and the ability to leverage their properties in composites. Significant
applications using the larger and less-perfect carbon nanofibers can be expected to start around
2004. These developments could put a dent in structural applications for nanoclay composites.
The potential for nanoclays is reflected in the planned expansion of production by companies
such as Nanocor, Inc. (a subsidiary of AMCOL international Corp.) which is gearing up to
produce 20,000 ton/yr of nanoclays, in light of two important facts: nanoclay makes up about
5% of the composite product and Nanocor is not only the company successfully selling
nanoclays into the composite market. Most major polymer companies are also exploring
nanocomposite technologies. Plastics compounder RTP has commercialized organoclay
nylon nanocomposites for film and sheet applications, and Triton Systems (tritonsys.com)
uses a silica nanocomposite in a polymer matrix nanocomposite, which it developed into a
coating material. Other firms, such as Honeywell, Ube Industries and Unitika commercially
produce nylon nanocomposites as high-barrier plastics (HBPs) for packaging applications.
Nanocor and Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Co. recently formed a strategic alliance to

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manufacture and sell HBP packaging for the food and beverage segments. In addition, Bayer
(bayer.com) is looking at nylon 6 nanocomposites for use in multilayer packaging and
protective films. In tests using Nanocor’s clay, Bayer halved oxygen transmission through the
packaging, while increasing the material’s clarity and stiffness.
Another material showing near-term promise as a filler in nanocomposites is the class of
complex molecules known as polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes (POSS) (Pielichowski,
2006). Hybrid Plastics (hybridplastics.com) says it can manufacture POSS in bulk quantities,
and, to this end, is collaborating with plastics pro- ducers and users, including the U.S. Air
Force. There is also significant interest in producing nanocrystalline versions of metals and
alloys. A new steel produced by NKK, and now included in Toyota vehicles, incorporates
nanoparticulate carbon during the rolling process, allowing weight savings without
compromising structural integrity. (Harper et al, 2003).

2.3.4 Coatings

Nanoparticles have had a significant impact on the coatings sector, but approaches such as sol-
gel mono-layers, which are already producing scratch-resistant and non-stick coatings and self-
assembled mono-layers are making inroads, too. Dendrimers complement these latter
technologies and may even be combined with nanoparticle-based technologies. Coatings based
on nanoparticles offer a variety of proper- ties, such as strength, abrasion resistance and
transparency and conductivity. Bayer, in collaboration with Nanogate (nanogate.com) is
working on conductive and transparent coatings for plastics.
However, creating nanoparticle-based coatings is not with- out difficulties. Nanopowders can be
hard to handle. An approach used by the U.S. Navy is to work with microscale agglomerates,
which are delivered as a plasma (a hot, ionized gas), and break up upon application. In other
thermal spraying techniques, the powders are partially melted, so that they fuse when they form
the coating. Bayer and Hansa Metallwerke (hansametall.com) were working on water- and dirt-
repelling coatings using nanoparticles. In 2002, BASF introduced a spray-on coating based on
nanoparticles and polymers that self-assemble upon drying into a nanostructured surface
exhibiting the lotus effect — water landing on the surface can find so little cohesion with the
surface that beads form that simply roll off, taking dirt with them (Figure 2.2).
Along similar lines, nanoparticle coatings, such as those of Inframat (inframat.com) are being
used to combat fouling on ship hulls. Hard but not brittle, Inframat’s alumina-titania ceramic
coatings have won the firm a $4 million contract with the U.S. Navy

12
(http://nanoscience.nrl.navy.mil), which will use the material to coat all of its submarine
periscopes. Nanophase Technologies also supplies alumina nanoparticles, which are used in
scratch-resistant coatings for floor tiling. Nanogate provides nanoparticle-based coatings for a
Spanish tile manufacturer that makes tiles easier to clean, and also produces scratch-resistant
coatings for eyeglasses.
Nanoparticle-enhanced coatings also show promise in bio- logical applications. The inclusion of
nanoparticles such as copper has been shown to reduce cell growth on surfaces, which can be a
major problem for implants.

Figure 2.2: BASF AG’s new nanotechnology-based coatings have a water-repellant effect

2.3.5 Additives and the role of dendrimers

In the composites space, nanoparticulate clay and POSS are already making headway. In the near
future, carbon nanotubes may also have an impact. However, the variety of forms of dendrimer
structures and the ease with which they can be functionalized will enable the creation of
composites based on a particular structure and a wider variety of properties, which would be
conferred by dendrimer filler.
The potential of dendrimers as hosts or containers for small molecules was demonstrated in
the mid-1990s by Bert Meijer, chemistry professor at Eindhoven Univ. of Technology (tue.nl).
A “dendritic box” (similar to a hard shell) was built around the soft- core dendrimer, once a
small molecule was encapsulated within the dendrimer (Figure 2.3) (Johan et al, 1994). Since
then, dendrimers have been shown to encapsulate dye molecules in their cavities. Through
chemical modification of their end groups, using total or partial alkylation, dendrimers can be
made chemically compatible with linear polymers, to improve mixing. The role of the
dendrimers would, in this case, be the creation of molecular microenvironments, or “nanoscopic
pockets” in the plastic bulk material to host the dye molecules.
By acting as morphological, structural or interfacial modifiers, dendrimers also add toughness
to a material without altering its processability. In blends and composites, they act as
compatibilizers and bonding agents between the phases. Such findings have led Perstorp

13
Specialty Chemicals to use dendrimers as additives for engineering plastics. Dendritic hyper-
branched polymers have also been used as tougheners for epoxy resins. An addition of only
5% by weight content of dendritic polymer provokes a significant increase of the toughness of
the materials (Louis et al, 1999). The dendritic particles are finely dispersed in the resin
through a controlled phase-separation process. Dendrimer-resin interaction is strengthened by
the chemical bonding of reactive epoxy groups that are grafted with functional dendritic
structures.
DuPont also manufactures and uses hyper-branched structures as additives in polymer blends to
improve processing. The result is a polymer that combines the physical properties of glass with
the flexibility of organic materials. And, DSM has commercialized hyper-branched-
polypropylene-imine (PPI) dendrimers, which it markets as Astramol technology. These
dendrimers are mainly used as additives in the manufacture of low-cost plastics and rubbers,
for viscosity reduction, and have similar applications in the production of coatings, inks and
adhesives. Meanwhile, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA; nasa.gov) is
funding a project in which Dow Corning (dowcorning.com) and the Materials Electrochemical
Research Corp. (mercorp.com) are exploring plasma-deposited dendrimer coatings and
dendrimer- fullerene nanocomposites for lubrication of micron- and sub- micron surfaces.

Fig 2.3: Dendritic box

(Courtesy of Eindhoven University of Technology, Netherlands)

2.3.6 Dendrimers and Decontamination

Decontamination is one application where dendrimers seem particularly suited, compared

with other approaches, which tend to be based on size alone (e.g., nanofiltration) or require
functionalization. Dendrimers act as scavengers of metal ions (Richard et al, 2000). The
dendrimers can be recovered via ultra-filtration and reused. In the same way, dendrimer-
encapsulated catalysts can be separated from reaction products and recycled. The Center for
Biologic Nanotechnology at Michigan University (http://nono.med.umich.edu) plans to

14
develop and evaluate dendrimer-enhanced ultra-filtration as a novel water treatment process
for removing metal ions from water.
Moreover, the ability of dendrimers to capture small molecules in their cavities or on their
modified end groups makes them suitable for the absorption or adsorption of biological and
chemical contaminants. The U.S. Army is evaluating the potential of dendrimers for these
applications (Anil et al, 2005).

2.3.7 Nano-protection

Dendrimers are also effective as reactive components in topical skin-protection creams. This
application may be extended to protective clothing, by stabilizing the dendritic layer against
washing and weather conditions. Amphiphilic dendrimers with a half-dendrimer, half “tail”
structure are used to fix the active dendrimers in the protective film.
In addition, over the last few years, much activity has centered on the use of nanoparticles to
detect and/or protect against chemical warfare agents. Nanosphere, Inc. (nanosphere.com) plans
to release a system that eventually could be used to detect biological warfare agents, such as
anthrax. The system uses gold nanoparticle sensors developed at Northwestern Univ.
(northwestern.edu). Meanwhile, Altair Nanotechnologies and Western Michigan University are
jointly developing sensors for the detection of biological and/or chemical weapons based on
titanium dioxide nanoparticles. Magnesium-oxide nanoparticles that destroy bacteria (including
anthrax) have been developed by NanoScale Materials, for placement in filtration masks.
Silver, which is touted for its antibacterial qualities, is being produced in the nanoparticle form
by Shenzhen Tsinghua- Yuanxing Nanomaterial Co. and Nucryst (http://www.nucryst.com), the
latter of which is using its product in antibacterial dressings. NanoBio
(http://www.nanobio.com) has released an antibacterial liquid, NanoProtect, which contains
nanoscopic droplets of oil that destroy bacterial spores, virus particles and even funguses via an
explosive release of surface tension. Surprisingly, the product is not harmful to human tissue
(Harper et al, 2003).

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 CHAPTER 3

NANOTECHNOLOGY – FUELLING THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY’S FUTURE

3.1 Nanoparticles - What Is Now, What Is Next?

The total world market for nanoparticulate materials reached an estimated $555.6 million in
2001 and is expected to rise at a 12.8%/yr, exceeding $900 million in 2005 (Rittner, 2001).
Electronic, magnetic and optoelectronic applications for nanoparticles accounted for 74.2% of
the 2005 market; biomedical, pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications accounted for 16.1%;
and energy, catalytic and structural applications accounted for the remaining 9.8%, according
to a Business Communications Co. (BCC; bccresearch.com) report series.
Academic and industrial research has shown that control over a nanoparticle’s size, shape,
consistency and composition are necessary to ensure that the nanoparticle will be made to
comply with future requirements and be tailored for specific commercial applications.
Consequently, existing manufacturing techniques are being continuously refined while at the
same time novel production methods are being developed.

Today, the most commercially important nanoparticulate materials are simple metal oxides,
such as silica (SiO2), titania (TiO2), alumina (Al2O3), iron oxide (Fe3O4, Fe2O3), zinc oxide

(ZnO), ceria (CeO2) and zirconia (ZrO2). Also of increasing importance are mixed oxides,

such indium-tin oxide (In2O3-SnO2 or ITO) and antimony-tin oxide (ATO), silicates

(aluminum and zirconium silicates) and titanates (barium titanate (BaTiO3)). While silica and
iron oxide nanoparticles have a commercial history spanning half a century or more,
nanocrystalline TiO2, ZnO, CeO2, ITO and other oxides have more recently entered the
marketplace.
Other types of nanoparticles, including various complex oxides, semiconductors, nonoxide
ceramics (e.g., tungsten carbide) and metals are also under development and available from
some companies in laboratory- and pilot-scale quantities. With the exception of

16
semiconducting oxides, such as TiO2 and ITO, semiconductor nanocrystals (often called
quantum dots) are not yet used in large-scale commercial applications. One technological
problem limiting the usage of metal nanoparticles in some applications is their high reactivity,
which makes it difficult to produce, transfer and store metal nanopowders without particle
contamination. In some cases, the high surface area of the particles increases their
pyrophoricity, which poses safety hazards.

3.2 Chemical-mechanical polishing — here today and trending

An important opportunity for nanoparticles in the area of computers and electronics is their
use in a special polishing process, chemical-mechanical polishing or chemical-mechanical
planarization (CMP), which is critical to semiconductor chip fabrication. CMP is used to
obtain smooth, flat, and defect-free metal and dielectric layers on silicon wafers. This process
utilizes slurry of oxide nanoparticles and relies on mechanical abrasion as well as a chemical
reaction between the slurry and the film being polished. CMP is also used in some other
applications, such as the polishing of magnetic hard disks.
The leading global producers of slurries for CMP applications are Cabot Microelectronics
(cabot-corp.com) and Rodel (rodel.com), although other suppliers of abrasive particles and/or
slurries have emerged, including Alcoa World Chemicals (alumina.alcoa.com), Honeywell
(honeywell.com), Baikowski Chimie (baikowski.com), Bayer Corp. (bayer.com), Clariant
Corp. (clariant.com), DuPont AirProducts Nanomaterials (nanoslurry.com), Eka Chemicals
(ekachemicals.se), EKC Technology, Inc. (ekctech.com), Ferro Corp. (ferro.com), Fujimi Corp.
(fujimico.com), JSR Micro (jsrusa.com), Malakoff Indus- tries (subsidiary of Reynolds Metals
Co.; rmc.com), 3M Co. (mmm.com), Nanophase Technologies (nanophase.com), Nis- san
Chemical Industries (nissanchem.co.jp), Nanoproducts Corp. (nanoproducts.com), Olin
Microelectronics Materials (a subsidiary of Arch Chemicals; archchemicals.com), Praxair
Surface Technologies (praxair.com) and Wacker Silicones (wacker.com).
The market for CMP slurries is valued at around $400 million, with a growth rate of over
20%/yr. Nanoparticles — typically silica or alumina, although other oxides, such as CeO2,
are increasing in importance — are a basic requirement of every slurry produced. Studies

17
have demonstrated conclusively that the probability of microscratching can be reduced
significantly by using slurries with particle size distributions in the 100-nm range or
smaller.
Growth in the consumption of abrasive nanoparticles for CMP will be driven primarily by
an increase in the number of semiconductor wafers processed, a rise in the percentage of
wafers that are processed using CMP, and an increase in the number of layers per wafer that
are planarized. Currently, CMP is the only known technique that can satisfy the die-level
flatness requirements of sub-0.18- µm devices. The emergence of copper in wafer-
fabrication processes and the semiconductor industry’s roadmap towards smaller design
rules are expected to fuel the development of more-precisely engineered nanoparticles and
compositions beyond silicon oxide, aluminum oxide and cerium oxide.

3.3 Drug delivery – futuristic, but attractive

Particulate drug carriers can act as delivery vehicles for drugs administered orally
or injected into the bloodstream. Such carriers play a key role in the development
of site-specific drug-delivery technologies that allow drugs, vaccines and DNA to
be transferred to targeted cells and tissues with- out negatively impacting other
areas of the body (see side- bar, p. 41S). The primary competition in this market
segment stems from the arduous approval process of the Food and Drug
Administration (fda.gov) and similar international regulatory bodies. Drug-
delivery technologies based on inorganic carrier particles and polymeric
nanocomposite particles are subject to the same rigorous development, testing and
evaluation processes required of new drug compounds.

Thus far, tests conducted on nanoparticle drug-delivery technologies have yielded

promising results, but c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n of these innovations is years away. One
reason is that some approaches to using nanoparticles for drug delivery suffer from less-
than-ideal functionalization. Nanocapsules, on the other hand, (e.g., spheres or micelles
formed by surfactants, which contain nanoscopic droplet of drugs) often lack the stability
needed to reach their target in the body before disintegrating. However, companies such as
Capsulution NanoScience AG are working on building up the walls of nanoscale drug-

18
delivery capsules in a layer-by-layer (LBL) fashion via its proprietary LBL-Technology
(Figure 2.4). A competitive and complementary technology (with regard to nanoparticles
and nanocapsules) involves the use of dendrimers (highly branched synthetic polymer) to
deliver drugs. Drugs are attached to the dendrimer’s surface or placed in the voids inside
them for site targeting and controlled delivery, or a combination of targeting and detection.

Figure 2.4: Drug delivery capsule

(courtesy of Capsulution Nanoscience)

19
 CONCLUSION

The worldwide nanotechnology R&D investment made by government organizations

increased approximately seven fold between 1997 and 2003 to about $3 billion which
comprises at least 35 countries that have initiated national activities in this field. (NSET,
2000).

The advancement in nanotechnology will undoubtedly fuel the chemical industry’s future due
to its tremendous benefits it has on the world.

20
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1. Harper, T., et al., (2002): “The Nanotechnology Opportunity Report,” Cientifica,

London, U.K.
2. Harper, T., et al., (2003): “The Nanotechnology Opportunity Report, “2 nd Ed..,
Cientifica, London, U.K..
3. Roco, M. C., and W. Bainbridge, (2001): “Societal Implications of Nanoscience and
Nanotechnology, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Business Communications Co.
(BBC), Boston, MA
4. Rittner, M. N., (2001): “GB-201 Opportunities in Nanostructured Materials,”
Norwalk.
5. Nagda, D., Rathore, K. S., Bharkatiya, M., Sisodia, S. S., & Nema, R. K. (2010).
Bucky balls: A novel drug delivery system. J. CHEMICAL & PHARMACEUTICAL
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