Environmental Management

IGCSE

Chapter 1: Lithosphere

(1) The Earth, and its rocks

(a) Igneous Rocks:

 They are formed by fire (associated with volcanic activity)
 Magma releases from mantle
 Magma rises towards the surface
 It cools down at the surface to form rock
(b) Sedementary Rocks:
 They are made up of sediments
 These sediments are small particles which are broken from larger rocks
 After breaking, they eventually reach the seabed
(c) Metamorphic Rocks:
 These are rocks in the crust of the Earth which are changed (take other
shapes)
 This change in shape is due to heat and pressure
 Heat is provided by magma flow and pressure is provided at the plate
boundaries (covered in the section of plate tectonics)
(d) Method of extraction of rocks:

Open Cast Mining:

 Clear the vegetation and remove the top of soil
 Break up and loosen the rock by using explosives
 Use diggers to remove the loose rock
 Tip the rock into trucks or railway wagons
Deep Mining:
 Sinking the vertical shaft down to the rock layer containing minerals
 Making a horizontal tunnel following the mineral layer
 Extracting the minerals by digging done by miners and machines
 Bringing the loose rock from the mine and pilling it up on waste heaps on
the surface
 Bringing the minerals to the surface to be transported away in trucks or
trains
(e) Uses of different rocks:
 Chalk is used for cement
 Gravel is used for concrete
 Clay is used for bricks and pottery
 Sand is used for glass
(f) Impacts on mining:
 Surface piles of waste destroy scenic beauty
 Clearance if forests and vegetation destroy wildlife
 Dust and fumes cause air pollution and breathing problems for workers
 Workers may suffer of injuries or may die
 Leaves scars on land.
(g) Conservation of environment damaged by mining:
 Landscaping/restoration/reclamation should be done (filling the dugged
hole, and vegetation grown on place) so that the land can be used again,
such as for farming.
 Landfilling should be done (disposal of waste in the dugged holes) which
should be managed carefully to prevent land and water pollution.

(2) Fossil Fuels as a source of energy

(a) Coal, Oil and Natural Gas:

 Formed by decomposition of the remains of plants and animals which took
millions of years to form
 Coal is extracted by the mining methods discussed previously
 Natural gas and oil are trapped under the imperious rock layer and at the
top of sandstone rock layer
 A drilling rig is used to extract oil and natural gas
(b) Nuclear Energy:
 It is produced by fission in which atoms splits and releases large amount of
heat energy
 A gas takes the produced heat to the reactor to the boiler, where water
turns into steam, which drives the turbines which in return drive the
generators to produce electricity
 (3) Alternative energy sources:

(a) Hydro-electric power:

 Fast running water (such as from a waterfall) is used to drive turbines which
produce and generate electricity
 Usually there are suitable conditions for it such as narrow, deep valley
where a dam and a reservoir can be built
(b) Wind power:
 Turbines are used which are blown by wind to generate electricity
 Many turbines are set to generate electricity, in an area where strong winds
blow such as on hill tops, along the coastline on land, and offshore close to
the coast
(c) Solar panels, biomass, wave and geothermal power:
 Solar panels absorb the heat energy from the light of the sun to produce
energy
 Biomass used fuelwoods, crop wastes and animal dung and fuel
 Electricity from waves involve forces of the sea waves
 Geothermal energy involves heat from the ground in areas of volcanic
activity used to produce energy
(d) Advantages/Disadvantages:
Advantages Disadvantages
Renewable High cost of research and input
No air and water pollution Expensive for poor countries
Always available Building dams for help destroys wildlife
habitats
Do not contribute to global warming Wind turbines are noisy and spoil the
natural beauty of a place
Weather is not sunny or windy, solar
panels and winf turbines would not
work-
 (4) Plate tectonics/ tectonic activities:

(a) Constructive (divergent) plate boundary:

 Two plates move apart from each other
 New magma from mantle rises to surface to kill the gap between moving
plates
 Lava pours out and cools down to form rocks and also forms volcanoes
 Rift valleys are also formed
(b) Destructive (convergent) plate boundary:
 Two plates move towards each other
 One plate sinks below the other and is destroyer when collided with the
other
 The sediments formed compressed and folded to form mountain ranges
 Friction during the collision of plates makes the rocks melt which produces
magma which forms volcanoes which are violent
 Earth also occurs.
(c) Conservative plate boundary:
 Two plates move against each other
 They can be in the same direction but move at different speeds
 This is frictional movement against each creates pressure and upon their
release, the pressure also releases which forms earthquakes
(d) Earthquakes and volcanoes:
 Earthquakes mostly occurs at destructive plate boundary
 Volcanoes occurs at both constructive and destructive plate boundaries
when magma rises to the surface
(e) Impacts of earthquakes and volcanoes:
 Rock and volcanic bombs may drop on the people
 Lava can destroy human and animal life along with crops
 Poiseneous gases are released
 Heat may melt snow on mountain and water may sweep away houses
  Shock waves of earthquakes damage buildings
 It destroys pipelines
 It destroys gas pipes
 It destroys coastal properties too
(f) Management of impact of volcanoes and earthquakes:
 Sign of volcanoes should be seen (increase in temperature, steam and
gases coming out of the crater)
 People should move away from the area predicted for volcanic eruption or
earthquakes
 People should be educated these circumstances

(5) Soil composition and uses

(a) Composition and uses:

 Consist of organic matter, mineral matter, water and air
 Uses include growing of plants and farming for which the soil should have
pore spaces
 Aeration
 Water between the pores
 Nutrients for growth
 It should be easy to plough and cultivate

(6) Causes and consequences of land pollution:

(a) Pollution due to farming:

 Eutrophication due to surplus fertilizers (drain into water, water plants sch
as algae grow, block sunlight, decomposition of dead algae, less oxygen for
marine organism)
 Pesticides kill other organisms in the soil too, such as bacteria
 Salinization due to the input of large quantity of water on soil surfaces
(b) Pollution from industries and urban areas:
 Domestic waste (garbage, rubbish) from houses
 Toxic waste from industries
 Nuclear waste containing radioactive substances

Chapter 2: Hydrosphere

(1) Water cycle

(a) Cycle
 Evaporation is changing of water (from sea to land) into water vapors due
to heat
 When water would be lost in the same way from plants and trees, it would
be called “transpiration”
 When water vapors are carried by air currents upwards (to a great high
above the ground), they are cooled and the vapor change back to liquid,
this is known as “condensation”
 “Precipitation” is the rain and snow that reaches the ground
 When precipitation reaches the ground, some of it is stopped by plants and
trees, this is known as “interception”
 Ground-water flow is the water that enters the soil and seeps into
underground streams and flows there.
(b) Effects of vegetation cover on water cycle:
 Interception increases as there are leaves to block rain
 Evapo-transporation increases as leaves are the main source of water loss
 Run-off decreases as less water reaches the ground due to presence of
leaves
 Infiltration increases as water slowly enters the soil after travelling down
the leaves.
(c) How do poor countries obtain water?
 They set up desalination plants where is separated and water is made fresh
 They pump water out from natural underground stories called aquifers

(2) Uses of fresh water and water supply

(a) Uses:
 They include domestic uses such as in homes
 Industrial uses such as in factories and for power
 Agricultural uses which include irrigation
(b) Supply from natural stores:
 These stores are mostly available in mountainous regions as precipitation
there is higher, ice melts in summer to release fresh water and many lakes
are fount at the bottom of the mountain valleys
 Since fresh water is concentrated in the permeable rocks deep in the
stores, they have to be dugged and pumped through pipes
 This process is less expensive and easier in areas with favorable geological
conditions such as alternating layers of permeable and impermeable rocks
to trap the water un permeable rock folded layers of rock so that water can
accumulate most in the down fold, permeable rocks outcropping on the
surface to receive new supplies of rain water Is stores in the limestone and
sandstone rocks below the water table
 This water us then transferred to holding reservoirs in homes before they
are pumped to homes

(c) Advantages and disadvantages of Large Dams:

Advantages Disadvantages
 Stops valley flooding
Electricity production
Water supply to entire country
Water widely available for agriculture
People forced to move from homes
Destruction of natural environment
Increases risk of earthquakes and
landslides
Destruction of various ecosystems and
animal habitats

(3) Causes and effects on flooding and droughts

(a) Causes and consequences of flooding
Causes:
 Causes include persistent raining for days
 Due to this, interception by plants decreases as they can hold no more
moisture
 And infiltration also decreases as spaces between soil are full and run-off
increases
 Also due to human activities such as clearing forests
Consequences:
 Loss of human life
 Decreases spread
 Food shortages
 Crops ruined
 Houses and infrastructure destroyed
 Problems of moving between places
 Recovery of infrastructure is very expensive
(b) Causes and consequences of Droughts
Causes:
 It is a long period of dry water caused by changes in wind patterns
 Air pressure remains high so air sinks instead of rising
 Hence precipitation is low as no water vapors reach high altitude, hence no
rainfall
Consequences:
 Crops die
 Livestock lose conditions due to shortage of grazing
 Lack of food leads to malnutrition (or death) for people
 Risk of soil erosion
 Dry wells

(4) Causes and consequences of water pollution

(a) Causes and consequences of water pollution
Causes:
 Agricultural reasons such as surplus fertilizers and use of pesticides
 Domestic waste such as garbage from homes
 Waste from industries and nuclear power stations such as radioactive
isotopies
Consequences:
 Fertilizers wash away into the rivers and give rise to eutrophication and
pesticides contain toxic materials that are harmful to human health
 Domestic waste pollutes water with different biological and chemical
wastes leading to diseases such as diarrhea
 Radioactive isotopes cause mutation in human cells

(5) Water-related diseases

Bilharzia:
 It is a water-based disease
 Parasite grows inside snail and after becoming a worm it tends to enter into
a body of human that steps inside water where snails live
 They mostly enter through feet and grows further inside their body
 Their eggs are released back into the pond through urine and faeces
Cholera:
 It’s a water-borne disease
 Caused by consumption and contamination of food and water
 Caused dehydration and diarrhea
Malaria:
 It is a water-bread disease
 Mosquitoes breed in stagnate water that carry the parasite
 It bites a human for the development of her eggs and release the parasite
inside their body
(a) Strategies to control their spread
 Water should be treated in water treatment plants before drinking
 Sanitation systems should be improved
 Destroy breeding grounds for mosquitoes
 Take personal precautions such as sleeping under a mosquito net
 Use vaccines
(e) Water currents and their effects
 These are surface movements of water due to friction between water and
air which can be warm or cold
 Warm ocean currents keep the nearby costal areas warm in winter
 Cold oceans current reduces the amount of rains which limits farming
practices, however they increase fishing opportunities offshore
 They are economically beneficial as they provide nutrients to oceanic plants
which are eaten by fishes, hence increases fish productions
(f) El niño and its effects
  It takes place in Peru
 South-east trade winds are weaker in some years due to which water from
Indonesia drifts eastwards
 Due to this, the pattern of surface current changes
 Water gets very warm which kill plants and fishes because its currents are
low in oxygen and nutrients
 Sometimes dry up further
 Fishes tend to move further offshore, away from the fishermen

(6) Fishing
(a) Causes and consequences of over-fishing
Causes:
 Causes include modern techniques (large and unbreackable nets) that
scoop up everything
 Fish is in demand as a healthy food accompanied by an increase in
population
 Many of the fishes die during EL NIÑO years which leaves behind less fishes
for fishermen
Consequences:
 Consequences include loss of a large number of fishes which does not
allow commercial fishing for a long period of time
 Loss of jobs for fishermen due to lack of fish
 Loss of food for local people
(b) Strategies for sustainable harvesting
 Quotas should be restricted such as a closed season when fishing is only
allowed in the main breeding time during the year
 Restricted areas where no fishing is allowed so that breeding can take place
 Limits on net types and sizes so that young fishes can swim through them
and not get caught
(7) Causes and impacts of marine pollution
(a) Causes and impacts
Causes:
 Flow of nutrients from farming
 Sediments from soil erosion and mining
 Pathogenic organism in sewage and livestock waste
 Litter from ships and industries
 Oil from land, transport, systems, industries, ships and oil trankers
 Radioactive waste from nuclear power stations
 Toxic waste such as pesticides from farming
Impacts:
 Due to nutrients, decomposing algae lowers oxygen level for marine
organism
 Sediments block water flow
 Pathogenic organisms contaminate sea food and spread diseases
 Litter makes beaches unsightly and also gets stuck in fishing nets
 Oil kills sea life
 Radioactive waste causes mutation on cells
 Toxic waste poisons marine life

Chapter 3: Atmosphere

(1) Composition and energy source

(a) Composition
 Nitrogen (78%)
 Oxygen (21%)
 Carbon dioxide (0.004%)
 Argon (0.96%)
(b) Energy source
 Sun is the source of all energy on the planet
  Sunlight is a radiation (a wave) that enters the atmosphere of the Earth
 Some of it is absorbed (by gases and surface) and some other is reflected
(by clouds, surface and some gases)
 The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the Earth that is
available as heat is known as Insolation
 Rates of Insolation vary, it is highest at the equator and lowest at the poles

(2) Causes, effects and strategies relating Atmospheric Pollution

(a) Causes and effects
Causes:
 Causes include burning fossil fuels in power stations and exhaust fumes
form transport systems
 Waste burnt from industries
 Bare soil in agricultural areas picked up and carried by wind
 Use of CFCs and halons
 Deforestation
Effects:
 Effects include reduced visibility and poor air quality
 Formation of acid rain, increasing acidity in crops and lakes
 Health problems such as asthma
 Depletion of ozone layer so increased ultra violet radiation reaches the
surface so increase risk of skin cancer
 Trapping more heat, leading to global warming hence, rising sea levels and
temperature of Earth
 Less transpiration hence less precipitation due to less cloud formation
leading to droughts so less crops yields and food supply

(b) Acid Rain

Causes:
 Caused by increased acidity in atmosphere that comes from Sulphur
dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
 Vehicle, power stations and industries are sources
 Can be transported from one place to another through winds
Effects:
 Effects include increasing crop destruction
 Destruction of forest and wildlife habitats
 Soil erosion due to loss of trees
 Trees lose leaves early and also become less resistant to droughts
 Increased acidity of lakes hence death of marine organisms
(c) Damage to Ozone Layer
Causes:
 Caused by release of CFCs and halons in atmosphere
 Source is use of such chemicals containing them such as hair sprays
 Chlorine destroys the layer converting ozone into oxygen
Effects:
 Effect include increased number of ultraviolet rays reaching surface
 This results into skin cancers
(d) Global warming & Greenhouse Gases
Causes:
 Caused by increase in greenhouse gases in atmosphere
 These gases include carbon dioxide released by burning of fossil fuels,
wood and due to deforestation
 Methane due to deforestation and decomposition of waste
 CFCs from different chemicals
 Oxides of nitrogen from transport systems, burning of fuels and use of
fertilizers
  These gases trap heat energy of the sun and does not let radiation emitted
from rh surface escape
Effects:
 Effects include increase in the temperature of the Earth leading to melting
of ice sheet
 This results in rising sea levels
 This will lead to flooding in low-lying coastal areas
 Sea defenses would be breached
 Populated areas would no longer be able to live in their habitats
(e) Strategies to deal with all these Atmospheric Pollutions
 Catalytic converters in cars should be fitted to reduce air pollution
 Petrol and diesel should be replaced with other fuel like gases
 Add limestone in powered forms in lakes to increase pH value (decrease
acidity)
 Limestone should be used in power stations to convert Sulphur dioxide
intro calcium sulphate before it leaves from the chimney and oxides of
nitrogen should be reduced by using ammonia
 Natural gas power stations should be used instead of coal power stations
 Use of alternative energy sources such HEP should be increased
 The should a reduction in the use of CFCs
 Increase planting of trees
 Reduced amount of fossil fuel burns

(3) Measuring the weather

(a) Air pressure
 Barometer is used such as a mercury or aneroid
 In a mercury barometer, mercury levels increase and fall with an increase
and decrease in pressure
 In an aneroid barometer an upper surface which is sensitive to changes is
used to measure the air pressure
 Air pressure can be measure in millibars
(b) Temperature
 Air temperature is measured by thermometers such as maximum and
minimum thermometers
(c) Precipitation, wind and sunshine
 Precipitation is measured by a rain gauge
 Rain enters into a funnel that is holded inside a metal container, water
moves through the funnel into a jar which is emptied everyday into a
measuring cylinder that takes the required readings
 Wind direction is measured by a weathervane which consist of a rotating
arm on a pole
 Wind speed is measured by an anemometer consisting of ¾ cups that
rotate on a long pole to measure the speed of wind
 Sunshine is measures by sunshine recorder that consist of a glass sphere
concentrating the rays of sun at one point

(4) Farming systems, agricultural techniques and management

(a) Types
 Arable farming is growing crops only
 Commercial farming is growing crops and keeping animals for sale
 Extensive farming is producing a low output per hectare from large areas of
land
 Pastoral farming is keeping and grazing animals
 Subsistence farming is growing crops and keeping animals mainly to feed
the family
(b) Techniques to increase yield
 Irrigation from rivers and lakes through canals
 Chemicals such as inorganic fertilizers and pesticides to increase yields and
kill pests
 Mechanization such as using tractors to save time and produce quantity
 Capital to improve different methods of agriculture
  High-yielding varities of seed that grow faster and give better varities
(c) Adverse effects on agricultural practice
 Overuse of fertilizers and pesticides lead to eutrophication
 Irrigation leads to salinization so the land becomes too salty for crop
 Overcultivation and overgrazing leads to soil erosion and desertification
(d) Use of appropriate technology
 Instead if irrigation surface channels, sprinklers should be used
 Organic fertilizers such as animal dung instead of organic ones

(5) Causes and occurrence of climatic hazards

(a) Tropical cyclones
 Storms formed when the sea water is at its hottest
 Air above the sea surface heats up and warm, most air starts to rise
 Low pressure develops deeply in the center and stucks up more air from
the surface
 A huge circular swirl of cloud forms around which wind speed increase
Impacts:
 Immediate loss of life
 Destroys strong buildings
 Rains from cyclone cause flooding
 Economic losses of people due to loss of property and houses
 Infrastructure is badly damaged such as loss of electricity, telephone
lines and transport and they are expensive to recover
 Disruption of water supplied which leads to widespread of diseases
 Farming economy is ruined since fields are under water and livestock die
Chapter 4: Biosphere

(1) Function, operation and resource potential of ecosystems

(a) Organization
 The total of all individuals of the same species is known as a “population”
 The population of all species together is known as “community”
 Habitat is the name where an organism lives
 All these organisms are biotics (living) elements
 Abiotic (non-living) elements include climate, soil and atmosphere
components
 All the communities and non-living factors combined are known as an
“ecosystem”
(b) Relationship of living organisms
 They can depend on each other in several ways such as in pollination, bird
and insects such as honey bees transfer pollen between plants
 For dispersal of fruits and seeds, birds and animals carry these away from
parent plants and reduces competition for light and water between
members of the same species
 In vegetation succession, plants species improve the environment for living,
especially the soil to enable other species to invade and survive
 For food supply, small birds are eaten by large birds, Zebras eats grass
which are eaten by lions, etc…
(c) Food chains, webs and energy flows
 Producers are organisms that make food on their own such as green plants
 Consumers are organisms that eat the green plants and are also known as
herbivores and primary consumers
 These consumers may be eaten by other organisms know as secondary
consumers and carnivores
  There may be larger animals present that eat these carnivores known as
tertiary consumers
 A carnivore that kills and eats other animals is known as a predator
 Energy in form of nutrients is passed on between organisms
 A food chain consists of straight chains
 While a food web consists of different food chains
inter-linked
 Each stage in the chain where energy is exchanged
is called a Trophic level, for example, green plants
are in the firs trophic level
 Usually food chains do not have more than 5
levels because energy losses occur at each level
due to respiration, excretion and egestion
(d) Nutrient cycle
 Green plants produce foods
 Consumers eat them
 Consumers and producers are decomposed by bacteria and fungi
 Decomposed material decay and their nutrients enter soil
 These nutrients and water are taken in by plants again
(e) Carbon cycle
 Carbon is added into the atmosphere by respiration, carbon dioxide is a
waste product
 Through decaying of organic materials from dead plants and animals,
microorganisms can turn carbon compound back to carbon dioxide in
atmosphere
 Through combustion of fuels containing carbon
 It is removed from the atmosphere through photosynthesis
(f) Nitrogen cycle
 Nitrogen is removed from the soil through uptake by plants
 Through leaching, as nitrates are soluble, they dissolve in water that carries
them away from the soil
  By denitrifying bacteria that breaks down nitrates into nitrogen gas which
escapes from the soil into the atmosphere
 It enters the soil by the fixation of nitrogen fixing bacteria

(2) Human activities and their impacts on the Earth´s environment

(a) Habitat destruction and their effects
 This is done by deforestation which is done for livestock grazing and
farming
 It occurs due to loss wetlands as well such as swamps, marshes and lakes,
etc where mangroves and many other habitats are located
 Also due to flooding with occurs mostly due to small dam constructions
which also brings long term problems for habitats such as loss humus from
soil where no more plants and trees can grow
(b) Tourism
Advantages Disadvantages
Earning of foreign currency Income varies and number of visitors
fluctuates
Provides many jobs such that in hotels Many jobs are poorly paid
Infrastructure is improved for tourists Tourist development replaces farming
which is beneficial for local people and fishing and takes over their place
Migration loss is reduced due to more Local traditions and cultures are
jobs destroyed
Greater awareness of habitat and Destruction of habitats to build a new
wildlife is created infrastructure
Earning of revenue hence improves Pollution problems such as litter, noise
economy and untreated wastes

(3) Biomes and their distribution

(a) Tundra biome
  Has very cold climate so no vegetation can grow
 Trees will not grow as well because summer is short, winters are very cold,
strong winds blow all year and soils are waterlogged
 Low net primary productivity so less biodiversity (a smaller number of
spices)
 Some trees grow sideways instead of upwards due to vicious winds and
seed there are very hard
(b) Taiga (coniferous forest)
 Are conical in shape and have sloping branches
 Have needled leaves and thick bark (wooden area) which protects them
from winter colds
 Snow slides over them since they have slopes
 They are flexible and so bend in strong wind
 They reduce water loss by transpiration and hence saves water for the time
when water is not available
(C) Tropical rainforest
 Straight slender trunks with thin smooth bark (wooden area)
 Leaves and branches are fount at the top, leaves are leathery
 Liana, epiphytes and parasites are found
 Climate is hot and wet which is ideal for growth
(d) Monsoon forests, savanna grassland and hot dessert
 Monsoon forests are like tropical rainforests with high monsoon rainfall
 Their leaves shed to prevent water loss through transpiration and open
spaces between the trees allows light to enter the ground and so more
shrubs grow between them
 Savanna grassland has tall grass around which some trees can be found
 Surrounding trees shed leaves to reduce water loss by transpiration
 The roots of these trees are long so that they can reach underground water
stores, however their growth is slow
 Hot deserts undergo long periods of droughts so plants cannot grow
 Branching root system helps some plants to survive such as a cactus
  Plants have sunken stomatas to reduce water loss through transpiration.

(4) Deforestation and sustainable management of forest

(a) Deforestation
Causes:
 Cultivation/farming
 Ranching
 Logging
 Fuel wood as an energy source
 Used in furniture
 Due to urbanization
 Firewood
 Top make paper and pulp
Effects:
 Decreases rainfall
 Less oxygen and more carbon dioxide hence global warming
 Increased surface runoff and risk of flooding
 Increased soil erosion and leaching hence soil losses fertility
 Extinction of spices hence reduced biodiversity
 Lack of fuel wood
 Many people are displaced from their land and destruction of the scenic
beauty of different areas is also inevitable
(b) Management
 Reforestation
 Education and awareness about forest management
 Set aside areas of rainforest as national parks or nature reserves
 Selective logging to take only mature hardwoods
 Afforestation
(5) Soil erosion, desertification and conservation
(a) Soil erosion
Causes:
 It is the loss of top soil by wind and water
 Causes include deforestation, poor farming practices and clearance of
natural vegetation
 These results in soil erosion because trees would no longer be there to hold
the soil in place
 Trees and branches will no longer be there to break the force of falling rain
 Tree stems will no longer be there to obstruct the water flow down the
slopes
Consequences:
 Reduction of crop yields
 Land becomes less productive
 Farmers spend more on fertilizers to improve yields hence their income
goes down and expenditure rises
 Sediments of soil after being washed away settle on seabed
 They are costly to remove and increased amount of sediment in dams can
cause flooding
(b) Desertification
Causes:
 It is the process whereby land is turned into a desert
 Causes include decline in rainfall which leads to droughts
 Overgrazing
 Overcultivation
 Irrigation and salinization
 Increases demand for food and fuel wood
 These all lead to decline in vegetation cover and hence increase soil erosion
by wind and water which leads to desertification

Consequences:
 Reduction in crops hence less food
 Reduced total biomass hence less feed for livestock
 Reduced wood biomass hence less wood for fuel
 Reduced water availability hence no longer searches for underground
supplies
 Advancing sand dunes hence farmland and settlements overwhelmed
 Increased disruption of life hence increased needs for relief aid and
increased migration